Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fourth Edition
Rice Almanac
Source Book for One of the Most Important
Economic Activities on Earth
2013
i
The Global Rice Science Partnership (GRiSP), which is the CGIAR Research Program on Rice, represents
for the first time a single strategic and work plan for global rice research. GRiSP brings together hundreds
of scientists to embark on the most comprehensive attempt ever to harness the power of science to solve
the pressing development challenges of the 21st century. Cutting-edge science is deployed to develop
new rice varieties with high yield potential and tolerance of a variety of stresses such as flooding, salinity,
drought, soil problems, pests, weeds, and diseases. Improved natural resource management practices will
allow farmers to fully realize the benefits of such new varieties on a sustainable basis while protecting the
environment. Future rice production systems are designed to adapt to climate change and to mitigate the
impacts of global warming. Policies conducive to the adoption of new varieties and cropping systems will
be designed to facilitate the realization of development outcomes. GRiSP is training future rice scientists
and strengthening the capacity of advisory systems to reach millions of farmers. For impact at scale,
GRiSP scientists are collaborating with hundreds of development partners from the public and private
sector across the globe.
GRiSP was launched in 2010 and is coordinated by three members of the CGIAR Consortiumthe
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI, the lead institute), Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), and the
International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)and three other leading agricultural agencies with
an international mandate and with a large portfolio on rice: Centre de cooperation internationale en
recherche agronomique pour le dveloppement (CIRAD), Llnstitut de recherche pour le dveloppement
(IRD), and the Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS). Together, they align
and bring to the table consortia, networks, platforms, programs, and collaborative projects with more than
900 partners from the government, nongovernment, public, private, and civil society sectors.
The responsibility for this publication rests solely with the Global Rice Science Partnership.
This publication is copyrighted by GRiSP and is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License (Unported). Unless otherwise noted, users are free to copy,
duplicate, or reproduce and distribute, display, or transmit any of the chapters or portions thereof and to
make translations, adaptation, or other derivative works under specific conditions spelled out at
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0.
Mailing address:
International Rice Research Institute
DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines
Phone: +63 (2) 580-5600
Email: info@irri.org
Web site: www.cgiar.org/rice-grisp
Ricepedia: www.ricepedia.org
Suggested citation:
GRiSP (Global Rice Science Partnership). 2013. Rice almanac, 4th edition. Los Baos (Philippines):
International Rice Research Institute. 283 p.
ISBN: 978-971-22-0300-8
ii
Contents
Foreword v
Acknowledgments vi
A note on the country rice maps vii
On the cover: Stylized rice grain flags viii
The facts of rice x
iv
Foreword
The Rice Almanac had its origins in 1993 as an answer to the long-felt need to bring together general
information about riceits origin, its growth and production, the ecosystems under which it is grown,
and opportunities for increased yields. This first almanac was focused mainly on Asia.
A second edition was published in 1997, incorporating much updated material. Also included
was information on: (1) rice production in West African countries coming from the West Africa Rice
Development Association (WARDA), now Africa Rice Center; (2) the Latin American and Caribbean
countries coming from the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT); and European rice
production. IRRI, WARDA, and CIAT were copublishers of the second edition.
The second edition gave rise to an Internet site, initially called Riceweb, which contained all the
almanac contents as well as a host of additional information about rice and access to rice literature
and many other rice-related Web sites from around the world. Riceweb became a highly visited site,
earning acclaim also from several Web site-rating and other organizations. Thus, we knew there was
high demand for the almanac that formed its basic structure.
For the third edition in 2002, the number of countries with production-related information was
doubled to 64, thanks to help from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO), which also became a copublisher.
This fourth edition breaks new ground in its coverage of issues related to rice production, both
environmentalincluding climate changeand importance for food security and the global economy.
For the first time, a Global Rice Science Partnership (GRiSP) is described. It will harness the resources
of all the major rice-related research and development institutions to overcome the challenges of future
rice production. In addition to IRRI, AfricaRice, and CIAT, other major partners in GRiSP include
the Centre de coopration internationale en recherche agronomique pour le dveloppement (CIRAD),
L'Institut de recherche pour le dveloppement (IRD, formerly known as ORSTOM), and the Japan
International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS).
This edition of the almanac further expands coverage up to 99.9% of the worlds rice production,
covering 81 of the 117 rice-producing countries, and includes summary information for most rice-
producing regions.
Meanwhile, the online Riceweb has evolved to become Ricepedia (www.ricepedia.org), which
will be available in early 2014. Ricepedia includes, among other things, all the material in this almanac
as well as issues not covered here, such as production constraints in the minor rice-producing countries
and the countries not included that produce the other 0.1% of world rice production.
The production and other statistics used herein are derived primarily from FAO, which include
official country data (FAOSTAT), surveys, reports, and personal communications; IRRIs RICESTAT
database, which is based on primary data from requests and questionnaires and secondary data
from statistical publications and international organizations including FAO, the International Labor
Organization, the World Bank, etc.; and regional data from AfricaRice and CIAT. As in any printed
publication, these statistics will soon be outdated. An important function of Ricepedia will be to have
the latest data available on demand at all times.
We trust that the fourth edition of the Rice Almanac will continue to increase awareness of rice as
the most important staple food in the world and of all that is involved in maintaining rice production.
Bo
B ouman
Bas Bouman
Director, GRiSP
v
Acknowledgments
This fourth, enlarged edition of the Rice Almanac is a joint effort of several institutions associated
with the Global Rice Science Partnership (GRiSP) and many people. The major institutions are the
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), AfricaRice, and Centro Internacional de Agricultura
Tropical (CIAT); others are the Centre de coopration internationale en recherche agronomique pour
le dveloppement (CIRAD), L'Institut de recherche pour le dveloppement (IRD, formerly known as
ORSTOM), and Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS).
Contributors to the subject chapters were Bas Bouman, Roland Buresh, Achim Dobermann,
Melissa Fitzgerald, Ruaraidh Sackville Hamilton, Abdelbagi Ismail, Jagdish K. Ladha, Samarendu
Mohanty, and David Raitzer.
vi
A note on the country rice maps
Considering that rice is economically, socially, and culturally important to so many people in so
many countries, it is surprisingly difficult to find detailed information on where rice is grown.
Few, if any, published maps accurately depict where rice is cultivated around the world. To fill this
knowledge gap, IRRI, in collaboration with GRiSP partners, has brought together the best available
information to estimate where rice is grown in each of the 81 countries covered in the Rice Almanac.
The maps are based on several sources of information. First of all, we collected rice area
statistics for each country and, whenever possible, we collected rice area statistics for each
subnational unit (i.e., state, province, region, district, county) within those countries. We call these
rice mapping units and there are more than 9,000 of them across 112 countries.
The next challenge was to determine where rice is most likely to be cultivated within each rice
mapping unit. Some units cover vast areas, but only a small proportion of the mapping unit area
may be used for rice cultivation. We relied on a range of sources and methods to do this. For some
countries, we were able to use published rice extent maps such as those developed by Gumma et
al (2011) and Xiao et al (2006), the Commission of the European Communities, and the United
States Geological Survey. These covered most of the rice-growing countries of Asia and Europe,
and the United States. For other regions of the world, we relied on local expertise to identify rice-
growing areas and, at the same time, we used other spatial information to exclude any area that
was demarcated as a protected area or forest, water body, and urban or other land types that are
unsuitable for crops. From all these sources, we developed a global rice area mask as the basis for
our rice maps.
The dot density maps used in the almanac depict two things: the general geographic
distribution where we believe rice is grown and the estimated harvested rice area. Each dot
represents a number of hectares of rice; the denser the dot pattern, the greater the harvested area.
We changed the number of hectares per dot from map to map to best display the distribution of
rice within a country. The dots do not and cannot be used to map the exact location of where rice
is cultivated within each countrythey serve only to display our best estimate of the general
distribution of the rice-growing area.
The IRRI GIS team is very thankful to colleagues and partners in GRiSP who assisted us in the
generation of these maps. We are continuously updating our information on where rice is grown and
will update the online maps whenever better data become available.
IRRI does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in the maps. The boundaries, colors,
denominations, and other information shown on any map do not imply any judgment on the part
of IRRI concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such
boundaries.
vii
viii
ix
The facts of rice
Production
Rice farming is the largest single
use of land for producing food.
Rice is nearly all (90%) produced in Asia.
Rice production totaled 696 million tons in 2010. Rice is the single largest food source for the
Rice production is one of the most important poor.
economic activities on Earth. Rice is the source of one quarter of global per
Thousands of varieties of rice are farmed. capita energy.
Only 7% of all rice production is Rice is synonymous with food throughout Asia.
exported from its country of origin. Rice is the most important food grain in most of
the tropical areas of Latin America and the
Caribbean, where it supplies more calories in
Employment peoples diets than wheat, maize, cassava, or
Rice eaters and growers form the bulk of the potato.
worlds poor. Toyota means bountiful rice field.
Rice is the single most important source of Honda means the main rice field.
employment and income for rural people.
Rice is grown on some 144 million farms,
mostly smaller than 1 hectare. Benefits of rice research
Research has provided 75% of the rice varieties
now grown.
Significance in human culture Research has increased potential yields from 4
Rice farming is about 10,000 years old. to more than 10 tons per hectare per crop.
Rice cultivation was once the basis of the social Research has been a major factor in more than
order and occupied a major place in Asias doubling world rice production from 260 to
religions and customs. nearly 700 million tons over the past 50 years.
Rice is still sometimes used to pay debts, Research has provided rice plants that grow
wages, and rent in some Asian rural areas. faster, enabling 2 or even 3 crops per year;
plants that resist various pests and diseases,
need less fertilizer, or thrive in saline water;
x
Chapter 1
1
A brief history of rice farming Early spread of rice
From early, perhaps separate, beginnings
The origins of rice have long been debated. in different parts of Asia, the process of
The plant is of such antiquity that the exact diffusion has carried rice in all directions
time and place of its first development and today it is cultivated on every continent
will perhaps never be known. It is certain, save Antarctica. In the early Neolithic era,
however, that domestication of rice ranks rice was grown in forest clearings under a
as one of the most important developments system of shifting cultivation. The crop was
in history. Rice has fed more people over a direct seeded, without standing water
longer time than has any other crop. conditions only slightly different from those
Pottery shards bearing the imprint of to which wild rice was subject. A similar but
both grains and husks of the cultivated rice independent pattern of the incorporation of
species Oryza sativa were discovered at wild rice into agricultural systems may well
Non Nok Tha in the Korat area of Thailand. have taken place in one or more locations in
Plant remains from 10,000 B.C. were Africa at approximately the same time.
discovered in Spirit Cave on the Thailand- Puddling the soilturning it to mud
Myanmar border. and transplanting seedlings were likely
In China, extensive archeological refined in China. Both operations became
evidence points to the middle Yangtze and integral parts of rice farming and remain
upper Huai rivers as the two earliest places widely practiced to this day. Puddling
of O. sativa cultivation in the country. Rice breaks down the internal structure of soils,
and farming implements dating back at least making them much less subject to water loss
8,000 years have been found. Cultivation through percolation. In this respect, it can be
spread down these rivers over the following thought of as a way to extend the utility of a
2,000 years. limited water supply.
Transplanting is the planting of 1- to
6-week-old seedlings in puddled soil with
standing water. Under these conditions, the
rice plants have an important head start over
a wide range of competing weeds, which
leads to higher yields. Transplanting, like
puddling, provides farmers with the ability
to better accommodate the rice crop to a
finite and fickle water supply by shortening
the field duration (since seedlings are
grown separately and at higher density) and
adjusting the planting calendar.
With the development of puddling
and transplanting, rice became truly
domesticated. In China, the history of
rice in river valleys and low-lying areas is
longer than its history as a dryland crop. In
Southeast Asia, however, rice originally was
produced under dryland conditions in the
uplands, and only recently came to occupy
the vast river deltas.
Migrant people from southern China
or perhaps northern Vietnam carried the
traditions of wetland rice cultivation to the
Philippines during the second millennium
B.C., and Deutero-Malays carried the
Transplanting rice in the Philippines. practice to Indonesia about 1500 B.C. From
2 Rice almanac
China or the Korean peninsula, the crop was Valley. The introduction into California
introduced to Japan no later than 100 B.C. corresponded almost exactly with the timing
Movement to western India and south to of the first successful crop in Australias
Sri Lanka was also accomplished very early. New South Wales.
Rice was a major crop in Sri Lanka as early
as 1000 B.C. The crop may well have been Present rice-growing areas
introduced to Greece and the neighboring Rice is produced in a wide range of
areas of the Mediterranean by returning locations and under a variety of climatic
members of Alexander the Greats expedition conditions, from the wettest areas in the
to India around 344-324 B.C. From a center world to the driest deserts. It is produced
in Greece and Sicily, rice spread gradually along Myanmars Arakan Coast, where
throughout southern Europe and to a few the growing season records an average of
locations in northern Africa. more than 5,100 mm of rainfall, and at Al
Hasa Oasis in Saudi Arabia, where annual
Rice in the New World rainfall is less than 100 mm. Temperatures,
As a result of Europes great Age of too, vary greatly. In the Upper Sind in
Exploration, new lands to the west became Pakistan, the rice season averages 33 C;
available for exploitation. Rice cultivation in Otaru, Japan, the mean temperature for
was introduced to the New World by early the growing season is 17 C. The crop is
European settlers. The Portuguese carried produced at sea level on coastal plains and
it to Brazil and the Spanish introduced its in delta regions throughout Asia, and to a
cultivation to several locations in Central and height of 2,600 m on the slopes of Nepals
South America. The first record for North mountains. Rice is also grown under an
America dates from 1685, when the crop was extremely broad range of solar radiation,
produced on the coastal lowlands and islands ranging from 25% of potential during the
of what is now South Carolina. The crop may main rice season in portions of Myanmar,
well have been carried to that area by slaves Thailand, and Indias Assam State to
brought from the African continent. Early in approximately 95% of potential in southern
the 18th century, rice spread to what is now Egypt and Sudan.
Louisiana, but not until the 20th century Rice occupies an extraordinarily
was it produced in Californias Sacramento high portion of the total planted area in
As long as there is enough water, Australia's highly efficient rice industry achieves some of the
highest yields in the world.
(caryopsis)
Brown rice
season. Only two major food crops, rice endosperm
and taro, adapt readily to production under
these conditions of saturated soil and high Scutellum
Embryo
Epiblast
temperatures. Plumule
Radicle
The highest rice yields have Rachilla
traditionally been obtained from plantings
in high-latitude areas that have long Sterile lemmas
daylength and where intensive farming
techniques are practiced, or in low-latitude Fig. 1.1. Cross-section of the rice grain.
areas that have high solar radiation and cool
nights. Southwestern Australia, northern Seeds
California, southern Brazil, Uruguay, and The rice grain, commonly called a seed,
the Nile Delta provide the best examples. consists of the true fruit or brown rice
In some areas, such as South Asia, the (caryopsis) and the hull, which encloses the
crop is produced on miniscule plots using brown rice. Brown rice consists mainly of
enormous amounts of human labor. At the embryo and endosperm. The surface
other locations, such as in Australia and the contains several thin layers of differentiated
United States, it is raised on huge holdings tissues that enclose the embryo and
with a maximum of technology and large endosperm (Fig. 1.1).
expenditures of energy from fossil fuels. The palea, lemmas, and rachilla
The contrasts in the geographic, economic, constitute the hull of indica rice. In japonica
and social conditions under which rice is rice, however, the hull usually includes
produced are truly remarkable. rudimentary glumes and perhaps a portion
of the pedicel. A single grain weighs 1045
milligrams at 0% moisture content. Grain
The rice plant length, width, and thickness vary widely
Morphology among varieties. Hull weight averages about
Cultivated rice is generally considered 20% of total grain weight.
a semiaquatic annual grass, although in
the tropics it can survive as a perennial, Seedlings
producing new tillers from nodes after Germination and seedling development
harvest (ratooning). At maturity, the rice start when seed dormancy has been broken
plant has a main stem and several tillers. and the seed absorbs adequate water and
Each productive tiller bears a terminal is exposed to a temperature ranging from
flowering head or panicle. Plant height 10 to 40 C. The physiological definition
varies by variety and environmental of germination is usually the time when
conditions, ranging from approximately 0.4 the radicle or coleoptile (embryonic shoot)
meter (m) to more than 5 m in some floating emerges from the ruptured seed coat. Under
rice. The morphology of rice is divided into aerated conditions, the seminal root is the
the vegetative phase (including germination, first to emerge through the coleorhizae
seedling, and tillering stages) and the from the embryo, and this is followed by
reproductive phase (including panicle the coleoptile. Under anaerobic conditions,
initiation and heading stages). however, the coleoptile is the first to
emerge, with the roots developing when the
coleoptile has reached the aerated regions of
the environment.
4 Rice almanac
the auricles. Coarse hairs cover the surface
of the auricles. Immediately above the
Second leaf
auricles is a thin, upright membrane called
(first complete leaf) the ligule.
The tillering stage starts as soon as the
Primary leaf seedling is self-supporting and generally
(first seedling leaf) finishes at panicle initiation. Tillering
Coleoptile
usually begins with the emergence of the
Nodal roots first tiller when seedlings have five leaves.
(or adventitious) This first tiller develops between the main
Mesocotyl
stem and the second leaf from the base of
the plant. Subsequently, when the sixth leaf
Mesocotyl emerges, the second tiller develops between
roots the main stem and the third leaf from the
Seminal root
base.
Rootlets Tillers growing from the main stem are
called primary tillers. These may generate
secondary tillers, which may in turn
generate tertiary tillers. These are produced
in a synchronous manner. Although the
tillers remain attached to the plant, at later
stages they are independent because they
Fig. 1.2. Parts of a young seedling germinated produce their own roots. Varieties and races
in the dark. of rice differ in tillering ability. Numerous
environmental factors also affect tillering
If the seed develops in the dark as when such as spacing, light, nutrient supply, and
seeds are sown beneath the soil surface, cultural practices.
a short stem (mesocotyl) develops, which The rice root system consists of two
lifts the crown of the plant to just below the major types: crown roots (including mat
soil surface (Fig. 1.2). After the coleoptile roots) and nodal roots (Fig. 1.3). In fact,
emerges, it splits and the primary leaf both these roots develop from nodes, but
develops. crown roots develop from nodes below the
soil surface. Roots that develop from nodes
Tillering plants
Each stem of rice is made up of a series
of nodes and internodes (Fig. 1.3). The Leaf blade
internodes vary in length depending on Ligule
variety and environmental conditions, but Auricle
Leaf sheath
generally increase from the lower to the Leaf sheath
upper part of the stem. Each upper node Node
Tiller
bears a leaf and a bud, which can grow into
Internode
a tiller. The number of nodes varies from 13
Nodal roots
to 16, with only the upper 4 or 5 separated
by long internodes. Under rapid increases in
water level, some deepwater rice varieties
can also increase the lower internode
lengths by more than 30 centimeters (cm) Mat roots
Crown roots
each.
The leaf blade is attached at the node Ordinary roots
by the leaf sheath, which encircles the stem.
Where the leaf blade and the leaf sheath
meet is a pair of clawlike appendages, called
Fig. 1.3. Parts of the rice stem and tillers.
Awn
Spikelet
(floret)
Secondary Paleal apiculus
branch
Axis Anther
Filament
Stigma
Style
Base
Ovary
Rachilla
Sterile lemmas
Rudimentary glumes
Pedicel
above the soil surface usually are referred to Since rice has only one fully developed
as nodal roots. Nodal roots are often found floret (flower) per spikelet, these terms are
in rice cultivars growing at water depths often used interchangeably. The flower is
above 80 cm. Most rice varieties reach a enclosed in the lemma and palea, which
maximum depth of 1 m or more in soft may be either awned or awnless. The flower
upland soils. In flooded soils, however, rice consists of the pistil and stamens, and the
roots seldom exceed a depth of 40 cm. That components of the pistil are the stigmas,
is largely a consequence of limited oxygen styles, and ovary.
diffusion through the gas spaces of roots
(aerenchyma) to supply the growing root Growth
tips. The growth duration of the rice plant is 36
months, depending on the variety and the
Panicle and spikelets environment under which it is grown.
The major structures of the panicle are the During this time, rice completes two distinct
base, axis, primary and secondary branches, growth phases: vegetative and reproductive.
pedicel, rudimentary glumes, and spikelets. The vegetative phase is subdivided into
The panicle axis extends from the panicle germination, early seedling growth,
base to the apex; it has 810 nodes at 2- and tillering; the reproductive phase is
to 4-cm intervals, from which primary subdivided into the time before and after
branches develop. Secondary branches heading, that is, panicle exsertion. The
develop from the primary branches. Pedicels time after heading is better known as the
develop from the nodes of the primary ripening period (Fig. 1.5).
and secondary branches; the spikelets are Potential grain yield is primarily
positioned above them (Fig. 1.4). determined before heading. Ultimate yield,
6 Rice almanac
Amount of growth
increases plant height), a decline in tiller
number, emergence of the flag leaf (the last
Tiller number Plant height leaf), booting, heading, and flowering of the
Panicle spikelets. Panicle initiation is the stage about
number
Ineffective
tillers
25 days before heading when the panicle
has grown to about 1 mm long and can be
Grain weight
recognized visually or under magnification
following stem dissection.
Spikelet anthesis (or flowering) begins
with panicle exsertion (heading) or on the
0 30 60 90 120
following day. Consequently, heading is
Days after germination considered a synonym for anthesis in rice. It
takes 1014 days for a rice crop to complete
Panicle primordia initiation
Active tillering
Yelow-ripe
Maturity
as the time when 50% of the panicles have
Booting
Dough
Milky
exserted.
Vegetative Reproductive Ripening
Anthesis normally occurs from 1000
h to 1300 h in tropical environments and
Fig. 1.5. Schematic growth of a 120-day rice variety fertilization is completed within 6 hours.
in the tropics. Very few spikelets have anthesis in the
afternoon, usually when the temperature
is low. Within the same plant, it takes
which is based on the amount of starch that 710 days for all the panicles to complete
fills the spikelets, is largely determined anthesis; the spikelets themselves complete
after heading. Hence, agronomically, it anthesis within 5 days.
is convenient to regard the life history
of rice in terms of three growth phases: Ripening phase
vegetative, reproductive, and ripening. A Ripening follows fertilization and can be
120-day variety, when planted in a tropical subdivided into milky, dough, yellow-
environment, spends about 60 days in the ripe, and maturity stages. These terms
vegetative phase, 30 days in the reproductive are primarily based on the texture and
phase, and 30 days in the ripening phase. color of the growing grains. The length of
ripening varies among varieties from about
Vegetative phase 15 to 40 days. Ripening is also affected
The vegetative phase is characterized by temperature, with a range from about
by active tillering, a gradual increase in 30 days in the tropics to 65 days in cool
plant height, and leaf emergence at regular temperate regions, such as Hokkaido, Japan;
intervals. Tillers that do not bear panicles and Yanco, Australia.
are called ineffective tillers. The number
of ineffective tillers is a closely examined Genetic diversity
trait in plant breeding since it is undesirable
in irrigated varieties, but is sometimes an Two rice species are important cereals
advantage in rainfed lowland varieties in for human nutrition: Oryza sativa, grown
which productive tillers or panicles may be worldwide, and O. glaberrima, grown in
lost because of unfavorable conditions. parts of West Africa. These two cultigens
species known only by cultivated plants
Reproductive phase belong to a genus that includes about 25
The reproductive growth phase is other species, although the taxonomy is still
characterized by culm elongation (which a matter of research and debate.
8 Rice almanac
Table 1.1. Classification and distribution of species in the genus Oryza.
Taxa Genome Distribution Comments/alternative
classification
Section Oryza
Series Oryza: sativa species complex
O. sativa AA Worldwide
O. glaberrima AA West Africa
O. nivara AA Tropical Asia Annual ecotype of O. rufipogon
O. rufipogon AA Tropical Asia to northern Australia
O. meridionalis AA Northern Australia
O. barthii AA Africa
O. longistaminata AA Africa
O. glumaepatula AA South America South American O. rufipogon;
O. glumaepatula
Series Latifoliae: officinalis species complex
O. minuta BBCC Philippines, Papua New Guinea
O. officinalis CC Tropical Asia to Papua New Guinea
O. rhizomatis CC Sri Lanka
O. malampuzhaensis CCDD India Tetraploid race of O. officinalis
O. punctata BB Africa
O. schweinfurthiana BBCC Africa Tetraploid race of O. punctata
O. eichingeri CC West, Central, and East Africa, Sri Lanka The only species found in both
Africa and Asia
O. alta CCDD Central and South America
O. grandiglumis CCDD South America
O. latifolia CCDD Central and South America
Section Australiensis
O. australiensis EE Australia Member of officinalis complex
Section Brachyantha
O. brachyantha FF Africa
Section Padia Basal or primitive section of
Oryza
O. schlechteri HHKK Indonesia and Papua New Guinea
O. coarctata KKLL South Asia to Myanmar
Series Ridleyanae: ridleyi species complex
O. longiglumis HHJJ Indonesia and Papua New Guinea
O. ridleyi HHJJ Southeast Asia to Papua New Guinea
Series Meyerianae: meyeriana species complex granulata species complex
O. granulata GG South and Southeast Asia Variety of O. meyeriana
O. meyeriana GG South and Southeast Asia
O. neocaledonica GG New Caledonia
10 Rice almanac
In southwestern Bangladesh, rice is part of a balanced diet with fish, vegetables, and fruit.
reverse does not appear to be true in areas content is modest. Unmilled (brown) rice
where wheat is the staple food, for example, of 17,587 cultivars in the IRRI germplasm
Pakistan and the wheat-eating provinces collection averages 9.5% protein content,
in China. Thus, rice is clearly the worlds ranging from 4.3% to 18.2%.
most important food crop for the poor. The Environmental factors (soil fertility,
geographic pattern of rice production and wet or dry season, solar radiation, and
consumption is further described in Chapter 3. temperature during grain development)
Rice provided 19% of global human per and crop management (added N fertilizer,
capita energy and 13% of per capita protein plant spacing) affect rice protein content.
in 2009. Although rice protein ranks high Breeding efforts to increase protein have
in nutritional quality among cereals, protein been largely unsuccessful because of the
12 Rice almanac
considerable effects of environment and fuel for cooking, (2) it may cause digestive
because of complex inheritance properties disturbances, and (3) oil in the bran layer
in the triploid endosperm tissue. tends to turn rancid during storage even at
Rice also provides minerals, vitamins, moderate temperatures.
and fiber, although all constituents except In contrast, parboiling rough rice
carbohydrates are reduced by milling. before milling, as is common in India and
Milling removes roughly 80% of the Bangladesh, allows a portion of the vitamins
thiamine from brown rice. A precook and minerals in the bran to permeate the
rinse or a boiling of milled rice results in endosperm and be retained in the polished
additional loss of vitamins, especially B1. rice. This treatment also lowers protein loss
Where rice is the main item of the during milling and increases whole-grain
diet, it is frequently the basic ingredient recovery.
of every meal and is normally prepared Even though rice diets are often
by boiling or steaming. In Asia, bean marginally deficient in protein, vitamins,
curd, fish, vegetables, meat, and spices are and minerals, clinical manifestations of
added depending on local availability and deficiency are not common among people
economic situation. A small proportion of whose diets are otherwise adequate in
rice is consumed in the form of noodles, calories. The exception is when people do
which serve as a bed for various, often heavy labor and their higher calorie demand
highly spiced, specialties or as the bulk is met by an increase in rice without a
ingredient in soups. corresponding increase in other foods such
Most rice is consumed in its polished as legumes or fish. Under these conditions,
state. When such rice constitutes a high there is danger of beriberi, which is related
proportion of food, dietary deficiencies may to a deficiency of thiamine or vitamin B1.
result. Despite the dramatic losses in food Research is under way to fortify rice
value resulting from milling, brown rice with micronutrients in areas where these are
is unpopular because (1) it requires more inadequate in the diet. Vitamin A is an
Rice husks can be used for fuel, bedding, and incubation material.
15
Rice fields near the Oyunahara Shrine, Hongu Wakayama Prefecture in Japan.
16 Rice almanac
Fig. 2.1. Major global rice-growing areas and ecosystems.
worlds irrigation water and 2430% of the worlds total rice production. Rainfed rice
worlds developed freshwater resources. environments experience multiple abiotic
Irrigated rice is grown mostly with stresses and high uncertainty in the timing,
supplementary irrigation in the wet season duration, and intensity of rainfall. Some
and is reliant entirely on irrigation in the 27 million ha of rainfed rice are frequently
dry season. The proportion of the Asian affected by drought, the largest, most
rice area that is irrigated (excluding China, frequently, and most severely affected areas
where essentially all rice is irrigated) being eastern India (about 20 million ha)
increased substantially from the late 1970s and northeastern Thailand and Lao PDR (7
(35%) to 2010 (55%) because of an increase million ha). Drought is also widespread in
in the irrigated area coupled with a large Central and West Africa. Further constraints
decline in upland and deepwater rice arise from the widespread incidence of
cultivation. In many irrigated areas, rice problem soils with poor physical and
is grown as a monoculture with two crops chemical properties. Country average rice
a year. However, significant areas of rice yields are only some 2.3 t/ha in the lowlands
are also grown in rotation with a range of and 1 t/ha in the uplands.
other crops, including 1520 million ha In rainfed lowlands, small to moderate
of rice-wheat systems. At the turn of the topographic differences can have important
millennium, country average irrigated consequences for water availability,
rice yields in Asia ranged from 3 to 9 tons soil fertility, and flooding risk. The
(t)/ha, with an overall average of about 5 t/ha, unpredictability of rainfall often results in
which increased to 5.35.4 t/ha by 2012. field conditions that are too dry or too wet.
Besides imposing water-related stresses on
Rainfed environments crop growth, these conditions prevent timely
Worldwide, about 52 million ha of rainfed and effective management operations such
lowlands supply about 19% of the worlds as land preparation, transplanting, weed
rice production, and 15 million ha of control, and fertilizer application. If such
rainfed uplands contribute about 4% of the operations are delayed or skipped, yield
18 Rice almanac
Soils The presence of aquic soil conditions
is indicated by redoximorphic features such
Most lowland rice soils are wetland soils as zones of accumulation and depletion of
that are grown to rice. Wetlands are iron and manganese. Plowing and puddling
defined as having free water at or near the often result in the development of a dense
surface for at least the major part of the layer below the cultivated topsoil.
growing season of arable crops, or for at Three types of water saturation occur
least 2 months of the growing season of in rice soils: (1) endosaturation, in which
perennial crops, grasslands, forests, or other the entire soil is saturated with water; (2)
vegetation. The floodwater is sufficiently episaturation, in which upper soil layers
shallow to allow the growth of a crop or are saturated but underlain by unsaturated
of natural vegetation rooted in the soil. subsoil layers; and (3) anthric saturation,
Free surface water may occur naturally, or a variant of episaturation with controlled
rainfall, runoff, or irrigation water may be flooding and puddled surface soil.
retained by field bunds, puddled plow layers, The properties of a typical soil profile
or traffic pans. of a flooded rice soil during the middle of a
Wetlands have at least one wet growing growing season are shown in Table 2.1.
season, but may be dry, moist, or without
surface water in other seasons. Wetland soils Water use and water productivity
may therefore alternately support wetland
and upland crops when cultivated. More than 90% of the worlds rice
The transition from wetlands to uplands production is harvested from irrigated or
is often gradual. It may fluctuate from rainfed lowland rice fields. Traditionally,
year to year, depending on variations in lowland rice is raised in a seedbed and then
precipitation, runoff, or irrigation. If water transplanted into a main field that is kept
(both drainage and irrigation) can be fully under continuous or intermittent ponded
controlled, farmers can choose to establish water conditions to help control weeds
wetlands or uplands. But, in most wetlands, and pests. Land preparation consists of
drainage capacities are insufficient to soaking, plowing, and puddling. Puddling
prevent soil submergence during the rainy is also done to control weeds, to reduce soil
season, particularly in the lowlands of the permeability and percolation losses, and to
humid tropics. ease field leveling and transplanting. The
20 Rice almanac
a mean of 1.1 kg grain per cubic meter. The
higher evaporation rates from the water
layer in rice than from the underlying soil in
wheat are apparently compensated for by the
higher yields of rice. Maize, as a C4 crop,
has a higher evapotranspiration efficiency
(ranging from 1.1 kg to 2.7 kg grain per
cubic meter of water, with a mean of 1.8).
The water productivity of rice for total water
input (irrigation plus rainfall) ranges from
0.2 kg to 1.2 kg grain per cubic meter of
Plowing and puddling often result in the devel- water, with an average of 0.4, less than half
opment of a dense layer beneath the cultivated
topsoil. that of wheat.
For lowland rice, water is needed to prepare Though only a few studies have been
the land and to match the outflows of conducted so far, awareness is growing
seepage, percolation, and evapotranspiration that lowland rice environments provide
during crop growth. The amount of water an unusually rich variety of ecosystem
used for wetland preparation can be as low services. Studies on the value of rice
as 100150 mm when the time lag between ecosystems beyond crop production have
soaking and transplanting is only a few days recently received a boost by the threat to
or when the crop is directly wet seeded. But, rice price supports and trade restrictions in
it can be as high as 940 mm in large-scale many countries presented by multilateral
irrigation systems with poor water control, trade negotiations under the World Trade
where the time lag between soaking and Organization.
transplanting is as long as 2 months.
After the crop is established, the soil Provisioning functions
is usually kept ponded until shortly before The most important provisioning function
harvest. Seepage is the lateral subsurface of the rice environment is the production
flow of water, and percolation is the flow of rice. Irrigated rice culture has been
of water down below the root zone. Typical sustained for thousands of years in various
combined values for seepage and percolation parts of Asia. Recent findings of 30 long-
vary from 15 mm/day in heavy clay soils term continuous cropping experiments
to 2530 mm/day in sandy and sandy at 24 sites in Asia confirm that, with an
loam soils. Evaporation is water lost into assured water supply, lowland rice fields
the air as vapor from the ponded water are extremely sustainable and able to
layer or from the surface of the soil, and produce continuously high yields. Flooding
transpiration is water released into the air as has beneficial effects on soil acidity;
vapor through the plants. Typical combined phosphorus, iron, and zinc availability;
evapotranspiration rates of rice fields are and biological nitrogen fixation. Other
45 mm/day in the wet season and 67 mm/ provisioning services are the raising of
day in the dry season, but can be as high as fish and ducks in rice fields, ponds, or
1011 mm/day in subtropical regions before canals. Frogs and snails are collected for
the onset of the monsoon. Over-bund flow consumption in some countries.
or surface runoff is the spillover when water
depths rise above the bunds of the fields. Regulating services
Seepage, percolation, evaporation, and over- Bunded rice fields may increase the water
bund flow are all nonproductive flows of water storage capacity of catchments and river
and are considered losses at the field level. basins, lower the peak flow of rivers, and
increase groundwater flow. The many
22 Rice almanac
Table 2.2. Examples of organisms that may
harm or compete with the rice crop.
Insect pests
Stem borers
African rice gall midge Orseolia oryzivora (Harris
& Gagne)
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker)
White stem borer S. innotata (Walker)
Striped stem borer Chilo suppressalis (Walker)
Dark-headed rice borer C. polychrysus (Meyrick)
Defoliators
Rice leaffolders Cnaphalocrocis medinalis
(Guene) and others
Rice caseworm Nymphula depunctalis
(Guene)
Leafhoppers
Yellow stem borer is a serious pest of rice. Green leafhopper Nephotettix virescens
(Distant)
from severing stems or killing tissue to N. nigropictus (Stl)
competing with the crop for nutrients and N. parvus Ishihara et
Kawase
sunlight. N. cincticeps (Uhler)
Weeds are an almost universal Planthoppers
companion of rice in the tropics. In many Brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens (Stl)
situations, weed growth is prolific and Whitebacked Sogatella furcifera Horvath
planthopper
weeds are a major constraint to crop yield. Rice bugs
Weeding is a major production cost, with Malayan black Scotinophara coarctata
estimates of 50150 person-days per hectare rice bug (Fabricius)
Rice grain bug Leptocorisa oratorius
required for manual weeding, depending (Fabricius)
on the number of weedings and type of Rodents
rice culture. For many farmers, weeding Rice field rats Rattus argentiventer
(Rob. & Kloss)
requires the greatest labor input during the R. tanezumi (Temminck)
agricultural cycle, and labor is often not Diseases
available when weeds are most damaging to Viral diseases and their vectors
Rice tungro Nephotettix virescens
the crop. Upland rice more than any other (Distant)
crop shows the ravages of a lack of proper N. nigropictus (Stl)
weeding. Sometimes, when the land is too Ragged stunt Nilaparvata lugens (Stl)
Rice yellow mottle Chaetocnema pulla
weedy, the crop is abandoned. ChapiusTrichispa sericia
The demands of transplanting and (Gurin)
manual weeding and increasing shortages of Bacterial diseases and their causal agents
labor have encouraged the move to direct- Bacterial blight Xanthomonas oryzae pv.
seeding in irrigated and rainfed lowlands. oryzae (Uyeda ex Ishiyama
1922) Swings et al 1990
Weeds become a major problem in direct-
seeding systems because rice and weeds Fungal diseases and their causal agents
Blast Pyricularia oryzae Cav.
emerge at the same time, and weed control Sheath blight Rhizoctonia solani
by flooding is difficult in seeded rice. (Thanatephorus cucumeris
With weeding a major cost in both [Frank] Donk)
Weeds
transplanted and direct-seeding systems, Ageratum conyzoides L.
herbicide use to control weeds is increasing Cyperus difformis L.
rapidly. As a result, herbicide-resistant C. iria L.
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link
weeds and pollution are emerging problems E. crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.
in rice production. Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl
Insects attack all parts of the rice plant. Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl
Hundreds of species feed on rice, but only
Farmers hand weed their rice field in the uplands of Lao PDR.
24 Rice almanac
24 Rice almanac
rice, nitrogen losses from ammonia Nitrous oxide. In irrigated rice systems
volatilization can be 50% or higher, while with good water control, nitrous oxide
in direct-seeded rice in temperate regions, emissions are small except when nitrogen
losses are generally negligible because fertilizer rates are excessively high. In
most of the fertilizer is incorporated into irrigated rice fields, the bulk of nitrous oxide
the soil before flooding. Ammonia-nitrogen emissions occur during fallow periods and
volatilizations from lowland rice fields immediately after flooding of the soil at the
are estimated at 3.6 teragrams (Tg) a year end of the fallow period. In rainfed systems,
(compared with 9 Tg a year emitted from however, nitrate accumulation in aerobic
all agricultural fields worldwide), which is phases might contribute to considerable
58% of the estimated 4575 Tg of globally emission of nitrous oxide.
emitted ammonia-nitrogen each year. Methane. In the early 1980s, it was
The magnitude of ammonia volatilization estimated that lowland rice fields emitted
depends largely on climatic conditions, field 50100 Tg of methane per year, or 1020%
water management, and method of nitrogen of the then-estimated global methane
fertilizer application. Volatilized ammonium emissions. Recent measurements show
can be deposited on the earth by rain. This that many rice fields emit substantially less
can be a beneficial source of (free) nitrogen methane, especially in northern India and
fertilizer in agricultural lands, but it can China, both because methane emissions
also lead to soil acidification and unintended have decreased with changes in rice
nitrogen inputs into natural ecosystems. production systems and because techniques
for measuring greenhouse gas emissions
Greenhouse gases have improved with the use of simulation
Of the three main greenhouse gases, rice models coupled with geographic information
production sequesters carbon from carbon systems (GIS) data based on soil and land
dioxide and likely increases emissions of use (Fig. 2.2).
nitrous oxide and methane, though by how There is more uncertainty about the
much is not reliably known. amount of methane emissions from rice
Carbon sequestration. Rice soils that fields than from most other sources in the
are flooded for long periods of the year global methane budget. Current estimates of
tend to sequester carbon, even with the annual methane emissions from rice fields
complete removal of aboveground plant are in the range of 2060 Tg, or 310% of
biomass. Significant carbon accumulation global emissions of about 600 Tg. Estimates
results from biological activity in the soil- of annual methane emissions from the
floodwater system. Average soil organic principal rice producers China and India
carbon content in irrigated double and are 1030 Tg. The magnitude and pattern
triple rice systems in Asia is 1415 g/kg of methane emissions from rice fields are
in the upper 2025 cm of soil. Assuming determined mainly by the water regime
an average bulk density of about 1.25 t per and organic inputs and to a lesser extent
cubic meter of soil and a physical land area by soil type, weather, tillage practices,
of about 24 million ha, these monoculture residue management, fertilizer use, and
systems alone store about 45 t/ha of carbon rice cultivar. The use of organic manure
or a total of 1.1 petagrams of carbon (109 t) generally increases methane emissions.
in the topsoil. Additional carbon is stored in Flooding of the soil is a prerequisite for
other irrigated rice systems (such as single sustained emissions of methane. Mid-
rice and rice-maize), although typically season drainage, a common irrigation
in smaller amounts than in monoculture practice in the major rice-growing regions of
systems. However, reliable information on China and Japan, greatly reduces methane
soil carbon stocks is not available for rice emissions. Similarly, rice environments
systems in most countries, and it is not with an uneven supply of water, such as
known how soil organic carbon amounts rainfed environments, have a lower emission
will change in response to changing climate potential than environments where rice is
or management practices. continuously flooded.
26 Rice almanac
were included in the cropping system. In pollution by biocides is greatly affected by
the Indian Punjab, however, an increase field water management. Different water
in nitrate of almost 2 mg/L was recorded regimes result in different pest and weed
between 1982 and 1988, with a simultaneous populations and densities, which farmers
increase in nitrogen fertilizer use from 56 may combat with different amounts and
kg/ha to 188 kg/ha, most of it on combined types of biocides. In traditional rice systems,
rice-wheat cultivation. The relative relatively few herbicides are used because
contribution to this increase from rice, puddling, transplanting, and ponding water
however, is not clear. are effective weed control measures.
Biocides Arsenic
Mean biocide use in irrigated rice systems Arsenic in groundwater has been reported in
varies from 0.4 kg/ha of active ingredients several countries in Asia. Severe problems
in Tamil Nadu, India, to 3.8 kg/ha in of arsenicosis occur in rural areas in
Zhejiang Province, China. In the warm Bangladesh and in West Bengal in India. In
and humid conditions of the tropics, the past two decades, the number of shallow
volatilization is the major process of tubewells for irrigation in these areas has
biocide loss, especially when biocides are increased dramatically, and dry-season
applied on the water surface or on wet soil. rice production (boro rice) depends heavily
Relatively high temperatures favor rapid on groundwater. It is unclear whether
transformation of the remaining biocides by groundwater extraction for irrigation
photochemical and microbial degradation, influences arsenic behavior in the shallow
but little is known about the toxicity of the aquifers, but irrigation from arsenic-
residual components. In case studies in the contaminated aquifers may pose several
Philippines, mean biocide concentrations risks. Arsenic accumulates in the topsoil as
in groundwater under irrigated rice-based a result of irrigation water input. Because
cropping systems were one to two orders of rice fields receive higher inputs of irrigation
magnitude below the single (0.1 microgram water than other crops, they accumulate
[g]/L) and multiple (0.5 g/L) biocide limits more arsenic than other fields. Moreover,
for safe drinking water, although temporary arsenic is potentially more bioavailable
peak concentrations of 1.144.17 g/L were under flooded than nonflooded conditions.
measured. It is not yet possible to predict arsenic
Biocides and their residues may be uptake by plants from the soil, and
directly transferred to open water bodies significant correlations are not often found
through drainage water flowing overland between total arsenic in the soil and in
from rice fields. The potential for water plants. Arsenic that is taken up by rice is
Few herbicides are needed for weed control in systems using puddling and transplanting.
27
Rice and the environment 27
found mostly in roots and shoot tissue, and whether such increases in the endosperm
very little in the grains. In Bangladesh, are sufficient to significantly affect
no milled rice samples have been found to human nutrition. To drive the adoption of
contain more arsenic than the government micronutrient-rich varieties, however, the
threshold of 1 part per million for safe improved traits will need to be combined
consumption, although straw samples have, with other traits that are attractive to
raising concerns about arsenic toxicity in farmers, such as tolerance of drought,
animal feed. salinity, or submergence.
Arsenic in the soil may also affect crop
production, but this aspect has not received Vector-borne diseases
much attention yet, and understanding of the Irrigated rice fields can serve as breeding
long-term aspects of arsenic in agriculture sites for mosquitoes and snails, intermediate
is too limited to assess the risks. Water- hosts capable of transmitting human
saving irrigation techniques for rice (such as parasites. In particular, before transplanting
alternate wetting and drying irrigation and and after harvest, puddles in rice fields are
aerobic rice) reduce the irrigation inputs and attractive breeding grounds for the mosquito
arsenic contamination risk of the topsoil. As Anopheles gambiae, Africas most efficient
the soil becomes more aerobic, the solubility malaria vector. Factors that determine
and uptake of arsenic also decline. whether the introduction of irrigated rice
increases or reduces the incidence of
Nutrition malaria are known, and technical options
Human micronutrient deficiencies are exist to mitigate this impact, including
relatively severe in areas where rice is the alternate wetting and drying irrigation.
major staple. Increasing the density of Moreover, countries such as Sri Lanka
provitamin A carotenoid, iron, and zinc have made great strides in controlling
in rice can alleviate these deficiencies, epidemics through broad-based public
especially among the urban and rural poor health campaigns. Japanese B-encephalitis
who have little access to alternatives such is highly correlated with rice irrigation in
as enriched foods and diversified diets. Asia, especially where pigs are also reared,
Promising examples are the development as in China and Vietnam. Again, alternate
of Golden Rice to combat vitamin A wetting and drying can help reduce the
deficiency and of iron-rich rice to combat breeding of vectors.
iron deficiency, although it is still debated
28 Rice almanac
Chapter 3
29
Global rice production and excluded) (Fig. 3.1). On the production side
consumption (Fig. 3.2), the only countries outside Asia
where rice accounts for more than 30% of
Rice is grown on more than 144 million total crop area harvested are Madagascar,
farms worldwide, most certainly more than Sierra Leone, and Liberia in West Africa,
for any other crop, on a harvested area of plus Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, and
about 162 million ha (2010). Most of the Panama in Latin America.
rice is grown and consumed in Asia, from The worlds largest rice producers by
Pakistan in the west to Japan in the east. far are China and India. Although its area
Rice-producing Asia as thus defined harvested is lower than Indias, Chinas rice
(excluding Mongolia and the countries of production is greater due to higher yields
Central Asia) accounted for 91% of world because nearly all of Chinas rice area is
rice production, on average, in 2006-10, irrigated, whereas less than half of Indias
unchanged since the early 1960s. Because rice area is irrigated. After China and India,
rice-producing Asia is a net exporter of rice the next largest rice producers are Indonesia,
to the rest of the world, its current share in Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, and
global rice consumption is slightly less, at Myanmar (Fig. 3.3). These seven countries
about 87%. all had average production in 2006-10 of
Rice also dominates overall crop more than 30 million t of paddy. The next
production (as measured by the share of highest country on the list, the Philippines,
crop area harvested of rice) and overall food produced only a little more than half that.
consumption (as measured by the share of Collectively, the top seven countries account
rice in total caloric intake) to a much greater for more than 80% of world production.
extent in rice-producing Asia than elsewhere Production, yield, and trade data for all rice-
in the world. On the consumption side, producing countries are given in Rice Facts
the only countries outside Asia where rice (page 261).
contributes more than 30% of caloric intake Despite Asias dominance in rice
are Madagascar, Sierra Leone, Guinea, production and consumption, rice is also
Guinea-Bissau, and Senegal (countries very important in other parts of the world.
with population less than 1 million are In Africa, for example, rice has been the
In Ifugao Province, Philippines, an experienced farmer selects choice seeds for the next
season's planting.
30 Rice almanac
30 Rice almanac
No data <10 1120 2130 3150 >50
Fig. 3.2. Percentage of total crop area harvested that comes from rice.
Country
China
India
Indonesia
Bangladesh
Vietnam
Thailand
Myanmar
Philippines
Brazil
Japan
United States
Pakistan
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Average annual production (million tons of rough rice)
Fig. 3.3. Leading rice producers in the world, 2006-2010.
Source of raw data: FAOSTAT database online.
main staple food (defined as the food, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Uruguay, and
among the three main crops, that supplies Venezuela, and in forest margins throughout
the largest amount of calories) for at least the region. Today, rice is the most important
50 years in parts of western Africa (Guinea, source of calories in many Latin American
Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Sierra Leone) and countries, including Costa Rica, Ecuador,
for some countries in the Indian Ocean Guyana, Panama, Peru, and Suriname, and
(Comoros and Madagascar). In these the Caribbean nations of Cuba, Dominican
countries, the share of calories from rice has Republic, and Haiti. It is less dominant in
generally not increased substantially over consumption than in Asia, however, because
time. In other African countries, however, of the importance of wheat, maize, and
rice has displaced other staple foods because beans in regional diets. Brazil is by far the
of the availability of affordable imports from largest producer, and it accounts for nearly
Asia and rices easier preparation, which half (45% in 2006-10) of paddy production
is especially important in urban areas. In in the region. After Brazil (11.7 million t),
Cte dIvoire, for instance, the share of the largest producers are Peru (2.6 million t),
calories from rice increased from 12% in Colombia (2.4 million t), and Ecuador (1.6
1961 to 22% in 2007. In Senegal, the share million t) in 2006-10.
increased from 20% to 31% during the same Elsewhere, the most important
time, whereas, in Nigeria, the most populous production centers are in the United States
country on the continent, it increased from (California and the southern states near
1% to 8%. On balance, in Africa, production the Mississippi River), which produced
has grown rapidly, but rice consumption has 9.6 million t of paddy on average in 2006-
grown even faster, with the balance being 10. The leading European producers are
met by increasing quantities of imports. Italy, Spain, and Russia. Australia used to
Western Africa is the main producing be an important producer, but its output
subregion, accounting for more than 40% of has declined substantially in recent years
African production in 2006-10. In terms of because of recurring drought.
individual countries, the leading producers Rice consumption in the Pacific islands
of paddy (2006-10) are Egypt (6.1 million t), has increased rapidly over the past two
Madagascar (4.1 million t), and Nigeria (3.9 decades. Rice, which is all imported apart
million t). from a small amount grown in Fiji and
In Latin America and the Caribbean, Papua New Guinea, is displacing traditional
rice was a preferred pioneer crop in the first starchy root crops as a major staple due
half of the 20th century in the savannas of
Release of rice variety IR8 began the Asian Green Revolution in 1966.
34 Rice almanac
small-scale mechanization that together research effort in Asia. Also, although
dramatically increased yields of many many of the initial rice varieties released
cereal crops. But its implementation also were successful in dramatically raising
depended on strong public support for yield potential, they proved susceptible to a
developing the technologies; building up number of important pests and diseases and
the required infrastructure; ensuring that had cooking traits that were less appealing
markets, finance, and input systems worked; to consumers. Continuing investments in
and ensuring that farmers had adequate agricultural research led to the eventual
knowledge and economic incentive to adopt. development of second- and third-generation
Public interventions were especially crucial varieties that successfully combined high
in Asia for ensuring that small farmers yield potential with good pest and disease
were not left behind, and without which the resistance and preferred consumption traits.
Green Revolution would have been much The Green Revolution was more than a
less pro-poor. technology fix. It also required a supporting
Asia was already investing heavily in economic and policy environment in
irrigation prior to the Green Revolution and, order to educate farmers about the new
by 1970, around 25% of the agricultural land technology, rapidly expand input delivery
was already irrigated. Significant additional and credit systems, and increase processing,
investments were made across Asia storage, trade, and marketing capacities
during the Green Revolution era, and the to handle the surge in production. Asian
irrigated area grew from 25% to 33% of the countries invested heavily to launch their
agricultural area between 1970 and 1995. Green Revolution and continued to invest
Like irrigation, fertilizer use across in agriculture to sustain the gains that were
Asia was also growing prior to the Green achieved. On average, Asian countries were
Revolution. In 1970, 24 kg/ha of plant spending 15.4% of their total government
nutrients were applied on agricultural land spending on agriculture by 1972 and they
and average use grew rapidly to reach 102 doubled the real value of their agricultural
kg/ha by 1995, and was about 200 kg/ha for expenditure by 1985.
rice in the Philippines and Vietnam. Governments also shored up farm credit
Irrigation and fertilizer helped raise systems, subsidized key inputsespecially
cereal yields, but their full impact was fertilizer, power, small machines, and
realized only after the development of the waterand intervened in markets to ensure
HYVs. Building on rice breeding work that farmers received adequate prices each
undertaken in China, Japan, and Taiwan, year to make the technologies profitable.
IRRI scientists developed semidwarf rice Many governments used their interventions
varieties that were more responsive to to ensure that small farms did not get left
plant nutrients, and had shorter and stiffer behind. Substantial empirical evidence
straw that would not fall over under the at the time showed that small farms were
weight of heavier heads of grain. They also the more efficient producers in Asia and
wanted tropical rice varieties that could land reform and small farm development
mature more quickly and were insensitive programs were implemented to create and
to daylight length, thereby permitting more support large numbers of small farms. Small
crops to be grown each year on the same farm-led agricultural growth proved to be
land. not only more efficient but also more pro-
The first of these HYVs, named IR8, poor, a win-win proposition for growth and
was released in 1966. Adoption of HYVs poverty reduction.
occurred quickly and about 40% of the total
cereal area in Asia was planted to modern Impact of the Green Revolution
varieties by 1980. This increased to about Impact on cereal yields and production.
80% of the cropped area by 2000. Average rice yields grew by 2.5% per year
HYVs were not developed overnight from 1965 to 1982. The average paddy rice
but were the product of a long and sustained yield rose from 2.03 t/ha in 1965 to 3.04
36 Rice almanac
reviewed reported that income became more annual average growth rate of 0.49% for
concentrated within adopting regions, 12% area harvested. In absolute terms, paddy
reported that it remained unchanged or yields increased at an annual average rate
improved, and 48% offered no conclusion. of 51.1 kg/ha per year, although this rate of
Among the studies, Asian authors gave increase has declined in both percentage and
more favorable outcomes than non-Asian absolute terms (see below).
authors; micro-based case studies reported Since most rice is produced and
the most favorable outcomes, while macro- consumed in rice-producing Asia, it makes
based essays reported the worst outcomes. sense to compare these growth rates with
However, later repeat studies undertaken at population growth in that part of the world.
the same sites over a longer period of time Population growth in this region was 1.77%
all found favorable longer-term impacts on per year from 1961 to 2010, nearly identical
inequality. to the rate of yield growth. Coupled with
In Asia, each 1% increase in crop the expansion in area harvested, this yield
productivity has resulted in a reduction in growth led to a cumulative 30% increase in
numbers of the poor by around 0.4%. This per capita production during the period.
relationship is probably diminishing over The trend in rice yield has been positive
time, however, because the rural poor are in all parts of the world although the rates of
becoming less dependent on agriculture. growth and yield vary by region (Fig. 3.4).
Yields are much higher in East Asia and the
Production, area, and yield trends United States than in most of the rest of the
world. After an initial rapid growth in yield
over time in East Asia, yield growth rate decreased
considerably and was almost zero in recent
Global rice production more than tripled years. Yield has continued to grow in the
between 1961 and 2010, with a compound United States despite some fluctuations. The
growth rate of 2.24% per year (2.21% in average yields in recent years were almost
rice-producing Asia). This increase was 20% higher than in East Asia.
slightly greater than that for wheat (2.02% The yield trends for South and
per year), but substantially less than that for Southeast Asia are similar to that of East
maize, which grew at 2.71% per year. Most Asia, but are lower. These regions have
of the increase in rice production was due to substantial area under rainfed conditions,
higher yields, which increased at an annual in contrast with East Asia, where rice is
average rate of 1.74%, compared with an mainly irrigated. Growth in yield has fallen
Yield (t/ha)
9
East Asia Brazil
8 South Asia United States
Southeast Asia World
7 Sub-Saharan Africa
1
0
1961 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
Fig. 3.4. Trends in rough rice yield in different regions of the world.
Source: FAOSTAT, accessed 6 September 2012.
38 Rice almanac
Growth rate (%/year)
4.0
3.5
Yield
Yield Yield
Population
Population Population
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
19 2
94
96
98
00
02
04
06
20 8
10
9
0
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
19
Year
Fig. 3.5. Annual average percentage increase in rice yields and population between successive
rolling 5-year periods in rice-producing Asia. The figure shows the annual average percentage
change in yields and population. For example, the data for 1970 are the percentage change
between 1966-70 and 1961-65. Source of raw data: FAOSTAT, accessed 6 September 2012.
is gaining in regions with plentiful water Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Stagnation
supply and cheap labor relative to areas of in area harvested further contributed to the
water scarcity, and this trend is expected to problem, and prices eventually began to
continue. In the northwestern Indo-Gangetic rise. Indeed, world market rice prices rose
Plain, there are now grave concerns about steadily by a cumulative 67% between April
the sustainability of irrigated rice production 2001 and September 2007, even before the
because of rapidly falling groundwater world price crisis.
tables and the governments need to reduce There are several possible reasons
the large fiscal costs associated with policies for the slowdown in rice yield growth and
that promote rice production. production: displacement of cereals on
better lands by more profitable crops such as
Declining yield growth and groundnuts, diminishing returns to modern
environmental problems varieties when irrigation and fertilizer use
Cereal yields have continued to rise on were already high, and the fact that cereal
average across Asia since the Green prices fell relative to input costs, making
Revolution era, but annual growth rates additional intensification less profitable.
slowed down over a 20-year period ending There is also concern that breeders have
in 2005 (Fig. 3.5). Since then, yield growth largely exploited the yield potential of major
has been improving, and the area under rice Green Revolution crops.
has also greatly expanded in recent years. Environmental problems that have
Population growth in rice-producing Asia arisen in a few areas include excessive use
has been steadily declining since the 1970s. of fertilizers and pesticides that pollute
Since population growth has been the main waterways and kill beneficial insects and
source of rice demand growth, this trend other wildlife, irrigation practices that lead
helped to keep rice prices in check for a to salt buildup and eventual abandonment
time. But, from the mid-1990s until the mid- of some farming lands, increasing water
2000s, the gap grew steadily larger, creating scarcities in major river basins, and
a significant imbalance between supply and retreating groundwater levels in areas where
demand. This trend was evident for Asia as more water is being pumped for irrigation
a whole, but also separately for East Asia, than can be replenished.
30
8
25
20 6
Exports/production
15 4
10
2
5 Exports
0 0
1960 1966 1972 1978 1984 1990 1996 2002 2008
Year
Fig. 3.6. Rice exports (million tons) and share of production (%),
1960 to 2009. Source: USDA data.
40 Rice almanac
Exports (million tons) In contrast to rice exports, imports of
35 rice are widely dispersed across countries
Others U.S. (Table 3.1). Imports by the five leading
30
Myanmar India countries in the first decade of the 2000s
25
China Vietnam (Philippines, Nigeria, Iran, Indonesia,
Pakistan Thailand and the European Union) were only 27%
20 of the world total; the share of the top 10
countries was only 44%. However, because
15 of market segmentation, some of the larger
rice importers have had major impacts
10
on world rice prices. Large purchases by
5
state trade in the Philippines in 2007 and
2009 are examples in which an individual
0 importer contributed greatly to world price
1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
destabilization. Indonesias rice imports
Decade
accounted for 10% and 15% of world trade
Fig. 3.7. Rice exports (million tons) by country, in the 1960s and 1970s, respectively (and
1960 to 2009. Source: USDA data. 7.4% and 9.2% of national net availability).
During these years, Indonesias imports had
emerged as a major exporter only after a major impacts on world rice markets.
major economic liberalization in the early Key actors in the international rice
1990s. Although the United States more economy include private traders and millers;
than doubled its rice production over the state trading agencies and government
same period, its share in world trade fell by ministries; and producer, milling, and
nearly half, from 19.4% to 11.4%. Myanmar trade associations. The level of price
(Burma), the third-largest exporter in competitiveness among the differentiated
the 1960s, also more than doubled its rice flows varies considerably, based on
production, but its export volumes fell by established trading relationships, potential
two-thirds. export suppliers, and information costs
The high concentration of exports in associated with price discovery, technical
only a few countries does not necessarily and tariff trade barriers, and other aspects of
indicate a lack of competitiveness in trade policy.
markets; there are many exporting firms. Looking forward, a number of other
Nonetheless, it does raise the possibility countries are expecting to begin or increase
of disruptions and reductions in supply rice exports, such as Argentina, Brazil,
by major exporting countries (including Cambodia, and Myanmar; these will help
reduced exports as the result of deliberate buffer future trade against some of the
government policy), leading to higher world causes of instability described above.
prices that adversely affect net consumers in However, world prices are likely to remain
importing countries, but improve the welfare unstable, as production shocks occur in the
of rice net sellers. Conversely, exceptional major exporting countries or trade policy
production or subsidies on production in changes in these countries. Variance in
exporting countries could depress world production due to climate change could also
prices to the benefit of rice consumers but add to the instability in prices.
adversely affect rice producers in importing Future growth in trade may be slowed
countries. Perhaps most important, though, by pessimism regarding the reliability of
the high concentration of exports increases international markets, however, particularly
the probability that a production shock or in the wake of the international price crisis
a change in trade policy in one or more of of 2007-08. Adoption of some or all of the
these countries could have a major impact proposals to reduce international price
on world market flows and prices, such as fluctuations such as regulating trading in
occurred in the price crisis of 2007-08. futures markets and establishing (physical
and virtual) international stocks, could
1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
Philippines 0.16 0.15 0.17 0.62 1.65 6.0 3.9 3.2 9.0 15.5
Nigeria 0.00 0.20 0.53 0.59 1.63 0.5 38.2 39.3 24.6 38.5
Iran 0.01 0.31 0.72 1.16 1.27 2.5 29.3 42.6 45.1 44.1
Indonesia 0.72 1.37 0.31 1.79 1.24 7.4 9.2 1.3 5.7 3.6
EU-27b 0.62 0.71 0.72 0.70 1.22 58.1 59.7 52.2 38.4 45.7
Saudi Arabia 0.13 0.24 0.50 0.76 1.20 98.7 99.3 99.6 100.0 100.0
Iraq 0.03 0.21 0.41 0.53 0.95 19.9 66.3 81.0 77.8 88.6
Bangladesh 0.32 0.32 0.31 0.70 0.84 3.4 2.9 2.2 4.0 3.3
Cte dIvoire 0.05 0.12 0.27 0.37 0.80 25.8 31.9 45.8 45.3 62.8
Senegal 0.15 0.21 0.33 0.49 0.77 70.4 77.4 80.7 81.7 84.6
South Africa 0.07 0.09 0.21 0.48 0.76 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Malaysia 0.38 0.25 0.33 0.50 0.74 34.5 18.2 23.7 29.6 35.7
Brazil 0.00 0.11 0.31 0.81 0.70 0.0 2.4 5.2 11.6 8.9
Japan 0.36 0.03 0.04 0.54 0.67 3.5 0.3 0.5 6.7 9.2
Cuba 0.20 0.20 0.15 0.33 0.57 68.8 45.5 32.2 55.0 63.9
Mexico 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.30 0.57 2.5 8.9 15.5 58.2 76.7
U.S. 0.01 0.01 0.08 0.26 0.56 1.2 1.2 5.2 10.6 18.5
China 0.00 0.04 0.31 0.52 0.47 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.4
Others 3.69 4.34 4.93 6.58 9.83 5.4 4.9 4.3 4.5 5.5
Total 6.89 8.94 10.69 18.02 26.43 4.4 4.1 3.8 5.1 6.6
a
Availability is estimated as production less 10% for losses, plus gross imports. No adjustment is made for changes in stocks.
b
Data for the 1960s through the 1990s (1960-98) are for the EU-15.
Source: USDA data.
42 Rice almanac
change this scenario. If international of rice has declined over time, domestic
markets are perceived to have been made prices are more relevant for farmers and
more reliable, countries may be encouraged consumers.
to increase reliance on trade (or at least to Average farm-level prices (converted
avoid retracting from the world market). to nominal US$ per ton of paddy) in 2003
WTO reforms could also lead to substantial to 2007 for all 82 countries for which
(up to 14% under the US proposal) increases data are available from FAO showed
in trade volumes of medium-grain rice large differences. Some countries
(though only small increases in trade Brunei, Japan, Republic of Korea, and
volumes of long-grain rice, an imperfect Turkmenistanhave extraordinarily high
substitute for medium-grain rice). domestic prices that are at least 7 times the
Ultimately, poor rice consumers and median price of US$239 per ton.
net rice-deficit farmers in rice-importing Both GDP per capita and trade status
countries generally benefit from trade (defined as the share of net imports in
because of lower prices and greater domestic consumption for net importers
availability. For these hundreds of millions and the share of net exports in production
of households, as well as for rice producers for net exporters, the latter as a negative
in exporting countries, continued expansion number) are correlated with the level
of world trade in rice would enhance welfare of prices. Higher GDP per capita and
and promote food security. higher proportions of imports in domestic
consumption are both associated with higher
domestic prices.
Domestic rice markets
Trends over time
The price of rice The most striking aspects of world rice
The price of rice is a key variable for prices since 1960 are the price spike in
farmers, consumers, and governments in the early 1970s and a declining trend
most of Asia, and in many other parts of the during 1981-2001, as shown in Figure 3.8
world. It has obvious economic importance (a linear regression of real price versus
given the widespread poverty in the region, time has a slightly positive slope between
but in many cases it is equally important 1950 and 1981). Domestic prices also
politically. Although the world market price typically declined, although by less than
600
Rice
500
400
300
100
Maize (U.S. Yellow #2)
0
1960 1966 1972 1978 1984 1990 1996 2002 2008
Year
Fig. 3.8. Nominal prices of cereals (US$/ton), 1960 to 2009. The rice price is indica
rice 5% brokens, 1960-2005, spliced with percentage changes in the price of Thai
A1 Super (f.o.b. Bangkok) for 2006-09. Data for 2009 are the average of January-
June prices. Source: Calculated from IMF and FAO commodity price data.
44 Rice almanac
the reverse is true. Net rice consumers will labor-intensive employment that promotes
generally be hurt by higher rice prices, long-term economic growth. High rice
while net rice producers will benefit. It is prices may also impede diversification into
also true that whether a given household is labor-intensive higher-value crops.
a net rice producer or consumer depends on
market prices. Higher prices will discourage Price policy options for the future
consumption, encourage more production, In general, it seems hard to justify sustained
and possibly convert some households from departures of average domestic prices from
net consumers to net producers. Lower world market prices on either efficiency
prices could do the opposite. or equity grounds. Sustained deviations
Higher rice prices will substantially from the world price can lead to large
hurt poor net rice consumers because rice misallocations of scarce resources that
is typically a larger share of expenditures increase with the square of the deviation
for the poor. In such circumstances, rice from the world price, meaning that losses
price increases can have important effects increase exponentially as the deviation
on effective purchasing power, even if they gets larger. In terms of dynamic efficiency,
do not directly affect nominal income per attempts to consistently enforce a domestic
se. Farmers who are net food producers price higher than the world price may lock
are likely to benefit from higher prices, farmers into rice and out of more dynamic
which, other things being equal, will tend high-value crops, and they may lose the
to increase their incomes. Since many ability to learn and adjust dynamically to
farmers are poor, higher prices could help to changing market conditions, a skill that will
alleviate poverty and improve food security. be of increasing importance for farmer-
Another potentially important effect of entrepreneurs in the future. Consistent price
rice prices occurs in labor markets. Higher differentials also encourage corruption.
rice prices, by stimulating the demand for The world rice crisis of 2008 will
unskilled labor in rural areas, can result undoubtedly encourage many governments
in a long-run increase in rural wages, to strive for self-sufficiency using higher
thereby benefiting wage labor households in rice prices. But, given the welfare costs
addition to self-employed farmers. to the poor of high prices, investments in
The net effect of higher food prices on agricultural research and infrastructure so
welfare and poverty at the country level will as to improve agricultural productivity and
thus depend on socioeconomic structures markets would seem to be a far superior way
and the national net trade position (as to achieve self-sufficiency.
well as labor market outcomes). Positive One policy option would be to offset
impacts of higher prices are much more high producer support prices with consumer
likely in exporting nations, since a greater subsidies targeted to the poor, but this faces
percentage of households are probably net at least two major problems. First, it is
producers. very difficult administratively to target the
But, among rice importers, the impacts poor. Second, raising producer prices above
on welfare and poverty of higher prices are market levels and lowering consumer prices
more uniformly negative. In addition to below market levels incurs large fiscal costs
the short-term adverse effects of high rice (especially in poor countries) that crowd out
prices on poverty, high rice prices also raise spending on public goods, thus impairing
concerns about long-term economic growth the long-run growth of the economy.
in countries where rice is the staple food. The case for stabilizing prices around
Although there is no solid evidence in this the long-term trend of world prices
regard, high rice prices (in countries that seems stronger, although it is still very
choose to adopt such a policy) might end controversial among economists and
up reducing their international economic there is no widespread agreement on
competitiveness by raising the price of the this issue. The central question is how
wage good, thus making wage rates less to absorb the instability in world supply
competitive and discouraging investment in and demand that leads to changing world
46 Rice almanac
Chapter 4
65
60
55
50
45
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Fig. 4.1. Trend in global rice consumption per capita, 1961-2008.
48 Rice almanac
the last two decades and even more rapid capita consumption in China and India.
increases in some Pacific island countries. In addition, 30 million t more rice will be
Along with strong population growth, the needed by Africa, an increase of 130% from
rapid rise in per capita consumption also 2010 rice consumption. In the Americas,
contributed to such rapid growth in rice total rice consumption is projected to rise by
demand. Rice consumption also continues 33% over the next 25 years.
to grow in Latin America and the Caribbean With further area expansion likely to
region with a 40% increase in the last two be slow, global rice yields must rise faster
decades as a combination of both population than in the recent past if world market prices
growth and the steady rise in per capita are to be stabilized at affordable levels for
consumption. Even in developed countries/ the billions of consumers. Globally, farmers
regions such as the United States and the need to produce at least 810 million t more
European Union, per capita consumption paddy rice each yearan annual increase
continues to grow, partly because of of 1.21.5% over the coming decade,
switching from protein to more fibers in equivalent to an average yield increase of
the diet and also immigration from Asian 0.6 t/ha during the next decade. Over the
countries. longer run, global rice consumption growth
Using the population projections from is expected to slow down but yields will
the United Nations and income projections have to continue to grow faster than at
from the Food and Agricultural Policy present because of pressure on rice lands
Research Institute (FAPRI), global rice in the developing world from urbanization,
demand is estimated to rise from 439 climate change, and competition from other,
million t (milled rice) in 2010 to 496 million high-value agriculture. Rice yield growth
t in 2020 and further increase to 555 million of 1.01.2% annually beyond 2020 will be
t in 2035 (Fig. 4.2). This is an overall needed to feed the still-growing world and
increase of 26% in the next 25 years, but keep prices affordable.
the rate of growth will decline from 13%
for the first 10 years to 12% in the next 15 Feeding the billions
years as population growth drops and people Reliance on imports or additional rice area
diversify from rice to other foods. Among to feed the poor is bound to fail, given
the various rice-consuming regions, Asian incessantly growing populations in the
rice consumption is projected to account developing world together with a tight
for 67% of the total increase, rising from global rice supply-demand situation and a
388 million t in 2010 to 465 million t in general decline in rice lands in Asia, the
2035 despite a continuing decline in per major rice-producing region. Thus, there
450
400
2010 global rice production
350
300
91
93
95
97
99
01
20 3
05
07
25
27
29
31
33
35
09
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
0
20
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
19
19
19
20
20
Year
Fig. 4.2. Global rice production increases needed to meet demand by 2035.
The future of rice 49
is a compelling need to develop new rice Box 4.1. Rices contribution to poverty
technologies worldwide that will maintain or alleviation
increase productivity sustainably on existing
and newly developed rice land, and that are Access to irrigation, fertilizer, and the high-
climate-resilient. yielding varieties of the Green Revolution
The constraints to increasing rice increased productivity and profits and
production are largely of a nature that contributed to food security and poverty
spans borders. CGIAR centers, national reduction among farmers with irrigated land.
systems, advanced research institutes, The growth in rice production outstripped the
nongovernment organizations, and the growth in population, thus lowering prices,
private sector have been making uneven and which reduced the daily expenses for food of
fragmented progress in overcoming these poor consumers such as the rural landless,
constraints. Fragmentation also describes urban laborers, fishers, and farmers of crops
the componentsresearch, production, other than rice. The contribution of lower
and marketingof the rice sector itself and prices is not trivial, because many of these
results in unfocused research, production people spend 2040% of their income on
losses, and market distortions. Little wonder rice alone. Furthermore, low rice prices make
that coherent and comprehensive policies labor costs in the industrial and service
to manage the sector are frequently absent sectors more competitive, fueling job growth
at all levels. Global problems need global and catalyzing economic development.
solutions, but they must be flexible enough But, low rice prices can hurt some
to meet local needs. farmers, especially those who have not
adopted modern varieties and thus have
Poverty alleviation not benefited from productivity increases.
Despite declining poverty rates in the past Indeed, despite the successes of the Green
few decades in much of Asia, the absolute Revolution, poverty or hunger still occur
number of poor people has declined little, among considerable numbers of rice farmers
especially in South Asia and sub-Saharan within irrigated areas, because, even in highly
Africa. Poverty still exists in rural areas productive systems, it is difficult to escape
in both the irrigated and the rainfed rice poverty with only a small plot of land.
environments. Asia is rapidly urbanizing Poverty is still widespread among
and more people will shift from being net farmers in rainfed areas, especially in the
rice producers to net rice consumers. Also, remote uplands of Laos, Nepal, Vietnam,
the total number of urban poor people is and northeastern India, and in sub-Saharan
expected to increase. A major challenge Africa. For many poor farming households,
will be not only to produce more rice, but however, increasing rice productivity is
to keep its price affordable to improve the often the first step out of poverty as it
well-being of poor people (Box 4.1). Because provides food security and frees up land
a low rice price depresses the profitability and labor resources. With increased rice
of rice farming, particularly for small-scale yields, part of the farm land can be taken
producers, the simultaneous challenge is out of rice production and converted into
to decrease the cost of rice production (per more profitable cash crops. Freed-up labor
kilogram) to boost the profitability of rice can be invested in off-farm employment.
farming. Support schemes for small farmers Increased income can be used to invest in
can also help in coping with low prices. the education of children, which is a potential
pathway out of farming and poverty.
Climate change
Climate change is expected to raise carbon monsoon climates that will increase the
dioxide levels and temperatures and incidence of flooding. Rising sea levels are
possibly also increase the frequency of expected to increase flood risk and salinity
extreme climatic events in some areas such intrusion in rice-growing environments in
as storms, droughts, and heavy rainfall in delta areas (Fig. 4.3).
50 Rice almanac
Simulations for the major rice-growing susceptibility to high-temperature induced
regions of Asia find that yield decreases sterility. Overall, the beneficial effect of
710% for every 1 C rise in temperature elevated carbon dioxide on the yield and
above current mean temperature at existing water productivity of rice disappears under
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. high temperatures. Recently, yield reduction
Elevated carbon dioxide increases yield and in rice has been correlated with increased
water productivity by increasing dry matter nighttime temperatures: grain yield declines
production, the number of panicles, and by 10% for each 1 C increase in growing-
grain-filling percentage. However, elevated season minimum temperature in the dry
carbon dioxide also increases spikelet season in irrigated tropical rice.
Fig. 4.3. Low-elevation areas in Asia and rice production data from deltas in Vietnam, Myanmar,
and Bangladesh. Map drawn by K. Sumfleth.
52 Rice almanac
aerobic soil conditions in rice fields in of rainfed systems because of frequently
water-short areas. low natural soil fertility and low buffering
Indications are that soil-borne pests and capacity.
diseases (such as nematodes, root aphids,
and fungi) and micronutrient disorders Valuing ecosystem services of rice
occur more in nonflooded rice systems than environments
in flooded rice systems. Rice that is not There is growing recognition of the need
permanently flooded tends to have more for a better understanding of the ecosystem
weed growth and a broader weed spectrum services of the rice environment. Although
than rice that is flooded, likely leading to some methodologies have been developed
more frequent use of herbicides. With less to measure and estimate different services
water, the numbers and types of pests and of agricultural systems, quantifying
predators may change as well as predator- and valuing the positive and negative
pest relationships. Possible shifts in the externalities are still major challenges.
use of pesticides by farmers in response Many countries lack relevant data at the
to these changes, and what this means appropriate geographic level.
for the environment, are as yet unknown.
Less ammonia volatilization and methane Postharvest operations
emissions are expected under nonflooded The postharvest sectors are still
conditions, but also higher nitrous oxide characterized by high losses. In Africa
emissions and more leaching of nitrate. and Southeast Asia, losses generally range
The net greenhouse gas impact is also from 10% to 30%, caused by loss in weight
unknown. Although direct evidence from through spillage, losses to pests, low
converted paddy fields is still missing, milling yields, inappropriate postharvest
growing rice under increasingly aerobic management practices, delays in the
conditions will likely reduce soil carbon postharvest chain, outdated postharvest
content and release carbon dioxide into the equipment and infrastructure, and low
atmosphere. This change in soil organic operators skills that lead to losses in quality
matter will be accompanied by changes in along the chain and lower the market value
the microbial community, shifting from of milled rice by 1030% or more. Farmers
predominantly anaerobic organisms to are also often forced to sell immediately
aerobic organisms. It is not clear how these after harvest at a low price and so lose out
changes will affect soil fertility, if at all. on maximizing their returns.
The transformation of rice fields to upland Each year, hundreds of millions of tons
crops will likewise have consequences for of rice straw and husks are produced. These
sustainability and the environment. are commonly disposed of by burning,
thus emitting greenhouse gases. Innovative
Rainfed environments uses, such as bioenergy and biochar, of
A major challenge is to minimize the husks and straw will provide local business
negative environmental consequences of opportunities and extra income sources
intensification in rainfed environments. for farmers, and simultaneously mitigate,
Intensification through increased fertilizer instead of accelerate, climate change.
use, cropping intensity, and changes Another mitigating option is improving the
in methods of crop establishment will digestibility of the straw so that it can be
affect soil and environmental processes. used more widely as livestock feed.
Increased productivity, based initially on
better varieties and subsequently on the Response options
use of increasing amounts of inorganic
fertilizer and less organic fertilizer,
changes nutrient balances and increases the Most of the increase in rice production to
mining of soil nutrients. Reports of rapidly meet food security and alleviate poverty
emerging severe nutrient deficiencies after has to come from higher yields on existing
intensification testify to the relative fragility cropland (irrigated and rainfed) to avoid
LAC
Improved varie es Asia
Hybrids
ear
Stress-tolerant varie es
.5%/y
2 1
Improved rice systems
Agronomy (SSNM, AWD...) 1.
Conserva on agriculture ra nge
et
Mechaniza on
Improved value chains
Targ
Postharvest technologies
hing
Do not
year
< 1%/ th
grow
ent yield
Rec AWD = alternate we ng and drying, IPM = integrated pest management,
LAC = La n America and the Caribbean, SSNM = site-specific nutrient management
54 Rice almanac
per hectare in on-farm demonstration fields, its value. Traits of grain qualitythe
which is 815% higher than the hybrid combination of physical and chemical
check varieties. The first rice hybrids features required by different consumers
were released in China in 1974 and, with strongly influence the adoption of new
substantial government support, quickly varieties and retention of lower yielding
spread among farmers and, by 2007, covered traditional varieties. A major constraint to
almost 16 million ha, 55% of Chinas combining high yield with desired quality is
rice area. Adoption outside China has the absence of appropriate tools to evaluate
accelerated in recent years, particularly in eating quality. Innovative ways to use the
India and Bangladesh, but also in the U.S. grains that break during milling would add
and Brazil. The hybrid rice seed market value to milled rice. The first steps are to
is also growing in some Southeast Asian (i) create a phenotyping platform and tools
countries, particularly Indonesia, Vietnam, for evaluating quality and specialty traits
and the Philippines. Hybrid rice is now of grains and rice products, which should
grown on more than 21 million ha, or 13%, prioritize specialty rice with good eating
of the worlds rice land. quality for high-value markets; (ii) develop
Current research is aimed at improving processing techniques that add value to low-
the parental lines of hybrid varieties, for grade rice; and (iii) conduct market analyses
developing hybrids with improved resistance and collect information for developing and
to diseases such as bacterial leaf blight (the targeting specialty rice and rice products.
principal disease of hybrid rice), and better
understanding heterosis, through which it Water productivity
is hoped to increase tropical hybrid yields Modern improved japonica varieties have
up to 20% above those of the best inbred 2530% higher transpiration efficiency
varieties grown by farmers. Other research than the older indica varieties, suggesting
is aimed at improving grain quality and seed considerable variation for this trait in rice
production yields. germplasm. But, the potential for exploiting
Transforming the C3 rice plant into a this trait has not been investigated.
C4 plant through genetic engineering could Proposals to increase the waxiness of rice
be a long-term approach for increasing rice leaves to reduce nonstomatal transpiration
yield potential, and is currently the subject have demonstrated no notable progress.
of a major research endeavor by IRRI and Transforming the C3 rice plant into a C4
partners. Projected potential yield gains plant could potentially increase transpiration
from C4 rice are outstanding: a 3050% efficiency, but again, not much progress has
improvement in irrigated and rainfed been made.
lowland environments. Overall, the scope to increase the
Traditional breeding programs for water productivity of the rice plant through
irrigated environments have carried out transpiration efficiency seems to be small
activities under conditions of continuously compared with the scope to increase
ponded water. With increasing water water productivity through total water
scarcity in irrigated systems, breeding inputs (irrigation, rainfall). The shorter
programs should include selection under growth duration of modern high-yielding
conditions of labor- and water-saving rice varieties has reduced outflows of
technologies, such as direct seeding, evaporation, seepage, and percolation from
alternate wetting and drying, or aerobic individual rice fields. The combined effect
cultivation. Some success has been recorded of increased yield and reduced growth
with the development of high-yielding duration is that these varieties have a water
aerobic rice varieties in northern China. productivity related to total inputs that is
three times higher than that of traditional
Grain quality varieties grown under similar water
As the rate of yield growth has slowed, management. A range of breeding strategies
many rice farmers are looking to improved can be explored to further increase water
quality of their crop as a way to improve productivity through evapotranspiration
56 Rice almanac
Farmers in Benin in West Africa expect higher yields by growing NERICA varieties.
higher tolerance is possible if component Improved rice systems
traits are combined in a suitable genetic Water-saving technologies
background. The opportunity to improve Various water-saving technologies exist or
salinity tolerance through the incorporation are being developed to help farmers cope
of useful genes or pyramiding of superior with water scarcity in irrigated environments.
alleles appears very promising. A major QTL, These technologies increase the productivity
designated Saltol, was recently mapped. It of water inputs (rainfall, irrigation) mainly
accounted for more than 40% of the variation by reducing unproductive seepage and
in salt uptake in several populations. Marker- percolation losses and to a lesser extent
assisted backcrossing is currently being by reducing evaporation. Mechanical soil
used to incorporate this QTL into popular compaction can reduce percolation flows in
HYVssome of them already completed and certain soil types but may be too expensive
being field-evaluated. Progress was also made for large-scale implementation and may
in fine-mapping additional QTLs associated adversely affect the growth of any upland
with tolerance in efforts to combine them crop following rice. General measures
with Saltol for higher tolerance. such as land leveling, farm channels, and
To enhance the adoption of improved good puddling and bund maintenance,
varieties, farmers preferences need to be improve water control and reduce seepage
taken into account. This was done for the and percolation outflows. Minimizing the
delivery of all abiotic stress-tolerant varieties turnaround time between wetland preparation
in Asia and Africa through participatory and transplanting reduces the time when no
varietal selection. Furthermore, efforts are crop is present and outflows of water from the
being extended to strengthen local seed field do not contribute to production.
systems in national programs, including Especially in large-scale irrigation
seed corporations, the private sector, and systems with plot-to-plot irrigation, water
community-based seed production systems, losses during the turnaround time can be
to ensure production of high-quality seed of high when farmers maintain seedbeds in
these stress-tolerant varieties and their timely their main fields and keep the whole area
delivery to farmers. flooded for the full duration of the seedbeds.
The losses can be minimized by installing
58 Rice almanac
Box 4.2. Differences in greenhouse gas
emissions under conventional and water-
saving systems
The variability in greenhouse gas emissions
from conventional flooded rice fields
(control) and from two water-saving systems,
unsaturated soil covered by plastic film (film)
and unsaturated soil covered by straw mulch
(straw), was compared in trials at three sites
in China. Methane emissions were highest
from flooded rice at all three sites. Nitrous
oxide emissions were lowest from flooded
rice in Nanjing and Guangzhou, but similar
among all three systems in Beijing. When
both methane and nitrous oxide emissions
are converted into equivalent carbon dioxide
A farmer uses the Nutrient Manager for Rice emissions and summed, flooded rice had the
Mobile App for smart phones. lowest global warming potential at Nanjing
and the highest global warming potential in
bet nutrient management strategy in his or Guangzhou, whereas all three systems had
her location and provides user-friendly text similar global warming potential in Beijing.
messages and/or images. Future applications
will extend beyond SSNM to best-bet
agronomic practices, and to complementary in soil-borne pests, such as nematodes. It
services such as microfinance, insurance, is to be expected, however, that under fully
access to inputs, and market information. aerobic soil conditions rice cannot be grown
continuously on the same piece of land
Sustainability and environmental each year (as can be successfully done with
protection flooded rice) without a yield decline. And,
The effectiveness and environmental a suitable crop rotation will be needed as
impacts of fertilizer management well as varieties that are tolerant of soil-
technologies such as SSNM, slow-release borne pests and diseases. The experiences
fertilizers, and deep placement need to be of upland rice and other dryland crops with
evaluated under various scenarios of water pest and disease management have to be
availability. exploited in the development of sustainable
Water-saving technologies can have management systems for water-short
different effects on the emission of green- irrigated environments. Under completely
house gases, depending on environmental aerobic conditions, salts may accumulate in
site conditions and management practices the root zone as in any other dryland crop,
(Box 4.2). With less water, weed and flooded rice could be included as a
management practices need to be developed rotation crop to periodically flush out salts.
that reduce the reliance on herbicides by
anticipating weed species shifts and Stress-prone environments
developing preventive strategies that The high variability of rainfed environments
integrate management interventions such exposes farmers to great risk of yield
as manual weeding, increased seed density loss. The development of stress-tolerant
(in direct-seeded systems), and mechanical and input-responsive varieties will reduce
weeding. this risk and increase the incentive to
Little is known about changing pest use external inputs and intensify the
and disease dynamics when field conditions cropping system. Adjusted cropping
change from water abundant to water short, systems and management technologies
although initial reports suggest an increase will be needed to make the most efficient
The future of rice 59
use of the possibilities offered by the new under intensified management, realizing
varieties. The combination of the improved yields of 34 t/ha. The combination of
rice varieties that are in the pipeline and aerobic rice and terraces offers even greater
specific management technologies has the scope for intensification. Aerobic rice
potential to increase yields by 0.51.0 t/ha in also holds promise for permanent arable
environments prone to drought, flood, and production systems in rotation with other
salinity within the next 10 years. crops. In Brazil, a breeding program to
improve upland rice has resulted in aerobic
Rainfed lowlands varieties with a yield potential of up to
Two promising technologies are direct 6 t/ha. Farmers grow these varieties in
seeding and improved nutrient management. rotation with such crops as soybean and
Direct seeding potentially offers better fodder on large commercial farms with
use of early-season rainfall, better drought supplemental sprinkler irrigation on an
tolerance, lower risk from late-season estimated 250,000 ha of flatlands in the
droughts, better use of indigenous soil Cerrado region, realizing yields of 34 t/ha.
nitrogen supply, and increased possibility
for a second crop. Site- and season-specific Submergence-prone environments
nutrient management can reduce nutrient The new submergence-tolerant varieties
losses and pollution of the environment. need to be combined with adapted crop and
Both technologies have already enabled nutrient management to improve seedling
substantial productivity increases in some and plant survival as well as the ability
more favorable rainfed areas. In Lombok, to recover after submergence. Seedlings
Indonesia, the introduction of short-duration of submergence-tolerant varieties that are
and input-responsive varieties with direct enriched in nutrients, particularly zinc and
seeding and the use of inorganic fertilizer phosphorus, and possibly silicon, have a
increased and stabilized yields. In Laos, greater chance of survival. Application of
production in rainfed lowlands contributed nutrients after the recession of floodwater
considerably to achieving self-sufficiency in also speeds recovery, improves tillering, and
rice within a decade after the introduction of boosts yield.
improved varieties and crop management.
Salt- or sodic-affected areas
Uplands New salt-tolerant varieties need to be
Strategies should aim at sustainable integrated with specific nursery, crop,
intensification to break the spiral of resource and nutrient management strategies to
degradation caused by shorter fallow mitigate the effects of salt stress and to
periods in shifting cultivation systems. For improve soil quality. Soil amendments,
rice, a promising option is the establishment particularly gypsum, can help in reclaiming
of lowland fields in valley bottoms in sodic-affected soils, but they require large
mountainous areas, also referred to as investments. The combined use of farmyard
montane paddy rice. These lowland fields manure or pressmud from industrial waste
could benefit from irrigation water supplied with improved varieties can cut the need for
by mountain streams that converge in the gypsum by more than half. Relatively fresh
valley bottoms. Rainfed lowland rice fields irrigation water can leach salts accumulated
are also found in shallow inland valleys in the root zone during previous nonrice
in sub-Saharan Africa, which have been crops.
identified as offering the greatest potential
for expansion and intensification. Lowering the cost of production
The aerobic rice production system offers There are many options to lower the costs
scope where seasonal rainfall is some 600 of production, but few are directly related
mm or more or where farmers have access to water management. Where irrigation
to supplementary irrigation. In the hilly water is supplied by pumping, water-
regions of Yunnan Province in southern saving technologies reduce water inputs,
China, farmers grow rainfed aerobic rice
60 Rice almanac
Fig. 4.5. There is great potential for reuse of water flows in a rice landscape of interconnected fields.
pumping costs, and energy consumption. of many interconnected fields (Fig. 4.5).
Whether this actually increases profitability Surface drainage and seepage water usually
depends on the yield obtained and the flow into downstream fields and are lost
relative price of rice and water. Reducing only when they finally flow into drains
irrigation frequency reduces the labor or ditches. Even then, farmers can use
used for irrigation, but, when fields are small pumps to lift water from drains to
not continuously flooded, weed infestation irrigate fields that are inadequately serviced
may increase, requiring more labor or by irrigation canals. In many irrigation
herbicides. The system of rice intensification systems in low-lying deltas or floodplains
has relatively high labor requirements with impeded drainage, the continuous
and, partly as a result, there are reports of percolation of water has created shallow
the systems abandonment in its country groundwater tables close to the surface.
of origin, Madagascar. Dry seeding and Again, farmers can either directly pump
aerobic rice technologies offer possibilities water from the shallow groundwater or
for mechanization of farm operations such pump groundwater when it becomes surface
as sowing, weed control, and combine water as it flows into creeks or drains.
harvesting, although adoption of these Recent studies of rice-based irrigation
technologies seems to be driven more by systems in China indicate that irrigation
labor shortage than by water shortage. efficiency improves with increasing spatial
Increased labor productivity also lowers the scale because of the reuse of water. Much of
cost of production. this reuse is informal, as farmers take the
initiative to pump up water, block drains,
Options at the landscape level or construct small on-farm reservoirs for
Irrigation system efficiency and secondary storage.
water reuse Although water can be efficiently
Large volumes of water outflows and reused this way, it does come at a cost
surface drainage, seepage, and percolation and may not alleviate inequities among
characterize irrigated rice fields. Although farmers in irrigation systems. The current
the outflows are losses from individual debate on the improvement of irrigation
fields, there is great scope for reuse of systems focuses on the benefits and costs
these flows within a landscape that consists
62 Rice almanac
way forward to improve total water-use Institutional changes, with an
efficiency. increased role of the private sector
Postharvest research and development
Ecological engineering up to the beginning of the 2000s
In most rice landscapes, bunds and nonrice emphasized component technologies
habitats occupy a substantial proportion. focusing on farm-level problems and was
Some are populated with fruit trees and in many cases seen as having very little
shrubs, or grown with vegetables. But, impact. New institutional arrangements,
farmers often treat these areas as wastelands business models, and information-sharing
and spray them with herbicides, mistakenly mechanisms were needed to develop
thinking that they harbor pests. Ecological more relevant technologies and speed up
engineering is an approach to restore or the uptake of research results such as a
enhance biodiversity of both floral and systems approach to define the problems
faunal species in the rice landscape, so and establish priorities; a multidisciplinary
that resources in the form of shelter and approach; better inclusion of end users
food for the natural enemies of rice pests in adaptive research and development;
are enhanced. Aside from conserving developing cooperative/partnership
natural habitats, ecological engineering can programs with national research centers,
augment biodiversity by planting nectar-rich public and private extension systems, and
flowers on bunds. These flowers provide manufacturers; and multiple sourcing of
nectar for bees and other species that technology to increase the probability of
pollinate fruit crops in rice landscapes. The impact.
nectar is also food to many hymenopteran
parasitoids, especially those that regulate Better targeting of interventions
rice pest species such as planthoppers, The previous development paradigm for
leafhoppers, stem borers, and leaffolders. drying rice, small postharvest equipment
Experience in Vietnamese villages and in for small farmers, has often failed because
Jin Hua, China, where the approach has it was based on social objectives and ignored
been used, has shown that without using the economic conditions farmers were operat-
insecticides, farmers are harvesting similar ing in. Instead, a drying service to such farm-
or higher rice yields but with a substantial ers can be provided by a small entrepreneur.
increase in profits by not purchasing Farmers groups, cooperatives, and contract
insecticides. service providers could also provide drying,
harvesting, and storage services with group-
Improved value chains owned equipment. Financial institutions and
Improved postharvest management options policymakers need better information about
and technologies need to be researched, postharvest conditions to design suitable
developed, adapted to local conditions, credit schemes and support policy.
and made available at affordable cost. This
needs to take into account the following Multistakeholder platforms
factors that drive the transition of the rice Postharvest learning alliances of research
value chain from simple to more advanced organizations, donors, development
postproduction systems: agencies, policymakers, and private
Increasing intensity of land use and an businesses can help to increase resources,
increased number of crops per year strengthen capacity, and plan, generate,
The mode of rice production and document postharvest development
(subsistence, local markets, export, or outcomes. Such alliances, already
a combination) established in Cambodia, the Philippines,
Increasing quality consciousness and and Vietnam, can provide mechanisms to
new niche quality markets better document knowledge and make it
Increased labor cost caused by labor available to extension workers, technicians,
scarcity and, ultimately, farmers through, for
example, rice knowledge banks.
The future of rice 63
A farmer in southwestern Bangladesh displays her use of the hermetic Super Bag for rice storage.
Public-private partnerships
More formal partnerships with the private processes and actors in the postharvest
sector can maximize joint research and chain, a value chain approach can help
development outcomes by drawing on identify both technical and nontechnical
the specific advantages of both sector constraints and better target the practices
players. Most commercially successful and behaviors of agents along the chain. The
technologies in the last decade are such joint approach is being used for organic fragrant
developments. For example, laser-leveling rice in Laos, organic brown rice and white
systems used by the construction sector rice for local and potential export markets in
were adapted for use in tropical agriculture Cambodia, and a certified good agricultural
in collaboration between the manufacturer practice rice production chain in Thailand.
and public research institutions. Other Business models can help address
examples include the hermetic Super Bag the sustainable adoption of postharvest
for rice storage and the introduction of flat- technologies. As business models operate at
bed dryers and mini-combine harvesters in all points of a value chain, they can be used
Cambodia. Issues that need to be examined to capture value and benefits of adoption
in this type of collaboration are related as well as provide farmers and agents
to intellectual property rights, relevance along the chain with new income-earning
to the mandates of the public and private opportunities. Open or borderless
partners, transparency, nonexclusivity, business models further help the adoption
resource sharing, and legal and regulatory of postharvest technologies by enabling
frameworks. enterprises to collaborate systematically
with outside partners in the private, public,
Postharvest value chain and and NGO sectors to access additional
business models resources, capabilities, and expertise.
As postharvest losses remain quite high and
postharvest operations involve numerous
64 Rice almanac
Chapter 5
66 Rice almanac
to increase rice production and farmers numbers of knowledgeable extension
incomes, and do good for the environment. personnel and information sources to
These quick wins will require mostly keep them informed. And, because
applied research based on solid partnerships women play large and crucial but often
at the grass-roots level to adapt prototype unrecognized roles across the sector, extra
technologies to local settings and gender efforts are needed to ensure they have the
concerns. South-South knowledge exchange same opportunity as men to access new
between rice-producing regions can help technologies.
identify such opportunities.
Nearly all rice farmers worldwide
depend on rice varieties that have been Global Rice Science Partnership
improved by scientific breeding since
the Green Revolution. Rice breeding is a In response to the many international
slow process, but new technologies have and regional calls for a new era of
cut the time needed to test and validate agricultural research and development
new varieties by about 30%, and this investment to ensure food security,
trend is likely to continue to reduce the several international research institutions,
time from trait identification to varietal including three CGIAR centersAfrica
transfer. Scientific advances in genomics Rice Center (AfricaRice), International
and marker-assisted breeding mean that Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT),
genebank materials can be explored on a and International Rice Research Institute
large scale to identify and embed the genes (IRRI)have combined their efforts
responsible for ever more complicated in a global program, the Global Rice
target traits. Transgenic technologies Science Partnership (GRiSP). The other
offer the potential to engineer new major partners are Centre de coopration
plants that were previously unthinkable internationale en recherche agronomique
such as rice using a new photosynthetic pour le dveloppement (CIRAD), Institut
pathway. Meanwhile, improvements in de recherche pour le dveloppement (IRD),
sensors, processing, communications, and Japan International Research Center
and possibly nanotechnology offer the for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS), and,
potential to revolutionize how field through the networks of these and other
experiments are conducted, and can enable major institutions, collaboration has been
a precision agriculture revolution in input- established with 900 other research and
use efficiencies. New information and development partners worldwide.
communication technologies have made the GRiSPs mission, in accordance with
time ripe for maximum exploitation of the that of the CGIAR, is to reduce poverty and
economies of scale possible in rice research. hunger, improve human health and nutrition,
A global effort to increase rice reduce the environmental footprint, and
production will require not only new enhance the ecosystem resilience of rice
tools; it must also change the practices and production systems through high-quality
mindsets of millions of farmers to accept the international rice research, partnership,
challenges in their fields. Also, the adoption and leadership. The program also includes
of rice technologies and approaches may education and training to ensure continued
be stalled if the policy environment is availability of high-caliber scientists to
unfavorable. Harmonized and enabling address future problems in the sector, and
rice-related legislation worldwide will be improvement in information availability and
essential if farmers and other rice-sector its communication to all rice stakeholders.
stakeholders are to take advantage of new GRiSP has three basic objectives,
and improved production systems adapted to aligned with CGIAR strategic objectives:
climate change. 1. To increase rice productivity and
Finally, knowledge of such production value for the poor in the context of a
systems must reach the many, especially changing climate through accelerated
poor, producers. This will require increased demand-driven development
Raise system
produc vity, eciency
(land, water, labor), and
resilience
Improve food
Raise income
Sustainable systems security,
with reduced income, health,
environmental and nutri on
footprint Diversifica on
becomes an
op on
Investments in
sustainable prac ces
become a rac ve
Fig. 5.1. GRiSP focuses on enhancing productivity, resource efficiency, and resil-
ience of rice-based production systems as the key entry point for enabling farmers
to enter a virtuous circle of sustainable production and living.
68 Rice almanac
Theme 3: Ecological and sustainable for food security; (2) catalyzing and
management of rice-based production initially also facilitating public private-
systems. Theme 3 sits at the core of GRiSP sector partnerships for delivery that involve
because advances in rice production and multiple sectors at the subnational level; (3)
optimizing the environmental footprint supporting extension capacity development;
of rice will require developing integrated and (4) providing coherent, up-to-date
options for managing production systems. knowledge in a format that is most useful
Hence, theme 3 provides feedback to and for extension specialists and farmers.
uses the new varieties from theme 2 to New frontiers research. GRiSP
develop and extend rapidly to farmers will make significant investments in
improved management technologies that research for the next generation of future
make rice systems more energy-efficient, rice production systemsthe scientific
more profitable, more sustainable, and more breakthroughs that will be needed 20 or
resilient to stresses. Rice ecosystem services 30 years from now to ensure food security
and greenhouse gas emissions from rice and and enable better environments. Priorities
their fate under different future scenarios will be continuously assessed and new
will be examined with a view to finding the opportunities will be aggressively pursued,
right balance between productivity growth leading to an evolution of the GRiSP
and environmental impact. portfolio over time.
Theme 4: Extracting more value
from rice harvests through improved
quality, processing, market systems, and
Partners and partnerships in rice
new products. This theme builds on and research and development
provides feedback to themes 2 and 3 by
investigating ways to increase harvest value The global rice research and development
and developing mechanisms to support program that is needed if we are to
and harmonize the activities of producers, increase the worlds supply of rice in a
processors, and marketers, while ensuring sustainable manner involves participation
equitable benefits for poor male and female of many institutions across the rice sector
farmers. as partners. Partnerships among these
Theme 5: Technology evaluations, institutions along the two-way research-to-
targeting, and policy options for enhanced development continuum will contribute to
impact. Theme 5 provides important iterative cycles of research priority setting,
feedback to all other themes in GRiSP by technology development, adaptive research
helping to clearly understand the needs of and diffusion, monitoring and evaluation,
male and female farmers from different and impact assessment and funding. A goal
socioeconomic categories and other actors, of GRiSP is to harness the synergies of
as well as the likely consequences of labor- as many international, regional, national,
saving technologies for their employment and subnational partners as possible along
and income. Theme 5 also aims to influence the rice supply chain from upstream
policymakers and other decisionmakers to research organizations to local civil society
improve the functioning of the rice sector. organizations and private companies with
Theme 6: Supporting the growth of the expertise in product development and
global rice sector. Although international dissemination.
agricultural research centers cannot play
a major role themselves in scaling-up Major international research
new technologies to millions of farmers, organizations
they can make significant contributions to The three main CGIAR centers that
supporting the growth of the rice sector undertake rice-related research, IRRI,
through (1) a technical and human resource AfricaRice, and CIAT, have an excellent
base to enable a far better interface for the track record in generating international
research products and regional, national, public goods through upstream areas of
and within-country investment programs rice improvement, through their ability to
70 Rice almanac
Republic of Congo, Egypt, Gabon, the 7. Strengthening the capacities of
Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, national rice research and extension
Liberia, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, agents and rice value chain actors.
Niger, Nigeria, Republic of Congo, Senegal, The strategy is aligned with the
Sierra Leone, Togo, and Uganda. AfricaRice Comprehensive Africa Agriculture
is also a member of the CGIAR. Development Program (CAADP). It will
In partnership with the national be mostly implemented under the umbrella
agricultural research and extension systems of the CGIAR Research Program (CRP)
(NARES), AfricaRice operates through of GRiSP, with other CRPs contributing to
a continent-wide task force mechanism specific priority areas. GRiSP, led by IRRI,
based on specific broad research themes effectively aligns rice research activities
relating to rice. It collaborates with many worldwide and its activities in Africa are
advanced research institutes to complement under the responsibility of AfricaRice.
the range of expertise needed to tackle the AfricaRices headquarters is
key research for development questions temporarily based in Cotonou, Benin. It
in Africa, such as CIRAD, IRD, JIRCAS, has four outreach stations: Bouak, Cte
and several universities. It also works with dIvoire; Ibadan, Nigeria; Saint-Louis,
nongovernment organizations (NGOs) and Senegal; and Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania.
farmers associations. AfricaRice has about 300 staff, including
AfricaRices strategic plan, 2011-20, support personnel.
focuses on the following seven priority
areas, which were identified in close CIAT
consultation with its key partners and The mission of the International Center for
stakeholders: Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), is to reduce
1. Conserving rice genetic resources hunger and poverty, and improve human
and providing smallholder farmers health in the tropics through research
climate-resilient rice varieties that aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of
are better adapted to production agriculture.
environments and consumer With support from the Colombian
preferences. government and Rockefeller, Ford, and
2. Improving rural livelihoods through Kellogg foundations, the center was
sustainable intensification and formally established in 1967 and began
diversification of rice-based systems. research in 1969. CIAT currently has 200
3. Achieving socially acceptable agricultural scientists, who work with
expansion of rice-producing areas, national partners in Latin America and
while addressing environmental the Caribbean (LAC) from headquarters
concerns. in Cali, Colombia; in 28 countries of sub-
4. Creating market opportunities for Saharan Africa from a regional office in
smallholder farmers and processors Nairobi, Kenya; and in five Southeast Asian
by improving the quality and the countries from a regional office in Hanoi,
competitiveness of locally produced Vietnam.
rice and rice products. CIAT conducts research mainly through
5. Facilitating the development of the nine programs grouped in three areas. The
rice value chain through improved first area, agricultural biodiversity, centers
technology targeting and evidence- on selected cropscassava, common
based policymaking. bean, rice, and tropical foragesthat are
6. Mobilizing co-investments and critical for global food security. Research
linking with development partners in the second area, tropical soils, seeks to
and the private sector to stimulate reverse rampant soil degradation, which
uptake of rice knowledge and is a fundamental obstacle to sustainable
technologies. improvement of agricultural systems across
the tropics. Research in the third area deals
more broadly with rural landscapes and
Responding to rice challenges 71
economies, employing the latest simulation 1. Understanding the biological bases
modeling techniques to provide a better (molecule to population) of rice
basis for decisions and policies concerning adaptation and development
climate change adaptation and mitigation in Evaluation, management, and
agriculture as well as other challenges. promotion of genetic resources
CIATs rice research primarily serves Rice adaptive development
LAC, where the crop is a major staple Rice phenotypic plasticity and
food, but also contributes to global efforts adaptation
through GRiSP. In addition to breeding Development of improved rice
improved varieties through conventional varieties for target agro-systems with
recurrent selection methods, CIAT scientists strong food security and climate
use various genomic tools for making change concerns
rice breeding more efficient. They are Rice-pathogen interactions
also exploring possibilities to expand the Evolutionary biology of rice
genetic variability of the crop through the pathogenic fungi (Magnaporthe
use of related wild species and African grisea)
cultivated rice and to improve specific traits, Bioinformatics and data integration
such as nitrogen-use efficiency, through a 2. Improvement of rice-based production
better understanding of the genetics and systems (on a plot and farm level) and of
transgenesis of rice lines. rice processing systems
The centers Rice Program works with Sustainable farming and rice
a wide range of national and international cropping systems
partners. One particularly valuable ally is Systems and agricultural engineering
the Latin American Fund for Irrigated Rice Automated identification of weed
(FLAR, its acronym in Spanish). This is species in rice fields using techniques
an innovative public-private partnership for the recognition of visual content
involving 15 countries, which funds rice Promotion of rice co-products
improvement as well as the development and Integrated approach for grain quality
dissemination of better crop and resource 3. Knowledge and tools to support
management practices. decisionmaking by rice-related players,
from rural areas to society, from local
CIRAD management to public policy
The Centre de coopration internationale Water management, players, and
en recherche agronomique pour le usage
dveloppement (CIRAD) is a French Technical and organizational changes
targeted research center working with on farms
developing countries and regional and Management of natural resources and
international organizations to tackle the environment
international agricultural and development Markets, organizations, institutions,
issues. Its operations, from field to and operators strategies
laboratory and from local to global scale, Spatial information and analysis for
are based on development needs. Its 800 territories and ecosystems
scientists have joint operations with more As a member of Agreenium, CIRAD is
than 90 countries. CIRAD provides the also the gateway for mobilizing other French
national and global scientific communities agriculture-related research and higher
with extensive research and training education establishments for the benefit of
facilities in Montpellier and several rice science.
platforms overseas.
Rice is the first target plant/crop/ IRD
commodity for some 60 CIRAD scientists, L'Institut de recherche pour le
of whom 25 are outposted in Africa, Asia, dveloppement (IRD, formerly known
and Latin America. CIRADs rice R&D as ORSTOM) is a public science and
activities focus on: technology research institute, reporting to
72 Rice almanac
the French ministries in charge of research in 16 other countries. There are also teams
and development cooperation. Working in country offices working with national
throughout the tropics, IRD conducts programs in Asia and Africa.
three missions (research, training, and IRRIs goals are to
consultancy) in close cooperation with its Reduce poverty through improved
numerous partner countries to contribute and diversified rice-based systems.
to the economic, social, and cultural Ensure that rice production is
development of the countries of the South. sustainable and stable, has minimal
IRD has outposted staff at CIAT. IRD negative environmental impact, and
researchers aim to respond to the major can cope with climate change.
development challenges regarding societies, Improve the nutrition and health of
health, environment, and living resources poor rice consumers and rice farmers.
through priority topics such as nutrition, Provide equitable access to
emerging diseases, education, migration and information and knowledge on rice
poverty reduction policies, environmental and help develop the next generation
hazards, global warming, management of rice scientists.
of marine and continental ecosystems, Provide rice scientists and producers
desertification, water resources, and food with the genetic information and
security. IRD has important facilities and material they need to develop
equipment in dedicated research centers in improved technologies and enhance
France and in French overseas territories rice production.
but also in 22 intertropical countries. IRD IRRI pursues its mission and goals
is strongly involved in the national research through interdisciplinary thematic and
system, including universities and other system-based programs; scientific strength
advanced research institutes (INRA-CNRS- in major research disciplines; anticipatory
INSERM). Recently, IRD was entrusted research initiatives; conservation and
with the founding and the management of responsible use of natural resources,
AIRD (the Interestablishment Agency for including rice genetic resources; sharing
Research for Development) to intensify germplasm, technologies, and knowledge;
and coordinate French scientific policy participation of women in research and
concerning the development of southern development; partnership with farming
countries through research. IRD has a long communities, research institutions, and
past research experience on rice in the other organizations; and continued efforts in
domains of genetic resource preservation improving staff development and welfare.
and evaluation mainly in Africa and in IRRIs research is carried out in six
collaboration with CGIAR centers. programs that are identical to the six themes
of GRiSP (see pages 68-69). The programs
IRRI are staffed by interdisciplinary teams
IRRIs mission is to reduce poverty drawn from three research divisionsplant
and hunger, improve the health of rice breeding, genetics, and biotechnology;
farmers and consumers, and ensure crop and environmental sciences; and
environmental sustainability through social sciencesand four centers: genetic
collaborative research, partnerships, and resources, grain quality and nutrition, C4
the strengthening of national agricultural rice, and training.
research and extension systems. Most of IRRIs work is carried
IRRI was established in 1960 by the out through international partnerships:
Ford and Rockefeller foundations with research consortia, research and technology
the support of the government of the evaluation networks, joint ventures, shuttle
Philippines, and consists of laboratories and research (exchange of scientists), bilateral
training facilities on a 252-ha experimental collaboration, and direct consultation.
farm in the Philippines. The Institute has Research consortia include the Hybrid
about 1,300 staff members located at its Rice Development Consortium (HRDC),
headquarters in the Philippines and offices Irrigated Rice Research Consortium
74 Rice almanac
and management technologies in Asia and for Agricultural Development
Africa. CABI (and through it benefits for (IFAD), the World Bank, Asian
its 44 member countries) is experienced Development Bank (ADB), and
in the production of unique global ICT African Development Bank (AfDB).
products and capacity development for plant Many of these directly contribute
health. ICRA can provide experience in to international rice R&D as
capacity development for persons working donors through the CGIAR Fund/
in multistakeholder platforms for technology Consortium mechanisms.
development or dissemination.
Major regional fora and economic National agricultural research and
communities with a major interest in extension systems
development of the rice sector include National agricultural research and extension
Regional fora involved in the Global systems (NARES) have been the key
Forum on Agricultural Research partners of CGIAR centers for decades,
(GFAR) (e.g., Forum for Agricultural primarily through collaborative projects,
Research in Africa (FARA), Forum networks or consortia, and science and
for the Americas on Agricultural extension capacity development. These
Research and Technology partners range from NARES that emerge
Development (FORAGRO), from national conflicts (such as Liberia) and
and Asia Pacific Association of thus require major assistance, to NARES
Agricultural Research Institutions with strong national rice capabilities in
(APAARI) at the continental level, Africa (e.g., Egypt), Asia (e.g., China, India,
and West and Central African others), and Latin America (e.g., Brazil)
Council for Agricultural Research that will play a key role in global rice R&D.
and Development (CORAF) and Many partnerships with NARES and other
Association for Strengthening sectors exist through regional networks,
Agricultural Research in Eastern and projects, and consortia, which, through their
Central Africa (ASARECA) in Africa steering committees composed of a wide
at the subregional level). range of partners, also play an important
Higher-level political bodies and role for setting priorities and linking
development initiatives targeting international R&D with national systems
food security and poverty such as the and investments.
Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Examples of such collaboration in
Development Programme (CAADP), Asia are the CSISA, IRRC (11 countries
Center for Agricultural and Rural in Asia), CURE (South and Southeast
Development (CARD), Association of Asia), and the TRRC (12 countries, global).
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Examples for Africa are the Inland Valley
South Asian Association for Regional Consortium (IVC, 10 countries in West
Cooperation (SAARC), and Asia- Africa, AfricaRice, CIRAD, IITA, ILRI,
Pacific Economic Cooperation FAO, and others). A key steering mechanism
(APEC). in Latin America is FLAR (15 members).
Regional economic communities On a global scale, various networks connect
such as the Economic Community hundreds of scientists from many countries,
of West African States (ECOWAS). for example, in the INGER (global) and
These communities can assist with the INQR, which also connects NARES
policy formulation and building of researchers with many advanced research
rice research and extension capacity institutes.
in regions where rice is considered a An example is the ongoing project on
priority commodity (such as in West STRASA, led by IRRI and AfricaRice. This
Africa). project operates mainly through research
International and regional and delivery partnerships, with some 200
development funds and banks, partners in the public and private sector, and
including International Fund civil society, that are engaged, mostly part-
76 Rice almanac
IRRI and partners in Asia have led the development and use of hybrid rice technology in the tropics.
genome, which was partially contracted out IRRC, which receives its main funding from
to universities, built on research networks several public-sector donors. These funds
financed by the Rockefeller Foundation and were used by IRRI and its national partners
the Japanese government. to conduct research on new approaches for
The potential for future earnings from efficient, sustainable nutrient management
transgenic traits in rice has attracted most in rice-based systems. Another example is
of the major agricultural seed-biotechnology the HRDC (Box 5.1).
firms to invest in rice biotechnology The expansion of the rice seed sector
research both in-house and through is leading to an increased diversification
collaboration with public institutes. DuPont/ of rice R&D systems. The private sector
Pioneer, Bayer, Syngenta, and BASF have is making substantial investments in
in-house basic biotechnology programs that specific rice R&D areas such as gene
include rice and have located biotechnology discovery and molecular breeding for
research facilities in China, Europe, India, hybrid rice development, crop protection,
Singapore, and the United States. Some of new machinery, and rice processing/new
these companies have partnerships with products from rice. It is thus generating
small biotechnology firms to develop yield intellectual property that could also be of
traits for rice. These companies also engage advantage to the public sector. Moreover,
in collaborative biotechnology rice research private companies are developing and
with the public sector in many countries, operating increasingly sophisticated delivery
most extensively in China, and with IRRI. channels through which it may also be
The private sector is also involved possible to disseminate certain public sector
in international consortia that involve a know-how better and faster. Hence, new
large number of public- and private-sector formal research partnerships and contractual
partners. For example, since 1997, three relationships are emerging among the public
international fertilizer industry associations and the private sectors.
have provided additional support to the
Worldwide, about 13% of all rice grown public-private partnerships in 2008, with
is hybrid ricevarieties in which seeds of current membership of more than 30 seed
the first generation of crosses have higher companies, more than 30 public-sector
yield potentialcommercially marketed agencies, and one NGO. Private-sector
to farmers. Since the initial release of members include large multinational
hybrid rice in the mid-1970s in China, IRRI companies such as Bayer, Syngenta, and
and its national partners in Asia have led DuPont, and other companies from India,
research, development, and use of hybrid China, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan,
rice technology in the tropics for almost 30 Malaysia, Belgium, Bolivia, and the United
years. Many large multinational and smaller States. Private-sector members of the
national seed companies are now engaged in HRDC provide the demand-driven feedback
hybrid rice breeding and commercialization. for IRRIs hybrid rice research, but also the
Thus, the public sector should now focus financial support needed for sustaining
on fostering public-private partnerships in it, in collaboration with IRRIs national
which public institutions concentrate more partners. They receive the products of this
on prebreeding, basic research on key traits, research through fee-based, nonexclusive
information, and capacity development, licensing mechanisms, whereas the public
whereas commercialization is mainly done sector continues to have free access. This
by small and large private enterprises, has allowed IRRI to triple its hybrid rice
which need to have equal access to new breeding capacity. HRDC members can also
traits, hybrid parental lines, pilot hybrid participate as sponsors of specific projects
varieties, information, and other technologies and seek bilateral collaboration with IRRI
developed by the public sector. through scientific know-how and exchange
For this reason, the HRDC was programs, which focus on joint research and
established by IRRI as a new model for capacity development.
Key models for collaboration with the sector and vice versa. This is an
private sector include emerging area and it requires clear
Joint bilateral research, focusing on guidelines for product stewardship
research areas of mutual interest, and for joint licensing, in cases where
intellectual product sharing, scientist- several partners may have contributed
to-scientist interaction, and capacity to a discovery or development of a
development for young scientists. product.
Multilateral, public-/private-sector Local delivery partnerships that
consortia with innovative, self- capitalize on expertise and networks
sustained business models for for delivering products and services
such partnerships and managing effectively and efficiently to farmers.
intellectual property in the interest of By working with private-sector
all participants and to the benefit of partners on a nonexclusive basis,
poor rice farmers and consumers. another channel for delivering public
Licensing of intellectual products research solutions is enabled.
from the private sector to the public
78 Rice almanac
Chapter 6
Consumption (kg/year)
120
100
Asia
80
World
60
40
0
19 -61
19 -63
19 -65
19 -67
19 -69
19 -71
19 -73
19 -75
19 -77
19 -79
19 -81
19 83
19 -85
19 -87
19 -89
19 -91
19 -93
19 -95
19 -97
20 -99
20 -01
20 -03
20 -05
20 -07
20 -09
1
-1
-
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
04
06
08
10
19
Years
Fig. 6.1. Global and Asian per capita rice consumption.
Data sources: PSD online database (USDA) and FAOSTAT population database (FAO).
80 Rice almanac
In line with the rising rice consumption, capita consumption declined by 10 and 8
per capita calorie intake also increased kg, respectively, between 1992 and 2005.
by more than 40% from 1,891 in 1960 to Nevertheless, total rice consumption in
2,706 in 2009. Similarly, life expectancy Asia has continued to rise on the back of
and infant mortality witnessed significant population growth and the rise in per capita
improvements during the post-Green rice consumption in other Asian countries.
Revolution era. Although the contribution However, the declining trend in per
of rice to total calorie intake dropped capita rice consumption in large countries
in Asia during this period (from 38% in such as China, India, and Indonesia has
1970 to 29% in 2009), it still accounts been reversed in the last few years and per
for 4570% of the total calorie intake in capita consumption has started rising again
many rice-consuming countries in the (Fig. 6.3). This upswing contributed to
region, including, Bangladesh, Cambodia, the recent surge in total annual Asian rice
Indonesia, Vietnam, and many other Asian consumption by 40 million t over 7 years.
countries (Fig. 6.2). Household consumer expenditure data
collected by Indias National Sample Survey
Changing consumption patterns Organization confirm the flattening in per
Since the early 1990s, strong economic capita consumption in recent years from
growth in many Asian countries, the declining trend in the 1990s in all four
particularly in China and India, halted regions of India.
the upward trend in Asian per capita rice In other Asian countries such as
consumption as consumers diversified Bangladesh and the Philippines, per capita
their diet from rice to high-value foods rice consumption remains strong across
such as meat, dairy products, fruits, and income groups in both urban and rural
vegetables. Between 1992 and 2005, areas. National representative household
per capita rice consumption in Asia as consumption survey data collected between
a whole declined from 103 to 96 kg. Per 2000 and 2010 from both the Philippines
capita rice consumption in India began to (Family Income and Expenditure Survey)
decline after the economic liberalization and Bangladesh (Household Income and
in the early 1990s. In China and India, per Expenditure Survey) confirm this trend.
70
Bangladesh
Cambodia
60 Vietnam
Indonesia
Asia
50
40
30
20
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2009
Year
Fig. 6.2. Share of rice in total calorie intake in Asia.
180 Indonesia
China
India
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
0
19 -61
19 -63
19 -65
19 -67
19 -69
19 -71
19 -73
19 -75
19 -77
19 -79
19 -81
19 83
19 -85
19 -87
19 -89
19 -91
19 -93
19 -95
19 -97
20 -99
20 -01
20 -03
20 -05
20 -07
20 -09
1
12
-1
-
20
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
04
06
08
10
19
Years
Fig. 6.3. Per capita rice consumption in Indonesia, China, and India.
Data sources: PSD online database (USDA) and FAOSTAT population database (FAO).
82 Rice almanac
total demand for rice in Asia will continue of government interventions, it is hard to
to rise. However, the opposite will be foresee how governments can continue with
true and total Asian consumption may such interventions in the face of rising costs,
start declining if Asian countries follow water shortages, and growing pressure from
a rapid diversification path. Global rice competing sectors.
consumption will probably rise from 439 The few exceptions could be countries
million t (milled rice) in 2010 to 555 million such as Cambodia and Myanmar that were
t in 2035 and Asia will account for 67% of left out of the Green Revolution for varying
the total increase, rising from 388 million t reasons, but they could be stimulated to
in 2010 to 465 million t in 2035. expand rice production by developing
infrastructure and providing better market
Future supply prospects linkages.
In the first three decades of the Green Without the possibility of further area
Revolution, the higher productivity growth, expansion in the future, yield growth will
more than 2% annually, provided incentives have to be maintained at 1.21.5% to about
for farmers to bring additional area into 2020 and at 1.01.2% annually beyond 2020
rice production. Part of the area expansion to be able to meet growing global needs and
has been possible because of greater keep prices affordable. But, unfortunately,
cropping intensity through the adoption of the approaches adopted that led to the
short-duration varieties. A combination of success of the first Green Revolution may
productivity growth and area expansion not be applicable now. During the first
provided the production growth needed to Green Revolution, many Asian countries
keep rice prices affordable and meet global provided incentives to farmers through
needs. However, yield growth has slowed subsidized inputs and assured markets for
significantly, falling below 1% by the early their products to expand rice production.
2000s but increasing again after 2005. The Farmers responded by adopting input-
effect of the overall decline is evident with responsive high-yielding modern varieties
two food price spikes since 2007 and a and bringing additional land into crop
steady rise in rice prices since 2001. From production.
2001 to 2007, rice prices nearly doubled Fertilizer use in Asian countries has
primarily because of the supply-demand increased markedly in the past four decades
imbalance. Between November 2007 and (Fig. 6.4). In China, fertilizer application per
May 2008, the rice market witnessed hectare in NPK equivalent increased from
the tripling of international rice prices. 38 kg in 1970 to close to 400 kg in 2009.
Although prices went down quickly after Similarly, Vietnam witnessed a fivefold
May 2008, they settled at a much higher increase in fertilizer use during this period,
level of $500600 per ton vis--vis $300 from 46 kg in 1970 to 217 kg in 2009.
400 before the crisis. Indian fertilizer use has also increased, but
The current rice area is at an all-time still remains low compared with that in
high at around 160 million ha compared China and Vietnam at 156 kg/ha. However,
with 120 million ha in the early 1960s. the variations among Indian states are
Further expansion of rice area in the future very large: in Punjab and Haryana, NPK
is not a viable option for most Asian rice- use is 200 kg/ha, while in states mostly
growing countries, where additional land left behind by the Green Revolution, it is
is no longer available and pressure on the much lower50 kg in Orissa and 10 kg in
existing rice land from urbanization and Arunachal Pradesh.
other nonagricultural uses is growing Similarly, the use of groundwater for
rapidly. For example, Chinas rice area has irrigation purposes has also increased in
declined by more than 5 million ha (15%) in many Asian countries, most notably in
the past three decades and this downtrend India, Indonesia, and Bangladesh. In India,
may continue. Although a similar water withdrawal for agriculture increased
downtrend has not been evident in other by more than 70% in the past three decades
rice-growing countries in the region because (Fig. 6.5), and a recent study concluded
1970
300 2009
200
100
0
India Vietnam Philippines Thailand China Japan
500
400
300
200
100
0
1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2011
Year
Fig. 6.5. Agricultural water withdrawal.
Data source: World Bank Indicators online 2013.
that this rate of withdrawal in northwestern complicated for rice production. A large
India is unsustainable: the water table share of rice production is already lost to
is falling by 4 cm per year. Agricultural various abiotic stresses (flood, drought,
water withdrawal in Indonesia increased and salinity) and biotic stresses (pests
by nearly 25% between 1990 and 2000. and diseases). Among the abiotic stresses,
Yield improvements in the future need to drought is the strongest constraint, affecting
be achieved in the face of these emerging nearly a third of the total rice area in Asia
constraints such as land and water scarcity, and causing significant economic losses
environmental degradation, and rising input to poor rice producers in the region. The
prices. average production loss due to drought in
three regions (eastern India, northeastern
Climate change Thailand, and southern China) adds up to
Apart from the various constraints $200 million annually. Floods regularly
described above, the anticipated changes cause severe rice yield damage on 16 million
in global climate in the form of rising ha of flood-prone rice in Asia. The annual
temperature, increasing amount of carbon loss in rice production in South Asia alone is
dioxide in the atmosphere, greater frequency estimated to be 4 million t. Salinity, though
of extreme weather events (e.g., floods and not as big a stress as drought and flood, still
droughts), and greater incidence of pests affects 10 million ha of coastal and inland
and diseases are likely to make things more areas. But, growing rice is the only option
84 Rice almanac
available to farmers in the saline-prone production, South Asia would be the worst
coastal regions where nothing else can be affected region, with rice production
grown, and this crop is critical to the food projected to change from 169 million t in
security of these resource-poor farmers. 2050 under the no-climate-change scenario
Crop losses are likely to be greater in to slightly above 100 million t under a
the future with changing climate that will climate-change scenario, a difference of
make flood, drought, and salinity problems more than 65 million t. This would result
more frequent and severe. Rising sea in higher prices and lower consumption,
levels due to climate change are expected which eventually would lead to lower calorie
to spread the salinity problem to a wider intake and an increase in child malnutrition.
growing area where rice is cultivated under Overall, the study suggests that developing
favorable conditions now, especially in countries would be worse off than developed
the Mekong River delta, which accounts countries for all crops, including rice.
for nearly half of Vietnams total rice A study of three major rice ecosystems
production. Saline conditions may also in India (Odisha, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu)
spread beyond the coastal areas and deltas found varying impacts of climate change on
to some groundwater irrigation agriculture rice production. In Kerala and Odisha, the
in interior regions. The excess withdrawal decrease in yield due to rising temperature
could increase salinity in groundwater, is likely to be offset by an increase in yield
making it unsuitable for rice production. due to high atmospheric carbon dioxide
Similarly, drought losses could be much concentration, but, in Tamil Nadu, where
greater in the future, with many rainfed currently grown varieties show a much
areas experiencing more intense and more greater decline in yield due to the higher
frequent drought events. temperature, rice production is more
In addition, rising temperatures will vulnerable to climate change. In Thailand,
also negatively affect yield and grain quality rice yield is estimated to be about 18% lower
in the future, when the temperature will by 2020 because of climate change.
become higher during the reproductive In addition to these abiotic stresses,
phase, particularly at flowering. In the many biotic stresses, such as pest and
past three decades, nighttime minimum disease incidence and weed infestation,
temperature has been rising rapidly and this would also be triggered by climate change.
trend is expected to continue. It is estimated A map for Asia (Fig. 6.6) with bacterial leaf
that yield will decrease by 710% for each blight severity shows that, under current
1 C temperature rise above the present climate conditions, many parts of Asia are
mean temperatures at current carbon dioxide already adversely affected by this disease.
concentration in the atmosphere. These effects are predicted to become more
Apart from direct production losses severe with climate change that would bring
because of the occurrence of extreme about frequent extreme weather, water
weather events and rising temperature, scarcity, and uneven rainfall, not just for
farmers in stress-prone environments bacterial leaf blight, but also other pests,
also practice less intensive agriculture by diseases, and weed infestations.
applying less inputs. They receive lower One of the most important adaptation
yields, even in normal years. The rise in strategies is to develop varieties that can
frequency of extreme weather due to climate withstand extreme weather conditions to
change is likely to make these farmers even enable them to perform better than current
more risk-averse, causing a further decline modern high-yielding varieties. Thus,
in yield in normal years. future efforts should be directed toward
Projections using the IMPACT model developing varieties that can withstand
developed by the International Food Policy multiple stresses, such as drought and
Research Institute suggest that climate flood, in the same season. This is extremely
change will lower global rice production important for rainfed lowland areas where
in 2050 by 1214% relative to the 2000 the likelihood of both flood and drought
level. In terms of absolute change in rice occurring in the same season is expected to
Rice around the world 85
Fig. 6.6. Predicted occurrence and severity of bacterial blight in Asia during 2001-2010 in the
absence of disease control. The map is based on prevailing weather conditions in the primary
growing season as determined by the IRRI GIS laboratory.
Source: A. Sparks, IRRI.
be higher in the future with the changing countries in the region have attempted to
climate. minimize the market risk faced by farmers
Apart from planting stress-tolerant through various policy measures such as
varieties, Asian rice farmers need to modify subsidized inputs (fertilizer, seed, fuel,
their management practices to counter the pesticide, machinery, etc.) and a guaranteed
negative effects of climate change. First price for paddy. The goal was to support
and foremost, water-saving technologies farm income and at the same time keep
such as alternate wetting and drying, land rice affordable for millions of urban poor.
leveling, improved tillage, bund preparation, To make domestic programs work, most
and direct seeding can make a significant Asian countries have tried to insulate the
difference in keeping plants standing in domestic market from global uncertainty
the face of water shortage and irregular through a slew of trade measures, including
rainfall. Similarly, farmers should be state trading, export bans, import bans,
educated on pest dynamics and the benefits import tariffs, export quotas, and others.
of diverse ecosystems to keep pests at a However, since the rice price crisis in 2007,
distance in order to minimize pesticide countries have renewed their efforts to
overuse. This cannot happen without the expand rice production by raising support
active participation of government agencies prices at a much faster rate than in the past.
that can make policy reforms to prevent For example, in India, the minimum support
excessive use of pesticides. price (the price at which the government
purchases crops from the farmers) for rice
Market distortions increased by 75% between 2007 and 2011,
Historically, rice production in Asia whereas it took from 1994 to 2006 for the
has been subjected to extensive market minimum support price to increase by a
distortions because of its strategic similar proportion (Fig. 6.7).
and political importance. For decades, The global rice market is smallonly
governments in the major rice-growing 6.9% of production in 2009and, in most
86 Rice almanac
Asian markets, trade is an afterthought food security and treat it very differently
when domestic need and an adequate buffer from other food commodities. Despite the
stock are achieved. However, the volume of economic boom in the region in the past
global rice trade increased by 150% between three decades and the rise in income and
1990 and 2010 after remaining stagnant prosperity, rice consumption remains strong
for three decades, on the back of trade across countries with some diversification
liberalization by many countries in the late away from rice in a few countries. Overall,
1980s and the General Agreement on Tariffs rice consumption in Asia is projected to rise
and Trade in 1994. in the next two decades even with declining
The recent rice price crisis in 2007 has population growth and increasing food
forced many rice-growing countries to take diversification in some Asian countries.
measures to achieve food security through The future growth of rice supplies,
self-sufficiency and move away from their however, seems to be on shaky ground,
dependence on foreign rice, a trend that will with several emerging uncertainties,
depress rice trade in the future. Exporters including a possible rice area decline, a
such as Pakistan, Thailand, and Vietnam further slowdown in productivity growth,
would cut back on their production to reduce and climate change. Most experts predict
the exportable surplus and use their land for that the area under rice in Asia is likely to
planting other profitable crops. A smaller fall because of population pressure, water
market will lead to greater price volatility, shortage, and competition from other
with a rapid rise in rice prices in years of crops. In addition, the ongoing structural
low production and vice versa. This will transformation of Asian agriculture with
particularly affect the food security of poor aging farmers and out-migration of rural
countries that cannot afford to buy rice at youth may also influence rice farming.
higher prices from the international market. Ultimately, the onus falls on policymakers
to adequately fund agricultural research and
Toward a food-secure Asia on scientists to develop technologies that
Rice continues to remain a political are climate-proof and that enable farmers
commodity in Asia. Countries in the region to grow more with less inputs and a smaller
are still extremely concerned about rice environmental footprint.
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
2
2
-8
-8
-8
-8
-9
-9
-9
-9
-9
00
-0
-0
-0
-0
-1
-1
81
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
01
03
05
07
09
11
-2
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
99
20
20
20
20
20
20
19
Years
Fig. 6.7. Indian paddy minimum support price (common varieties).
Data source: Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, India.
88 Rice almanac
convenience foods is increasing. Most Geographical features of rice
countries do not rely on rice imports to cultivation in Latin America
meet domestic needs. In 2010, 3.7% of the More than two-thirds of Latin Americas
worlds rice production and 3.5% of the arable lands are in lowland ecosystems. Rice
cultivated area were in LAC. From 1966 to is well adapted to the wet soils common in
2008, rice production increased from 9.8 lowlands. Opportunities exist for lowland
million t to 26.2 million t. In the mid-1990s, rice expansion in the vast wetlands of
6.7 million ha in Latin America were under Brazil (with a potential of 24 million ha),
rice. Of these, 3.1 million ha were upland, the Andean countries (Bolivia, Ecuador,
1.1 million ha rainfed lowland rice, and 2.5 Peru, and Venezuela), the River Plate
million ha irrigated rice. Basin (Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay),
About one million farmers in the Guyana, and Central America.
region depend on rice as their main source Another ecosystem with potential is
of energy, employment, and income. Of the high-rainfall savannas, with aerobic
these, about 0.8 million are resource-poor upland acid soils, found in Bolivia,
smallholders, planting less than 3 ha. They Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, and
cultivate rice manually, producing only 6% Venezuela. Rice is more tolerant of acidity
of the total rice output in LAC. The other 0.2 than are other grain crops. New technologies
million rice growers produce 94% of the rice (more input-responsive rice varieties) and
on larger (1550 ha on average) mechanized production systems (upland rice-pasture
farms. cultivation) can encourage the establishment
of improved pastures and relieve pressure
for food production from more fragile
environments.
After heavy rains, drainage channels carry water away from rice fields outside of Vergara, Uruguay,
near the Brazilian border.
90 Rice almanac
Rice in West Africa
Revolutionary change in the preferences 1990s. Accounting for population growth,
of West African consumers has created this suggests that total rice consumption
a wide and growing imbalance between increased at nearly 6% per year during
regional rice supply and demand. The major 2006-10.
trends in consumption, production, and The most important factor contributing
imports of rice are illustrated in Table 6.1. to the shift in consumer preferences away
Since 1973, regional demand has grown from traditional staples and toward rice is
at 6.0% annually, driven by a combination rapid urbanization and associated changes
of population growth (2.9% growth rate) in family occupational structure. As women
and substitution away from the regions enter the work force, the opportunity cost
traditional coarse grains. The consumption of their time increases and convenience
of traditional cereals, mainly sorghum and foods such as rice, which can be prepared
millet, has fallen by 12 kg per capita, and more quickly, rise in importance. Similarly,
their share in cereals used as food from 62% as men work at greater distances from
in the early 1970s to 50% in the early 1990s. their homes in the urban setting, a greater
In contrast, the share of rice in cereals proportion of meals is consumed from the
consumed grew from 15% to 25% over market, where the ease of rice preparation
the same period, and from 12% to 18% in has given it a distinct advantage.
calorie terms from the 1960s to the end These trends have meant that rice is
of the 1990s. Much of this dramatic shift no longer a luxury food, but has become a
occurred in the late 1970s and 1980s. Per major source of calories for the urban poor.
capita rice consumption has been increasing Urban consumption surveys in Burkina
at more than 3% annually since the late Faso, for example, have found that the
Table 6.1. West Africas major trends in consumption, production, and imports of rice.
Indicator 1973 1983 2000 2010
Yield (t/ha) 1.24 1.46 1.7 1.80
Production (million t) 2.3 3.5 7.1 11.0
Import quantity (million t) 0.6 1.8 2.3 5.8
Import value (US$ million) 151 567 565 2,433
Food consumption quantity
(million t) 1.9 3.8 7.3 10.3
92 Rice almanac
An upland rice farmer in Benin harvests a NERICA variety introduced by the Africa Rice Center.
94 Rice almanac
they benefit from regular deposits of silt rainfall, areas under these ecosystems have
left during annual flooding. However, the probably declined during the last 20 years.
soils are also characterized by high salinity The estimated area under deepwater rice
and sulfate acidity. Lower rainfall during in West Africa at the end of the 1990s was
the last two decades has reduced seasonal 373,000 ha, or 8% of the rice-growing area,
flushing substantially, further accentuating producing 5% of production at an average
both problems. Although West Africa has yield of 1.0 t/ha.
approximately 1 million ha of potentially The major zones of production are
cultivable mangrove swamps, the high located along the Niger valley around
labor costs associated with clearing and Mopti in Mali and Birnin Kebbi in Nigeria,
potentially negative environmental effects and in northern Guinea. Deepwater rice
pose major constraints to further area ecosystems can be defined as those where
expansion. flooding achieves a depth of from 60 to 100
cm, and floating rice systems as those where
The deepwater/floating rice flooding exceeds 100 cm. These production
environments systems are among the least developed in
Deepwater and floating rices represent West Africa, with very little use of fertilizer
a large but increasingly marginalized or mechanization and dominated by the use
production system for which area and of Oryza glaberrima and tall traditional
production figures are generally poor O. sativa cultivars. As a result, yields are
and vary widely. Estimates of sown area among the lowest in the region, and highly
in the mid-1970s varied from 187,000 to variable across sites and years. Research
630,000 ha. It is generally believed that, to improve these systems has made little
with the control of river flooding because progress.
of the construction of dams and with lower
Enormous potential exists to expand rice production in the inland-valley lowlands of West Africa.
96 Rice almanac
Transplanting time in Burundi.
98 Rice almanac
Canada, commercial production is mainly In California, where the rain-free
from leased lakes that are seeded; the environment and high latitude provide
leaseholder is given exclusive harvesting maximum solar radiation and low disease
rights and much of the harvesting is done pressure, farm yields average 89 t/ha.
using airboats. Wild rice is a recalcitrant In the humid southern rice environments,
seed and thus cannot be dried for storage. In disease (primarily blast and sheath blight),
Minnesota and Canada, shattering onto wet warm nights, cloudy days, and frequent
soils provides the seed for next years crop. thunderstorms at heading limit average
In California, wild rice planting seed must yields to about 6.5 t/ha.
be kept in bins saturated with water and
placed in cold storage over winter. Problems and opportunities
Although U.S. yields are high, several
Rice environments problems constrain production:
Rice production data show that rice in the In the humid subtropical climates of
U.S. is grown in three principal areas: the the Gulf Coast and Mississippi River
Grand Prairie and Mississippi River Delta Delta areas, diseases (particularly
of Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and blast and sheath blight) limit yields.
Missouri from 32 to 36N; the Gulf Coast Because all areas are direct-seeded,
of Florida, Louisiana, and Texas from 27 weeds and poor stand establishment
to 31N; and the Sacramento Valley of are significant problems. The number
California from 38 to 40N. The climate of weeds resistant to herbicides has
varies from semiarid California, with less greatly increased in the last 20 years,
than 50 mm of rainfall during the growing making weed control the number-one
season, to the humid subtropical Gulf production problem for most farmers.
Coast of Louisiana, Texas, and Florida, In the southern U.S., many share-
where rainfall may total 7001,000 mm. In crop arrangements are short term and
all these environments, rice is grown as a tenant farmers are reluctant to spend
single crop per year, but can be ratooned in capital for long-term improvements to
the warmest, southernmost regions of the productivity.
Gulf Coast states. Approximately 40% of An indirect production constraint
Texas and southwestern Louisiana rice area is embodied in concern about
is ratooned annually. All rice in the U.S. is agricultures role in environmental
irrigated and direct-seeded. In California, degradation. All U.S. agriculture now
pregerminated seed is sown into standing operates within a stringent and costly
water by aircraft. Southwestern Louisiana regulatory environment. One critical
is also wet-seeded. Dry seeding with a concern is maintaining high-quality
mechanized grain drill is the most common surface water and groundwater with
method of planting in the southern U.S. respect to potable water, the health of
Rice is grown on natural flatlands. aquatic organisms, and recreational
Nearly 100% of these flatlands in California uses.
and much of the southern U.S. have been In some areas, especially California,
further leveled by laser-directed machinery. degradation of air quality from
In rice monocrop systems, the land may burning rice straw is highly
be leveled to a slope of 0.02 to 0.05 m/100 regulated and rice straw disposal is a
m. In ricerow crop systems, grades of 0.1 production problem.
to 0.2 m/100 m are required for drainage Concerns are increasing about the
or irrigation of the rotation crop. Precision impact of rice production on global
leveling has greatly facilitated water warming and climate change through
management and is considered second only methane and nitrous oxide emissions
to the introduction of semidwarf varieties as and the potential regulatory impact.
contributing to increased rice yields. Rice research and extension are an
integral part of the U.S. Department of
Selected rice-producing
countries
Bangladesh
Notes:
For all country descriptions: GNI = gross national in-
come, PPP = purchasing power parity.
In all data tables, paddy refers to unmilled rice.
China
T
he Peoples Republic of China is northeastern and central China, 15%; (3)
the second-largest country in the the semiarid region, 22%; and (4) the arid
world by land area and is either the region, 31%.
third- or fourth-largest by total area after China is the most populous country
Russia, Canada, and the United States. It in the world. The 2010 population on the
has the longest land borders in the world, mainland was nearly 1.4 billion, with about
measuring 22,117 km from the mouth of the 53% living in rural areas. Three-fourths of
Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin. Marked the nations population is concentrated in the
by topographical variety and complexity, northern, northeastern, eastern, and south-
Chinas landmass is made up of mountains central areas, which make up only 44%
(33%), plateaus (26%), basins (19%), plains of the nations land area. The remaining
(12%), and hills (10%). one-fourth of the population is dispersed
Chinas climatic features include a in the southwestern and northwestern
pronounced monsoon climate with a hot parts. Because of an active family planning
summer and a cool winter, marked seasonal program, including some restrictions on
variations in precipitation, and a distinctive family size, annual population growth
continental climate with large annual slowed from 2.6% per annum in the late
temperature fluctuations. The climate types 1960s to just 0.5% per annum in 2005-10.
are so varied and complex that high rainfall, China is one of the fastest growing
cold waves, and typhoons are all important economies in the world; it has sustained a
climatic phenomena. China can be divided healthy average growth rate of about 10%
from the coastal areas to the northwest per annum for the past several years. Since
interior into four regions according to 2010, it ranks as the worlds second-largest
moisture regime: (1) the humid region economy after the United States. The three
105
most important sectors of the economy are important in some areas, especially in the
industry, services, and agriculture. China north. Although rice is still a large part of
also emerged as the largest exporter of goods peoples diets, its importance has declined
in the world. The countrys per capita GDP considerably in the past 15 years. The latest
(PPP) rose to US$7,568 in 2010 from a mere data available showed that rice consumption
US$1,504 (PPP) in 1995. per capita declined from 78 kg per year in
China is not only the worlds largest 1995 to 76.3 in 2009. Since 1995, the share
producer of rice but is also the principal of total calories obtained from rice fell from
source of other crops such as wheat, maize, 29.2% (809 grams per capita) to 26.2%
soybeans, groundnuts, cotton, and tobacco. It (794 grams per capita) in 2009. In terms of
is currently emerging as the largest producer protein, rice accounted for 19.1% of total
of a number of industrial and mineral protein intake in the late 1990s, but during
products such as cotton yarn, coal, crude oil, 2009 this share further declined to 15.7% at
and countless other consumer products such 14.7 grams per capita.
as footwear, toys, electronics, and clothing. China regularly imports and exports
rice each year. Imports exceeded exports
Recent developments in the in 1995 and 1996 but China has been a net
rice sector exporter since then. In 1998 and 1999, it
China is the worlds largest producer and was the worlds fourth-largest rice exporter,
consumer of rice in the global economy. It and its exports helped to stabilize world
accounts for 30% of total world production market rice prices in the face of a strong
and consumption. Except for Japan and the El Nio that severely disrupted production
Republic of Korea, rice yields in China are in Indonesia and the Philippines. However,
the highest in Asia (about 6.5 t/ha in the last exports became erratic but declining
34 years), due in part to favorable growing starting in 2000 until 2004 and 2005 when
conditions and the widespread adoption of exports and imports were almost equal.
hybrids. China is second to India in total China became a net exporter again in 2006
rice area. Rice area harvested has continued but, in 2010, at a much smaller amount at
to decline from its peak of 37 million ha 615,900 t. Rice importing is through the
in the mid-1970s to just over 31 million state-owned enterprise China National
ha in 1995 to about 30 million ha in 2010. Cereals, Oils and Foodstuffs Corporation
The decline in area has been due to both (COFCO). China usually exports rice of
economic reforms that reduced government medium to low quality. COFCO manages
requirements to grow rice and economic the countrys rice exports and has a
development that increased the opportunity monopoly on rice imports as well. The
cost of land. In recent years, much of the trading companies are granted 50% of the
decrease in rice area has occurred in coastal rice permits. The in-quota tariff is 1% and
provinces such as Guangdong and Zhejiang. the out-quota tariff is 65%. For rice imports,
Hunan is the largest rice-producing province, a majority are Thai fragrant rice varieties
and most rice production is in the Yangtze consumed in high-end hotels or restaurants
River Valley (or farther south) where ample located in well-off coastal cities.
supplies of water are available. However, rice China has implemented a series of
production in northern China has increased programs to promote rice productivity and
substantially in recent years, with its share of it imposes trade restrictions and policies
national production doubling from 7.5% in aimed at raising farmers income while
1995 to 15% in 2009. Much of this increase managing the food demand of its growing
has come from Heilongjiang and the other population. Since 2004, China has begun to
two northeastern provinces of Jilin and subsidize and remove taxes on agriculture.
Liaoning, but production has also expanded To encourage production, the Chinese
noticeably in Henan and Shandong. government introduced a machinery
Rice is the staple food of two-thirds of subsidy, which is monetary assistance
Chinas population. However, wheat is more granted by the government to a farmer for
China 107
Narrow genetic background. The low Water shortages in the north are another
genetic diversity in commercially grown rice important production constraint. Although
cultivars has led to vulnerability to biotic northern China has only 24% of the nations
stresses (pests and diseases) and abiotic water resources, it contains more than
stresses (such as drought and salinity). 65% of Chinas cultivated land. Although
The situation is particularly troublesome water shortages constrain production in
in China because 50% of the rice-planting some areas, flooding is a problem. Land
area is occupied by hybrid rice, which is salinization and soil erosion also pose
developed using only a few varieties as the challenges for continued development.
female parent. The population is still growing, but
Overfertilization. In 2002, the average increased labor demand in urban areas is
rate of nitrogen (N) fertilizer application drawing many people out of agricultural
for rice production in China was 180 kg/ha, production and hurting yields. As a result,
about 75% higher than the world average. labor-saving technologies such as direct
Only 2030% of this N is taken up by the seeding (or seedling throwing) are becoming
rice plant, with a large proportion lost to the more common. Future trade liberalization
environment. In some cases, overapplication under the WTO may also affect grain
of N fertilizer may actually decrease grain production, especially for wheat and maize,
yield by increasing the plants susceptibility because domestic prices for these grains are
to lodging (falling over) and damage from substantially above world prices. For rice,
pests and diseases. however, domestic prices are approximately
Overuse of pesticides. On average, equal to world prices, and no large influx of
Chinese rice farmerswho tend to grossly imports is anticipated.
overestimate crop losses caused by pests
are overusing pesticides by more than 40%. Production opportunities
In many cases, overuse of pesticides actually Chinese scientists recently became the first
contributes to pest outbreaks because it in the world to prepare a draft sequence of
reduces the biodiversity of rice ecosystems, the genome for the indica race of rice. Indica
killing natural predators of pests as well as rice is by far the most widely planted in
the pests themselves. Asia, and this achievement has the potential
Breakdown of irrigation infrastructure. to create many benefits for Asian producers
Chinas irrigation infrastructure was and consumers of rice.
established mainly in the 1970s. Since then, In seeking to alleviate the main
maintenance of existing irrigation systems constraints of land and water, Chinese
and building of new facilities have been very scientists have also made substantial
limited. Coupled with declining freshwater progress in improving yields and water
resources, this problem may greatly reduce productivity. China has developed the
the area planted to flood-irrigated rice in most successful varieties of hybrid rice
China. in the world, and more than one-third of
Oversimplified crop management. the total rice area is planted to hybrids.
Because of labor migration and increases in More recently, scientists have developed
labor wages, decreased labor input for rice irrigation techniques for rice that reduce
production has resulted in compromised water consumption by allowing intermittent
crop management that may contribute to drying of the paddy field, without sacrificing
lower yields. grain yields. The successful adaptation
Weak extension system. Because of aerobic rice (rice that is grown as an
of insufficient financial support, many upland crop but still exhibits a substantial
extension workers earn part of their salary response to nitrogen fertilizer) to new
by selling agrochemicals to farmers, which areas would also allow rice to be grown in
may promote the overuse of fertilizers and water-short environments. In the future,
pesticides. Furthermore, the weakness of the the construction of canals from southern to
system means that improved technologies northern China may also help to alleviate
may not reach farmers. water shortages in the Yellow River Basin.
China 109
Production (million t), area (million ha) Yield (t/ha)
240 8
210 Production 7
Yield
180 6
150 5
120 4
90 3
60 2
Area
30 1
0 0
00
20 2
03
20 4
20 5
20 6
20 8
09
19 0
19 2
93
95
96
19 8
20 9
94
01
91
07
97
0
0
0
0
9
9
9
20
20
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
Year
3
Exports
Imports
0
00
20 2
20 3
04
20 5
20 6
20 8
09
19 0
92
19 3
95
96
19 8
99
94
20 1
91
20 7
97
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
20
20
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
I
ndia, in South Asia, has a land area of Assam and the west coast of India
of 3,287,590 km. It measures 3,214 lying at the foot of the Western Ghats and
km from north to south between the extending from the north of Mumbai (earlier
extreme latitudes and 2,933 km from east Bombay) to Thiruvanthapuram (earlier
to west between the extreme longitudes. Trivandrum) are areas of high rainfall. The
It has a land frontier of about 15,200 km. Rajasthan desert extending westward to
The mainland comprises four regions: the Gilgit is a region of low precipitation. In
great mountain zone, plains of the Ganges between are two areas of moderately high
and the Indus rivers, the desert region, and and low rainfall, respectively. The area
the southern peninsula. On its northern of high rainfall is a broad belt in the part
frontiers, India is bounded by the Great of the peninsula merging northward with
Himalayas, which are three almost parallel the Indian plains and southward with the
ranges interspersed with large plateaus and coastal plains. The low-rainfall area is a belt
valleys, such as the Kashmir and Kullu extending from the Punjab plains across the
valleys, that are very fertile. Vindhya Mountains into the western part of
The climate of India can be described the Deccan region, widening considerably in
as tropical monsoon. There are four seasons: the Mysore plateau.
winter (December-February), summer India is the worlds second-largest rice
(March-May), rainy southwestern monsoon producer and second most populous nation,
(June-September), and postmonsoon, also with a population in 2010 of more than 1.2
known as northeastern monsoon, in the billion, which grew at 1.4% per year from
southern peninsula (October-November). 2005 to 2010. The rural population in 2010
111
was above 0.8 billion, a 70% share of the caused production to fall but still be higher
total population. than in 1995.
Indias economy is developing into an With the support of state governments,
open market economy. The service sector India has embarked on various rice
accounts for more than half of the countrys development schemes such as the Special
output. The country has become a major Rice Development Program (SRPP) and
exporter of information technology services National Food Security Mission (NFSM)
and software workers. The other two key Promotion of Hybrid Rice. The Indian
sectors of the economy are industry and government carries out domestic price
agriculture. Traditional village farming, support, procurement, and the distribution
modern agriculture, handicrafts, extensive program in rice.
modern industries, and an assortment of The Indian government implemented
services make up Indias diverse economy. several policies to boost rice production.
Although agriculture contributes only Numerous subsidies, ranging from fertilizer
18% of the countrys GDP, it provided to irrigation, electricity, seeds, machinery,
employment to more than half (51%) of the and food, are available. The government
active labor force in the country in 2010. subsidizes agricultural inputs to keep
The service sector engaged 27%, while farm costs low and increase production.
industry had a 22% share of the workforce Irrigation and electricity are supplied
during the same period. directly to farmers at below production
costs. The subsidy rate for pump sets,
Recent developments in the seed drills, rotavators, knapsack sprayers,
rice sector power weeders, and transplanters is 50%.
Rice is the staple food for more than half Power tillers are distributed at 25% subsidy
of the total population and hence a key to a maximum of $989. In April 2010, a
pillar for food security. It comprised 42% new nutrient-based subsidy scheme was
of total food grain production in 2008-09. implemented in which farmers are given
Food grains include cereals such as rice, incentives to use a better mix of nutrients.
wheat, sorghum, pearl millet, and maize It provided a subsidy on nutrient nitrogen
as well as pulses. Important commercial (N), phosphorus (P), potash (K), and
crops are cotton, jute, sugarcane, and sulfur (S) contents for 2010-11. There is
tobacco. Average annual rice consumption also an additional subsidy on fertilizers
has declined since the late 1990s and early carrying other secondary nutrients and
2000s, a period of moderate economic micronutrients. Around 120 million farmers
growth. This is one of the reasons India is rely on this fertilizer subsidy. Since 2005-
able to maintain self-sufficiency in rice in 06, Indias Ministry of Agriculture has
spite of slowing growth in production. Rice been implementing the Production and
consumption per capita decreased from 74.5 Distribution of Quality Seeds Scheme with
kg per year in 1995 to 68.2 kg per year in the target of ensuring timely availability of
2009. Caloric consumption per capita from quality seeds of various crops at affordable
rice declined from 32.5% (739 kcal per day) prices. Under the NFSM scheme, rice
in 1995 to 29.1% (676 kcal) per day in 2009. farmers are provided with a subsidy of 1,000
Similarly, per capita protein intake from rice rupees per quintal or 50% of the cost of
declined slightly from 24.8% (13.9 grams) seeds, whichever is less, for certified hybrid
per day in 1995 to 22.4% (12.7 grams) per seeds, and 500 rupees or 50% of the cost,
day in 2009. whichever is less, for seed distribution of
Rice production increased from about certified high-yielding varieties, and the
115.4 million t in 1995 to nearly 144 million full cost of seed minikits for high-yielding
t in 2010. The highest amount of rice varieties.
production was in 2008, 148.8 million t. Through the Food Corporation of
However, monsoon problems and a slight India (FCI), the government implements
contraction in rice area the following year price policy through procurement and
india 113
Indian rice farmers pause along the road in Odisha state.
140 Production
7
120 6
100 5
80 Yield
4
60 3
40 2
20 Area 1
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
6,000
5,000
4,000
Exports
3,000
2,000
1,000
Imports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
india 115
Indonesia
a
T
he Indonesian archipelago covers the countrys population growth rate to
about 2,000 km from north to south drop to less than 1% by 2015. The mean
and 5,000 km from east to west. There population density of Indonesia was 121
are more than 13,000 islands, including five per km in 2010. Java, where nearly 60%
of the worlds largest: Sumatra, Kalimantan of the population lives, is the most densely
(the Indonesian part of Borneo), Irian Jaya populated island in the world. The share of
(western New Guinea), Sulawesi (Celebes), the population in urban areas has grown to
and Java. 53.7%.
Most of Indonesia has a moist tropical Indonesias economy had a huge
climate, with abundant rain and high turnaround, from a negative GDP growth
temperatures. Annual rainfall ranges from of 13% and high unemployment rate of
1,000 to more than 5,000 mm, with more 1520% in the aftermath of the 1997-98
than 90% of the country receiving an financial crises to a real growth of 6.3%
average rainfall of more than 1,500 mm. in 2007, and 6.5% growth in 2010. The
December through March are the months industrial sector has the largest contribution
with the highest rainfall. to GDP, 47%; the service sector makes up
Indonesia is the worlds fourth most 38%; and the agricultural sector 15%.
populous country with almost 240 million Indonesia is now a member of the G-20
people in 2010. Because of rapid economic economies.1 As a G-20 member, Indonesia
growth and a continuing active family
planning program, population growth 1
The G-20 is a group formed in 1999 to allow developing na-
declined from 1.47% per annum during the tions more voice in shaping the global economy. This group of
late 1990s to 1.02% per annum between countries represents 90% of the worlds economy. Its members
2005 and 2010. The United Nations forecasts are 8 leading industrialized countries (G-8)the United States,
Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Canada, and
Indonesia 117
when prices drop below specific levels. signaling an El Nio event, rice production
BULOG is in charge of carrying domestic suffers a serious shortfall, with most of the
purchases of rough rice and milled rice. It is effects coming from a reduction in rice area
also in charge of distributing subsidized rice planted (as opposed to lower yields). The
for poor and vulnerable people and retaining reduction in area occurs even in systems
and managing the national rice reserve that are usually irrigated, as lower rainfall
stock. BULOG procures around 7% of rice leads to a reduced availability of irrigation
production and sells this at a subsidized rate. water.
In upland rice areas, erosion is a serious
Rice environments problem because on steep slopes the fields
Rice is grown by approximately 77% of all are neither bunded nor terraced. This can
farmers in the country (25.9 million) under cause serious sedimentation problems in
predominantly subsistence conditions. The lowland irrigation systems. Alley cropping
average farm size is less than 1 ha, with as well as terracing have been introduced
the majority of the farmers cultivating in some areas to reduce these problems.
landholdings of 0.10.5 ha. Rice production Upland soils are also more weathered and
is heavily concentrated on the islands of leached, leading to problems of aluminum
Java and Sumatra; nearly 60% of total toxicity and phosphorus deficiency that
production emanates from Java alone. Rice combine to reduce yields. Soil acidity is
is cultivated in both lowlands and uplands serious in tidal swamps because of acid-
throughout Indonesia, with the upland crop sulfate soils. These are accompanied by
typically being rainfed and receiving only iron toxicity as well as some deficiencies of
low amounts of fertilizer. Irrigated lowland phosphorus and micronutrients.
rice is both well watered and heavily Other constraints to rice production are:
fertilized. According to the Ministry of Annual loss of paddy land due to
Public Works, approximately 84% of the land conversion to nonagricultural
total rice area in Indonesia in 2012 was use (commercial, industrial, urban),
irrigated while the remaining 16% relied estimated at about 100,000 ha per
on rainfall. Rice is grown year-round, with year.
some farmers being able to grow three crops Greater population pressure on
a year, but it is common to grow two rice every available hectare in the major
crops a year. rice-growing areas and decreasing
Five new rice varieties were released average farm size due to traditional
in Indonesia in the late 2000s: Hipa-5 Ceva inheritance practices.
Hybrid, Inpago 4, Aek Sibundong, Hipa 12 Low budget for irrigation
SBU Hybrid, and Inpara 4. These varieties infrastructure development and
have high yield potential and/or improved repair, both centrally and provincially.
resistance to pests and diseases. Inadequate capital for poor farmers.
Data from the International Fertilizer Slow varietal replacement and slow
Industry Association (IFA) reveal that the uptake of high-yielding varieties.
countrys fertilizer consumption increased Inadequate number of highly
enormously from 0.14 million t in 1961 to qualified and educated crop
4.47 million t in 2009. FAO recorded that extension and pest management
about 52% of all fertilizer use in Indonesia officers, and lack of performance
is for rice. incentives for government personnel
who implement major agricultural
Production constraints programs.
Indonesia is particularly vulnerable to Yield growth slowed by about 0.5%
the vagaries of the El Nio Southern per year between 1990 and 2010 and this is
Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon. In years causing great concern. Likewise, growth
when surface-water temperatures rise in rice area weakened from 2% per year in
substantially in the western Pacific Ocean, 1960-98 to less than a 0.1% increase per year
Simultaneous soil tilling and transplanting in a central Java lowland rice field.
Indonesia 119
Production (million t) and area (million ha) Yield (t/ha)
70 8
Production 7
60
6
50
5
40
Yield 4
30
3
20 2
10
Area 1
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
4,000
3,000
2,000 Imports
1,000
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
Rice Rice
42.9 39.6
50.7 47.6 Wheat Wheat
Maize Maize
Other crops 6.8 Other crops
7.0
5.8 5.7 10.9
9.8 Meat 10.1 Meat
9.0 Other animal Other animal
16.0
18.8
30.8 products 6.6 products
29.3 5.9
2.3 3.8 15.3 20.1
2.3 2.9
1995 2009 1995 2009
B
angladesh lies in northeastern South total annual rainfall, which varies from
Asia with a land mass of 144,000 1,200 to 2,500 mm. Maximum rainfall is
km. The country is bounded by recorded in the coastal areas and in the
India on the west, north, and northeast; by northern Sylhet and Mymensingh districts,
Myanmar on the southeast; and by the Bay adjacent to Assam and Meghalaya, India.
of Bengal on the south. Minimum rainfall is observed in the
Except for the hilly regions in the districts of Jessore, Kushtia, and Rajshahi in
southeast and some in the northeast, and the western parts of the country.
patches of highlands in the central and Bangladesh is among the most populous
northwest regions, Bangladesh consists countries in the world. The population in
of low, flat, fertile land. About 230 rivers 2010 was 148.7 million, nearly half of which
and their tributaries, with a total length was in rural areas. Agriculture covers 70%
of 24,140 km, flow across the country of the countrys land area.
down to the Bay of Bengal. The alluvial Bangladesh has a rapidly developing
soil is continuously enriched by heavy silt market-based economy, which has grown
deposited by the rivers through frequent at 67% per annum over the past few years.
flooding during the rainy season. The service sector generated more than half
The country enjoys a subtropical of the countrys GDP, while nearly half of
monsoon climate. Summer, monsoon, and the people are engaged in the agricultural
winter are the most prominent of six distinct sector. Foreign exchange earnings come
seasons. Winter, which is pleasant, extends from remittances from overseas workers
from November to February, with minimum (mainly in the Middle East) and exports
temperature ranging from 7 to 13 C; in of garments and textiles. Shipbuilding and
121
cane cultivation also contribute significantly was disbursed for subsidy assistance. The
to growth. Sound fiscal policies further government provided cash subsidies to
encourage GDP growth. The per capita GDP small and marginal farmers through an
(PPP) more than doubled, from $675 in 1995 input distribution card that could be used to
to $1,652, in 2010. obtain cash subsidies for electricity and fuel
The main produce is rice, along with for irrigation, fertilizer, and other forms of
jute, fish, fruits, and vegetables. Wheat government support.
production has increased in recent years. The government has attempted to
The poultry industry is expanding and has stabilize rice prices through open market
encouraged maize production. Other goods sales since 2004. This was established when
produced in the country are textiles, leather the cost of food in Bangladesh began to
and leather goods, ceramics, and ready- increase sharply as a result of global price
made garments. increases. This allowed people to buy rice at
reduced prices from thousands of centers in
Recent developments in the district towns and union-level dealers across
rice sector the country.
Bangladesh is the fourth-largest rice
producer. In spite of the decline in the Rice environments
countrys arable land since its independence The major rice ecosystems in Bangladesh
in 1971, the rice area harvested increased are upland (direct-seeded premonsoon
from almost 10 million ha in 1995 to aus), irrigated (mainly dry-season boro),
nearly 12 million ha in 2010. Rice yield rainfed lowland (mostly monsoon-season
also improved in the last decade, from a transplanted aman, 050 cm), medium-deep
low of 2.7 t/ha in 1995 to almost 4.3 t/ha stagnant water (50100 cm), deepwater
in 2010. These increases in rice yield and (>100 cm), tidal saline, and tidal nonsaline.
area harvested contributed to growth in rice Bangladesh receives about 400 mm of rain
production, which nearly doubled from over during the premonsoon months of March to
26 million t in 1995 to 50 million t in 2010. May, which enable farmers to grow a short-
Rice is the staple food of Bangladeshs duration drought-resistant crop.
149 million people. Average annual milled Rice area in Bangladesh expanded
rice consumption was 173.3 kg in 2009. The slightly during 2001-10; however, rice area
daily per capita calorie intake from rice has under irrigation increased from about 30%
been falling, from 74.8% of total calories in to 73% from 1995 to 2008. During the same
1995 to 69.6% in 2009. Rices contribution period, its share under modern varieties
to per capita protein intake also fell, from also increased from 52% to almost 80%.
65.3% to 56.2%, in the same period. Two flash-flood-resistant varieties, BRRI
Bangladesh has been increasing rice dhan51 (Swarna-Sub1) and BRRI dhan52
production over many years and is now (BR11-Sub-1) for submergence-prone
relatively self-sufficient in rice production. areas; and an early-maturing variety, BINA
The countrys rice imports declined from Dhan7, were released. BRRI dhan51 was
about 1 million t in 1995 to a mere 0.017 developed in 2004 when IRRI scientists
million t in 2009 but increased to 0.66 implanted a submergence resistance gene in
million t in 2010. Exports of rice began a popular high-yielding Indian rice variety.
in the 2000s. Some rice is still imported, This variety has become very popular in
however, mainly to control domestic prices. submergence-prone areas in the country.
Major rice policies have been implemented The high-yielding rice variety BINA Dhan7
by the government to increase production can be harvested a month earlier than other
and to reduce imports. Subsidy support rice varieties and, hence, can avoid drought
for rice producers is provided on different stress. This variety has high quality so it can
agricultural inputs to keep their price within command higher grain prices. Farmers can
the purchasing capacity of the rice farmers. also get a better price for rice straw because
In 2010, the equivalent of $712 million
Bangladesh 123
Sun drying of rice in Jessore.
50 5
Production
40 4
30 Yield 3
20 2
10 1
Area
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
2,000
1,500
Imports
1,000
500
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
Rice Rice
Wheat 56.2 Wheat
74.8 Maize 65.3 Maize
69.6
Other crops Other crops
Meat 6.9 Meat
Other animal 3.6 Other animal
5.5 10.9
3.2 products 0.0 17.0 products
8.0 11.3
0.0 17.7 2.8
14.1 2.9
0.7 2.4 0.7 3.3 9.6 13.5
1995 2009 1995 2009
Bangladesh 125
Vietnam
m
V
ietnam is located along the eastern of 263 people per km. The population grew
margin of the Indochina peninsula at 1.1% per year during 2005-10. Seventy
in Southeast Asia, covering an area percent of the population lives in rural
of 331,051 km. It is bounded by Cambodia, areas, mainly in the two rice-growing deltas:
Laos, China, and the South China Sea. the Red River Delta in the north and the
Over 30% of the country is forested Mekong River Delta in the south. The Red
and about 17% is cultivated for seasonal River Deltas population density
crops, with another 5% under permanent (939/km) was higher than that of the
crops. Climate varies from humid tropical Mekong River Deltas (426/km) and
in the southern lowlands to temperate in elsewhere. The countrys total labor force
the northern highlands. There are two was above 47 million, with more than half
monsoon seasons: the northeastern winter engaged in agriculture.
monsoon and the southwestern summer The economy continues to improve,
monsoon. Destructive typhoons sometimes although agricultures share of economic
develop over the South China Sea during output (GDP) dropped from about 25% in
hot weather. Mean annual sea level 2000 to almost 21% in 2010, as the share of
temperatures range from 27 C in the south the industrial sector surged to 41% and the
to 21 C in the extreme north. service sector to 38% of GDP in the same
Mean annual rainfall ranges from period.
1,300 to 2,300 mm. Rainfall is usually The countrys primary produce is rice,
evenly distributed through June to October coffee, rubber, cotton, tea, pepper, soybeans,
or November. In the Mekong Delta, the cashews, sugarcane, peanuts, bananas, fish,
summer monsoon brings 56 months of seafood, and poultry.
vietnam 127
Planting missing hills in the Mekong Delta.
practicing very intensive double-crop rice High inflation rate (about 11%), which
cultivation. increases input costs.
Small landholdings, which restrict
Rice production constraints farmers ability to produce rice for
Rice production in Vietnam faces the export.
following constraints:
Shrinkage in rice area for rice Rice production opportunities
cultivation due to land conversion to In spite of these production constraints,
commercial lands, which will result there are great opportunities to overcome
in a decrease in total rice production. them. For instance, increased development
Inadequate credit facilities, which and deployment of high-yielding varieties
limit farmers input use due to can offset the decline in rice area due to
insufficient capital. urbanization; improved crop management
Limited access to inputs. technologies can possibly avert soil
Inadequate water during summer- degradation.
autumn seasons.
Soil degradation brought about by a
long-term high cropping intensity,
which could deplete soil fertility.
40
Production 6
35
5
30
25 4
Yield
20 3
15
2
10 Area
1
5
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
6,000
5,000
Exports
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
Imports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
vietnam 129
Myanmar
r
M
yanmar is the largest country livelihood. Many of the remainder (23%) are
of Southeast Asias mainland. It engaged in the services sector.
has a common boundary with Myanmar is a resource-rich country.
Bangladesh, India, China, Lao PDR, and Aside from rice, it produces beans, pulses,
Thailand. There are six distinct regions: the sesame, groundnuts, sugarcane, fish and
western, northern, and eastern mountain fish products, wood products, and garments.
ranges; the delta area of the Ayeyarwady It is endowed with natural gas, petroleum,
and Sittoung rivers; the coastal strips; and timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper,
the central plain or dry zone. The land area tungsten, lead, coal, marble, limestone, and
is about 66 million ha, of which only 11 precious stones.
million ha are under cultivation for annual
crops. There is a potential for reclamation of Recent developments in the
substantial arable land. rice sector
Generally, the country receives rain Myanmar is the worlds sixth-largest rice-
from the southwest monsoon, which producing country. Rice is the countrys
normally starts in May and ends in October. most important crop and is grown on
Being on the windward side, coastal strips over 8 million ha, or more than half of its
and deltaic regions receive heavy rains, from arable land. The countrys rice production
2,560 to 6,150 mm annually. The leeward increased from around 18 million t of milled
central plain or dry zone receives lower and rice in 1995 to over 22 million t in 2010.
erratic rainfall, 700 to 1,200 mm annually. Some area expansion and yield increase
Mean annual rainfall is 2,341 mm. accounted for the improved rice production.
Myanmar 131
Myanmar has the potential to become a major rice exporter.
the countrys simple storage facilities and areas. Better rice mills, storage facilities,
antiquated mills. As a result, rice farmers in and farm-to-market roads would ensure
Myanmar are getting only 30% of the export high-quality milled rice for export, a
price of rice received by their counterparts premium price, and lower transportation
in other Southeast Asian countries such as costs for farmers produce. These would
Vietnam for their better-quality rice. result in improved income for farmers,
giving them incentives to continue rice
Rice production opportunities farming.
Rice yield can be further improved with the The following set of interventions
use of more inputs, especially fertilizer. A would improve the countrys agricultural
provision of credit facilities would enable economy: (1) increase access to credit for
farmers to buy the inputs needed to achieve farmers, traders, and millers; (2) increase
higher yield/production. Adequate irrigation the farm-gate price of paddy in order to
facilities are required for a steady supply encourage farmers to produce more paddy;
of water, rather than depending solely on and (3) provide finance for small-scale
erratic rainfall in the central plain or dry village infrastructure projects to increase
demand for wage labor for the rural poor.
30 6
25 Production 5
20 4
15 Yield 3
10 2
Area
5 1
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
800
600
400
Exports
200
Imports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
Myanmar 133
Thailand
d
General information
GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 8,360 Production seasons
Internal renewable water resources, 2011: Planting Harvesting
224.5 km3/year
North and Central, May-Jul Nov-Dec
Incoming water flow, 2011: 214.1 km3/year major
Main food consumed, 2009: rice, fruits,
vegetables, sugar and sweeteners, meat, fish, North and Central, Dec-Jan May-Jun
minor
wheat, oil crops, starchy roots
Rice consumption, 2009: 133 kg milled rice South, major Sep-Nov Mar-May
per person per year South, minor Apr-May Aug-Sep
T
hailand is a peninsular country in Economic growth in nonagricultural
Southeast Asia sharing boundaries sectors over the past three decades
with Myanmar in the west, Laos and greatly reduced the relative importance
Cambodia in the northeast, and Malaysia of agriculture as a contributor to gross
in the south. The South China Sea touches domestic product (GDP) and export
the east coast, while the Indian Ocean earnings. However, agriculture remains
and Andaman Sea border the west coast. a significant economic activity in
Thailand has a land area of 51 million ha, rural Thailand. In spite of having an
of which one-third is cultivated for annual industrialized economy, 66% of the
crops and about 7% is under permanent population in Thailand is still rural. The
crops. countrys population was 69.1 million in
Four seasons are recognized: southwest 2010 and grew at 0.76% per year in 2005-10.
monsoon from May through September, The population density was 132 per km in
a transition period from the southwest to 2010.
the northeast monsoon during October, the The Thai economy is export dependent,
northeast monsoon from November through in which exportswhich include rice
February, and a premonsoon hot season account for more than half of GDP. Aside
during March and April. from rice, the countrys major agricultural
Temperatures in the Central Plain exports are tapioca, rubber, maize,
during the rainy season (May to November) pineapple, durian, longan, palm oil, and
average 27 C, with only 810 C between herbs. The leading manufactured exports
the daily minimum and maximum. There is are computers and computer accessories,
a brief cool period (December and January) integrated circuits, textiles, electronics,
with temperatures as low as 23 C in the automobiles and spare parts, gems and
northern highlands. jewelry, and televisions and television
Thailand 135
Northeastern region. The northeastern largest rice exporter, its rice sector faces the
region is also known as the Khorat plateau, following production constraints:
a saucer-shaped tableland situated at 90200 The major production constraints
meters above sea level. Almost one-third are rainfall variability, drought,
of the land area and nearly half the rice submergence, and inherently low soil
land of Thailand are located in this region; fertility. These constraints affect the
the average size of rice farms is smaller different rice ecosystems to varying
than in other regions. Irrigation potential degrees and imply that the production
in the region is limited due to undulating systems are very vulnerable to
topography. Moreover, soil erosion and climate change, which will exacerbate
drought during the dry season are acute. extreme climate events. Drought at
The water-holding capacity of the soil is the early vegetative phase and long-
extremely poor. The northeastern region term deep flooding from the late
produces both long-grain and glutinous rice. vegetative phase to early ripening
Central region. The central region is an phase and weed competition are the
intensively cultivated alluvial area. During most important production constraints
the rainy season, rice covers the major part in the deepwater ecosystem. Drought
of the region, which accounts for about and poor soil fertility affect upland
one-fifth of the total cultivated rice land of systems the most.
the country in the wet season. The average In irrigated ecosystems, production
farm size is large, and a large proportion constraints are generally not related
of the rice land has access to irrigation to climatic factors but to biotic factors
facilities, allowing many farmers to grow such as pests and diseases. Water
two rice crops during the year. Almost 75% scarcity in the dry season is another
of the dry-season rice grown under irrigated important constraint in irrigated
conditions is located in this region. Farm environments.
operations are almost entirely mechanized, Stagnating yield is both a short-term
and farmers adopt the direct-seeding method and long-term problem. Mean rice
of crop establishment to save labor. This yields nationally for the last 10 years
region produces mostly long-grain rice. The were almost constant, ranging from
main rice surplus comes from this region. 2.8 to 2.9 t/ha.
Northern region. The northern region Labor shortages during peak periods
contains almost one-third of the land area of because of better employment
Thailand. Upland rice is grown in the lower opportunities in urban areas are
altitudes of high hills and in upland areas. a further constraint, especially in
Lowland rice is grown mainly in lower the central region, where industrial
valleys and on some terraced fields where employment is higher. However,
water is available. The northern region this constraint is partly being solved
has about 20% of the total rice land in the through mechanization.
country.
Southern region. The southern region, Rice production opportunities
touching the west and east coasts of the The Rice Research Institute of the
peninsula, constitutes about 14% of the total Department of Agriculture is the major
area of the country. The region has only government institution directly involved
6% of the total rice land. The soil is acidic. in rice research, primarily in increasing
With limited rice fields under cultivation, productivity through continuous
there is always a shortage of rice for local development and deployment of high-quality
consumption. varieties with varying maturity periods
to suit different production conditions,
Rice production constraints acid-tolerant rice varieties, and varieties
Even though the country is still one of with added attributes such as disease and
the worlds largest rice producers and the pest tolerance, designed to improve rice
1
Adapted from NSTDA, Thailand Web site; 2007 irrigated data 2
The rice variety was IR53650, which was developed by the late
based on FAO Aquastat data. D. Senadhira (IRRI plant breeder), and the study was conducted
by Dong-Jin Kang and others.
Thailand 137
Production (million t) and area (million ha) Yield (t/ha)
35 3.5
Production
30 3.0
25 2.5
Yield
20 2.0
15 1.5
10 1.0
Area
5 0.5
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
10,000
8,000
Exports
6,000
4,000
2,000
Imports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
General information
GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 4,140 Production seasons
Internal renewable water resources, 2011: Planting Harvesting
479 km3/year
Wet, north May-Jul Oct-Dec
Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: rice, fruits, Dry, north Jan-Mar May-Jun
vegetables, fish, meat, starchy roots, wheat, Wet, south Oct-Dec Mar-May
sugar and sweeteners Dry, south May-Jun Nov-Dec
Rice consumption, 2009-10: 123.3 kg milled
rice per person per year
rains from November to January (eastern
Luzon, eastern Visayas, and northeastern
T
he Philippines is an archipelago of Mindanao), (3) dry from November to
some 7,107 islands located between February and wet the rest of the year
4 and 21 N latitude and 116 and (central Visayas, western Bicol, northern
127 E longitude. The country is bounded by Mindanao), and (4) more or less even
the South China Sea to the west, the Pacific rainfall distribution throughout the year
Ocean to the east, the Sulu and Celebes seas (central Mindanao).
to the south, and the Bashi Channel to the The population of the Philippines has
north. more than tripled since IRRI developed the
It is divided into three main geographic first high-yielding variety and released it in
areas: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. the mid-1960s. Back then, the population
The climate is tropical marine, which is was only 32.7 million. The countrys
mainly moderated by the surrounding population surpassed 93 million in 2010,
seas, with a November to April northeast with about 313 per km. The population
monsoon and a May to October southwest grew at 1.9% per year for 2005-10, which
monsoon. Climate varies within the country was lower than the 2.4% for 1985-95.
because of the mountainous topography. Urbanization has continued in recent years.
There are four general climatic types: The proportion of the urban population
(1) two pronounced seasons, dry from increased from 57% in 2000 to around 65%
November to April and wet the rest of the in 2010. Employment in the agricultural
year (Central Luzon, western Visayas), (2) sector accounts for 31% of the about 39
absence of a dry period, but with maximum million-person labor force.
139
Rice harvest in Banaue, Ifugao.
The Philippine economy is vastly way below the yield potential of modern
dependent on service and manufacturing. varieties.
The countrys most vital industries are Rice is a staple food for most Filipinos
food processing, textiles and garments, across the country. The nations per capita
electronics, and automobile parts. It also rice consumption rose from 93.2 kg per
has substantial reserves of chromite, nickel, year in 1995 to 123.3 kg per year in 2009.
copper, coal, and recently discovered oil. Similarly, per capita caloric intake from rice
The nations GDP rose from $2,056 in 1995 rose from 917 kcal per day in 1995 to 1,213
to $3,952 in 2010. About 13% of GDP is kcal per day in 2009. Protein requirements
contributed by the agricultural and fishery from rice, on average, increased from 29.7%
sector. in 1995 to 34.8% per person per day in
In addition to rice, the Philippines 2009.
produces other major crops such as The Philippines imports about 10% of
sugarcane, coconut, banana, pineapple, its annual consumption requirements. In
mango, coffee, maize, and cassava. 2010 and 2011, the country was the biggest
rice importer. Its rice imports amounted
Recent developments in the to 2.38 million t in 2010, mostly coming
rice sector from Vietnam and Thailand. Despite these
The Philippines is the worlds eighth- imports, rice prices for consumers are
largest rice producer. Its arable land totals some of the highest in developing Asia
5.4 million ha. Rice area harvested has (as are farm-gate prices for farmers). The
expanded from nearly 3.8 million ha in 1995 high prices are enforced through an import
to about 4.4 million ha in 2010. However, control by the National Food Authority
the countrys rice area harvested is still very (NFA), a government agency, which
small compared with that of the other major also procures paddy from farmers at a
rice-producing countries in Asia. More than government support price. The NFA is also
two-thirds (69%) of its rice area is irrigated. involved in rice distribution by selling rice
The countrys production increased by a through the agencys licensed and accredited
third, from 10.5 million t in 1995 to 15.8 retailers/wholesalers in strategic areas at a
million t in 2010. Seventy-one percent of predetermined price.
rice production came from irrigated areas. Although rice is the main staple in the
Although yield improved from 2.8 country, it is a highly political commodity.
t/ha in 1995 to 3.6 t/ha in 2010, it was still The Philippine rice sector has always been
Philippines 141
facilities are the major constraints to rice farmers from applying optimal fertilizer
production in the Philippines. Some of amounts to input-responsive high-yielding
these constraints are interrelated. Unabated varieties.
conversion of some agricultural land to
residential, commercial, and industrial land Rice production opportunities
reduces the area devoted to rice production, For the Philippines to become self-sufficient
which leads to a shortage in domestic in rice, it has to adopt existing technologies
supply. such as improved varieties and know-
Climate change and the vulnerability how to have yield increase by 13 t/ha.
of crop production to drought and heavy Better-quality seed combined with good
rainfall, especially during the typhoon management, including new postharvest
season, severely affect production. The technologies, is the best way to improve rice
Philippines bears the brunt of typhoons yields and the quality of production.
coming in from the Pacific Ocean. Since current rice yield is way
Successive heavy rains cause severe below the yield potential of most modern
drainage problems in paddy fields, thus varieties, improved fertilizer use and crop
resulting in a significant reduction in rice management, better irrigation facilities,
yield and quality. There is also concern and high-yielding varieties can boost the
about the deterioration of irrigation countrys rice output. The main source of
systems at least partially because of a additional rice production is improved yield
lack of funding for maintenance. Rainfed growth. However, the government must
lowland rice suffers from uncertain timing implement a strategy to reduce population
of the arrival of rains, and drought and growth since the actual volume of rice
submergenceoften in the same fields over produced by the country is not enough to
the course of a single season or in different match rice demand because of the high
fields within a farm over the same season. increase in population. If population growth
Weeds, drought, diseases (blast), acidic will be higher than the growth in yield, the
soils, and soil erosion are major problems country will continue to import rice from
of upland rice in the Philippines. The high other countries to meet domestic demand
cost of inputs, particularly fertilizer, hinders for rice in the coming years.
Production
16 4
Yield
12 3
8 2
4 1
Area
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
2,000
Imports
1,500
1,000
500
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
Philippines 143
Japan
n
T
he Japanese islands lie off the eastern the service sector; the industrial sector
coast of Asia, roughly in a crescent contributed 24.8% whereas agriculture
shape. The country consists of four contributed only 1.2%.
main islands with about 4,000 smaller ones.
The northern limit of rice cultivation is 44 Recent developments in the
N. Rice is grown up to 1,400 m altitude in rice sector
the central region of the main island. Japan continues to be self-sufficient in rice.
The climate is humid temperate and Rice remains important and is embedded in
oceanic with four distinct seasons. Rainfall Japanese culture. With the shift in peoples
during the rainy season in June and July diet, rice consumption has fallen since the
is indispensable to rice cultivation. The 1970s. Annual per capita rice consumption
temperature and solar radiation from April declined from 63 kg in 1995 to 54 kg in
to October are ideal for rice growing. 2009. Consequently, per capita caloric intake
The countrys population in 2010 was from rice fell from 23.1% (675 kcal) per day
nearly 127 million with a density of 337 per in 1995 to 21.3% (581 kcal) per day in 2009,
km. The agricultural population declined while the share of wheat rose slightly from
from about 29 million in 1960 to about 3 12.3% per day in 1995 to 14.2% per day in
million in 2010 due to diversification of the 2009. In parallel, per capita protein intake
economy and very slow population growth from rice declined from 12.3% per day in
during recent decades. The countrys 1995 to 11.5% per day in 2009, whereas
population grew at barely 0.02% per year in wheat accounted for 10.0% per day in 1995
2005-10. and 11.9% per day in 2009.
Japan has few natural resources; The small agricultural sector is
its industrial sector greatly depends on heavily subsidized and protected. The rice
imported raw materials and fuel. The sector is supported by high prices paid by
Japan 145
smaller farm size consider rice farming a In spite of substantial farm subsidies
part-time job. and price support provided by the
Japans northernmost island, Hokkaido, government, rice farming cannot compete
is the countrys leading rice producer. with other economic activities, and income
Also, the broad coastal plain of Shonai near from it is lower than from nonagricultural
the Sea of Japan has plenty of water and earnings. Despite mechanization, production
nutrient-rich soil and is considered to be one costs are many times higher than in tropical
of Japans most fertile granaries. Asia because of exorbitant land prices and
Improved varieties of japonica rice the high opportunity cost of farm labor.
are planted in most of the prefectures or
regions in the country. The popularity of Rice production opportunities
a rice variety in the country depends on Japanese rice research will also help solve
its taste. Hokkaidos Yumepirika variety problems in neighboring low-income rice-
and Niigatas Koshihikari are popularly growing countries of South and Southeast
known for their palatability and command a Asia, while regional research by IRRI and
premium price in the market. partners will benefit Japanese rice farming
also. Reducing production cost, increasing
Rice production constraints productivity through the application of
Japan has an aging population and very advanced technology, and multipurpose use
low population growth, which could result of rice fields in agriculture are important for
in labor shortages and will likely constrain sustaining rice cultivation in Japan.
future rice production. Many rice fields are Using rice as alternative flour in making
being abandoned after the owners die or bread and noodles can stimulate demand
become too old to cultivate them. With the for rice. The potential of rice as poultry and
changing level of education, rice farming livestock feed can also help increase the
is not attracting the younger generation. As demand for rice and hence more farmers
of April 2010, 23% of the population was would be encouraged to engage in rice
aged 65 or older. Projections made in 2006 farming. As a result, the country would
indicated that the population of 127 million maintain its self-sufficiency in rice and
would decline to 90 million by 2055, when attain food self-sufficiency as well. The
41% of the population would be 65 or older. government can export rice in excess of
Rice farmers are often also engaged domestic demand to other countries that
in nonagricultural employment due to the have a shortfall in rice production.
small size of landholdings used for rice The population projections suggest
farming. that the government may have to consider
Because of global warming, high immigration as a solution to unbalanced
summer temperature and erratic rainfall are worker-retiree ratios to augment the possible
reducing yields. Some farmers are trying labor shortages in coming years. Rice
heat-resistant varieties but their taste is farming would benefit from strategies to
significantly different. Some experts say that encourage working couples to have children.
it may take many years for consumers to
accept heat-resistant, high-yielding varieties.
Japan 147
Production (million t) and area (million ha) Yield (t/ha)
16 8
14 7
12 Yield 6
Production
10 5
8 4
6 3
4 2
Area
2 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 201
Year
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
Imports
500
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
12.3 11.5
23.1 21.3
Rice 10.0 11.9 Rice
Wheat 0.2 0.2 Wheat
12.3 14.2 19.7
3.3 2.7 Maize 19.9 Maize
Other crops Other crops
14.7 16.7
39.8 41.0 Meat Meat
Other animal Other animal
products 43.1 products
5.7 6.5 39.7
15.8 14.3
1995 2009 1995 2009
149
On average, Cambodias rice yield has the Mekong and Tonle-Basaac rivers and
increased at 5.4% per year since 1994, from their tributaries.
1.6 t/ha between 1994 and 1997 to 2.3
t/ha between 2003 and 2008; average yield Production constraints
in 2010 reached nearly 3 t/ha. This yield Reports from the Asia Foundation and the
increase has been largely attributed to United States Department of Agriculture
improvements in access to fertilizers and point to several constraints to rice
other inputs. The productivity of dry-season production growth in Cambodia:
crops is much higher than for those of the Extremely low production and
wet season, mainly due to the use of higher- availability of improved rice seed
yielding seeds and better water management compared with other Asian countries.
during the dry season. However, rice is Underuse and nonusage of arable
mainly produced during the wet season, land. Most Cambodian farmers
which accounts for more than 75% of the cultivate one paddy rice crop each
total paddy output per year. Dry-season year.
paddy cultivation remains an important The lack of a farm credit system
component of rice cultivation, particularly affects not only rice farmers but also
for consumers with a clear preference for the milling industry, resulting in low
dry-season varieties. use of fertilizer and uptake of farm
Cambodia became a rice-exporting mechanization, at both the production
country in the late 1990s, with a modest stage (planters, harvesters) and
export of 6,000 t in 2000, climbing to 51,000 processing stage (mills, grain dryers,
t in 2010. However, the country imports storage facilities).
more rice than it exports, between 30,000 t Poor transportation and related
and 80,000 t annually since 1995. infrastructure such as roads, railways,
and milling and handling equipment
Rice environments for the rice sector.
Rice in Cambodia is grown in four different A lack of good and effective
ecosystems: rainfed lowland, rainfed upland, agricultural crop extension programs,
deepwater, and irrigated. The rice area has primarily due to a lack of funding.
been expanding since the 1990s, from about This has resulted in a severe lack of
1.9 million ha in 1995 to 2.8 million ha in educated and experienced extension
2010. The proportion of rice area under officers, as well as insufficiency
irrigation increased from 15% in 2006 to of on-farm technology transfer
25% in 2010. and farming systems training and
The rainfed lowlands of Cambodia are assistance.
bunded fields that are almost completely Inadequate funding for scientific
dependent on local rainfall and runoff agricultural research. The govern-
for water supply. Rainfed lowland rice is ment relies almost totally on
cultivated in all provinces. The largest international donors for crop research.
concentration is around Tonle Sap, the
Tonle-Basaac River, and the Mekong River. Production opportunities
The rainfed uplands are unbunded fields Cambodia has sufficient land and water
that depend entirely on rainfall. They are resources to enhance productivity and
generally found scattered on rolling lands, increase rice production. Sufficient
some of which are mountainous forested investment in irrigation infrastructure can
areas. They form only a small proportion of further increase cropping intensity and crop
the total rice land in Cambodia. productivity. International donors could be
Deepwater rice is grown in low-lying tapped for irrigation development, in line
areas and depressions where maximum with the governments goal of becoming
water depth can reach more than 3 m. The self-sufficient in rice and a rice exporter.
floodwaters originate from Tonle Sap and
8 Production
3.0
7
2.5
6 Yield
5 2.0
4 1.5
3
1.0
2
Area
1 0.5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 201
Year
Cambodia 151
Imports and exports (000 t)
100
80
Imports
60
40
20
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Rice
Wheat
64.1 Maize
79.4
Other crops
Meat
1.1 Other animal
6.3
products
1.7 0.6 19.2
10.7
5.0 2.6 5.4
4.0
1995 2007
Rice
50.1 Wheat
70.1 Maize
Other crops
0.5 5.9
Meat
14.6 Other animal
2.0 0.7 products
7.7 9.0
10.2
19.9
9.3
1995 2009
A
rgentina, located in southern South million in 2010, going from a density of 9.7
America, lies between 22 and 55 to 10.7 persons per square kilometer during
south latitude and 53 and 73 west the same period. In contrast, the agricultural
longitude. It has an area of 3,761,274 km 2 population had a negative growth rate equal
and from them 2,791,810 km correspond to to 11.1% for 2000-10 and went from 3.5
the American continent and 969,464 km to million in 2001 to 3.1 million in 2010. In
the Antarctic continent, including the South 1990, the urban population represented
Orcadas (Orkney) Islands, South Georgia, 86.9% and for 2011 it corresponded to
and South Sandwich Islands. Argentinas 92.4% of the total population; only 7.6% was
topography is highly diverse and contrasting, rural, and this is expected to be only 5.4%
showing northwest plateaus, forest, and by 2030.
glaciers in the Patagonia region, immense
eastern plains, and the Andes Mountains in Recent developments in the
the west, where the highest peak of America rice sector
can be found: the 6,959-m-high Aconcagua. In Argentina, rice production is on a large
Argentinas landmass is made up of 54% scale with a minimum farm size of 50 ha,
plains (savannas and grasslands), 23% which is highly mechanized. Rice is grown
plateaus, and 23% mountains and glaciers. mainly in rotation with cattle grazing
Argentina has subtropical and temperate and also in rotation with pastures. The
climates that can be classified into four main uniqueness of this rice production system is
types: warm, moderate, arid, and cold; each that the seed is drilled into the dry soil and
of them displays changing features due to water is pumped from the rivers Paran,
the extension of the country and the presence Bermejo, and Uruguay.
153
High-yielding japonica and indica being an exportable product, especially
varieties from Oryza sativa are cultivated to Mercosur countries. For instance, per
and two grain types are preferred: large-thin capita consumption in 2009 was only 8
and large-wide. However, the first grain type kg/year versus 76 kg/year in China. The
is the most widely planted, corresponding to rice trade in Argentina is characterized
95% of the rice area. by export quantities that sharply exceed
Paddy rice occupies the thirteenth import quantities. Almost 60% of the rice
place in Argentinas commodities, with production is exported and, from 1990 to
5.2% of total grain production after maize 2009, rice exports increased by about 8
(51.6%), wheat (29.7%), sorghum (7.1%), and times, going from 75,227 t to 612,927 t.
barley (5.4%), and represents 0.6% of the In 2009, Argentina was the second export
primary crops. Even though rice is not one country of paddy rice with 67,866 t after
of the main commodities, its production, the United States (1,467,130 t), but ranked
harvested area, and yield have increased eleventh among milled rice-exporting
markedly, going from 428,100 t, 116,620 ha, countries and among rice-exporting
and 3.7 t/ha in 1990 to 1,240,600 t, 215,053 countries with 359,278 t and 427,144 t,
ha, and 5.8 t/ha in 2010, respectively. This respectively.
remarkable production increase is related to
an expansion in harvested area, increase in Rice environments
yield, mechanization, and better agricultural In Argentina, three agricultural regions
practices. can be distinguished. The humid region
In 2010-11, growth in harvested area covers 25% of the country, the semiarid
and production continued, as national rice region 15%, and the arid region accounts
area grew 20%. As a result, the largest for 60% of the total area. Rice production
national rice production was obtained in Argentina is concentrated in the humid
with 1,753,200 t during the 2010-11 region, the northeast part of the country,
harvest. This increase is the result of the where the climate varies from temperate to
technology applied by INTA-Proarroz, humid subtropical. Two main rice-producing
the use of new rice varieties obtained in regions can be distinguished: the South
Entre Ros, good agricultural practices Littoral and North Littoral. The South
such as appropriate sowing date and seed Littoral includes Entre Ros and the North
population, adequate fertilization, and better Littoral encompasses Corrientes, Formosa,
irrigation management. The implementation Chaco, and Santa Fe. In those provinces,
of these measures started in 1994 with the production is distributed in this way:
Corrientes Rice Project and in 2004 it was Corrientes has 40%, Entre Ros 38%, Santa
strengthened with the association of FLAR Fe 16%, Chaco 3%, and Formosa 3%.
with the program called Management for In Argentina, the predominant
High Yields. production system for commercial rice
Argentina is among the countries with is irrigated, but there are some small
low rice consumption per capita. The diet areas of upland rice in Tucumn (for self-
in this country is based on fewer than 10 consumption). As a consequence, for rice
products that contribute 80% of the calories production, the location and extension of
required, including bread, flour, pasta, beef, production areas are dependent on water
sugar, cheese, potato, and rice. Cereals availability rather than on soil quality. The
contribute 33% of the dietary calories, while irrigation system used differs between
rice provides less than 3% of calories and provinces. Since the 1990s in Entre Ros,
2% of protein. However, rice calorie and water is extracted from deep wells using a
protein shares have increased in the last 20 pump instead of taking it from rivers and
years by more than 37%. streams. In Corrientes, water for irrigation
Even when rice is not one of the main comes mainly from dams and rivers. In less
foods produced or consumed in Argentina, than 10% of the area, deep wells are used. In
it is relevant in the international market,
Argentina 155
Even with the advantage of being a member Argentina and Mozambique is in negotiation
of Mercosur together with Brazil, Argentina and one of the promising products to be sent
has to start looking for new markets. As to Mozambique is rice.
a result, a cooperation treaty between
Production 7
1,500
6
1,200 Yield
5
900 4
3
600
2
300 Area 1
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
600
Exports
400
200
Imports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
1.7 2.8
26.5 23.2
Rice
1.7 2.8 Wheat
Maize
39.4 Other crops
39.6
Meat
Other animal
products
16.6 19.0
13.9 12.9
1995 2009
1.1 1.7
22.4 19.5 Rice
1.2 1.0 Wheat
10.9 9.3
Maize
Other crops
39.2 44.2 Meat
Other animal
products
25.2 23.4
1995 2009
Argentina 157
Br azill
General information
GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 11,420 Production seasons
Internal renewable water resources, 2011: Planting Harvesting
5,418 km3/year
South, main Aug-Dec Mar-Apr
Incoming water flow, 2011: 2,815 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: milk, fruits, cere- Northeast, main Mar-May Aug-Nov
als (rice, wheat, maize), meat, starchy roots, North, main Nov-Dec Apr-Jun
fermented beverages, vegetables, sugar and
sweeteners, soybean oil
Rice consumption, 2009: 34.6 kg milled rice
per person per year population decreased by 40%, while the
agricultural area increased, from 241,608 ha
in 1990 to 264,500 ha in 2009.
B
razil, the fifth-largest country in the The economy, based on well-developed
world, is located in east-central South agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and
America and occupies almost 50% service sectors, is expanding and stands
of the continent. Its national territory covers out among Latin American countries. The
8,514,599 km and includes archipelagos of GNI per capita at PPP$ grew from 8,810 in
Fernando de Noronha, Trindade and Martim 2006 to 11,000 in 2010 alone. The national
Vaz, and So Pedro e So Paulo, and the poverty rate declined from 30.8% in 2005
Rocas Atoll. The Atlantic Ocean borders to 21.4% in 2009, while external debt (% of
the entire east coast, with a length of 10,959 GNI) fell from 47.5% in 2002 to 16.9% in
km. Brazil has country borders with Guyana 2010.
(1,731 km), Venezuela (2,078 km), Suriname In 2006, perennial crops occupied 3.5%
(438 km), French Guyana (664 km), of the total land area, field crops 13.2%,
Uruguay (1,044 km), Bolivia (3,338 km), natural pastures 17.1%, cultivated pastures
Peru (2,241 km), and Colombia (1,532 km). 31.3%, forests and conservation units
Brazil has a population of nearly 196 26.0%, cultivated forest (silviculture) 1.4%,
million (2011), increasing from about 150 and nonarable land 1.8%. In the 2011-12
million in 1990. The most populated regions season, approximately 50.3 million ha were
are the southeast, which has 41% of the cultivated and produced 157.5 million t of
Brazilian population, the northeast with cereals and oilseeds. The main food crops
28%, and the south with 14%. Those are are rice, maize, and soybeans, representing
also the regions with the highest population 90.7% of total production, using 83.1% of
density: 84, 47, and 33 persons per km, the cultivated area.
respectively. In contrast, the agricultural
Brazil 159
Recent developments in the northeast, water is scarce and uncontrolled
rice sector water extraction has dried some rivers and
Brazil is the ninth-largest rice-producing streams.
country and largest outside Asia, with 11.3 In the south, rice production is on a
million t in 2010, 1.7% of the worlds rice large scale, mechanized, and integrated with
production. Because of several factors (e.g., cattle grazing. Irrigation systems have been
Mercosur agreement, large country size, developed for flooding the lowlands. The
and market openings), Brazil is an importer main rice-producing state is Rio Grande do
as well as exporter of rice, being the largest Sul, where rice production is completely
South American rice importer at 590,000 t mechanized and the farms are at least
of milled rice and 82,146 t of paddy rice in 200 ha in size. Santa Catarina is the other
2009. The imported rice comes principally main Brazilian rice-producing state, also
from Uruguay, Argentina, and Paraguay, located in the south; there, the average farm
which in 2009 sent 186,239, 131,926, and size is 10 ha and the use of family labor is
58,440 t of milled rice and 29,913, 4,720, and common.
47,510 t of paddy rice, respectively. Upland rice is sown in several Brazilian
Brazil became rice self-sufficient in states, mainly in the central-west (Mato
2002-03 and began exporting in 2004, with Grosso and Gois), northeast (Cear and
36,717 t of milled rice, climbing to 511,919 Piau), southeast (So Paulo and Minas
t in 2008. Exports, which were less than Gerais), and in the cerrados where it was
5% of rice production, were mainly for the pioneer crop when agriculture began
African countries such as Benin (108,138 there during the 1980s. Production peaked
t), Nigeria (80,998 t), South Africa (50,525 in 1988 at 4.5 million t and has since
t), and Cameroon (16,547 t). Paddy rice was declined. In 1999, the rice area was 2.4
exported mainly to Venezuela (29,880 t). million ha, or 64% of the total rice area and
In order to ensure domestic supply and 38% of the total production. In recent years,
minimum prices to farmers, the federal the central-west planting area has declined
government intervenes whenever supply from 15% to 11% of the total.
is higher than domestic demand, using a The southeast is one of the best regions
minimum price guarantee policy, which has for agriculture. It has great advantages over
a set of measures to influence markets. the south, where frost prevents cropping in
winter. Because of the milder climate and
Rice environments some irrigation also being possible during
Rice production systems vary from small the winter, the southeast has two growing
nonmechanized farmers in the north and seasons over the year. This has increased
northeast to highly technical, large-scale the living standards in the southeast. The
production in the south and southeast. northern and northeastern regions are the
Planting methods involve direct sowing, poorest in Brazil.
minimum cultivation, conventional According to the Ministry of
sowing, and pregermination. The first Agriculture, Livestock, and Food Supply
method is commonly used in upland rice in March 2012, a total of 251 varieties of
production systems in areas repeatedly rice were registered with the ministry.
planted; the conventional method is used Long slender-grain rice with good cooking
in rice areas recently opened and in the quality and high commercial value has been
north and northeast, where agriculture is prioritized.
only for subsistence. In Santa Catarina,
pregerminated seeds are preferred. Production constraints
In the north and northeast, a small Other crops. Soybean farming is expanding
area of lowland rice is located in the humid in the savanna region, while the agronomic
coastal strip. However, most of the region and commercial challenges faced by
has subsistence agriculture. In the north, upland rice are being neglected by both
irrigation needs are minimal, but, in the policymakers and agribusiness agents;
Brazil 161
with this hybrid, herbicides can be used This is the main tool in defining the best
to control red rice populations. Hybrid timing and most suitable areas for planting
breeding was first launched in 1985 by upland rice along with the formulation of
Embrapa and IRAT (France) and continued policies on production incentives in areas
later by IRGA and Fazenda Ana Paulo. identified as having lower climatic risk. A
In 2004, Embrapa began a collaborative water-balance model was used to estimate
breeding program with CIRAD (France). climatic risk, considering rainfall, potential
The future of hybrid rice in Brazil depends evapotranspiration, crop coefficient, water
now mainly on improving grain quality. storage capacity of the soil, and crop
Research. In 1998, Embrapa began phenological stages. Zoning of irrigated rice
zoning the areas for rice cultivation in the in Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina
states of Gois, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso has also been carried out.
do Sul, Tocantins, and Minas Gerais.
12 Production 6
10 5
8 Yield 4
6 3
4 2
2 Area 1
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
1,000
Imports
500
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
Brazil 163
Colombia
a
C
olombia lies in the northwest of great plains; and the Amazon region in the
South America. Its national territory south of the country, which includes the
covers 1,138,910 km, of which the Amazon forest, generally warm and highly
land mass is 1,038,700 km. Colombia has humid with high rainfall.
coasts on the Atlantic and Pacific oceans Colombias population in 2010 was 46.3
with a coastline of 3,208 km (Caribbean Sea million, with 75% living in urban areas. The
1,760 km and North Pacific Ocean 1,448 total population has increased at an annual
km). Two-thirds of the country is composed rate of 1.16%, while the rural population
of inter-Andean valleys and plateaus, the decreased from 8.86 million in 1990 to 6.97
remainder being highly mountainous, million in 2010.
including the Andes and the Sierra Nevada The Colombian economy is expanding
de Santa Marta. due to government policies, aggressive
Five geographic regions can be promotion of free trade agreements, and
distinguished: the Andean region in the direct foreign capital investment, especially
central part of the country, including three in the oil sector. This expansion produced
Andean mountain ranges and their inter- a significant decrease in poverty and
Andean valleys, with five temperature unemployment in the last decade: poverty
zones from hot lowlands to subzero glacial decreased from 49.4% of the population in
lands more than 4,000 m above sea level; 2002 to 37.2% in 2009, while unemployment
the Caribbean lowlands coastal region, also declined from 14.5% in 2002 to 9.8% in
known as Atlantic region, in the north of the 2011. The agricultural sector grew by 9.6%
country, with tropical savanna climate and and played an important role in lowering
Colombia 165
The Colombian government shows Colombia, making the prices of imported
great interest in developing the rice sector rice products cheaper.
because of its importance in agriculture and Climate change. Extremes of minimum
the national economy through co-financing and maximum temperature and unusual
rice processing plants, encouraging the rainfall patterns have decreased rice yields
establishment of new irrigation districts by 50%, especially in the low Cauca,
through easy access to credit, and central, north coast, and eastern zones. For
implementing government policies against instance, since 2009, in Tolima, average
rice smuggling. temperatures have risen 3 degrees, affecting
pollen sterility and spikelet fertility and
Production constraints increasing the incidence of some rice
Production costs. High production costs diseases.
are caused by the high cost of inputs, Diseases and pests. Blast, rice hoja
water, and fuel, but especially by the blanca virus, Togasodes oryzicolus,
unavailability of new agricultural areas crinkling virus, Rhynchosporium, and
equipped with irrigation; in the last 30 Helminthosporium are the main rice threats.
years, no new irrigation district has been Increasing temperature and humidity in the
built. As a consequence, agricultural land Usocello irrigation district have favored
with irrigation has become a speculative certain fungi and decreased rice production
good. Additionally, land cost has increased from 140 bags/ha to 80100 bags/ha. In
as watersheds deteriorate, the number of Norte de Santander, the use of foreign rice
tenants is increasing (58% of rice producers varieties has increased the incidence of rice
are tenants), and the number of short-cycle hoja blanca virus, reducing production by
crops to rotate with rice is falling because 1025% and threatening rice production in
imported products have become cheaper. border areas and plant sanitary security.
Prices. One of the biggest problems Other constraints. Other constraints to
of the rice sector is the change in price rice production in Colombia are smuggling,
between seasons. In the first production competition from weeds and red rice,
season (March-August) and beginning of infertility, aluminum-toxic soils in the
the second, the price drops as a result of eastern plains, and the increasing numbers
overproduction during the first season. of tenant farmers.
Then, after a season with very favorable
prices, new investors appear, causing an Production opportunities
artificial demand for quality land with good Technology adoption. A program for
infrastructure, thus increasing production massive adoption of technology (AMTEC)
costs and supply while causing the price to to be implemented initially in Tolima
drop again. A related problem is oligopsony: includes identifying the time of year with
more than 60% of the rice produced maximum sunlight to sow rice to improve
is bought by five industries and, after yield. In addition, the technology will help
processing, only a few trading companies in identifying the production constraints
buy and sell it. in each rice production zone. AMTEC
International treaties. International will also allow producers to adopt several
treaties, especially those between Colombia technologiesbetter terrain leveling, the
and other South American countries, have use of ridges to retain moisture longer, the
harmed the rice industry by allowing the use of precision-sowing machines, the use
import of cheaper products during the rice of good agricultural practices, and access
harvesting time or when a rice surplus to new rice varietiesat the same time in
exists. In addition, in neighboring countries order to be more competitive.
such as Ecuador and Peru, investment costs Infrastructure. The Colombian
in developing irrigation districts and in government will present to the Congress
infrastructure and fuel are lower than in a proposal called Irrigation and drainage
policy in order to rehabilitate and upgrade
Colombia 167
Production (thousand t) and area (thousand ha) Yield (t/ha)
3,000 7
Production 6
Yield
5
2,000
4
3
1,000
2
Area
1
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
300
200
Imports
100
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
P
eru is located in west-central includes part of the Amazon forest, divided
South America, with a land mass into high foresta belt lying between 700
of approximately 1.28 million km and 3,600 m on the east side of the Andes
and 5,220 km of water. Three geographic Mountainsand low forest, composed of
regions can be differentiated: coastal, uninterrupted forest.
mountain, and forest. The coastal region is a Perus climate is tropical with abundant
narrow 2,414-km flat, mainly arid and partly rainfall, high temperatures, and lush
Production seasons
Department Planting Harvesting
Amazonas/Cajamarca/Loreto/ Au-Jul Aug-Jul
San Martn/Tumbes/Ucayali (year-round) (year-round)
Ancash Oct-Mar Nov-Mar
Ayacucho/Pasco Sep-Jan Aug-Feb
Cusco/Junn Sep-Jan Aug-
Arequipa Oct-Feb Oct-Feb
Hunuco Aug-Jun Aug-July (year-round)
La Libertad Nov-Apr Nov-May
Lambayeque Dec-Mar Aug-May
Piura Aug-Apr, Jul Aug-July (year-round)
Puno Aug-Dec Sep-Jan
Madre de Dios Aug-Jan Aug-Jan
169
vegetation. However, it varies from west to economically active population works in the
east, being dry-desert in the coastal region rice subsector. The consumer price index is
and temperate in the highland valleys. The highly dependent on rice prices.
coastal regions have a mean temperature of Rice is a staple food in Peru and in
18 C and total absence of rainfall during some regions is even more important than
summer. Some parts of the coast grow potato in the diet; together, potato and rice
vegetation thanks to the gara, or winter have the most extensive cropping area in
fog. In the mountainous region, temperature the country. Rice is also used for feeding
decreases with altitude, from north to livestock and making alcohol, acetic acid,
south and east to west. The forest region acetone, oil, pharmaceutical products, fuel,
has a humid tropical climate with rainfall and compost. Rice consumption in Peru is the
of 1,5003,000 mm per year and 80% third highest of South America after Guyana
humidity. and Suriname, with 48.7 kg per capita per
Peru has a population of more than year in 2009. The caloric and protein intakes
29 million, of whom almost 50% are from rice grew 4% and 3%, respectively,
concentrated in the coastal region at during 1995-2009, while those of maize and
densities of 1865,774 persons per km, in wheat fell around 4%.
contrast to the forest and mountain regions Peruvians prefer two types of rice. The
with 19 and 1025 persons per km, elite favor packed long grain, white, grainy
respectively. The population growth rate rice of high volume expansion. In contrast,
declined from 1.5% in 2000 to 1.1% in 2010 the majority prefer rice in bulk, more tender,
and it is expected to continue decreasing. slightly sticky, and not very white. More
Only 28% of the population, almost 7 than 30 rice varieties are consumed, their
million people, lives in rural areas. source being the rice breeding program
The Peruvian economy has experienced of the National Rice Research Program of
ups and downs depending on the world Peru, derived from rice varieties developed
economy. In 2008, for example, it grew 10% by IRRI-Philippines and CIAT-Colombia.
but, in 2009, less than 1% as a result of the The rice crops are located mainly in
world recession, a fall in private investment, the north valleys, forest rim, and forest
and a decrease in government spending. The region. Peruvian rice production tripled
economy bounced back in 2010, achieving from 0.97 million t in 1990 to 2.83 million
9% growth. The most important economic t in 2010. Production is concentrated in the
sector in Peru is services, comprising north (52%, or 1.48 million t), followed by
56% of GDP. The economy also depends the high forest (40%, or 1.14 million t). The
on exports of minerals and metals, while increase in national rice production is the
the contribution of the agricultural sector result of water abundance, favorable weather
to GDP is 8.5% (2010). Peru continues conditions, economic policies, and increases
attracting foreign investment; this in planted area and grain yield. The
investment, rapid economic expansion, the harvested area doubled from 0.18 million
governments conditional cash transfers, and ha in 1990 to 0.39 million ha in 2010 while
other government programs together helped yield surged from 5.3 to 7.3 t/ha. The highest
to reduce the national poverty rate from average yields in 2009 were in the south
44.5% in 2006 to 31.3% in 2010. coast with 13 t/ha, followed by the north
coast with 9.2 t/ha; the forest region had
Recent developments in the the lowest yield with 6.7 t/ha. These high
rice sector yields are the result of improved technology,
Rice crops are an important component availability of quality seeds, research, and
of the agricultural sector, making up 9.4% technology transfer. Peru has the highest
of the gross value of national agricultural rice yields in Latin America and is seventh
production and occupying 18.3% of the in the world ranking. Its 750 registered mills
total cultivated area. Rice is a major have a capacity of 8 million t per year.
source of rural employment; 1.5% of the
Peru 171
Limited technical assistance, research, rice producers union by offering technical
and training. Specialized technical assistance; research; trade and policy
assistance is not readily available and is analysis services; making agreements with
limited by the fragmentation of the sector companies providing inputs, machinery, and
and the governments lack of interest. The seeds; and designing programs to make the
Ministry of Agriculture does not have a rice sector competitive.
plan for research, technology transfer, and Added value for Peruvian rice. The lack
technical assistance to farmers. of added value remains a major constraint
Lack of infrastructure. The lack of to rice commercialization. Rice color
storage infrastructure is one of the main classifiers to select rice grains are one way
constraints to rice production regionally. to improve grain quality and production
Water. Rice producers do not have indexes; two units have been installed in the
adequate irrigation systems and the country to date.
establishment of other crops has damaged Profitability, sustainability, and
the soil and caused salinization due to competitiveness. The National Institute
constant flooding. for Agricultural Innovation (INIA) is
Rice varieties. The rice varieties now developing rice varieties with higher yield,
sown have high yield potential and good better grain quality, resistance to pests
grain quality but some of them are highly and diseases, and adapted to the Peruvian
susceptible to pests and diseases, which rice-producing regions; it is also elaborating
lowers yield. Additionally, too many integrated crop management practices that
varieties are sown, causing difficulties in use less chemicals and reduce production
trade. It is necessary to refocus research on costs.
market analysis and not only on production. APEAR is working with the National
Institute for the Defense of Competition
Production opportunities and Protection of Intellectual Property
Rice producer associations. The Peruvian (INDECOPI) and municipal governments on
Association of Rice Millers (APEAR) the formalization of the rice sector. APEAR
strengthens the rice sector to become showed the need for a market for cereals and
more competitive. It protects rice producer grains in Lima and asked seed companies
rights and offers training on professional for the implementation of sanitary measures
development and technical assistance. and good practices in the production and
APEAR is also working to strengthen the sale of seeds.
2,800
2,400 6
Production
Yield
2,000
1,600 4
1,200
800 2
Area
400
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
400
300
200
Imports
100
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
Peru 173
Uruguay
y
U
ruguay is located in South America, potato, and cassava. The northeastern region
bordering Argentina in the west, covers 28% of Uruguay, including the
Brazil in the north and northeast, the departments of Artigas, Salto, Paysand,
Ro de Plata in the south, and the Atlantic and Ro Negro. Intensive livestock and
Ocean in the east. Its national territory totals agriculture are common, and there are
17.6 million ha, of which 17.5 million ha extensive orange plantations. The center-
are land and the remainder water. Almost south includes the departments of Durazno,
95% of the land area can be used for Flores, Florida, San Jos, Canelones, and
agriculture and livestock and 4 million ha Montevideo. The economy there is based on
are available for crops. However, to avoid intensive livestock with forage production
soil degradation, rotation between pasture mainly in the north and milk production
and crops is carried out, such that only 1.6 and intensive agriculture in the south. The
million ha are available at any one time. southwest is characterized by the division
The Uruguayan terrain is mostly of the Cuchilla Grande, which has many
plains with low hills; there are no high divergent ridges separating the headwaters
mountains. In the northwest, hills are mixed of the rivers Uruguay La Plata, and
with valleys and plains. A large part of the Mern Lagune. Finally, the eastern region
country consists of fertile pasture and all the encompasses the departments of Cerro
territory is reached by an extensive water Largo, Treinta y Tres, Lavalleja, Rocha,
network from the rivers Uruguay, La Plata, and Maldonado, where extensive livestock
Mern Lagune, and Negro. ranching is carried outmainly sheep in
Five geographic regions can be the highlands and cattle in the lowlands. In
distinguished based on social, economic, Treinta y Tres, Cerro Largo, and Rocha, rice
and cultural factors: north, center-south, is farmed.
east, south, and west. The northern region
Uruguay 175
area for rice is 1 million ha. However, due to River. More than half the area suitable for
crop rotation practices, all the potential area rice is in the east region, in the basins of the
would never be planted simultaneously. Cebollati, Olimar, and Tacuar rivers and
The rice sector in Uruguay is Mern Lagune in the departments of Treinta
characterized by vertical integration of y Tres, Cerro Largo, Lavalleja, and Rocha.
production, industrialization, and trade.
Farmers sell at a price fixed by the Rice Production constraints
Cultivators Association and the National Production costs. The rice crop is the
Rice Millers Association, such that farmers, most expensive in Uruguay because of
especially on smaller farms, can sow and the costs of seed, agrochemicals, fuel,
harvest without concern about price and labor, machinery, equipment, irrigation,
the rice industry can work at its maximum drainage systems, and construction of water
capacity. This vertical integration also reservoirs. The government does not give
facilitates other common policies related to subsidies because rice is a business and not a
seed, research, credit, etc. subsistence crop. Rice production has a high
More than 90% of national rice fuel requirement; variation in fuel prices
production is exported. Uruguay was the affects rice production directly. Production
sixth-largest paddy rice and milled rice costs increase every year by 1015%. Rice
exporter in 2009, with most rice going to in Uruguay is not subsidized as it is in
Brazil. Uruguays rice production is unique other countries, especially the US, the main
in its relatively low rate of adoption of new competitor of Uruguay. Smaller Uruguayan
cultivars, use of certified seed guaranteeing rice producers cannot cover the high
grain quality and sustainability with low production costs; some become indebted and
inputs, and, in contrast to other exporting finally drop out of rice production.
countries such as the US, Uruguayan mills Markets. In 1985-2003, Brazil was
do not mix varieties but keep track of the the main buyer of Uruguayan rice, taking
identity of each variety. 7090% of Uruguays total production.
Rice consumption in Uruguay is one However, since 2003, Brazil has been self-
of the lowest in South America although sufficient. Low export prices have affected
caloric and protein intake from rice have Uruguayan producers, and rice exports have
risen since 1990. Rice consumption per decreased. Additionally, since 2011, Brazil
person per year increased from 9.3 kg in requires rice exporters to provide a residue
1995 to 19.2 kg in 2009; daily calorie intake analysis, a situation that makes rice trade
from rice increased from 3.5% to 6.8% difficult.
and protein from 2.1% to 4.8% in the same Irrigation systems. Because of constant
period. Contrary to the general situation variation in the levels and volume of the
in other countries where rice consumption water in the rivers, it is necessary to build
is opposite in trend to maize and/or wheat reservoirs and dams for irrigation and
consumption, maize and rice have both use pumps to irrigate the rice crop.
increased. At present, rice, wheat, and maize Weather. Water availability is the main
consumption are increasing at the expense limitation in rice farming; in dry years, it is
of meat consumption. sometimes necessary to use additional water
pumps, whereas excess rain, especially
Rice environments before the establishment of the crop
In the northwest, irrigated rice is grown on (September-November), can delay sowing
slopes in the basins of the Negro, Cuareim, and affect the reproductive phase. Excess
and Uruguay rivers in the departments of rain in January and/or February during
Artigas, Salto, Paysand, Ro Negro, and grain filling can also reduce production due
Soriano. In the departments of Durazno, to a decrease in solar radiation.
Tacuaremb, Rivera, and west of Cerro Diseases. Abundant rainfall as a
Largo (central region), irrigated rice farms consequence of the El Nio phenomenon
are scattered along the basin of the Negro favors the occurrence of Pyricularia, a
fungus not normally common or important Uruguays rice production excels in its grain
in Uruguay. quality and sustainability; red rice is not a
problem.
Production opportunities Water availability. The gasoline-based
Markets. As a consequence of a drop in water pumps are being replaced by more
exports to Brazil, Uruguay is exploring new efficient electric pumps. All the irrigation
markets in Iran, Peru, Central America, and systems should be working with electrical
Europe. Uruguay has a great advantage in energy within a few years. In addition, the
Europe because of the excellent quality of Rice Cultivators Association, together with
its rice, none of which is transgenic, unlike the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
some US rice varieties. and local governments, is building dams to
Rice added value. Certified seed is ensure water availability for the entire rice
commonly used and the selection process, production cycle.
visual and manual, is very strict. As a result,
Uruguay 177
Production (thousand t) and area (thousand ha) Yield (t/ha)
1,500 9
8
Production
1,200 7
6
900 Yield
5
4
600
3
2
300
Area
1
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
800
600
Exports
400
200
Imports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
M
adagascar is an island nation
located in the Indian Ocean. It Recent developments in the
has a total area of 587,041 km, rice sector
of which 5.1% (2009) is arable land and The area under rice increased to about 1.81
contained within a coastline of 4,828 km. million ha in 2010 from 1.15 million ha
The climate is tropical along the coast, in 1995. Production increased from 2.45
temperate inland, and arid in the south. million t in 1995 to about 4.74 million t of
Natural hazards include periodic cyclones, paddy rice in 2010. Rice yield increased
drought, and infestation by locusts. Terrain slightly from 2.1 t/ha in 1995 to 2.6 t/ha
varies from a narrow coastal plain to high in 2010. Enhanced production gradually
plateaus and mountains in the center. The reduced the need for rice imports. The
population in 2011 was 21.3 million, with an rice self-sufficiency ratio was about 96.7%
estimated annual growth rate of 2.9%. Life in 2009. Caloric intake per day from rice
expectancy at birth is 64 years. Agriculture, increased from 45.5% in 1995 to 50.7%
including fishing and forestry, is a mainstay in 2009. Protein intake from rice over the
of the economy, accounting for about one- same period increased from 42.7% to 48.1%.
third of GDP and employing 70% of the Almost all mineral fertilizer inputs are
labor force. Rice is the main subsistence imported.
crop in Madagascar and it occupies an The Madagascar Action Plan, which
important place in the agricultural sector. was developed for 2007-12, describes the
About 85% of the farmers grow rice. About new strategy and action plan geared toward
2 million farming households and about 10 stimulating economic growth and reducing
million people derive at least part of their poverty, and one of the main aspects is
economic income from the rice sector. increasing rice production. The target for
179
Farmers make use of a large rock as a threshing tool.
2009 was to move toward doubling paddy east; and the central-eastern part, including
production from 2006 in order to reach Lake Alaotra, with its swampy areas, plains,
a volume of 5 million t. This growth is and valleys suited for rice.
underpinned by an increase in productivity
(through the supply of inputs, improvement Production constraints
in crop techniques, improvement of hydro- Major yield gaps occur between yields
agricultural techniques, the introduction obtained in farmers fields and what would
of agricultural machinery, and regular be possible under improved management
technical support) as well as an increase in because of a lack of access to agricultural
area under cultivation. equipment, good-quality seed, and mineral
fertilizers, and a range of biotic and abiotic
Rice environments stresses, including poor soil fertility,
There are four principal types of rice drought, and weed infestation. In the
growing: irrigated rice, rainfed lowland rice, dominant irrigated lowland systems, the
upland rainfed rice (called tanety), and rice step-wise introduction of good agricultural
as a first crop after slash and burn (called practices and principles and improved
tavy). In terms of cultivated area, irrigated modern varieties may strongly boost rice
rice is the most important, covering 82% of productivity. The upland and tavy systems
all area under rice in 2008. About 60% of suffer from a multitude of abiotic and biotic
irrigated rice is transplanted. Rice is grown stresses; first and foremost are low soil
in six zones of Madagascar: the north, fertility and drought. In the highlands, cold
northwest, and central-western regions; the stress and blast disease reduce rice yields.
central part of the Malagasy highlands; the
Madagascar 181
Production (thousand t) and area (thousand ha) Yield (t/ha)
5,000 4
Production
4,000
3
3,000 Yield
2
2,000
1
1,000 Area
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
300
250
200
150
100
Imports
50
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
Rice Rice
45.5 50.7 42.7 48.1
Wheat Wheat
Maize Maize
2.5 Other crops 3.3 Other crops
4.4 2.1 4.7 2.7
7.3 Meat 8.2 Meat
Other animal 20.3 Other animal
37.2 18.3
32.3 products products
15.2
11.3
5.5 3.9 13.8 11.5
4.9 3.7
1995 2009 1995 2009
M
ali is a landlocked country located around 5% of the countrys GDP and is
in West Africa and it has a total deemed having the advantage of enjoying a
area of 1,240,192 km, of which fast expanding national market.
5.2% (2009) is arable land, contained within
a land boundary of 7,243 km. The climate Recent developments in the
varies from subtropical to arid, being hot rice sector
and dry (February to June), rainy and humid Rice in Mali is grown in deepwater
(June to November), and cool and dry areas, under irrigation, and under rainfed
(November to February). Mali covers the conditions in both lowland and upland
southern Sudan savanna zone, the central, systems. The area under rice doubled in
semiarid Sahelian zone, and the arid Saharan 2009 at 0.66 million ha from area harvested
zone. Terrain varies from flat, sandy plains in 1995 at 0.31 million ha but decreased to
in the north to southern savanna and rugged 0.47 million ha 2010. Production increased
hills in the northeast. About 4% of the land from 0.48 million t in 1995 to about 2.31
area is used for arable crops. million t of paddy in 2010. Rice yields
The estimated population in 2011 is 15.8 across ecosystems have varied widely since
million, with an estimated annual growth 1995 (between 1.6 t/ha and 4.9 t/ha) without
rate of 2.6%. Life expectancy at birth is 53 a clear increasing or declining trend.
years. Enhanced production gradually reduced the
Mali is among the worlds 25 poorest need for rice imports. Caloric intake per day
countries, and economic activity is mostly from rice increased from 15.0% in 1995 to
confined to the area irrigated by the Niger 21.2% in 2009. Protein intake from rice over
River. About 10% of the population is the same period increased from 11.1% to
nomadic and about 75% of the labor force is 16.4%.
183
Almost all mineral fertilizer inputs are Controlled swamp rice farming depends
imported, representing close to 45% of the on rainfall for crop establishment and on
total value of agricultural imports. Fertilizer intake from rivers for flooding. Cultivated
imports have been constantly increasing area is around 74,000 ha, and is mainly
at an annual rate of 10% since 1971. Rice located in Sgou and Mopti. Yields vary
growing in the Office du Niger alone uses between 1.0 and 2.5 t/ha.
around 20,000 t of diammonium phosphate For water control, lowland rice farming
and urea per year. is characterized by a great diversity from
Under the CARD (Coalition for full water control to complete dependence
African Rice Development) initiative, on rainfall. The potential land area for this
Mali endorsed a national rice development system is 300,000 ha and around 140,000 ha
strategy (NRDS) in 2009 that is fully in of rice are grown per year in undeveloped
line with national policies and international lowlands, mostly by women in the Sgou,
commitments. The vision is to transform Sikasso, and Kayes regions, where yields
Mali into an agricultural powerhouse, to be vary between 0.8 and 2 t/ha.
placed with other emerging countries as an Traditional floating rice cultivation is
exporter of processed and labeled rice-based practiced in the interior delta of the Niger
products. The strategy aims to intensify and along the loop of the river. Varieties
high-yielding systems. Emphasis will be used are Oryza glaberrima types, which are
placed on notable for rapid growth that allows them
1. Developing new areas with water to keep pace with the rising water levels
control (10,000 ha per year). of the river, which can rise 5 cm per day.
2. Developing rainfed rice growing Planting takes place during the rainy season
with high-yielding varieties such as before the waters arrive to flood the rice
NERICA4. paddies. Water can rise by several meters
3. Intensifying other production in some places, and rice grows so that only
systems, especially controlled swamp the panicles show above the water (giving
rice cultivation, and lowland and the name floating rice). Harvesting is mostly
natural swamp rice cultivation. done using canoes and yields rarely surpass
1 t/ha from a total area of about 300,000 ha.
Rice environments
The Office du Niger is the rice basket in the Production constraints
country with 90,000 ha of irrigated land, Suboptimal timing of crop management
used almost entirely for rice, with potential interventions may still cause considerable
for 900,000 ha of irrigable land. There yield losses in irrigated systems, for
are large irrigation schemes in Selingue, example, because of the late arrival of
Baguinda, the San Ouest plains, and the credit, fertilizer, etc. Insect and disease
small village holdings situated along the pressure such as rice yellow mottle virus
Niger and Senegal rivers. Total developed may further reduce yields. In some years,
area is 125,000 ha and average yields have locust attacks can wipe out production.
reached 5 to 6 t/ha, from an initial low of 2 Certain invasive species such as water
t/ha in the 1980s through rehabilitation of hyacinth block irrigation networks, slowing
irrigation schemes and the introduction of down the water supply to rice fields. Upland
modern rice varieties, transplanting, and systems may suffer from drought, poor soil
well-timed and appropriate mineral fertilizer fertility, competition from weeds (including
use. Striga), and attacks by pests and diseases
Upland rice cropping is mainly (blast). Flooding, drought, weeds, and
restricted to the southern part of the country. disease attacks cause yield losses in rainfed
With the introduction of NERICA varieties, lowland systems.
upland rice is now also grown near Sikasso, In general, inadequate postharvest
Kayes, and Koulikoro. Yield is about 1 to 2 technologies decrease the quality of locally
t/ha, but can reach 3 to 4 t/ha. produced rice. Mainly in the rainfed
Mali 185
Production (thousand t) and area (thousand ha) Yield (t/ha)
2,500 5
Production
2,000 4
1,500 3
Yield
1,000 2
500 1
Area
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
200
100 Imports
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
N
igeria is located in western Africa million ha in 1995 to about 2.72 million
between Benin and Cameroon and ha in 2006 but dropped back to about 1.8
has a total area of 923,768 km2, of million ha in 2010. Production increased
which 34.6% (2009) is arable land, and is from 2.92 million t in 1995 to a high of 4.18
contained within a 4,047 km land boundary million t of paddy rice in 2008 but went
and a coastline of 853 km. The climate down to about 3.22 million t in 2010. Rice
varies from equatorial in the south to yields across ecosystems over the last 20
tropical in the center and arid in the north. years were between 1.3 t/ha and 1.9 t/ha.
Terrain varies from southern lowlands, Rice imports have been increasing steadily,
central hills and plateaus, mountains in reaching 1.8 million t of milled rice in 2009.
the southeast and plains in the north. The Average yearly per capita consumption was
estimated population in 2011 is 162.5 15.8 kg during 1981-90, and by 2009 it was
million, with an estimated annual growth estimated at 20.9 kg. During 1990-2009,
rate of 2.6%. Life expectancy at birth is 52 self-sufficiency reached a high of 87% but,
years. Agriculture contributes about 35% to during 2009, it declined to 64%. Caloric
the GDP and employs about 70% of the total intake per day from rice increased from
labor force. Exports are dominated by oil 7.3% in 1995 to 7.9% in 2009. Protein intake
and derived products (95%). from rice over the same period increased
from 6.7% to 6.8%. Fertilizer consumption
Recent developments in the in Nigeria is at 13 kg/ha, one of the lowest
rice sector in sub-Saharan Africa. Less than 1% of
Consumers preferences are shifting from the arable land is irrigated. Farmers have
traditional staples (such as cassava, maize, limited access to credit and extension
and yams) to rice. Urban consumers services. Only about 30,000 tractors are
187
available for all 14 million farming families 3.06.0 t/ha, caused by suboptimal water
or groups. Processing capacity is a major management, inadequate weed management,
bottleneck to increasing the national rice low adoption of modern varieties, low
supply. Increasing local rice production mechanization, pest and disease pressure,
means that scarce foreign exchange used and uncertain land tenure.
to import rice can be used to develop the In the upland environment, rice
local rice sector. Imports of rice in 2006 cultivation is challenged by drought, low
cost Nigeria $695 million, well above the adoption of improved varieties, soil acidity
2001-05 average of US$113 million. The and general soil infertility, poor weed
Nigerian government started an Agricultural control, limited capital investments and
Transformation Agenda in 2011 with rice labor shortages, and low mechanization.
as one of the five priority commodity value Yields range from 1.0 to 1.7 t/ha compared
chains. The objective is to make Nigeria with a potential of 2.04.0 t/ha.
self-sufficient in rice by 2015. Farmers and rice value chain actors
have difficulty in accessing agro-inputs,
Rice environments particularly quality seed, fertilizer, and
The three rice production environments and credit. Infrastructure development is lagging
their coverage in Nigeria are rainfed lowland behind with respect to irrigation facilities,
(69.0%), irrigated lowland (2.7%), and feeder/rural roads, and rice storage and
rainfed upland (28.3%). More than 90% of processing capacity. In the past, changes
Nigerias rice is produced by resource-poor in government policies in the areas of
small-scale farmers, while the remaining concessions and tariffs have discouraged
10% is produced by corporate/commercial investors. In general, the rice value chain is
farmers. characterized by yields that are far below
About 95% of the processors are what would be possible with improved
small-scale with low-capacity and obsolete management, improved market information
mills. Nigeria possesses a huge but largely and structure, and sufficient and updated
untapped potential for developing irrigated rice-processing capacity.
rice. There are an estimated 3.14 million
ha of irrigable land, out of which less than Production opportunities
50,000 ha are growing irrigated rice. Nigeria Imported rice volumes dominate rice
has large irrigation schemes in Anambra, trading in Nigeria because of the poor
Kwara, Kogi, Adamawa, Niger, Sokoto, quality of locally produced rice. A huge
Kebbi, Borno, Bauchi, and Benue states. potential market for locally produced rice
exists in urban centers if quality, standards,
Production constraints and grading are addressed. The government
In the irrigated rice schemes, production plans to put more land under irrigation for
constraints include low nitrogen-use rice production and rehabilitate dilapidated
efficiency and iron toxicity, disease and irrigation schemes under the Agricultural
pest pressure (especially birds), and low Transformation Agenda. For upland
mechanization. Socioeconomic constraints rice systems, NERICA varieties will be
include a lack of involvement of farmers promoted in the north-central and southwest
in the planning and implementation of regions of the country. Yield gaps can be
irrigation schemes, lack of access to inputs reduced substantially across environments
(including credit), and a loss of labor and through the adoption of good agricultural
an aging farming population because of practices and principles (integrated rice
migration to cities. Rice yield in these management), and the use of robust and
schemes is 3.03.5 t/ha compared with the high-yielding varieties.
potential of 79 t/ha. Policies and conditions that offer
In the rainfed lowland environment, rice opportunities for developing the rice
cultivation is characterized by a low yield sector in the country include zero tariffs
range of 1.53.0 t/ha vis--vis a potential of on agricultural machinery and equipment,
189
Production (million t) and area (million ha) Yield (t/ha)
5 3.0
Production 2.5
4
2.0
3
Yield
1.5
2
Area
1.0
1
0.5
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
1,500
Imports
1,000
500
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
S
enegal is located in West Africa, 1995 to about 604,000 t of paddy rice in
bordering the Atlantic Ocean, and 2010. Average paddy rice yields across
has a total area of 192,530 km, of ecosystems varied widely over the last 20
which 20% is arable land, contained within years (between 2.0 and 4.1 t/ha) without a
a land boundary of 2,640 km, with 531 km clear increasing or declining trend. Imports
of coastline. The climate is tropicalhot had been at less than half a million t in 1995
and humid; May to November witnesses a and reached the million mark in 2007 but
rainy season with strong southeast winds decreased in 2010 to 706,700 t. The rice
and December to April a dry season with self-sufficiency ratio was almost 25% during
harmattan winds (hot, dry, and dusty trade 2005-09. Calorie intake per day from rice
winds). Natural hazards include drought increased from 27.1% in 1995 to 28.5%
and seasonal flooding of lowlands. The in 2009. Protein intake from rice over the
terrain comprises generally low, rolling same period decreased from 27.1% to 23.1%.
plains rising to foothills in the southeast. Fertilizers are mostly imported, except for
The estimated population in 2012 was 13 phosphate that is mined in the country.
million, with an estimated annual growth Faced with an increasing population
rate of 2.7%. Life expectancy at birth and growing urbanization, the government
is 60 years. Key export industries are of Senegal gave priority to increased
phosphate mining, fertilizer production, and national agricultural production, and as
commercial fishing. The countrys national part of the GOANA initiative (in English,
dish is rice with fish (thibou-djne). Grand Agricultural Offensive on Food
Senegal is among the largest consumers of and Abundance). Senegal also developed a
rice in West Africa and one of the largest National Rice Development Strategy under
importers of broken rice. the Coalition for African Rice Development
(CARD).
191
Rice environments generally lack access to seed of improved
Rice production systems in Senegal are varieties, such as NERICAs. Drought,
largely dominated by small and family- weed infestation, and low soil fertility are
held farms. Irrigated rice farming occupied major constraints in rainfed upland systems,
about 53,000 ha during the 2008 crop year with yields usually from 1 to 1.5 t/ha. In
(off-season and rainy season) split between rainfed lowland systems, yields are usually
the Senegal River Valley (50,000 ha) and clearly higher, up to 3 t/ha, because of more
the Anamb Basin (3,000 ha). Irrigated favorable soils and moisture conditions. In
rice production represents 70% of national both rainfed upland and lowland systems,
production. Rice yields vary between 4 and important yield gains can be obtained with
6 t/ha on average. the introduction of improved varieties with
Double cropping is, in principle, greater resistance to biotic and abiotic
possible in the Senegal River Valley, but stresses and the introduction of improved
difficult because of the risk of cold stress water management and water-harvesting
in the wet season and heat stress in the dry techniques.
season if sowing is delayed. It is hardly
practiced because of difficulties with the Production opportunities
timing of crop management interventions The favorable climate for double cropping
(late harvesting of the previous crop, late of rice, the progressive return of donors
arrival of seed and other inputs). Harvest ready to invest more and more in rice
and postharvest operations remain major growing, and the current state of play of the
bottlenecks in irrigated systems in Senegal. international rice market are in themselves
Rainfed lowland or upland rice farming great opportunities to be seized. The
is found in the southern parts of the country. huge imports offer a clear opportunity for
During the 2009 rainy season, rainfed rice Senegalese farmers and rice value-chain
growing occupied 72,000 ha, representing actors as a whole.
30% of national production. The main objective of the National Rice
Development Sector was to lift national
Production constraints rice production to 1,000,000 t of milled
Irrigated rice farming faces a number of rice by 2012. The contribution expected
constraints such as land tenure problems, from irrigated rice cultivation to attain this
high development costs, and timely access objective is 800,000 t, with rainfed rice
to quality inputs, in particular seed and contributing 200,000 t. This will consist
mineral fertilizer. Poor timing of crop of homogeneous broken and whole rice
management interventions because of the fetching competitive prices compared with
late arrival of inputs or delay in harvesting imported rice and giving a financial return
of the previous crop leads to important yield for all the actors in the sector. To achieve
losses. Weed infestation, in particular in these goals, there is a need for
direct-seeded fields, and bird damage are 1. Development of the rice seed sector
major constraints. Late harvesting often 2. Rehabilitation of irrigation schemes
leads to both substantial quantitative losses in disuse and building of new
due to shattering and qualitative losses in schemes and achieving an average
the final rice product. Yields are generally cropping intensity of at least 1.5 rice
between 4 and 6 t/ha. Yield potential crops per year in these schemes
is much higher, between 8 and 11 t/ha, 3. Providing farmers with access to
depending on the growing season and the agricultural equipment for harvest
location along the Senegal River due to and postharvest activities and rice
highly fertile soils and a generally favorable processing plants
climate. 4. Increased diffusion of integrated crop
Production, harvesting, and processing management options to reduce yield
operations in rainfed systems are done gaps in both irrigated and rainfed
manually and mostly by women. Farmers systems
Senegal 193
Production (thousand t) and area (million ha) Yield (t/ha)
700 5
600
4
500
Yield 3
400
300
2
Production
200
Area 1
100
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
1,000
Imports
800
600
400
200
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
T
anzania is located in East Africa and systems. The area under rice increased from
has a total area of 945,090 km, of about 0.39 million ha in 1995 to about 0.72
which 11.3% (2009) is arable land million ha in 2010. Production increased
and is contained within a land boundary from about 0.62 million t in 1995 to about
of 3,861 km and a 1,424-km coastline. The 1.33 million t of paddy rice in 2009 but
climate varies from tropical along the coast dropped to 1.10 million t in 2010. Average
to temperate in highlands. Natural hazards paddy yields across ecosystems have varied
include drought and flooding on the central widely over the last 20 years (between 1.25
plateau in the rainy season. The countrys and 2.40 t/ha) without a clear increasing
main geographic features are a coastal or declining trend. Enhanced production
plain in the west, northern highlands along gradually reduced the need for rice imports.
the border with Kenya, southern highlands The rice self-sufficiency ratio was about
near the Zambian border, and the semiarid 91.8% in 2010. Caloric intake per day from
central plains. Kilimanjaro is the highest rice increased from 6.9% in 1995 to 9.1%
mountain in Africa at 5,859 m above sea in 2009. Protein intake from rice over the
level. same period increased from 5.2% to 7.0%.
The estimated population in 2011 Fertilizers are mostly imported, except for
is about 46.2 million, with an estimated rock phosphate that is mined in the country.
annual population growth rate of 2%. Life Under the CARD (Coalition for African
expectancy at birth is 53 years. Rice Development) initiative, Tanzania
Agriculture accounts for more than a endorsed a national rice development
quarter of GDP and employs about 76% of strategy (NRDS) in 2009 that is fully in
the labor force. About 85% of exports are line with national policies and international
related to agriculture, providing about 22% commitments. The vision is to transform
of foreign exchange earnings. the existing subsistence-dominated rice
195
subsector progressively into commercially intensification have great potential in these
and viable production systems. In rainfed lowland systems.
implementing the NRDS, Tanzania will
focus on eight strategic areas: Production constraints
1. Increasing availability of and Farmers grow mainly local and traditional
access to agricultural inputs (seeds, varieties, many of which have low yield
fertilizers, pesticides, and appropriate potential. Most of the rice grown depends
farm machinery) on rainfall and many irrigation schemes
2. Introducing improved varieties and need urgent rehabilitation. Upland systems
integrated crop management options are prone to drought, weed infestation
to close yield gaps, especially in (including Striga), and attacks by pests and
irrigated rice systems diseases (blast). Rainfed lowland systems
3. Reducing postharvest losses and suffer from floods during heavy rains but
enhancing marketing of rice can also face drought. Weed infestation,
4. Rehabilitation and development pests (African rice gall midge and stem
of new irrigation schemes and borers), and diseases (rice yellow mottle
improving irrigation and water- virus, blast, bacterial leaf blight) cause low
harvesting technology yields. Soil fertility is generally low. Rice
5. Enhancing access to and competes with other crops such as maize,
maintenance of agricultural for land and labor. Inadequate postharvest
equipment technologies result in low-quality rice and
6. Improving capacity for technology low prices in the market. Farm operations
development, training, and are mostly (95%) done manually. Farmers
dissemination systems and processors do not have easy access to
7. Enhancing access to credit and credit. The infrastructure for transportation,
agricultural finance storage, and processing is often lacking or in
8. Promotion of medium- and large- need of rehabilitation.
scale processing industry
Production opportunities
Rice environments Tanzania has large land resources suitable
The priority areas for rice production are for rice (29 million ha) and abundant water
the irrigated lowland, rainfed lowland, resources (underground, rivers, and lakes)
and upland ecosystems. In the irrigated for irrigation. There is also clear political
lowlands, improved rice varieties such as will of the government to enhance rice
IR64 and SARO5 are usually grown. Yields production and productivity. There is
range from 2.5 to 4 t/ha, with great scope currently a suitable policy environment,
for further yield improvement through with tax exemption measures on the import
improved crop management and further of agricultural machinery and subsidies
intensification. Total potential area for provided to farmers on agricultural inputs
irrigation development is 29.4 million ha, such as fertilizer and seed. The government
out of which 2.3 million ha are characterized is providing an enabling environment for the
as high potential areas, 4.8 million ha as private sector to participate more strongly
medium potential, and 22.3 million ha in agricultural production, processing,
as low potential. In the upland systems, and marketing. The general objective is to
landraces (Supa) are commonly grown. In double rice production by 2018 vis--vis
these systems, NERICA varieties are being 2008, which would be achieved through the
introduced. Yields currently range from 0.8 following specific interventions:
to 1.0 t/ha. In the rainfed lowlands, water is 1. Improving rice production
usually adequate. Soils are also relatively through better farmer access to
fertile as compared to upland soils. Varieties improved varieties and improved
grown are mostly landraces. Yields range crop management practices and
from 1.5 to 2.0 t/ha. Crop diversification and postharvest technologies
Tanzania 197
Production (thousand t) and area (thousand ha) Yield (t/ha)
1,500 2.5
Production
Yield
1,200 2.0
900 1.5
600 1.0
Area
300 0.5
0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
150
100 Imports
50
Exports
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Caloric intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources Protein intake (%/day) from rice relative to other sources
Notes:
For all country descriptions:
GNI = gross national income,
PPP = purchasing power parity.
In all data tables, paddy refers to
unmilled rice.
China 199
Afghanistan
n
A
fghanistan is a landlocked country
surrounded by China, Iran, Pakistan, General information
and the Central Asian Republics
with a population of 31.4 million as of 2010. GNI per capita PPP$, 2010: 1,060
The country sits at an important geostrategic Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
location that connects the Middle East with 47.15 km3/year
Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Incoming water flow, 2011: 18.18 km3/year
It consists of highland plains separated by Main food consumed, 2009: wheat, maize,
mountains. Afghanistan is largely dry and rice, barley, pulses, potatoes, fruits, meat
rocky, with some fertile lowlands where Rice consumption, 2003: 17 kg milled rice per
rice and other grains, as well as cotton and person per year
fruits, are grown. Agricultural activities
make up 30% of GDP, although about 12%
of the country is arable. Deforestation has Production season
increased rapidly, leading to desertification; Planting Harvesting
potable water is scarce. The main population Main May-Jun Oct-Nov
centers are in eastern valleys.
A
ustralia is surrounded by the
Tasman and Coral seas to the east,
the Arafura and Timor seas to the
north, and the Indian Ocean to the west and
south. Australia is about the same size as the General information
continental United States, but its population
in 2010 of 22.3 million is only about 7% of GNI per capita at PPP$, 2010: 36,410
that of the United States. The western two- Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
thirds of the continent range from hyperarid 492 km3/year
to semiarid. The majority of the population Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
lives along the relatively well-watered Main food consumed, 2009: milk, meat,
eastern and southeastern coasts. The wheat, fruits, vegetables, potatoes, sugar, oils
climate ranges from warm humid tropics and fats
to cool subtropics. Agriculture contributes Rice consumption, 2009: 11.5 kg milled rice
about 2.3% to GDP. The main feature of per person per year
Australian agriculture is the dominance of
large-scale dryland farming and grazing
systems. Most irrigated agriculture is found Production seasons
in the Murray-Darling Basin in New South Planting Harvesting
Wales. Irrigated agriculture represents 16%
of the value of agricultural production; about Main, Oct Mar-Apr
5% of the value of irrigated agriculture is New South Wales
rice. Rice contributes 3.2% to the total food Main, Nov Apr-May
caloric intake. Arable land is 6.1% of the
Western Australia
land area.
201
B
enin, a small West African country General information
facing south in the Atlantic Ocean
between Nigeria and Togo, has an GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 1,630
area of 112,620 km2 and is bordered also by Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
Burkina Faso and Niger. The land comprises 10.3 km3/year
mainly low plains and nearly a quarter is Incoming water flow, 2011: 16.09 km3/year
arable, with agriculture accounting for 32% Main food consumed, 2009: yam, cassava,
of GDP. The climate ranges from hot and maize, rice, meat, pulses, vegetables
humid in the coastal south to semiarid in the Rice consumption, 2009: 34.4 kg milled rice
north. The population in 2011 was estimated per person per year
at 9.1 million. About 44% of the workforce
was engaged in the agricultural sector in
2010.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-May Aug-Sep
Irrigated rice May-Jul Nov-Jan
B
hutan, surrounded by India and China General information
high in the Himalayas, is a tiny nation
of 38,394 km2 with a 2010 popula- GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 5,480
tion of 725,940. Apart from snow-covered Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 78
mountains, there are southern tropical plains km3/year
and central temperate plains. Only 2% of Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
the land is arable, and half of that is on Main food consumed, 2010: rice, maize,
steep mountainsides. Although the share of wheat, meat, oranges, milk, potato
agriculture in GDP is gradually decreasing Rice consumption, 2010: 172 kg milled rice
(18.7% of GDP in 2009), agriculture pro- per person per year
vided livelihood to 65.4% of the population
in 2009.
The improved communication facilities Production season
in the country during the last 10 years Planting Harvesting
increased the trend from a subsistence basis
in agriculture toward cash crops. The number Main Apr-Jun Aug-Nov
of mechanized farms is increasing as a result
of the governments sizable investments and
subsidy on machinery and other inputs.
203
B
olivia is a landlocked country in General information
central South America, divided into
three areas: a cold Andean highland GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 4,920
plateau where most of the population of 10 Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
million lives, subtropical valleys in the east 303.5 km3/year
that contain most of the agricultural produc- Incoming water flow, 2011: 319 km3/year
tion, and tropical plains that are used for Main food consumed, 2009: wheat, maize,
livestock and farming of grains, including rice, meat, sugar and sweeteners, starchy
rice. As of 2009, only 3.4% of the land was roots
arable. Agriculture occupied about two-fifths Rice consumption, 2009: 25.6 kg milled rice
of the workforce and made up 13% of GDP per person per year
in 2010.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Oct-Nov Feb-Mar
B
urkina Faso, previously Upper Volta, General information
is a landlocked country bordered by
Benin, Cte dIvoire, Ghana, Mali, GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 1,310
Niger, and Togo. Its 17 million (2011) peo- Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
ple live in an area of 274,220 km2, making it 12.5 km3/year
one of the most densely populated countries Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
in the Sahel. The land consists of rolling Main food consumed, 2009: sorghum, millet,
plains dissected by valleys formed by up- maize, rice, oil crops, groundnuts, vegetables,
per reaches of the Volta River. Agriculture pulses, meat
occupies 92% of the working population, Rice consumption, 2009: 25.5 kg milled rice
contributes about 33% of GDP, and provides per person per year
more than 85% of export earnings (2011), al-
though only about 21.6% of the land (2009)
is arable. Further, substantial desertification Production seasons
has occurred as a result of previous inappro-
priate farming techniques used for peanuts Planting Harvesting
and cotton for export. Deforestation has Main May-Jun Oct-Nov
also been rampant, resulting in a lack of fuel Off Jan-Feb May-Jun
wood.
205
B
urundi, at the northern end of Lake General information
Tanganyika in Central Africa, is a
landlocked country with a land area GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 610
of 25,680 km2, most of which is mountain- Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
ous, with some plains and with a plateau 10.06 km3/year
in the east. Burundi borders Tanzania, the Incoming water flow, 2011: 2.48 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: bananas, starchy
Democratic Republic of the Congo, and
roots, vegetables including oils, beans, maize,
Rwanda. Although the country is near the
fermented beverages, fruits
equator, the climate is moderate because Rice consumption, 2009: 6.4 kg milled rice
the average altitude is 1,700 m. Rainfall per person per year
is characterized by alternating dry and
rainy seasons. Unusually, there are two wet
seasons (February-May and September-No- Production season
vember) and two dry seasons (June-August Planting Harvesting
and December-January). Arable land is 35%
of land area. The great majority (89%) of the Main Oct-Dec May-Jun
population of 8.6 million (2011) is rural, oc-
cupied in agriculture that accounts for 35%
of GDP.
C
ameroon is a West African nation General information
bordering the Atlantic Ocean, with
an area of 475,440 km2. Cameroon GNI per capita PPP$, 2011: 2,360
is one of the best-endowed countries in sub- Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 273
Saharan Africa in natural resources. About km3/year
half of the workforce is employed in agri- Incoming water flow, 2011: 12.5 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: cassava, plantains,
culture, which makes up about 20% of GDP.
maize, bananas, sorghum, vegetables, rice,
The country has three regions: northern pulses
plains, central grasslands, and rich farmlands Rice consumption, 2009: 30.3 kg milled rice
in the south, where most of the 20.03 million per person per year
(2011) population lives. About 12.6% of the
land is arable. This area is under threat of
drought and desertification.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Main May-Jun Oct-Nov
Off Jan-Feb May-Jun
207
T
he Republic of Chad is a landlocked General information
country of 1,259,200 km2 in the Sahel
region of Africa. The country is di- GNI per capita PPP$, 2011: 1,370
Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 15
vided into three regions: desert (the Sahara)
km3/year
in the north, occupying 40% of the total Incoming water flow, 2011: 28 km3/year
area; plains in the central part, used mainly Main food consumed, 2009: sorghum, millet,
for grazing; and fertile lands in the south that yams, cassava, nuts, oil crops, meat, maize,
are more tropical and on which most of the wheat
11.5 million population lives. Agriculture is Rice consumption, 2009: 7.1 kg milled rice
a dominant force in the economy at 51% of per person per year
GDP, with 66% (in 2010) of the population
engaged in agricultural activities. Arable Production seasons
land, however, is only 3.4% of its land area. Planting Harvesting
Main Jun-Jul Oct-Dec
Off Jan-Feb May-Jun
C
hile occupies a 6,435-km-long strip General information
of coastal land and mountains in
South America, south of Peru, bor- GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 16,330
dering Argentina and Bolivia in the east. The Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 884
population of 17.3 million (2011) is uneven- km3/year
ly distributed over a total area of 756,090 Incoming water flow, 2011: 38 km3/year
km2; only 1.7% is arable, including a fertile Main food consumed, 2009: wheat, milk,
vegetables, meat, fruits, beverages (ferment-
central valley. The climate is temperate and
ed), potatoes, sugar
variable: arid desert in the north, Mediter- Rice consumption, 2009: 9.3 kg milled rice
ranean in the central area, and cool in the per person per year
southern parts. Agriculture comprises 3.4%
of GDP, providing employment for 13% of
the workforce in 2010. Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Sep-Oct Feb-Mar
209
T
he Democratic Republic of the General information
Congo, formerly Zaire, is a large
central African country with a narrow GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 350
corridor of land to the Atlantic Ocean with Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 900
km3/year
an area of 2,344,860 km2. Its population
Incoming water flow, 2011: 383 km3/year
was 67.8 million in 2011. The center and the Main food consumed, 2007: starchy roots,
northern parts of the country are covered in plantains, maize, nuts, fish, bananas
rainforest (but which is rapidly disappear- Rice consumption, 2007: 7.0 kg milled rice
ing) and are sparsely populated, mainly by per person per year
subsistence farmers. In the south are exten-
sive grasslands where the bulk of agriculture
is carried out. Agriculture constituted 43% Production seasons
of GDP in 2009, occupying some 57% of the Planting Harvesting
workforce. Main, north Jan-Mar Jun-Jul
Main, south Sep-Oct Feb-Mar
C
osta Rica faces both the Pacific General information
Ocean and Caribbean Sea in Cen-
tral America, between Panama and GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 11,950
Nicaragua. It is a tiny country of 51,100 km2 Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
and 4.7 million inhabitants (2011), and a 112.4 km3/year
Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
tropical and subtropical climate with marked
Main food consumed, 2009: milk, fruits,
wet (May to November) and dry seasons.
sugar, meat, rice, vegetables, wheat, starchy
The land is divided into central mountains roots
with active volcanoes and coastal plains. Rice consumption, 2009: 49.3 kg milled rice
Only 4.4% of the land is arable and provides per person per year
agricultural employment for 15% of the
workforce, making up 7% of GDP. Rice is Production seasons
a minor commodity but a highly important
Planting Harvesting
part of the diet.
Main May-Jun Aug-Sep
Second Aug-Sep Nov-Jan
211
C
te dIvoire is centrally located
along the southern coast of West
Africa. Its borders are formed by General information
Ghana to the east, Burkina Faso and Mali to
the north, Guinea and Liberia to the west, GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 1,730
and the Gulf of Guinea to the south. The Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
country has two principal zones: the tropi- 76.84 km3/year
cal rainforest to the south and the savanna Incoming water flow, 2011: 4.3 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: rice, cassava,
to the north, in a total land area of 318,000
yams, plantains, wheat, maize, vegetables,
km2, of which arable land is 8.8% (2009). fermented beverages, sugar, palm oil
Toward the middle of the country, the terrain Rice consumption, 2009: 67.3 kg milled rice
rises to a low plateau covered by a partially per person per year
wooded savanna. Here, the annual rainfall
totals 1,1001,200 mm during the rainy
season from April to October. The Ivorian Production seasons
population was 20.15 million in 2011, of Planting Harvesting
which at least 3 million are immigrants from Main, north May-Jun Oct-Dec
neighboring countries. Agriculture supports
Main, south Apr-May Sep-Nov
38% of the population and produces 24% of
GDP. Rice is the principal food crop grown Off Dec-Feb Apr-Jun
in many areas and is one of the most im-
portant staple foods for the countrys urban
population.
Basic statistics, Cte dIvoire
Element 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Arable land (10 ha) 3,000 2,800 2,800 2,800 2,800 2,800 2,800
Rice area (10 ha) 650.0 341.5 353.2 370.0 356.4 366.7 377.4 394.9
Share of rice area irrigated (%) 5
Share of rice area under MVs (%) 3
Paddy yield (t/ha) 1.06 1.82 1.99 1.93 1.70 1.85 1.82 1.83
Paddy production (10 t) 691.7 621.8 703.9 715.9 606.3 680.0 687.7 722.6
Milled production (10 t) 461 415 470 478 404 454 425 482
Rice imports (10 t) 387.6 440.9 808.2 903.2 808.8 762.2 1121.1 837.9
Rice exports (10 t) 0.1 0.7 11.5 6.3 1.1 21.8 53.4 14.0
Total rice consumption (10 t) 924 975 1,257 1,363 1,479 1,497 1,612
Fertilizer usage in NPK (kg/ha of arable land) 22.00 23.96 17.78 22.77 24.85 18.86 15.85
Source: FAOSTAT database online as of November 2012; Revised National Rice Development Strategy for the Cte dIvoire Rice Sector (NRDS
20122020), Ministry of Agriculture, National Rice Development Office (NRDO), January 2012.
C
uba is the main island of the Cuban General information
Archipelago between the Caribbean
Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
The total population was 11.25 million in 38.12 km3/year
2011. The climate is tropical and fertile Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
plains cover much of the island. Arable Main food consumed, 2009: vegetables, rice,
land makes up 28% of the total land area of sugar, wheat, starchy roots, milk, meat, maize,
fruits, pulses
109,820 km2 and nearly two-thirds are plant-
Rice consumption, 2009: 62.3 kg milled rice
ed to sugarcane, the main crop. Agriculture
per person per year
overall, however, forms only 5% of GDP,
while employing a fifth of the workforce.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-Jul Jul-Aug
Dry Dec-Feb Mar-Jun
T
he Dominican Republic occupies an General information
area of 48,670 km2, the major part of
the island of Hispaniola, between the GNI per capita PPP$, 2011: 9,490
Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic Ocean, Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 21
with Haiti occupying the smaller, western km3/year
part of the island. The Dominican Republic Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: rice, plantains,
had a population of 10 million in 2011, and
meat, milk, wheat, sugar, oils and fats
about 10% of the workforce is engaged in Rice consumption, 2009: 53.2 kg milled rice
agriculture, which makes up 6% of GDP. It per person per year
is a tropical country with extensive fertile
areas lying between mountain ranges; about
17% is arable land.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Main Dec-Mar May-Aug
Off Jul-Sep Dec-Jan
E
cuador, on the tropical Pacific coast General information
of South America, is a small country;
the total land area is only 256,370 GNI per capita PPP$, 2011: 8,310
Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 432
km2, extending from coastal plains where
km3/year
most of the population lives and where cash
Incoming water flow, 2011: 7.6 km3/year
crops, including rice, are grown, to moun- Main food consumed, 2009: rice, wheat, meat,
tainous regions in which agriculture is more milk, bananas, meat, plantains, vegetables,
at a subsistence level. The population was sugar and sweeteners
14.7 million in 2011, with 28.7% of the Rice consumption, 2009: 45.7 kg milled rice
workforce employed in agriculture. Arable per person per year
land constitutes 4.8% of the land area and
agriculture accounted for 7.5% of GDP in Production seasons
2010. Planting Harvesting
Winter Dec-Feb Apr-Jun
Summer May-Jul Sep-Dec
215
E
gypt, a large nation of 1 million km2, General information
mainly consisting of desert, is located
in the northeastern corner of Africa. It GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 6,120
Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 1.8
has a fast-growing population, 82.5 million
km3/year
in 2011, almost all of whom live along the
Incoming water flow, 2011: 55.5 km3/year
Nile River. The Niles waters are used exten- Main food consumed, 2009: wheat, tomatoes,
sively to irrigate crops such as rice, which fruits, maize, milk, rice, sugarcane, potatoes,
is grown in the summer on about 600,000 meat
ha, mainly in the northern delta. Arable land Rice consumption, 2009: 38.6 kg milled rice
was 2.9% of the total area in 2009. A quarter per person per year
of the workforce is involved in agriculture,
which makes up 14% (2011) of GDP.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main May Oct
F
iji, a group of mostly volcanic islands General information
in the South Pacific Ocean totaling
18,274 km2 in area, has a population GNI per capita at PPP$,2011: 4,590
of 0.87 million (2011). Arable land consti- Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
tutes 16% of land area. The climate is hot 28.55 km3/year
Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
humid tropical with a dry cooler season
Main food consumed, 2009: rice, starchy
(May to October) and warmer wet season roots, kava, oils, vegetables, fruits, meat,
(November to April). Agriculture accounts milk, seafood
for 9.5% of GDP and 50% of the workforce, Rice consumption, 2009: 42.8 kg milled rice
mainly in sugarcane production. Rice has per person per year
been grown for several decades and has
become a staple. However, domestic rice Production seasons
production has gradually decreased while Planting Harvesting
demand has grown; more than two-thirds of
Main Oct-Nov Feb-May
the rice consumed is now imported.
Off Jun-Jul Sep-Oct
Source: FAOSTAT database online as of November 2012; Ministry of Primary Industries, Department of Agriculture, Fiji, 2011.
217
F
rance, in western Europe, consists General information
of the northern plains of the Paris
Basin, vast plateaus in the central GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 35,650
Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 200
parts, and mountainous regions in the south.
km3/year
The total area is 549,190 km2. Only 3% of Incoming water flow, 2011: 11 km3/year
the workforce in its 2010 population of 63 Main food consumed, 2009: wheat, meat,
million was engaged in agriculture, although milk, fruits, vegetables, oils and fats, starchy
arable land covers one-third of the country. roots, sugar and sweeteners, fermented bever-
Agriculture accounts for under 2% of GDP. ages
Extensive rice-growing areas are found in Rice consumption, 2009: 4.6 kg milled rice
the Camargue region on the Mediterranean per person per year
coast of France.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-May Sep-Oct
T
he Gambia is a very small tropical na- General information
tion of 11,300 km2, forming an east-
west strip of land along the Gambia GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 2,060
River to its mouth in the Atlantic Ocean. Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 3
km3/year
Senegal surrounds the country apart from its
Incoming water flow, 2011: 5 km3/year
80-km coastline. The vegetation is forest and Main food consumed, 2009: rice, millet and
rainforest but large areas have been defor- sorghum, oils and fats, sugar and sweeteners,
ested for firewood and agriculture. About wheat, maize, milk
40% of the land is arable. In 2011, agricul- Rice consumption, 2009: 60.6 kg milled rice
ture occupied 76% of the workforce in the per person per year
population of 1.78 million and contributed
29.9% of GDP.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Main May-Jun Oct-Nov
Off Jan-Feb May Jun
219
T
he Republic of Ghana, a small General information
(238,540 km2) tropical West African
country bordering the Gulf of Guinea GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 1,810
in the Atlantic Ocean, is predominantly agri- Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
cultural (25.6% of GDP in 2011), with 55% 30.3 km3/year
Incoming water flow, 2011: 22.9 km3/year
of the workforce employed in agriculture on
Main food consumed, 2009: starchy roots,
wide savannas in the north and cleared rain- plantains, vegetables including oils, fish, rice,
forest in the south. Arable land is 19.3% of maize, wheat
the land area. Deforestation and desertifica- Rice consumption, 2009: 26.9 kg milled rice
tion are of increasing concern. The popula- per person per year
tion in 2011 was 25.0 million.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Main May-Jun Oct-Nov
Off Jan-Feb May-Jun
G
reece, in the eastern Mediterranean, General information
has a total area of 131,960 km2. It
GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 25,100
is mainly mountainous and there
Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 58
are several islands south of the continental km3/year
mainland. Surprisingly, arable land is 19.8% Incoming water flow, 2011: 16.3 km3/year
of the total. The population in 2011 was 11.4 Main food consumed, 2009: milk, vegetables,
million; 12.5% (2010) of the workforce is cereals, fruits, meat, starchy roots, sugar
engaged in agriculture, which forms 3.3% of Rice consumption, 2009: 7.1 kg milled rice
GDP. per person per year
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-May Oct-Nov
221
G
uinea is a populous country (popula-
tion 10.2 million in 2011) of West General information
Africa, facing the Atlantic Ocean
GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 1,020
between Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone. Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 226
The majority of the population lives on a km3/year
hot, humid coastal plain, where rice and Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
other crops are grown. There is a central Main food consumed, 2009: starchy roots,
mountainous region and a drier northeastern rice, vegetables including oils, plantains,
area where maize and similar crops are culti- fruits, wheat
vated. Arable land is 11.6% of the land area Rice consumption, 2009: 105.8 kg milled rice
of 245,720 km2. Some 80% of the workforce per person per year
is agricultural, yet agriculture made up only
22.1% of GDP in 2011.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-Jun Sep-Nov
Off Dec-Feb Apr-Jun
G
uinea-Bissau is a tiny tropical West General information
African country of 28,120 km2 land
area, facing the Atlantic Ocean GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 1,240
Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 16
between Senegal and Guinea. The land is
km3/year
mainly flat, rising to savanna in the east. The Incoming water flow, 2011: 15 km3/year
population in 2011 was 1.6 million. Rice is Main food consumed, 2009: rice, starchy
grown in both swampy coastal areas and the roots, plantains, millet and sorghum, milk,
drier savanna region. About 11% of the land vegetables including oils, meat
is arable and agriculture, which occupies Rice consumption, 2009: 99 kg milled rice
79% of the workforce, constitutes 57.3% of per person per year
GDP (2009).
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main May-Aug Oct-Jan
223
G
uyana, a small country of 214,970 General information
km2 in area and a population of
756,000 (2011), is located on the GNI per capita at PPP$, 2010: 3,460
northern edge of South America, between Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
Suriname and Venezuela. Nearly all the in- 241 km3/year
Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
habitants live on a coastal plain, where most
Main food consumed, 2009: milk, rice,
agriculture is concentrated. The remainder vegetables, wheat, starchy roots, meat, sugar,
of the country consists of a rainforest belt fruits
backed by an extensive mountain range. Rice consumption, 2009: 81.9 kg milled rice
Rice and sugarcane are the major crops; per person per year
only 2.1% of the land is arable. Agriculture
formed 21% of GDP and occupied 15% of
the workforce in 2010.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Spring Nov-Dec Mar-Apr
Autumn Jun-July Sep-Oct
T
iny Haiti, on the edge of the Carib- General information
bean Sea, occupies a third, or
27,750 km2, of the island of Hispan- GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 1,180
iola. The Dominican Republic forms the Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
13.0 km3/year
remainder. Most of the country is rugged
Incoming water flow, 2011: 1.0 km3/year
and mountainous. The climate is tropical and Main food consumed, 2009: starchy roots,
the mountains create semiarid conditions in rice, wheat, bananas, maize, plantains, sugar,
parts. Haiti had a population of 10.1 million vegetables
in 2011. Some 38% of the land (2009) is ar- Rice consumption, 2009: 40.4 kg milled rice
able. Agriculture, mainly small scale, occu- per person per year
pies nearly 59% of the workforce and makes
up a quarter of GDP. Rice is the dominant
staple but most has to be imported.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Main Feb-Apr Jun-Aug
Second Aug-Sep Nov-Dec
225
I
ran is a Middle East country bordering General information
the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf, and
the Caspian Sea, between Iraq and Pa- GNI per capita at PPP$, 2009: 11,420
kistan, with a total area of 1.74 million km2 Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
of mainly deserts and fringing, arid moun- 128.5 km3/year
tainous areas. There are also coastal plains Incoming water flow, 2011: 2.7 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: vegetables
where crops such as rice are grown. About
including oils, wheat, fruits, milk, potatoes,
11% of the land is arable. A quarter of the meat, sugar, grapes, rice
workforce in the population of 74.8 million Rice consumption, 2009: 23 kg milled rice per
in 2011 was occupied in agriculture, which person per year
formed 10.2% of GDP.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main May-Jun Sep-Oct
I
raq, a Middle East country lying be- General information
tween Iran and Kuwait facing the Per-
sian Gulf, has a population of 32.7 mil- GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 3,750
lion (2011) in an area of 435,240 km2 that Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
consists mainly of broad plains with areas 35.2 km3/year
of marsh and flooded parts. The climate var- Incoming water flow, 2011: 40.4 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2007-09: wheat, barley,
ies from tropical in the south and southeast
dates, maize, rice, vegetables, meat, yogurt
to dry in the west. Only 10.4% of the land Rice consumption, 2007-09: 39.5 kg milled
is arable. Agricultural output accounts for rice per person per year
8.6% of GDP and occupies about 23.4% of
the workforce. Rice is the third most impor-
tant staple after wheat and barley.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Jun-Jul Sep-Oct
227
I
taly is the main rice-producing country General information
in Europe. It forms a large peninsula in
the Mediterranean Sea, with 301,340 GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 32,400
km2 of surface area, supporting a population Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
of 60.8 million (2011). Rice is grown mainly 182.5 km3/year
in the northern Po Valley. Arable land makes Incoming water flow, 2011: 8.8 km3/year
up 23.4% of the land area. Agriculture as a Main food consumed, 2009: milk, vegetables,
fruits, wheat, meat, potatoes, tomatoes, wine
whole occupies less than 4% of the work-
Rice consumption, 2009: 5.9 kg milled rice
force and contributes only 1.9% to GDP. per person per year
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-May Sep-Oct
K
azakhstan, with an area of 2.7 mil- General information
lion km2, is the ninth largest country
in the world but has a population GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 11,250
of only 16.2 million (2011). Positioned Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 64.4
between China and Russia, it lies at the top km3/year
of Central Asia. The land gradually changes Incoming water flow, 2011: 44.1 km3/year
from mountains and steppes in the north and Main food consumed, 2009: milk, vegetables,
northeast to flat deserts. Only 8.7% is arable wheat, potatoes, meat, fruits, sugar
Rice consumption, 2009: 8.6 kg milled rice per
and most crops are irrigated. The climate
person per year
is arid and semiarid. Agriculture makes up
5.5% of GDP (2011) and occupies 29.4% of
the workforce (2009).
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main May-Jun Sep-Oct
229
T
he Democratic Peoples Republic of General information
Korea (North Korea) occupies the
northern part of the Korean Peninsu- GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 1,610**
la, with a population of 24.45 million (2011) Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 67
km3/year
in an area of 120,540 km2, bordering China
Incoming water flow, 2011: 10.2 km3/year
and the Republic of Korea. Much of the Main food consumed, 2009: vegetables, rice,
country is mountainous, with rice, the main fruits, potatoes, maize, wheat
agricultural crop, and other crops being Rice consumption, 2009: 76.2 kg milled rice
grown on plains. Arable land is 22% (2009) per person per year
of the total. Agriculture makes up 21% of
GDP, occupying a third of the workforce.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main May-Jun Sep-Oct
T
he Republic of Korea (South Korea) General information
occupies the southern part of the
Korean Peninsula, with a population GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 30,370
of 48.4 million (2011) in an area of 99,900 Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 64.9
km2. The country has large areas of coastal km3/year
Incoming water flow, 2011: 4.9 km3/year
plains in the west and south used mainly
Main food consumed, 2009: vegetables includ-
for agriculture. Arable land is about 16.4% ing oils, rice, fruits, fermented beverages,
of the land area. The country has become meat, fish, wheat
mainly industrial and agriculture is only Rice consumption, 2009: 81.3 kg milled rice
2.7% (2011) of GDP, supporting 6.6% of the per person per year
workforce.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main May-Jun Sep-Oct
231
T
he Lao Peoples Democratic Republic General information
(Laos) is an elongated landlocked
country between Thailand and Viet- GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 2,580
Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
nam, also bordering Cambodia in the south
190.4 km3/year
and Myanmar and China in the north. With
Incoming water flow, 2011: 143.1 km3/year
an area of 236,800 km2, most of the land is Main food consumed, 2009: rice, vegetables,
mountainous and covered in rainforest. Log- fruits, starchy roots, sugar, meat, fish
ging of the forests is a major environmental Rice consumption, 2009: 165.5 kg milled rice
problem. About 5.9% of the land area is per person per year
arable (2009). The Mekong River forms a
fertile valley through most of the country,
where agriculture, mainly rice farming, is Production seasons
carried out. The population in 2011 was 6.3 Planting Harvesting
million. Agriculture occupied 75% of the Wet May-Jul Nov-Dec
workforce and made up 30.8% of the coun- Dry Dec-Jan Apr-Jun
trys GDP in 2011.
L
iberia, whose coast is known as General information
the Grain Coast, faces the Atlantic
Ocean in West Africa, occupying GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 540
111,370 km2 between Sierra Leone and Cte Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 200
dIvoire, with a population of 4.1 million km3/year
(2011). There are low-lying coastal plains Incoming water flow, 2011: 32 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: cassava, rice,
where most crops, including rice, are grown,
bananas and plantains, vegetables including
and a mountainous interior with central
oils, wheat, sugar, meat
plateaus. Arable land is less than 5% of the Rice consumption, 2009: 96.1 kg milled rice
land area, but agriculture contributes 53.1% per person per year
to the countrys GDP and occupies less than
two-thirds of the workforce.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-Jul Sep-Dec
233
L
andlocked Malawi in southeastern General information
Africa consists mainly of a plateau
beside Lake Nyasa, whose waters GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 870
make up 24,400 km2 of the total area of Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
118,484 km2. The population of 15.4 million 16.1 km3/year
(2011) makes Malawi one of the worlds Incoming water flow, 2011: 1.1 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: starchy roots,
most densely populated countries. Agricul-
maize, banana and plantains, vegetables
ture comprises almost a third of GDP, occu-
including oils, pulses, sugar
pying nearly 80% of the workforce. Arable Rice consumption, 2009: 5.9 kg milled rice
land is 38.2% of the land area. The climate is per person per year
subtropical with a rainy season in November
to May, the remainder of the year being dry.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Nov-Dec May-Jul
M
alaysia consists of a peninsula bor- General information
dering Thailand in the north, and
the northwestern side of the island GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 15,650
of Borneo, with a total area of 330,800 km2 Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 580
and a population of 28.9 million (2011). km3/year
Most of the peninsula is covered in tropi- Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
cal forest, much of it on a central mountain Main food consumed, 2009: rice, wheat, fish,
range. Coastal plains dominate the Borneo meat, vegetables, fruits, sugar, milk
Rice consumption, 2009: 74 kg milled rice per
states and the interior is mountainous. About
person per year
13% of the workforce is engaged in agri-
culture; 5.5% of the land is arable (2009).
Agriculture made up 11.9% of GDP in 2011.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Main, Peninsular Sep-Oct Nov-Mar
Main, Sabah Jun-Sep Dec-Apr
Main, Sarawak Jan-May Aug-Sep
235
M
auritania is a large West African General information
country bordering the Atlantic
Ocean. Two-thirds of the land GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 2,400
area of 1 million km2 is desert. Most of its Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 0.4
population of 3.54 million (2011) lives in the km3/year
Incoming water flow, 2011: 11 km3/year
southwest, where the Senegal River provides
Main food consumed, 2009: milk, wheat,
water for irrigation. Agriculture contributes sugar, vegetables, rice, meat, fish
16.3% (2011) of GDP and occupies 50% of Rice consumption, 2009: 30.5 kg milled rice
the labor force. Arable land is only 0.4% of per person per year
the land area, but fishing and livestock are
the main agricultural activities.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Main Jun-Jul Oct-Nov
Off Oct-Dec Mar-April
M
exico, at the southern end of North General information
America, faces the Pacific Ocean
and the Gulf of Mexico. Its area of GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 15,390
1.96 million km2 is mainly mountainous with Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 409
km3/year
a climate ranging from desert conditions in
Incoming water flow, 2011: 48.2 km3/year
the north to rainy tropics in the southeast. Main food consumed, 2009: maize, milk, fruits,
Arable land is about 13% of the land area. meat, beer, vegetables, sugar, wheat
Agriculture occupies 13% of the workforce Rice consumption, 2009: 5.8 kg milled rice per
in a population of 114.8 million (2011) and person per year
constitutes only about 3.8% of GDP.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-Jul Sep-Jan
Autumm/winter Dec-Feb Aug
Spring/summer May-Jul Oct-Dec
237
M
ozambique extends nearly 2,500 General information
km along the southeastern coast
of Africa, with an area of 799,380 GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 970
km2. Much of this consists of wide coastal Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
plains, rising to low inland plateaus. Agri- 100.3 km3/year
culture occupies about 81% of the workforce Incoming water flow, 2011: 116.8 km3/
in a population of 23.9 million (2011). Ar- year
able land is 6.4% of the total area; however, Main food consumed, 2009: starchy roots,
agriculture makes up 32% of GDP. maize, wheat, rice, fruits, sugar, vegeta-
bles including oils
Rice consumption, 2009: 19 kg milled
rice per person per year
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Nov-Jan May-Jun
N
epal is a small (147,480 km2) coun- General information
try in the central Himalayan Moun-
tains between India and China. It GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 1,260
consists of low tropical plains and central Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
plateaus that rise up to the worlds highest 198.2 km3/year
peaks. Arable land covers 16.7% of its land Incoming water flow, 2011: 12 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: rice, maize,
area. The population in 2011 was 30.5 mil-
wheat, vegetables, starchy roots, milk, fruits,
lion. According to the Nepal Department of wheat, sugarcane, vegetables, including oil
Agriculture, agriculture provides a liveli- Rice consumption, 2009: 79.7 kg milled rice
hood for 66% of the economically active per person per year
population and accounts for 39% of GDP.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main May-Aug Oct-Dec
239
N
icaragua, a small country of 130,370 General information
km2 in Central America, faces the
Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 3,730
Sea. Much of the interior is mountainous Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
and volcanic. The bulk of the population of 189.7 km3/year
5.87 million (2011) lives on the western side Incoming water flow, 2011: 7.0 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: milk, maize,
of the country. Arable land is 15.8% of the
fruits, rice, sugar, wheat, meat, beans
land area. Agriculture is undertaken by 15%
Rice consumption, 2009: 43.5 kg milled rice
of the workforce and makes up 20% of GDP per person per year
(2011).
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Main-Highland June Oct-Nov
Main-Irrigated Jan-Feb Apr-Nov
N
iger is one of the larger Central
African countries, with an area of General information
1.27 million km2. Landlocked, it GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 720
consists mainly of a plateau. The Sahara Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 3.5
Desert occupies the northern parts and there km3/year
is savanna in the south where crops such Incoming water flow, 2011: 30.2 km3/year
as rice are grown. Nearly all (90%) of the Main food consumed, 2009: millet and sor-
workforce in the population of 16.1 mil- ghum, milk, vegetables, pulses, meat
lion (2011) is rural, engaged in subsistence Rice consumption, 2009: 8.3 kg milled rice
agriculture, which makes up 39.7% of GDP. per person per year
Arable land made up 11.8% of total land
area in 2009.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Deepwater rice Jul-Aug Dec-Jan
Other rice, main Jun-Jul Oct-Dec
241
P
akistan, a South Asian country facing General information
the Arabian Sea, with 796,100 km2 in
area and a population of 176.8 million GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 2,870
(2011), is largely mountainous and semi- Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 55
arid. However, on the eastern side, where km3/year
Incoming water flow, 2011: 191.8 km3/year
Pakistan borders India, the Indus River runs
Main food consumed, 2009: wheat, milk,
nearly the full length of the country. Most sugar, fruits, vegetables, rice, fruits, meat
agricultural activities are concentrated on its Rice consumption, 2009: 17 kg milled rice per
banks, as is most of the population. Arable person per year
land is 26.5% of the land area. Agriculture
occupies 39% of the workforce and accounts
for 21.6% of GDP. The main crops are
cotton and wheat.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main May-Jul Oct-Nov
P
anama, facing both the Pacific Ocean General information
and Caribbean Sea in Central Amer-
ica, is bordered by Colombia and GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 14,510
Costa Rica. It is a small country of 75,420 Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
km2, with a population of 3.6 million (2011). 147.4 km3/year
Its climate is hot, humid tropical, with most Incoming water flow, 2011: 0.6 km3/year
of the land occupied by mountains and up- Main food consumed, 2009: fruits, fermented
land plains, and coastal plains; only 7.4% is beverages, milk, meat, rice, wheat, vegetables
including oils, sugar, maize
arable. Much of the economy is built around
Rice consumption, 2009: 62.2 kg milled rice
the Panama Canal. Agriculture contributes per person per year
4% of GDP, undertaken by 16% of the work-
force. Rice is the second largest crop after
bananas.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-July Aug-Oct
243
P
araguay, a relatively small landlocked General information
country in central South America, has
an area of 406,750 km2 and a popu- GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 5,390
lation of 6.6 million (2011). The country Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 94
consists of fertile irrigated plains in the east km3/year
and dry savanna in the west. Arable land is Incoming water flow, 2011: 242 km3/year
9.6% of the land area. Most crops are grown Main food consumed, 2009: cassava, fruits,
milk, fermented beverages, maize, vegetables,
in the easterly plains, with soybeans being
meat, wheat, sugar
the major export crop. About one-quarter of Rice consumption, 2009: 3.4 kg milled rice per
the workforce is engaged in mainly subsist- person per year
ence agriculture, which constitutes 23.5% of
GDP.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Oct-Dec Mar-May
P
ortugal, the westernmost country of General information
Europe, is bordered by Spain and
faces the Atlantic Ocean, with an GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 24,440
area of 92,090 km2 that includes the off- Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 38
shore islands of the Azores and Madeira. km3/year
The northern part of the mainland, which Incoming water flow, 2011: 30.7 km3/year
is mountainous and rainy, contains areas of Main food consumed, 2009: milk, vegetables,
intensive agriculture. The south consists of fruits, wheat, fermented beverages, meat,
potatoes, fish, sugar
low plateaus that are mainly very dry. Rice
Rice consumption, 2009: 14.8 kg milled rice
is grown in both areas. Some 10.9% of the
per person per year
population of 10.7 million (2011) is engaged
in agriculture. Arable land is 12.3% of the
land area, but agriculture forms only 2.4%
of GDP.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-May Sep-Oct
245
T
he Russian Federation in northern General information
Asia is the worlds largest country,
GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 20,560
occupying an area of 17 million km, Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 4,313
from Europe in the west to the North Pa- km3/year
cific Ocean in the east. The climate varies Incoming water flow, 2011: 194.6 km3/year
from arctic to subtropical and the terrain Main food consumed, 2009: milk, wheat, veg-
from mountainous to desert. Overall, 8% etables, potatoes, fermented beverages, meat,
of the population of 142.8 million (2011) is fruits, fish
engaged in agriculture, which forms 4.3% of Rice consumption, 2009: 5.1 kg milled rice per
GDP. Arable land is 7.4% of the land area. person per year
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main May-Jun Aug-Sep
R
wanda in Central Africa is the most General information
densely populated country on the
continent, with a population of GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 1,270
10.9 million (2011) in an area of 26,338 Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 9.5
km3/year
km2. Rwanda is landlocked, surrounded
Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
by Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Main food consumed, 2009: plantains, starchy
Congo, Tanzania, and Uganda, with part roots, fermented beverages, vegetables,
of its western border in Lake Kivu. Most pulses, milk, maize, sorghum
of the country is made up of grassy plains Rice consumption, 2009: 9.6 kg milled rice
and hills, with some mountainous areas, per person per year
such that more than half is arable (52.7%
of the land area). The great majority of the
workforce (89%) is engaged in agriculture Production seasons
and contributes 32% to GDP. The climate is Planting Harvesting
temperate and there are two wet seasons, in First wet Sep-Oct Jan-Feb
September-December and March-May. Rice Second wet Feb-Mar May-Jun
consumption and production are increasing
in the country, although much rice consumed
is imported.
247
S
ierra Leone, between Guinea and Li-
General information
beria on the West African coast facing
the Atlantic Ocean, is a small country, GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 840
with a population of 6 million (2011) in an Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
area of 71,740 km2. It consists of a large 160 km3/year
swampy coastal plain and inner agricultural Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
areas that were previously tropical forest, Main food consumed, 2009: rice, cassava,
and an eastern plateau. About 15% of the fermented beverages, vegetables including
land was arable in 2009. More than half the oils, fruits, fish, pulses, wheat
workforce (60%) is engaged in agriculture, Rice consumption, 2009: 92.3 kg milled rice
mainly at the subsistence level, contributing per person per year
44.4% to GDP (2011).
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-Jul Sep-Jan
S
pain, in southwestern Europe, has General information
an area of 505,370 km2, including
the Balearic and Canary islands. The GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 31,400
mainland faces both the Atlantic Ocean and Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
Mediterranean Sea. It consists of a central 111.2 km3/year
Incoming water flow, 2011: 0.3 km3/year
plateau mainly surrounded by mountainous
Main food consumed, 2009: vegetables
areas. Twenty-five percent of the land is ar- including oils, milk, fermented beverages,
able, but agriculture now forms less than 3% meat, wheat, fruits, fish, sugar, olives
of GDP and occupies only 4.3% of the work- Rice consumption, 2009: 11.5 kg milled rice
force in a population of 46.5 million (2011). per person per year
There are extensive rice-growing areas in the
southwest and northeast.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-May Sep-Oct
249
S
ri Lanka, a small island at the south- General information
ern tip of India, had a population of
21 million in 2011. The country has GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 5,520
an area of 65,610 km2, which is divided into Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
two climate zones, wet in the southwest and 52.8 km3/year
dry elsewhere. The land is mainly flat with Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
a central mountain range. Arable land was Main food consumed, 2009: rice, oilcrops,
wheat, vegetables, milk, fruits, sugar, fish
19% of the total land area in 2009. Agricul-
Rice consumption, 2009: 103.8 kg milled rice
ture accounts for 44% of the workforce and per person per year
12% of GDP. Rice is the second largest crop
after tea.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Major (Maha) Oct-Nov Feb-Mar
Minor (Yaha) Apr-May Aug-Sep
S
uriname is a small Latin American General information
country bordering the North Atlantic
Ocean, between French Guiana and GNI per capita at PPP$, 2010: 7,710
Guyana, with an area of 163,820 km2. It con- Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 88
sists of swampy coastal plains where rice, km3/year
Incoming water flow, 2011: 34 km3/year
sugarcane, and other crops are grown and
Main food consumed, 2009: fruits (bananas
tropical forest on inland hills. The popula- and plantains), rice, wheat, fermented bever-
tion in 2011 was 0.53 million. There is little ages, sugar, meat, vegetables including oils,
arable land; bauxite mining dominates the starchy roots, milk
economy. However, agriculture accounted Rice consumption, 2009: 67.8 kg milled rice
for 10.9% of GDP in 2010 and occupied per person per year
17% of the workforce.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Jan-Feb Apr-May
251
T
imor-Leste is a tiny (14,874 km2) new General information
country (independence in 2002) at
the eastern end of Indonesia, where GNI per capita at PPP$, 2010: 5,210
it occupies two parts of the island of Timor Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 8.2
km3/year
and two small islands between the Timor
Incoming water flow, 2011: 0 km3/year
Sea to the south and the Banda Sea to the Main food consumed, 2009: maize, rice,
north. Eleven percent of the land area is starchy roots, meat, vegetables including oils,
arable. The land is mountainous, some parts fruits, wheat, milk
rugged, and the climate is hot humid tropi- Rice consumption, 2009: 67.3 kg milled rice
cal, with marked wet (December-March) per person per year
and dry (June-September) seasons. Although
the country receives substantial oil revenue,
the population of 1.15 million is still largely Production seasons
rural, with agriculture making up 25.6% of Planting Harvesting
GDP and occupying 80% of the workforce. Main Dec-Jan May-July
Maize and rice are the main crops.
Off Apr-Jun Aug-Dec
T
ogo forms a thin strip facing the General information
Atlantic Ocean in West Africa, cover-
ing 56,785 km2 between Benin and GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 1,040
Ghana; inland, it borders Burkina Faso. The Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
land consists of a coastal plain with exten- 11.5 km3/year
Incoming water flow, 2011: 3.2 km3/year
sive wetlands rising to hilly in the center and
Main food consumed, 2009: starchy roots,
to gently rolling savanna in the north. Nearly maize, sorghum, vegetables including oils,
half (40%) of the land is arable. The climate rice, fermented beverages, meat, pulses, wheat
ranges from hot humid tropical in the coastal Rice consumption, 2009: 21 kg milled rice per
south to semiarid in the inland north. The person per year
population is 6.1 million (2011) and largely
rural. Agriculture accounts for 53% of the
workforce and 31.9% of GDP. Demand Production season
for rice has been increasing and, although Planting Harvesting
domestic production is increasing, much rice Main May Oct-Nov
is still imported.
253
T
urkey, a diverse land of 783,560 General information
km2 in area, faces the Black Sea and
Mediterranean Sea. Its western border GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 16,940
marks the traditional separation of Europe Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 227
km3/year
and Asia. Turkey is mainly mountainous,
Incoming water flow, 2011: 16.6 km3/year
with a coastal plain and high central plateau.
Main food consumed, 2009: wheat, milk,
The proportion of arable land is quite high, fruits, vegetables including oils, starchy roots,
27.7%, and agriculture occupies 32% of the sugar, meat
workforce, making up 9.1% of GDP. The Rice consumption, 2009: 9.3 kg milled rice
population in 2011 was 73.6 million. per person per year
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-Jun Sep-Oct
T
urkmenistan in Central Asia lies be- General information
tween Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan to
the north and Iran and Afghanistan to GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 8,690
the south; the Caspian Sea forms its western Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 1.4
km3/year
side. About 80% is desert with a tropical arid
Incoming water flow, 2011: 23.4 km3/year
climate. Arable land, 3.9% of the countrys
Main food consumed, 2009: wheat, milk,
area of 488,100 km2, is along river valleys vegetables including oils , meat, potatoes,
and almost all irrigated. Agriculture accounts grapes, onions
for 14.6% of GDP and employs 30% of the Rice consumption, 2009: 13 kg milled rice per
population of 5.1 million (2011). Cotton and person per year
wheat are the major commodities; rice is a
minor crop.
Production season
Planting Harvesting
Main Apr-May Aug-Sep
255
U
ganda, 241,550 km2 in area, is a General information
highland plateau country in East-
Central Africa, the lowest point GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 1,310
being 621 m above sea level. Landlocked Internal renewable water resources, 2011: 39
and surrounded by five other nations, it has km3/year
Incoming water flow, 2011: 27 km3/year
a long border with Lake Victoria and has
Main food consumed, 2009: starchy roots,
many other large water bodies. The climate plantains, fermented beverages, milk, vegeta-
is tropical, with two dry seasons (December- bles including oils, maize, millet
February and June-August). Some 33% Rice consumption, 2009: 4.6 kg milled rice
of the land is arable; agriculture makes up per person per year
23.4% of GDP and occupies 75% of the
workforce in a population of 34.5 million
Production seasons
(2011). Rice is a relatively new crop and
Planting Harvesting
much consumption is from imported rice.
First Feb Jun
Second Aug Dec
U
kraine, on the Black Sea in Eastern General information
Europe, is a moderately large coun- GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 7,040
try with a population of 45.2 mil- Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
lion (2011). Ukraine is surrounded by eight 53.1 km3/year
other countries, its border with Russia in the Incoming water flow, 2011: 86.5 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: wheat, milk,
east being by far the longest. Land area is
vegetables including oils, starchy roots,
603,550 km2, of which arable land makes up
fermented beverages, fruits, meat, sugar,
more than half (56%), as most of the coun- tomatoes, onions
try is fertile steppes and plateaus. However, Rice consumption, 2009: 3.5 kg milled rice
agriculture makes up only 9.6% of GDP and per person per year
occupies only 10% of the workforce. The
climate is temperate continental, with win-
ters varying from mild on the southern coast Production season
to cold inland. Rainfall is highest in the west Planting Harvesting
and north. Rice is grown in the southern re- Main Apr-May Sep-Oct
gions but much is imported. The area under
rice, now around 32,500 ha, is only half that
before the breakup of the Soviet Union in
1991.
257
T
he United States, occupying the General information
central part of North America, faces
both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. GNI per capita PPP$, 2011: 48,890
Its 50 states have an area of 9.6 million km2. Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
The population in 2010 was 310.4 million. 2,818 km3/year
Incoming water flow, 2011: 251 km3/year
The country has a wide range of climates;
Main food consumed, 2009: milk, vegetables,
the terrain varies from huge plains to river meat, fruits, wheat, potatoes, sugar, oils and
valleys and mountain ranges. Arable land in fats
2009 was 17.8% of the total land area. Ag- Rice consumption, 2009: 8.3 kg milled rice
riculture is a minor sector, only 1% of GDP per person per year
and employing 1.6% of the workforce. The
Rice Belt of the United States comprises Production seasons
Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas,
Planting Harvesting
four southern states that grow a significant
portion of the nations rice crop. Main, Gulf Apr-Jun Aug-Oct
Main, California Sep-Nov Apr-Jun
U
zbekistan, between Kazakhstan and General information
Turkmenistan in Central Asia, has a
population of 27.8 million (2011) in GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 3,420
an area of 447,400 km2 that is mostly desert Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
in an arid climate. The country also has 16.3 km3/year
borders with Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Incoming water flow, 2011: 32.5 km3/year
Main food consumed, 2009: vegetables
Tajikistan. In the west, it borders the Aral
including oils, wheat, milk, fruits, potatoes,
Sea, which has been drying up due to over- meat
use of inflowing river water for irrigation of Rice consumption, 2009: 4.9 kg milled rice
crops in river valleys. Agriculture, mainly of per person per year
cotton, occupies 10% of the land, occupies a
fifth of the workforce, and contributes 18.9%
to GDP. Rice, however, is an important part Production season
of the Uzbek diet. Rice is grown in summer Planting Harvesting
under flood irrigation mostly in rotation with
Main Apr-May Aug-Sep
winter wheat.
259
V
enezuela forms part of the northern General information
edge of South America, facing the
Caribbean Sea. The country is bor- GNI per capita at PPP$, 2011: 12,430
dered by Colombia, Brazil, and Guyana. It Internal renewable water resources, 2011:
722.4 km3/year
has an area of 912,050 km2 and a population
Incoming water flow, 2011: 510.7 km3/year
of 29.4 million (2011). There are three main Main food consumed, 2009: milk, fermented
regions: mountainous areas in the north, beverages, meat, fruits, maize, vegetables,
west, and south; coastal lowlands; and cen- wheat, sugar, starchy roots, rice
tral plains. Arable land is 3.1% of the total; Rice consumption, 2009: 32.1 kg milled rice
agriculture occupies 5% of the workforce per person per year
and forms 5.8% of GDP.
Production seasons
Planting Harvesting
Wet Jul-Aug Nov-Dec
Dry Nov-Dec May-Jun
261
262
GENERAL INFORMATION
Selected rice-consum- GNIa per capita
Infant mortality (per 1,000 Life expectancy at birth
ing and -producing Population (million)
live births) (years) PPP ( $) Ave. annual growthb (%)
countries
2010 2011 2035 2050 2010 2010 2011 2000-2010
Chile 17.11 17.27 19.84 20.06 8 78.9 16,330.00 2.41
Colombia 46.29 46.93 58.65 61.76 16 73.4 9,560.00 2.28
Rice almanac
Costa Rica 4.66 4.73 5.83 6.00 9 79.2 11,950.00 3.25
Cuba 11.26 11.25 10.80 9.90 5 79.0 4,500.00 (2007) 5.17
Dominican Republic 9.93 10.06 12.41 12.94 22 73.2 9,490.00 4.02
Ecuador 14.46 14.67 18.49 19.55 20 75.5 8,310.00 3.37
Guyana 0.75 0.76 0.80 0.77 30 69.5 3,460.00 (2010) -
Haiti 9.99 10.12 13.05 14.18 68 61.8 1,180.00 0.63
Mexico 113.42 114.79 138.92 143.92 14 76.7 15,390.00 1.09
Nicaragua 5.79 5.87 7.48 7.85 23 73.7 3,730.00 1.82
Panama 3.52 3.57 4.70 5.13 17 76.0 14,510.00 4.15
Paraguay 6.45 6.57 9.15 10.32 20 72.3 5,390.00 1.27
Peru 29.08 29.40 36.70 38.83 15 73.8 9,440.00 4.24
Suriname 0.52 0.53 0.61 0.61 26 70.3 7,710.00 (2010) -
United States 310.38 313.09 372.89 403.10 7 78.2 48,890.00 0.89
Uruguay 3.37 3.38 3.64 3.66 9 76.2 14,640.00 2.13
Venezuela 28.98 29.44 38.58 41.82 13 74.1 12,430.00 1.76
Rice facts
263
264
INFORMATION ABOUT AGRICULTURE
Arable land per Annual renewable Fresh water Agriculture share (%) Average annual growth rateh (%)
capitae (hectare freshwater resources withdrawals for
Selected rice-consuming and per person) GDPg GDP Agriculture Rice produc-
per capita (m3) agriculture (%) Labor forcef
-producing countries value added tion
2009 2011 2011 2010 2011 2000-10 2000-10 2000-10
- - - - - - - 1.90
Rice almanac
ASIA
Afghanistan 0.23 1,334.92 98.6 60.0 29.92 (2010) 11.3 6.3 9.70
Bangladesh 0.05 697.70 87.8 45 18.43 5.9 3.5 3.21
Bhutan 0.11 105,652.83 94.1 65.4 (2009) 18.75 (2009) a a 7.19
8.6 2.4
Cambodia 0.28 8,430.51 94.0 66.0 36.68 8.7 5.6 8.23
China 0.08 2,092.80 64.6 39.6 (2008) 10.04 10.8 4.4 1.04
India 0.13 1,164.73 90.4 51.1 17.22 8.0 3.0 1.52
Indonesia 0.10 8,331.76 81.9 38.3 14.72 5.3 3.5 2.61
Iran 0.24 1,717.95 92.2 22.0 10.22 (2009) 5.4 5.9 0.22
Iraq 0.14 1,067.90 78.8 23.4 (2008) 8.57 (2003) 0.4 -5.6a 8.43
Japan 0.03 3,364.18 63.1 3.7 1.20 (2010) 0.9 -0.8 -0.59
Kazakhstan 1.45 3,886.23 66.2 29.4 (2009) 5.54 8.3 3.8 4.95
Korea, Dem. Rep. 0.11 2,740.14 76.4 23.0 21.00 - - 2.54
Korea, Rep. 0.03 1,302.76 62.0 6.6 2.70 4.1 2.0 -0.86
Laos 0.22 30,279.72 93.0 75.0 30.80 7.2 3.4 3.44
Malaysia 0.06 20,097.61 34.2 13 11.87 5.0 3.3 1.70
Myanmar 0.23 20,750.25 89.0 67 36.00 a a 5.31
12.9 10.7
Nepal 0.08 6,501.39 98.2 66.0 39.00 3.8 3.2 -0.07
Pakistan 0.12 311.18 94.0 39 21.63 5.1 3.4 3.62
Philippines 0.06 5,049.97 82.2 31.0 13.04 4.9 3.2 2.96
Sri Lanka 0.06 2,530.07 87.3 42 12.09 5.6 3.1 4.04
Thailand 0.22 3,229.35 90.4 41.5 (2009) 12.37 4.5 2.2 1.93
Timor-Leste 0.15 6,986.26 91.4 80 25.60 3.4 - 7.92
Turkey 0.30 3,082.58 73.8 32.0 9.14 4.7 1.6 10.10
Continued.
INFORMATION ABOUT AGRICULTURE
Arable land per Annual renewable Freshwater Agriculture share (%) Average annual growth rateh (%)
Selected rice-consuming and capitae (hectare freshwater resources withdrawals for
-producing countries per person) per capita (m3) agriculture (%) Labor forcef GDPg GDP Agriculture Rice Produc-
value added tion
2009 2011 2011 2010 2011 2000-2010 2000-2010 2000-2010
Turkmenistan 0.37 275.20 94.3 30.0 14.55 13.6 12.3 12.43
Uzbekistan 0.15 556.90 90.0 21.0 18.90 7.1 6.4 3.13
Vietnam 0.07 4,091.53 94.8 51.7 (2006) 19.66 7.5 3.7 2.02
AMERICAS - - - - - - - 1.56
Argentina 0.77 6,770.59 66.1 1.2 (2009) 9.09 5.6 2.9 5.37
Bolivia 0.38 30,084.93 57.2 41.0 12.85 (2010) 4.1 2.9 3.28
Brazil 0.32 27,550.78 54.6 17.0 (2009) 5.46 3.7 3.6 1.23
Chile 0.07 51,188.44 70.3 13 3.40 4.0 4.2 -2.66
Colombia 0.04 45,005.95 38.9 17.9 6.77 4.5 2.2 -0.04
Costa Rica 0.04 23,780.43 53.4 15 7.02 4.9 3.3 1.00
Cuba 0.32 3,387.34 74.7 18.6 (2008) 4.99 (2010) 6.7 -0.9 -3.38
Dominican Republic 0.08 2,088.27 64.3 10 6.10 5.6 3.4 -0.35
Ecuador 0.08 29,455.77 91.5 28.7 (2009) 7.48 4.8 4.4 2.53
Guyana 0.56 318,766.20 97.6 15.0 21.35 a a 1.36
2.2 -1.6
Haiti 0.11 1,285.09 77.5 59.0 25.00 0.6 -0.6a 1.05
Rice facts
Venezuela 0.10 24,673.82 43.8 5 5.79 4.7 2.5 7.30
265
266
Continued.
INFORMATION ABOUT AGRICULTURE
Arable land per Annual renewable Fresh water Agriculture share (%) Average annual growth rateh (%)
Selected rice-consuming and capitae (hectare freshwater resources withdra-wals for
-producing countries per person) per capita (m3) agriculture (%) Labor forcef GDPg GDP Agriculture Rice produc-
Rice almanac
value added tion
2009 2011 2011 2010 2011 2000-10 2000-10 2000-10
AFRICA - - - - - 5.0 3.2 3.71
Benin 0.28 1,131.88 45.4 44 32.20 (2005) 4.0 4.6 11.09
Burkina Faso 0.37 736.69 70.1 92 33.28 (2009) 5.5 6.2 8.73
Burundi 0.11 1,173.15 77.1 89 35.18 3.2 -1.5 3.86
Cameroon 0.31 13,629.31 76.1 48 19.47 (2007) 3.2 3.4 9.23
Chad 0.39 1,301.46 51.8 66 51.00 9.0 1.3a 4.84
EUROPE - - - - - - - 2.85
France 0.28 3,056.40 12.4 2.9 (2010) 1.80 (2010) 1.3 0.3 0.79
Greece 0.23 5,130.93 89.3 12.5 3.30 2.6 - 4.29
Italy 0.11 3,003.13 44.1 3.8 1.89 (2010) 0.5 -0.1 1.97
Portugal 0.11 3,572.44 73.0 10.9 2.44 (2010) 0.7 -0.2 1.36
Russian Federation 0.86 30,388.22 19.9 8 4.25 5.4 1.5 7.17
Spain 0.27 2,405.10 60.5 4.3 2.72 (2010) 2.4 -0.1 -0.44
Ukraine 0.71 1,161.77 51.2 10.0 9.58 4.8 2.9 6.37
Fiji 0.19 32,876.33 61.2 50.00 9.50 (2010) 1.0a -1.2a -3.75
Australia 2.15 21,750.09 73.8 3.3 (2009) 2.28 (2010) 3.2 1.7 -32.31
WORLD 0.20 6,115.64 70.0 35.0 (2005) 2.81 (2010) 2.7 2.5 1.93
Rice facts
267
268
RICE CONSUMPTION
Selected rice-consuming and Total rice consumption (000 t) Rice consumption Daily calorie supply (kcal/ Rice in total calorie
-producing countries Paddy equivalent Milled equivalent (kg/capita/yr) capita/day) supply (%)
2000 2009 2000 2009 2000 2009 2000 2009 2000 2009
Rice almanac
ASIA 528,363 595,992 352,418 397,527 78.9 77.2 2,591 2,706 30.6 28.7
Afghanistan - - 480 (2003) - 17 (2003) - - 2,477 - 6.8
Bangladesh 35,407 46,213 23,616 30,824 165.9 173.3 2,309 2,481 71.6 69.6
Cambodia 3,819 7,245 2,547 4,833 171.4 160.3 2,129 2,382 74.4 64.2
China 192,933 196,674 128,686 131,182 78.6 76.3 2,867 3,036 28.4 26.2
India 123,656 133,490 82,478 89,038 71.8 68.2 2,264 2,321 31.4 29.1
Indonesia 54,088 63,243 36,076 42,183 126.8 127.4 2,431 2,646 51.6 47.6
Iran 3,382 3,531 2,256 2,355 30.3 23 3,137 3,143 10.3 7.0
Iraq 1,191 1,191 - 1,191 - 39.5 - - - -
Japan 12,386 11,127 8,262 7,421 60 54 2,902 2,723 22.2 21.3
Kazakhstan 209 255 139 170 8.3 8.6 2,396 3,284 3.3 2.6
Korea, Dem. Rep. 2,719 3,158 1,814 2,106 70.7 76.2 2,135 2,078 32.4 35.8
Korea, Rep. 6,614 6,636 4,412 4,426 87.9 81.3 3,090 3,200 30.9 27.6
Laos 1,983 2,814 1,323 1,877 161.6 165.5 2,146 2,377 66.6 61.6
Malaysia 3,107 3,300 2,072 2,201 84.2 74 2,864 2,902 28.7 25.2
Myanmar 19,589 31,954 13,066 21,313 162.4 140.8 2,174 2,493 63.9 48.3
Nepal 3,980 4,555 2,655 3,038 84.8 79.7 2,257 2,443 35.8 31.1
Pakistan 3,349 4,825 2,234 3,218 13.8 17 2,374 2,423 5.9 7.2
Philippines 13,183 18,189 8,793 12,132 104.2 123.3 2,412 2,580 42.5 47.0
Sri Lanka 2,868 3,540 1,913 2,361 92.7 103.8 2,332 2,426 38.5 41.4
Thailand 15,648 19,438 10,437 12,965 114.6 133 2,650 2,862 43.1 46.2
Timor-Leste 94 125 63 83 61.3 67.3 1,902 2,076 29.1 29.2
Turkey 885 1,052 590 702 9 9.3 3,636 3,666 2.3 2.3
Turkmenistan 29 110 19 74 3.2 13 2,608 2,878 1.2 4.5
Continued.
RICE CONSUMPTION
Selected rice-consuming and Total rice consumption (000 t) Rice consumption Daily calorie supply Rice in total calorie
-producing countries Paddy equivalent Milled equivalent (kg/ capita/yr) (kcal/capita/day) supply (%)
2000 2009 2000 2009 2000 2009 2000 2009 2000 2009
Uzbekistan 375 218 250 146 9.6 4.9 2,376 2,618 3.9 1.8
Vietnam 24,958 29,886 16,647 19,934 145.6 141.2 2,269 2,690 63.2 51.7
AMERICAS 30,589 36,403 20,403 24,281 19.7 20 3,173 3,205 6.3 6.3
Argentina 375 586 250 391 5.3 7.9 3,268 2,918 1.7 2.8
Bolivia 302 418 201 279 22.2 25.6 2,121 2,172 10.7 12.9
Brazil 11,964 12,679 7,980 8,457 38.3 34.6 2,882 3,173 13.5 11.1
Chile 198 309 132 206 6.8 9.3 2,808 2,908 2.4 3.1
Colombia 2,775 3,138 1,851 2,093 35.9 35.2 2,662 2,717 13.7 13.2
Costa Rica 326 356 217 237 53 49.3 2,825 2,886 17.6 16.0
Cuba 1,198 1,316 799 878 59.7 62.3 3,046 3,258 19.4 18.9
Dominican Republic 695 866 463 578 45 53.2 2,322 2,491 18.8 20.8
Ecuador 1,216 1,572 811 1,048 56.3 45.7 2,221 2,267 23.9 19.0
Guyana 164 201 110 134 81.2 81.9 2,814 2,718 28.0 29.3
Haiti 493 620 329 414 36.4 40.4 1,931 1,979 18.8 20.5
Mexico 1,006 1,061 671 708 5.7 5.8 3,158 3,146 1.9 1.9
Nicaragua 381 388 254 259 47.2 43.5 2,148 2,517 20.4 16.1
Panama 168 335 112 224 34.6 62.2 2,195 2,606 15.4 23.9
Paraguay 100 47 67 31 11.6 3.4 2,596 2,518 4.5 1.4
Peru 2,013 3,017 1,343 2,013 42.1 48.7 2,379 2,563 19.2 20.4
Suriname 114 163 76 109 75.7 67.8 2,457 2,548 28.6 24.7
United States 5,486 6,368 3,659 4,248 8.8 8.3 3,804 3,688 2.4 2.4
Uruguay 121 146 80 97 15 19.2 2,844 2,808 5.3 6.8
Rice facts
Venezuela 592 1,625 395 1,084 11.6 32.1 2,484 3,014 4.5 10.2
269
270
Continued.
RICE CONSUMPTION
Selected rice-consuming and Total rice consumption (000 t) Rice consumption Daily calorie supply Rice in total calorie
-producing countries Paddy equivalent Milled equivalent (kg/ capita/yr) (kcal/capita/day) supply (%)
2000 2009 2000 2009 2000 2009 2000 2009 2000 2009
Rice almanac
AFRICA 24,115 34,661 16,084 23,119 18.4 21.1 2,421 2,560 7.6 8.2
Benin 121 512 81 341 10.1 34.4 2,395 2,592 4.2 13.3
Burkina Faso 370 633 247 422 19.4 25.5 2,371 2,647 7.8 9.3
Burundi 57 92 38 61 4.8 6.4 1,674 1,604 2.6 3.7
Cameroon 246 895 164 597 10.1 30.3 2,133 2,457 4.8 12.4
Chad 122 132 82 88 9 7.1 1,954 2,074 4.6 3.4
Cte d'Ivoire 1,462 2,417 975 1,612 49.3 67.3 2,550 2,670 17.6 22.8
Democratic Republic of the Congo - - - - - - - 7 (2007) - -
Egypt 4,845 5,408 3,231 3,607 39.7 38.6 3,318 3,349 12.6 12.1
Gambia 149 312 99 208 41.2 60.6 2,350 2,643 16.9 22.7
Ghana 504 1,038 336 692 15.7 26.9 2,472 2,934 5.9 8.8
Guinea 1,418 1,921 946 1,281 91 105.8 2,490 2,652 36.6 40.3
Guinea-Bissau 198 241 132 161 99.2 99 2,372 2,476 41.8 40.0
Liberia 283 649 189 433 57.1 96.1 2,191 2,261 26.3 42.8
Madagascar 2,829 4,696 1,887 3,132 98.1 105.5 2,073 2,117 48.1 50.7
Malawi 77 136 51 91 4.3 5.9 2,209 2,318 1.9 2.5
Mali 879 1,449 587 967 46.1 56 2,217 2,624 20.7 21.2
Mauritania 202 161 135 107 48.4 30.5 2,713 2,856 17.3 10.5
Mozambique 273 687 182 458 9.1 19 1,979 2,112 4.6 8.8
Niger 200 248 134 165 11.5 8.3 2,171 2,489 5.1 3.2
Nigeria 4,488 5,315 2,993 3,545 21.8 20.9 2,611 2,711 8.5 7.9
Rwanda 14 161 10 107 1.1 9.6 1,867 2,188 0.5 4.2
Senegal 1,123 1,476 749 984 76 71.5 2,243 2,479 33.2 28.5
Sierra Leone 678 956 452 638 98.3 92.3 1,989 2,162 48.0 41.5
Tanzania 1,010 1,455 674 970 18.1 20.1 1,999 2,137 9.3 9.1
Continued.
RICE CONSUMPTION
Selected rice-consuming and Total rice consumption (000 t) Rice consumption Daily calorie supply Rice in total calorie
-producing countries Paddy equivalent Milled equivalent (kg/capita/yr) (kcal/capita/day) supply (%)
2000 2009 2000 2009 2000 2009 2000 2009 2000 2009
Togo 176 202 117 135 23 21 2,208 2,363 10.1 8.8
Uganda 184 244 123 163 4.7 4.6 2,270 2,260 2.0 1.9
EUROPE 5,447 6,570 3,633 4,382 4.5 5.2 3,248 3,362 1.4 1.6
France 476 470 317 313 4.9 4.6 3,608 3,531 1.5 1.4
Greece 127 152 84 101 6.7 7.1 3,608 3,661 1.7 1.8
Italy 581 653 388 436 5.7 5.9 3,720 3,627 1.6 1.7
Portugal 276 246 184 164 17.1 14.8 3,534 3,617 5.0 4.2
Russian Federation 1,140 1,190 760 794 4.9 5.1 2,889 3,172 1.6 1.5
Spain 519 845 346 564 7.9 11.5 3,375 3,239 2.4 3.8
Ukraine 177 258 118 172 2.3 3.5 2,896 3,198 0.8 1.1
WORLD 589,022 674,110 392,878 449,631 53.9 53.3 2,732 2,831 19.8 18.9
Rice facts
271
272
RICE PRODUCTION RICE TRADE
Selected rice-con-
suming and -producing Production (000 t) Area (000 ha) Yield (t/ha) Exports (000 t) Imports (000 t)
countries 2000 2010 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2001-05 2006-10 2010 2001-05 2006-10
ASIA 545,546.46 633,745.53 138,145.01 143,234.20 3.95 4.42 23,826.23 20,846.97 22,995.28 14,010.84 11,621.62 13,436.69
Afghanistan 260.00 672.00 130.00 208.00 2.00 3.23 - - - - 199.06 157.65
Rice almanac
Bangladesh 37,627.50 50,061.20 10,801.20 11,700.00 3.48 4.28 3.93 1.47 10.60 656.85 809.49 673.70
Bhutan 44.30 71.64 26.00 22.82 1.70 3.14 0.38 0.73 0.16 52.00 20.49 16.38
Cambodia 4,026.09 8,245.32 1,903.16 2,776.51 2.12 2.97 51.18 4.14 16.55 67.24 58.58 39.29
China 189,814.06 197,212.01 30,301.50 30,117.26 6.26 6.55 615.90 1,654.39 994.67 486.10 859.69 904.37
India 127,465.00 143,963.00 44,712.00 36,950.00 2.85 3.38 2,225.39 3,901.20 3,609.53 0.10 0.31 0.11
Indonesia 51,898.00 66,469.40 11,793.00 13,253.50 4.40 5.02 0.35 10.40 1.35 686.11 929.24 617.06
Iran 1,971.46 3,012.70 534.33 563.52 3.69 5.35 0.24 0.38 2.82 1,132.22 948.09 1,078.67
Iraq 60.00 155.83 100.00 47.97 0.60 3.25 0.05 4.93 0.01 1,123.17 871.19 1,067.93
Japan 11,863.00 10,600.00 1,770.00 1,628.00 6.70 6.51 38.24 133.54 27.37 664.40 690.37 636.39
Kazakhstan 214.30 373.15 72.10 94.00 2.97 3.97 19.65 24.75 23.65 20.04 11.23 19.58
Korea, Dem. Rep. 1,690.00 2,426.00 535.00 570.00 3.16 4.26 - 0.01 - 95.97 774.95 243.18
Korea, Rep. 7,196.58 6,136.30 1,072.36 892.07 6.71 6.88 3.76 0.08 1.76 345.00 146.17 288.14
Laos 2,201.70 3,070.64 719.37 855.11 3.06 3.59 - - - 42.77 25.42 30.29
Malaysia 2,140.80 2,464.83 698.70 677.88 3.06 3.64 0.42 5.06 1.32 931.44 499.64 955.98
Myanmar 21,323.90 33,204.50 6,302.49 8,051.70 3.38 4.12 121.87 496.61 204.82 1.59 11.62 23.85
Nepal 4,216.47 4,023.82 1,560.04 1,481.29 2.70 2.72 0.36 1.47 0.48 98.22 39.93 135.47
Pakistan 7,203.90 7,235.00 2,376.60 2,365.30 3.03 3.06 4,179.79 2,128.46 3,311.77 1.93 6.50 2.97
Philippines 12,389.40 15,771.70 4,038.08 4,354.16 3.07 3.62 0.17 0.09 0.37 2,378.05 1,152.90 2,021.45
Sri Lanka 2,859.90 4,300.62 832.00 1,060.36 3.44 4.06 10.66 2.52 5.46 148.72 94.76 89.79
Thailand 25,843.90 31,597.20 9,891.20 10,990.10 2.61 2.88 8,939.63 8,188.89 8,880.94 5.27 2.53 8.92
Timor-Leste 51.00 112.93 17.00 36.55 3.00 3.09 - - - 1.30 29.30 13.47
Turkey 350.00 860.00 58.00 98.97 6.03 8.69 51.54 2.42 17.11 391.91 271.40 250.02
Turkmenistan 27.30 144.60 70.00 59.56 0.39 2.43 - - - 0.20 0.41 0.19
Uzbekistan 154.80 207.40 131.80 61.00 1.17 3.40 - - - 3.48 62.44 7.42
Vietnam 32,529.50 39,988.90 7,666.30 7,513.70 4.24 5.32 6,886.18 4,019.28 5,358.02 0.98 9.05 1.03
Continued.
Rice facts
273
Continued.
274
RICE PRODUCTION RICE TRADE
Selected rice-con-
suming and -producing Production (000 t) Area (000 ha) Yield (t/ha) Exports (000 t) Imports (000 t)
countries 2000 2010 2000 2010 2000 2010 2010 2001-05 2006-10 2010 2001-05 2006-10
AFRICA 17,477 25,878 7,562 10,517 2.31 2.46 1,051 759 1,031 9,019 7,389 9,136
Benin 49 167 23 40 2.11 4.19 553 1 148 599 200 673
Rice almanac
Burkina Faso 103 271 40 134 2.57 2.02 1 1 0 240 186 197
Burundi 52 83 17 22 3.04 3.79 1 0 0 16 2 9
Cameroon 61 175 20 140 3.01 1.25 1 0 1 364 314 434
Chad 93 170 90 130 1.03 1.31 0 0 0 11 2 3
Cte d'Ivoire 622 723 341 395 1.82 1.83 14 8 19 838 724 887
Democratic Republic of 338 317 447 420 0.76 0.76 0 0 0 47 139 127
the Congo
Egypt 6,000 4,330 659 460 9.10 9.42 261 731 685 14 22 59
Gambia 34 100 15 86 2.21 1.16 0 0 0 131 69 119
Ghana 249 492 115 181 2.16 2.71 0 1 0 320 543 386
Guinea 1,141 1,499 666 864 1.71 1.73 0 0 0 241 230 281
Guinea-Bissau 106 209 75 101 1.42 2.08 0 0 0 57 79 46
Liberia 183 296 144 251 1.28 1.18 0 1 0 295 110 216
Madagascar 2,480 4,738 1,209 1,808 2.05 2.62 0 0 0 133 191 151
Malawi 72 110 44 59 1.65 1.86 1 1 3 1 4 4
Mali 743 2,308 353 472 2.11 4.89 0 0 0 58 169 132
Mauritania 76 134 18 26 4.24 5.23 0 0 0 97 36 93
Mozambique 181 180 184 185 0.98 0.97 0 0 0 304 175 422
Niger 60 30 22 20 2.75 1.49 40 1 27 149 201 177
Nigeria 3,298 3,219 2,199 1,788 1.50 1.80 0 14 1 1,885 1,439 1,243
Rwanda 12 67 4 13 2.73 5.18 0 0 0 45 14 25
Senegal 202 604 86 147 2.35 4.10 54 24 68 707 809 854
Sierra Leone 199 1,027 183 549 1.09 1.87 0 0 0 103 147 126
Tanzania 782 1,105 416 720 1.88 1.53 - 8 16 75 135 64
Togo 62 110 32 47 1.92 2.32 0 5 1 75 78 112
Uganda 109 218 72 87 1.51 2.51 40 5 29 77 49 69
Continued.
WORLD 599,355 696,324 154,060 159,417 3.89 4.37 32,768 28,081 31,299 31,189 26,803 30,773
Note: Regional totals include countries not shown. When data are not available for countries such as North Korea and Afghanistan, Bhutan, by-country statistical yearbooks are used as source of data.
a
Gross national income in PPP (purchasing power parity). bIn per capita GNI PPP dollars computed using the annual growth rate data available from WDI. c=Data not available. dBank of Korea. eExcluding permanent crops. fSourced
from SOFA2012 and WDI online. gGross domestic product. hComputed in cases where data are not available using annual data available from source.
Sources: World Bank Development Indicators (WDI) online database; FAOSTAT online database, 2013. IRRI World Rice Statistics; State of Food and Agriculture (SOFA) 2012; United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Population Division (2011). World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision, CD-ROM Edition; CIA World Factbook online; FAO Food Outlook; and various statistical yearbooks for Fiji, Afghanistan, Bhutan, Timor-leste and FAO Commis-
sion reports for countries such as Korea DPR, Iran, and Iraq.
Rice facts
275
Important conversion factors, by country
Asia
Bangladesh 1 bushel = 0.73 maund = 29.17 seer = 60 lb
1 maund = 82.29 lb = 37.32 kg
1 seer = 2.05 lb = 0.93 kg
1 kg = 2.20462 lb = 1.07 seer
1 bushel per acre = 67.253 kg per ha
1 ha = 2.47109 acres
1 acre = 0.40468 ha
1 lakh = 100,000
1 crore = 10,000,000
Cambodia
1 picul = 68 kg
1 mt = 14.7059 picul
China
1 mu = 0.067 ha
15 mu = 1.0 ha
1 sheng milled rice = 1 liter milled rice = 0.5 kg
1 dou milled rice = 10 liters milled rice = 5 kg
1 dan (picu) milled rice = 100 liters milled rice = 50 kg
20 dan (picul) = 1 mt
1 dun = 1 mt = 2204.6 lb
1 dan (picul) = 100 jin
1 jin (catty) = 0.5 kg = 1.1023 lb
1 jin/mu = 7.5 kg/ha
Taiwan, China
1 kg rough rice = 0.76366 kg brown rice
1 kg ponlai brown rice = 0.93 kg milled rice
1 kg chailai brown rice = 0.94 kg milled rice
1 ha = 1.03 chia1 chia = 0.9699 ha
1 old catty = 0.5968 kg
1 shih catty = 0.5 kg
India
1 quintal = 100 kg
1 maund = 37.3 kg = 82.29 lb
1 Madras measure rice = 54 oz = 3.375 lb
Bigha is a land measure in rural areas; its definition varies
from state to state.
In Gujarat, 4/7 bigha = 1 acre
In Rajasthan, 21/2 bighas = 1 acre
In West Bengal, 3 bighas = 1 acre
Japan
Brown rice x 1.25 = rough rice
Milled rice x 1.37 = rough rice
Brown rice x 0.91 = milled rice
Rough rice x 0.728 = milled rice
1 koku rough rice = 187.5 kg
1 koku brown rice = 150 kg
1 koku milled rice = 136.5 kg
1 sho milled rice = 1.425 kg
1 kan = 3.75 kg
1 kin = 0.6 kg
1 picul = 50 kg
1 cho = 10 tan = 2.45072 acres = 0.99174 ha
1 ha = 10.0833 tan = 1.00833 cho
1 tan = 0.1 cho = 0.9917 ha
Korea, Rep. of
1 danbo = 0.1 jeongbo = 0.099174 ha
1 ha = 1.0083 jeongbo
1 seok milled rice = 144 kg
1 seok brown rice = 155 kg
1 seok rough rice = 100 kg
100 liters milled rice = 79.8264 kg
Malaysia
1 picul brown rice = 133.33 lb = 60.48 kg
1 gantang rough rice = 5.60 lb = 2.54 kg
1 kati = 0.60478 kg
Myanmar
100 measures rough rice = 1 basket
1 basket rough rice = 46 lb = 20.86 kg
1 basket milled rice = 75 lb = 34.02 kg
1 bag milled rice = 225 lb = 102.06 kg
1 pyi milled rice = 4.69 lb = 2.13 kg
1 maund = 0.037 mt
1 mt = 26.792 maunds
Nepal
1 khet = 1.3 ha
1 bigha = 0.67 ha (Terai)
1 matomuri = 0.13 ha = 0.25 ropani
1 ropani = 0.05 ha (Hills) = 4 muris
1 muri = 0.013 ha1 seer = 0.80 kg (Hills)
1 seer = 0.93 kg (Terai)
Pakistan
1 kg = 2.2046 lb = 1.0716 seer
1 quintal = 100 kg = 1.96841 cwt = 2.679 maunds
1 metric ton = 1,000 kg = 0.9842
1 long ton = 26.79 maunds
100 kg per ha = 1.4869 bushels per acre = 1.09 maunds per acre
1 bushel = 0.73 maunds = 29.17 seers = 60 lb
Before 1980, 1 maund = 37.324 kg
After 1980, 1 maund = 40 kg
Philippines
1 cavan rough rice = 50 kg
1 cavan milled rice = 50 kg
1 ganta milled rice = 2.24 kg
Before 1973
1 ganta = 3 liters
1 cavan rough rice = 44 kg
1 cavan milled rice = 56 kg
Sri Lanka
1 bushel rough rice = 46 lb = 20.86 kg
1 bushel rough rice = 30.69 milled rice = 14 kg milled rice
1 bushel milled rice = 64 lb = 32 measures of rice
1 measure milled rice = 2 lb = 0.907 kg
Thailand
1 picul = 60 kg
1 catty = 600 g = 6 kg
1 kwein = 2,000 liters
1 ban = 1,000 liters
1 sat = 20 liters
1 thanan = 1 liter
1 kwein rough rice = 1 mt rough rice
1 rai = 0.16 ha = 0.395 acre
Other countries
Australia
1 bushel rough rice = 42 lb = 19.05 kg
Brazil
1 bushel rough rice = 45 lb = 20.41 kg
1 sack (bag) rough rice = 110.23 lb = 50 kg
1 sack (bag) milled rice = 88.18 lb = 40 k
Egypt
1 sack (bag) milled rice = 220.11 lb = 99.84 kg
Ghana
1 sack (bag) milled rice = 240 lb = 108.86 kg
Malawi
1 sack (bag) rough rice = 150 lb = 68.04 kg
1 sack (bag) milled rice = 200 lb = 90.72 kg
Mexico
1 carga rough rice = 304.24 lb = 138 kg
1 carga milled rice = 352.74 lb = 160 kg
Panama
1 lata milled rice = 24.99 lb = 11.33 kg
1 lata rough rice = 35.99 lb = 16.32 kg
Sierra Leone
1 bushel rough rice = 60 lb = 27.21 kg
1 bushel milled rice = 84 lb = 38.10 kg
Swaziland
1 pocket milled rice = 2 lb = 0.91 kg
United States
1 bushel rough rice = 45 lb = 20.41 kg
1 sack (bag) rough rice = 100 lb = 45.36 kg
1 sack (bag) milled rice = 100 lb = 45.36 kg
1 barrel rough rice = 162 lb = 73.48 kg
Uruguay
1 bolsa brown rice = 110.23 lb = 50 kg
References in specific sections: Zhao K, Tung CW, Eizenga GC, Wright MH,
Liakat Ali M, Price AH, Norton GJ, Rafiqul
A note on the country rice maps Islam M, Reynolds A, Mezey J, McClung
AM, Bustamante CD, McCouch SR. 2011.
Gumma M, Nelson A, Thenkabail PS, Singh AN.
Genome-wide association mapping reveals
2011. Mapping rice areas of South Asia
a rich genetic architecture of complex traits
using MODIS multitemporal data. J. Appl.
in Oryza sativa. Nat. Commun. 2:467.
Remote Sens. 5:1, doi:10.1117/1.3619838.
doi:10.1038/ncomms1467.
Xiao X, Boles S, Frolking S, Li C, Babu JY,
Salas B, Moore III B. 2006. Mapping paddy
rice agriculture in South and Southeast
Asia using multi-temporal MODIS images.
Remote Sens. Environ. 100:95-113.