The Production and Representation of Speech Sounds

Most speech sounds originate in the respiratory system. When air is expelled from the
lungs it goes up the trachea (windpipe) and into the larynx. In the larynx are two
muscles called the vocal cords. If these muscles are separated (as they usually are when
we are breathing out) air from the lungs will pass freely into the pharynx and the mouth.
But if the vocal cords are adjusted so that there is only a narrow space between them,
the pressure of the air will cause them to vibrate. Sounds that are produced by vibration
of the vocal cords are called voiced sounds. Sounds produced when the vocal cords are
apart (i.e. when they are not vibrating) are called voiceless sounds. A good example of
the difference between a voiced and a voiceless sound is the contrast between v and
f. As you articulate v-v-v you can place your fingertips over your larynx and feel
your vocal cords vibrate, but when you say f-f-f you will not feel a vibration. In
other respects the v and f are the same: both sounds are produced by friction of the
upper teeth and the lower lip. The difference between voiced and voiceless sounds is
often an important distinction: for example, vat vs. fat, thigh vs. thy, and Sue
vs. zoo.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF SPEECH PRODUCTION

(Sorry I cannot include the picture here)
1. upper lip 10. larynx
2. nasal cavity 11. lower teeth
3. upper teeth 12. lower lip
4. alveolar ridge 13. tongue
5. hard palate a. tip
6. soft palate (or velum) b. blade
7. uvula c. front
8. pharynx d. centre
9. glottis e. back

The air passages above the larynx are known as the vocal tract. The shape of the vocal
tract is important in the production of speech. The parts of the vocal tract that we use to
form sounds are called articulators. When we speak, the articulators that form the lower
surface of the vocal tract especially the tongue, lower lips, and lower teeth usually
move toward those that form the upper surface.

It is important to remember that these diagrams can show only two dimensions. In fact,
the tongue is an extremely flexible muscle that can assume many different forms and
positions. For example, when articulating some vowel sounds it is tense and rigid; with
other vowels it may be relaxed and rounded in the center.

Articulation of Consonants and Vowels

In order to form consonants the air stream through the vocal tract must be obstructed in
some way. Consonants can therefore be classified according to the place and manner of
this obstruction. For example, the consonants /p/, /b/, and /m/ are made by pressing the
lips together; they are classified as bilabials. Other consonant sounds, like /v/ and /f/ are
made by pressing the lower lip to the upper front teeth, and so these are called
labiodentals.

Vowel sounds are made when the tongue is used to modify the air stream coming from
the vocal cords. Vowel sounds are classified according the position and form of the
tongue in relation to the palate (roof) of the mouth.

Phonetics, Phonology and Language

Phonetics is the science that describes human speech organs and the sounds they can
produce. However, speech sounds of themselves are not language; they must be
organized into a set of patterns and rules in order to convey meaning. Phonology is the
science that describes these rules and patterns. Phonology explains how distinctions
between speech sounds are used to establish sets of rules that enable human beings to
express ideas.

The smallest segments of sound that can be distinguished by their contrast within words
are called phonemes. They are the basic units of language. To illustrate, we may say the
word can in a loud or soft voice; we can pronounce /a/ with a short sound (as in
American English) or with a longer sound (as in British English) but none of these
variations will affect the meaning in any way. No phonemes have been added,
subtracted or changed. However, if we add the phoneme /t/ (cant), or change the /n/
to /r/ or /t/ the word acquires a different meaning.

Phonemic Transcription

For thousands of years, people have used writing to represent the phonemic variations
that constitute language. For example, to express the difference between a single
member of the male sex and more than one, it is only necessary to change the
phoneme /a/ in man to the phoneme /e/ (men). Here the alphabet letters a and e
are adequate to represent the contrasting sounds of the two words. But, as every student
of English knows, letters do not always correspond to sounds and especially not in
English! For example, the present tense form of read is pronounced differently from
the past tense form, yet both are have the same spelling. Write and right represent
exactly the same sound, despite the obvious difference in spelling. The b in debt,
the s in island and the n in column represent no sounds at all, and confuse not
only foreign readers, but even young native schoolchildren.

Phonologists attempt to solve this problem by means of phonemic (also called phonetic)
transcription. Phonemic transcription uses a special alphabet in which each symbol
represents one, and only one, phoneme. The best known phonemic alphabet is the
International Phonemic Alphabet (IPA) designed by nineteenth century French linguists.
Many of the symbols that constitute the IPA are the familiar ones of the standard Latin
alphabet: for example, /b/, /d/, /f/, /h/, /k/, /l/, and /e/. Others have been especially
designed to represent sounds for which the Latin alphabet has no symbols: for
example, // and /0/, which are used to represent the different sounds of th in the
words the and thin. Phonemic transcription shows us exactly how words are
pronounced. Some form of phonemic transcription is a standard feature of word entries
in dictionaries.