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Free Flow
n
Qf = Cf hu f (1)
where the subscript f denotes free flow; Qf is the free-flow discharge; Cf is the
free-flow coefficient; and nf is the free-flow exponent
The value of Cf increases as the size of the constriction increases, but the
relationship is usually not linear
The value of nf is primarily dependent upon the geometry of the constriction with
the theoretical values being 3/2 for a rectangular constriction and 5/2 for a
triangular constriction
Sample field data for developing the discharge rating for a rectangular open-
channel constriction are listed in the table below
The discharge rate in the constriction was determined by taking current meter
readings at an upstream location, and again at a downstream location
The free-flow equation for the flow depths measured below the benchmark (at
411.201 m) is:
1.55
Qf = 0.74 ( hu ) x (2)
The Tape Measurement in the above table is for the vertical distance from the
benchmark down to the water surface
If a regression analysis is performed with the free-flow data using the theoretical
value of nf = 3/2,
1.5
Qf = 0.73 ( hu )sw (3)
or,
1.5
Qf = 0.75 ( hu ) x (4)
The error in the discharge resulting from using nf = 3/2 varies from -1.91% to
+2.87%.
nf
Cs ( hu hd )
Qs = ns
(5)
( logS )
where the subscript s denotes submerged flow, so that Qs is the submerged-flow
discharge, Cs is the submerged-flow coefficient, and ns is the submerged-flow
exponent
Base 10 logarithms have usually been used with Eq. 5, but other bases could be
used, so the base should be specified when providing calibration values
Note that the free-flow exponent, nf, is used with the term hu - hd
Consequently, nf is determined from the free-flow rating, while Cs and ns must be
evaluated using submerged-flow data
The theoretical variation in ns is between 1.0 and 1.5
Note that the logarithm term in the denominator of Eq. 5 can be estimated by
taking the first two or three terms of an infinite series (but this is not usually
necessary):
1 2 1 3 1 4
loge (1 + x) = x x + x x + (6)
2 3 4
Draw a straight line through the five data points and extend this line to log10S =
1.0 (as shown above)
The value on the ordinate at log10S = 1.0 is Cs
The slope of the line is ns (measured with a linear scale)
You might not prefer to use this method unless you have no computer
Multiple regression analysis can be used to arrive directly at all three values (Cs,
nf, and ns) without free-flow data
This can be done by taking the logarithm of Eq. 5 as follows:
In this example, a nearly constant discharge was diverted into the irrigation
channel and a check structure with gates located 120 m downstream was used
to incrementally increase the flow depths
Each time that the gates were changed, it took 2-3 hours for the water surface
elevations upstream to stabilize
Thus, it took one day to collect the data for a single flow rate
The data listed in the table below were collected in two consecutive days
nf
Cs (hu hd )
Qs
=
( logS )ns = (hu hd )
nf
(8)
n
Qh=1 Cs (1) f
( logS )ns
then,
nf
Qs = Qh=1.0 (hu hd ) (9)
or,
Qs
Qh=1.0 = nf
(10)
(hu hd )
where Qh=1.0 has a different value for each value of the submergence, S
Using the term Qh=1.0 implies that hu - hd = 1.0 (by definition); thus, Eq. 10
reduces to:
1.55
0.367 ( hu hd )
Qs = 1.37
(12)
( logS )
Transition Submergence
Cs (1 St ) f hnuf
n
Cf hnuf = (13)
( logSt ) ns
then,
f ( St ) = Cf ( logSt )
ns
Cs (1 St )
nf
=0 (14)
1.37 1.55
0.74 ( logS ) = 0.367 (1 S ) (15)
or,
1.55
0.367 ( hu hd )
0.74h1.55
u = (16)
( logS )1.37
and,
1.37 1.55
0.74 ( logS ) = 0.367 (1 S ) (17)
Equation 18 can be solved to determine the value of St, which in this case is 0.82
Thus, free flow exists when S < 0.82 and submerged flow exists when the
submergence is greater than 82%
The table below gives the submergence values for different values of Qs/Qf for
the sample constriction rating
S Qs/Qf S Qs/Qf
0.82 1.000 0.91 0.9455
0.83 0.9968 0.92 0.9325
0.84 0.9939 0.93 0.9170
0.85 0.9902 0.94 0.8984
0.86 0.9856 0.95 0.8757
0.87 0.9801 0.96 0.8472
0.88 0.9735 0.97 0.8101
0.89 0.9657 0.98 0.7584
0.90 0.9564 - -
1.55
Qs 0.367 ( hu hd ) 1
= = (19)
Qf ( logS )1.37 0.74h1.55
u
1.337
S= = 0.935 (21)
1.430
Thus, for this condition submerged flow exists in the example open-channel
constriction
In practice, there may only be a trivial solution for transition submergence, in
which St = 1.0. In these cases, the value of Cs can be slightly lowered to obtain
another mathematical root to the equation. This is a tweaking procedure.
Note that it is almost always expected that 0.50 < St < 0.92. If you come up with
a value outside of this range, you should be suspicious that the data and or the
analysis might have errors.
A constant-head orifice, or
CHO, is a double orifice
gate, usually installed at
the entrance to a lateral or
tertiary canal
This is a design promoted
for years by the USBR,
and it can be found in
irrigation canals in many
countries
The idea is that you set
the downstream gate as a
meter, and set the
upstream gate as
necessary to have a
constant water level in the
mid-gate pool
It is kind of like the double
doors in the engineering building at USU: they are designed to act as buffers
whereby the warm air doesnt escape so easily when people enter an exit the
building
But, in practice, CHOs are seldom used as intended; instead, one of the gates is
left wide open and the other is used for regulation (this is a waste of materials
because one gate isnt used at all)
Note the missing wheel in the upstream gate, in the above figure
Few people know what CHOs are for, and even when they do, it is often
considered inconvenient or impractical to operate both gates
But these gates can be calibrated, just as with any other gate
It is safe to assume that the exponent on the head for orifice flow (free and
submerged) is 0.50, so it is not necessary to treat it as an empirically-determined
calibration parameter
The basic relationship for orifice flow can be derived from the Bernoulli equation
For orifice flow, a theoretical contraction coefficient, Cc, of 0.611 is equal to /(+2),
derived from hydrodynamics for vertical flow through an infinitely long slot
Field-measured discharge coefficients for orifice flow through gates normally range
from 0.65 to about 0.9 there is often a significant approach velocity
Radial gates can be field calibrated using the same equation forms as vertical
sluice gates, although special equations have been developed for them
If the water level on the upstream side of the gate is above the bottom of the
gate, then the flow regime is probably that of an orifice
In this case, the momentum function (from open-channel hydraulics) can be used
to determine whether the flow is free or submerged
In some cases it will be obviously free flow or obviously submerged flow, but the
following computational procedure is one way to distinguish between free orifice
and submerged orifice flow
In the figure below, h1 is the depth just upstream of the gate, h2 is the depth just
downstream of the gate (depth at the vena-contracta section) and h3 is the depth
at a section in the downstream, a short distance away from the gate
Q2
M = A hc + (22)
gA
where A is the cross-sectional area and hc is the depth to the centroid of the area
from the water surface
The following table shows the values of A and Ahc for three different channel
sections
Rectangular bh bh2
2
m1 + m2 b m1 + m2 2
Trapezoidal b + 2 h h 2 + 6 h h
1 2h
For circular sections, is defined as: = 2cos 1
D
There are alternate forms of the equations for circular sections, but which yield
the same calculation results.
The depth h2 can be determined in the either of the following two ways:
Another (simpler) criteria for the threshold between free- and submerged-orifice
flow is:
CcGo = hd (23)
The threshold between orifice and nonorifice flow can be defined as:
Cohu = Go (24)
Note that if Co = 1.0, then when hu = Go, the water surface is on the verge of
going below the bottom of the gate (or vice-versa), when the regime would
clearly be nonorifice
However, in moving from orifice to nonorifice flow, the transition would begin
before this point, and that is why Co must be less than 1.0
It seems that more research is needed to better defined the value of Co
In practice, the flow can move from any regime to any other at an underflow
(gate) structure:
Free Submerged
Orifice FO SO
Non-orifice FN SN
If the downstream water level is also above the top of the opening, submerged
conditions exist and the discharge equation becomes:
Qs = CdCv A 2g ( hu hd ) (27)