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MODAL V E R B S 1

OVERVIEW watch out!


Oughtto always uses to. Other modals never use to:
X You ougktn't speak to your mother like that.
I THE BASICS You must togo and see that film.
rhe ten modal auxiliaries are: V You ought't to speak to your mother like that.
can may must will should You must go and see that film.
could might ought to shall would Dar and need sometimes act like modals
' Modals come before the infmitive form of a verb without to:
I dore say. I never need see her again.
without to (except ought to):
I may meet her tomorrow. (See Watch out! opposite.) More often, they are ordinary verbs with to:
He dared me tojump over the edge. Do you need
' Modals never change form. They do not have -ed,
to know now?
-s, or -ing endings:
Mara mayjoin iis. (For more on dar and need, see Unit 15,
Section 2.5,)
' Modals never use do when forming questions or
negatives. To form negatives we use not after the
modal and before the verb: 2 MAIN USES O F MODALS 1
WII you come?
Here is a Ust of uses dealt with in this Unit with
You mustn't worry so much.
examples. For other uses, see Unit 4, Overview.
' We can use modals with the Continuous form of
a verb: Predictng See Section 1
She should he arriving soon. I shall be in Piraeus next week. A Uve concert in Athens
We can use modals with the passive form of would be extremely popular You won't like thisfood: it's
a verb: very spicy. They ought to / should win the next game
The interview can he arrangedfor another day. easily.
Modals are used in short answers and question
tags: True, untrue, possible See Section 2
You will applyfor thejob, won't you? Well, I might. Thefare may not be cheaper on Sundays but it's worth
Modals usually refer to events in the present checking. l'm afraid you may have broken your wrist.
or future: Well actually, you could be right. He ought to have got
/ can come immediately, ifyou like. (- present) home by now. You'll all know what l'm talking about,
/ may ring you later. (= future) l'm sure. She won't have arrived yet.
However, some modals refer to the past: Deduction See Section 2
/ could read before I went to school.
It must be ght: there's no other explanation. That
' Other modals need the addition of have to make a
can't be Monica: she's in Spain. You couldn't have seen
modal Perfect:
her - she lefi three days ago.
/ should have realised earlier.
Sometimes it's necessary to choose another verb: Necessity See Section 3
I was oble tofinish before I went out. You must leave immediately. We mustn't be late.
We managed tofind the right address. You needn't pay me now. I didn't need to take so much
We use other verbs with similar meanings to money. I have to get there for eight o'clock.
modals. These verbs always use to. They include
be oble to, have to, used to, arel is I was to, be allowed Duty and advice See Section 3
to, be supposed to, manage to: What shall I do? Should I tell her she's made a mistake?
l'm supposed to have let them know my decisin You should always pay your bilis on time. You really
by today. shouldn't have done that. Ought I to tell him I can't
Will we he allowed to bring our ownfood? come?
For key difficulties with meaning, see Watch out!, (For an alphabetical list of modals with their
Jnit 4, p.63.) meanings, see pages 64-67.)
We can also use would in conditional sentences to
SECTION I predict what would happen if something else
happened, or to talk about things that are very
Predicting unlikely to happen:
He would get very annoyed ifyou rang him now.
1 SAYING WE ARE SURE SOMETHING WILL A sunny holiday in Wales? Now, that would be a
HAPPEN miraclel
However, we can use will if other words in the
We can use will and shall to talk about what will
sentence show that something is unlikely:
happen. (For other ways of talking about the future,
I doubt ifwe'll ever again experience a winter quite a
see Unit 1, Section 4):
cold as this one.
Exports will continu to rise over the nextfew months.
I shall be staying in Tokyofor the next three days. We can emphasise the degree of probability by
We shan't stay long: we have to be at Mary's by six. adding other words:
She could conceivably come along a bit later. {- it's
We can emphasise our certainty by adding really,
just possible) She may / might very well come along
(most) certainly I definitely, aimost certainly, etc:
a bit later. (= it's quite likely)
You definitely won't like the exhibition.
You'll certainly like their new CD. The situation, stress and tntonation, and other
words we use in the statement cari aFect the
We can express doubt by adding presumably, (most)
degree of probability more than the modal itself
probably, etc:
/ suppose she might come, but I doubt it. (= it's
You probably won't like their new single.
doubtful) Actually, I think she might very well come.
You'll presumably be wanting some more.
(= high probability)
DIfferences between shall and will
3 IN MY OPINION...
We use shall with / or we. It's old-fashioned with
other persons: We can use should and ought to to make subjective
/ shan't have your X-ray results until next week. predictions. (See also Section 2.2.) In the negative,
You shall go to her party, I promise. we avoid ought't to, and prefer shouldn't:
When predicting something, or expressing They ought to/should win the next round easily.
determination (see Unit 4, Section 1), there is little You shouldn't have trouble vth trajfic.
difference in meaning between shall and will: We use should and ought to to predict favourable
We shan't/won't arrive much before midnight, l'm events:
afraid. (= predicting) / shall / will succeed, just you X She should fail her diiving test.
wait and see. (= determination) The weather should be horrible tomorrow.
But we use only will, not shall, to ask for / She'll probably fail her driving test.
predictions: She should / ought to do well in her driving test.
Will / get grade A, do you think? The weather will be horrible tomorrow.
We commonly use shall to make pohte oflFers (see It should be fine tomorrow.
Unit 4, Section 1.2), or to ask advice:
Shall I turn the lights on?
Shall I wear the green or the blue tie?
Which of the above points do these sentences
2 SAYING IT IS POSSIBLE SOMETHING WILL illustrate?
HAPPEN a My mother will most certainly object to my going
We use may, might and could to say that something is away over Christmas.
possible (See Watch out! in Section 2 for may not, b We should qualify for the World Cup easy next
might not and could not): time.
It may / might / could rain tomorrow. c I suppose it is just conceivable that we could get
However, we commonly use vll rather than may I knocked out on penalties again.
might I could in questions: d Soula would be furious if she found out what you
Will it rain tomorrow, do you think? were doing.
e Wl we get there before nightfall, do you think?

50
P RED ICT IN G

Practice ^ UnderUne the option that can best complete


each of the foUowing sentences. Sometimes only
one, sometimes both, are possible.
^ Tick ( / ) the sentences that are acceptable.
Correct the others. Example: They won't most certainly I most certainly
won't approve of the scheme.
Example: You might as well come with us if you've
nothing better to do. / a He'll no doubt he I He should be late for the meeting.
1 I won't be in the country when you two are b She shall I She wt go on to greater things, I have
tying the knot. no doubt.
2 How much longer do you think that noise will c The whole team may as weZZ / migkt as we give up
be going on? and go back to carpentry.
3 I don't think I shall be able to join you untU 8.30. d WZ! / Sha I in any way be exploited in this new
4 Shall I look OK if I wear this? position?
5 You shall have to put two first-class stamps on e I reckon they ougkt to / mi^t just down tools and
this envelope. go home.
6 I think a weekend away would be a good idea. f It shai / wiZZ be touch and go whether she survives.
7 Presumably we would be laughed at if we tried it g The outcome mi^t I can rest on this last handful
in public. of votes.
8 If he maintains his current rate of progress, he h I have to say that I won't definitely I definitely won't
should sa through the exam. attend the meeting.
9 Looking like that, he should compare O For each of the following sentences, write a
unfavourably with the other candidates.
new sentence as similar as possible in meaning to
10 According to statistics, smokers shouldn't live as
the original sentence but using the word given.
long as non-smokers.
Example: It's pointless going home now: it would be
O Which of the professions said what? Write the simpler to stay the night. well
number of the profession next to the letter for the You mi^ht as well stay the ni^ht.
statement. Then, write what you think the 'it* a He's unlikely to have the common sense to ask for
refers to where it's underlined. directions.
Example: i It may be necessary to take it away to suppose
put more memory in. b I wouldn't have thought there's much chance of
You write: i O (computer) the package being here before Friday.
(O computer engineer) 1 lawyer 2 barman doubt
3 hotel receptionist 4 gardener 5 sailor c I don't think we could expect that much of him.
6 dentist 7 teacher 8 pilot asking
d I suppose it's possible that she will break the
a It may have to come out; we might well not be world record at the next meeting.
able to save it. conceivably
b It should only be about ten minutes; then we
e I can't see them finding the task insurmountable.
expect the all-clear for take-of. ought
c With any luck we'll get a centimetre or two over
f I think it's really quite likely that attitudes towards
the weekend. We could certainly do with it. sunbathing will have to change soon.
d Very light now, yes, but it might just get up later weU
on, in which case...
g Might it be an idea if we pay the deposit for you?
e We may be able to get it overturned on appeal.
like
f It certainly won't be ready untU the maid has been
h I don't foresee there being any major problems.
in.
think
g Is that it, or will you be wanting another?
h It will certainly improve if you try harder to
imita te the patterns that native speakers use.
(i It may be necessary to take it away to put more
memory in.)
2 IN MY OPINION...
SECTION 2 We use should and ought to to give our subjective
opinin about whether we think something is
True, untrue, possible: present possible or true (see Section 1.3 for should/ought to
for predictions):
and past Tvefixed your video and it should/ought to be
working all right now.
1 TRUE/UNTRUE
However, we use should and ought to more
Present commonly to give our opinin about whether
In addition to predicting, we use may, might, could something is right or not (see Section 3.2):
and will to say whether we think something is true That table shouldn't be here. It should be over there.
or likely in the present: There ought to be another packet of sugar in that
You may / might / could very well be right. ( - it's cupboard.
likely now) You may / might / could conceivably /
possibly have a point there. (- it's not impossible) 3 DEDUCTION
That'll be my mother on the phone. (= l'm quite sure) When we give good reasons for thinking something
Nikos'll be arriving in Brighton about now, I should is true or untrue, we use must and can't as opposites:
think. (= it's probable) Surely he won't be there He goes to Scotland every year for his holidays. He
already? (= I don't believe he is) must like it. {- l'm sure he does) John can't
possibly be seventy! He doesn't look a day overfifiy.
Past
(= l'm sure it isn't true)
We use could have, will have, may have and might have When we give reasons for making logical
to speculate about the possibility of something assumptions about the past, we use must have and
happening in the past (see Unit 4, Section 2 for can't have:
modals in the past): You look very relaxed - it must have been a good
They may havefinished already, for all I know. holiday. Where's Dominic? He can't have lefi alrea
The doctor won't have had a chance to look at your can he?
X-ray yet.
We can also use couldn't and couldn't have:
Sometimes we speculate about something that They couldn't be asking for me - no one knows I live
didn't happen but we feel there was potential for it here. (= disbelief)
to happen: He couldn't have taken it by mistake, could he?
That wasn't a good idea - you might have hurt him. {= doubt)
Sometimes we speculate about what happened
without knowing exactly what did happen: 4 EXPRESSING ANNOYANCE
You may / might / could have done just enough to We can use might have and could have to express
sarape through. annoyance about something that happened:
He could / might at least hdve offered to pay! (- but
watch out! he didn't)

We use may not I mi^t not to express possibility


(see also Section 4). We use coulA not to talk
about deduction (see 3 below) and ability (see
Unit 4, Section 2):
/ might / may not have her new phone number; let
me check. (= possibility) Which one of these sentences does not illustrate one
He couldn 't be there already -it's over thirty miles of the points above?
away. {- deduction) a He'll probably be getting of the plae now.
'How for is to hondn from here?' 'l couldn't say.' b They must be enjoying themselves; just Usten.
(= ability) c You could have done the car a lot of damage.
d He may well come along later.
e I think that socket should work now.

52
T R U E , U N T R U E , P O S S I B L E : P R E S E N T AND PAST

Practice ^ Combine each question and answer using ^


to make one sentence.
^ T i c k ( / ) the pairs of sentences that express Examples: 'Was it a serious crime?' 'Well, the poHce
approximately the same idea. Put a cross (A) by have put quite a lot of men on the case.'
those where there is a clear difference in meaning. It must have been juite a serious crime/or the poWce
to hai/e put so many men on the case.
Examples: x I may well have been a little bit late in
'Does he work many hours?' ' I don't know, but I
arriving.
do know his wages are very low'
It's quite possible I was a little bit late. / He can't ivork uery many hours for his waqes to be
y We may not get there in time for the so low.
speeches.
a 'Was very much stolen?' 'Well, the bank's offering
We couldn't get there in time for the
a reward of 50,000.'
speeches. /
b 'Was it an exciting match?' 'Well, half the
a This could be the chance we've all been waiting for. spectators left at half time.'
This might \>e the chance we've all been waiting for. c 'Is it a good show?' 'Well, people have travelled an
b This may very well be the last chance for peace. awfully long way to see it.'
This might very well be the last chance for peace. d 'Is it a big school?' 'Well, there are over sixty
c That's probably the postman dropping in the teachers working there.'
weekly free newspaper. e 'Has something serious gone wrong?' 'Well, the
That'll be the postman dropping in the weekly free boss is ranting and raving like a madman.'
newspaper. f 'Was it a major operation?' 'Well, they let her out
d They won't have read our fax yet. of hospital the following day'
I doubt if they've read our fax yet.
O I^iU each of the blanks with a suitable word
e The exam results should be here by now. or phrase.
The exam results should be here any day now.
Example: I think you may \jer\) well have put your
f They must have taken a short cut to get here. finger on the problem there.
They had to take a short cut to get here.
a Our neighbours must fortune on that new
g You could have done yourself a nasty injury. garden furniture of theirs.
You might have done yourself a nasty injury. b It couldn't you spoke to; I wasn't even in
h The washing machine shouldn't be making such a the country at the time,
strange noise. c It's well past dinner time; surely the conference
The washing machine couldn't be making such a should by now.
strange noise. d She can't very well to have left the party so
^ T i c k ( / ) the modal verbs that complete each of early.
the sentences in this passage. One, two or all of e I might like this would happen.
them may be possible. f You could know beforehand that you
couldn't come.
|: There shouldn't/might not/ought not (1) be a comma
I before the 'who' in this sentence, Kostas. Oh yes, you
I may well/might well/will well (2) say that writing
i: English is not important for you. But you could/may/
I might (3) have to write a dissertation in English one day.
i Punctuation and spelling should/ could/ may [A] be quite
l a serious problem for you. But it can/should/could (5)
i always be possible for you to get full stops in the right
i place. And it can't/shouldn't/mustn't (6) be that difflcult
; to spell most short words more or less correctly. You
9 may/must/might (7) not have realised how flexible
\h is. For example, you may/should/ can (8) find
\' spelt with an 's' or a 'z'. It makes Ufe easier,
I doesn't it?
3 NOT NECESSARY
SECTION 3 To say there is no obhgation to do something we use
needn't, don't need to or don't have to. In many
Necessity, duty and advice instances there is httle or no change in meaning, but:
We generally use needn't when the authority comes
1 NECESSITY from the speaker:
We use must and mustn't when we decide for You needn't come this evening ifyou don't want to.
ourselves what's necessary: We generally use don't need to and don't have to
You mustn't keep asking for my help all the time. (= I when the authority doesn't come from the speaker:
don't want you to) / really must be going: it's getting You don't need to/don't have to carry an identity
late. (= I think I must) card.
We can also use must and mustn't for impersonal To talk about the past, we use needn't have or didn't
necessity: need to I didn't have to. Needn't have means 'you did
The lead must be connected properly or it won't work. but it wasn't necessary':
The strength of necessity vares with the situation: You needn't have cooked so much food.
AR questions must be answered. (= order) You must With didn't need to I didn't have to only the context
see the film - it's really good. (= advice) We must get tells US whether it actually happened:
together sometime and talk this over. (= suggestion) I didn't need to go shopping, but I did, just for fin.
I didn't have to do any extra shopping, so I didn't.
have to
Although not a modal verb, we often use have to and 4 OTHER VERBS FOR EXPRESSING NECESSITY
have got to (more informal) before verbs to talk about AND ADVICE
necessity. Have to usually suggests that someone else Other verbs express necessity or advice:
decides what's necessary: Hard hats are to be worn on this site. (= necessity)
The notice says we have to report to the manager's All guests will vacate their room before eleven o'clock
opee. (= necessity)
I've got to go or my boss will wonder where I am. / wouldn't do that ifl were you. (- advice)
Because have to isn't a modal, it has a past form, You'd better phone home - they have news ofyour sist
-ing form, infmitive form, etc. This means we can (= advice)
use it in more situations than must: We use had better for advice in a particular
We had to break in because we'd forgotten our key. situation. Should and ought to can be more general:
They'II have to hurry if they're not going to be late. X Employees had better give three months' notice.
I don't like having to wear a suit and tie. / Employees should give three months' notice.
He pretended to have to leave early. You'd better give in your notice ifyou plan to leave.
For other ways of expressing necessity, see Section 5.
2 DUTY AND ADVICE
We use should and ought to to express our opinin
about what's rght and wrong:
Drivers ought to be more considrate to other road users.
( - it's their duty) You should take this responsibility Which one of these sentences does not contain the
very seriously. (= it's your duty) idea of necessity, duty or advice?
I You really shouldn't be lifting heavy furniture at your a You'd better have a good excuse or you're in
age. (= strong advice / criticism) trouble.
To talk about the past, we use should have and ought b This film should be really good: it's had great
to have. They suggest what happened in the past reviews.
was wrong or unfortunate: c You must try harder than that if you're going to
The Government ought to have listened. (= they didn't) make the team,
You shouldn't have worked so hard. (= you did) d You should have got up earher - then you
We use shall as well as should and ought to to ask for wouldn't be late,
advice: e We may have to give in to their demands.
What shall I do? Do you think I should tell her?
54
N E C E S S I T Y , DUTY AND ADVICE

Practice O Tick ( / ) each of the sentences in which didn't


need to can be replaced with needn't have + -ed.
0 Tick ( / ) the sentences below which express a It's sweet of you, but you really no o 9^ ^i^p
necessity, duty or advice. didn't need to buy me flowers. f l c ^ S ^ ^ ^ ^ ' ^ '
b It's a good job we didn't cP^^^^^^^}-^
Example: It must be hard work on an oil rig,
need to be here earlier. ( ^^^^W'^^^^D
mustn't it? ?(
c It was strange that we W'^S^^^i S^
I must be on my way if you don't mind. /
didn't need to show ^^(^ ' " " ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
a The filler must be hard before you can paint our passports. / 1^^^.^^ y V ^ ? ^ f Mi
over it.
d You didn't need to f ^r-^^^^^/K^) I Wi
b You must be joking. come and pick me (' / ^ T ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ i : ^ ^ jB J
c It must have been ofside because the goal was up: I could have ^Tg/ml^mim
disallowed. got a taxi. Iimff^w^^
d Having to get up so early every morning is really e There was a sof in the
getting me down. other room: you didn't need to sleep on the floor.
e A bike is sometimes worth having to beat traffic f I didn't need to use cash; I had my credit card
jams in towns. with me after all.
f Do you think I ought to give Dad a ring?
g Should you have any problems with your 0 Finish each of the following sentences in two
computer, give me a cali, diflferent ways so that they are as similar in
h Doctors should respect their patients' wishes. meaning as possible to the sentence printed before
1 Are you saying we needn't have gone to all this them.
trouble anyway? Example: If I were you, I'd have the lobster.
j He'd better not be late again! a I think you ought to have the lobster.
b You really should have the lobster.
0 FiU each of the gaps with must or a form of
have to foUowed by a suitable verb. 1 Why ever did you go to so much trouble with the
refreshments?
Example: I really dislike having to qo shopping at the
a You really needn't
weekend.
b It really
a Just recently I down on my spending. 2 There is to be no talking whatsoever during the
b You really me to your wife. examina tion.
c We through a Candidates wl not
the window because b Silence is 10
I had left my 3 I really must be going now.
key inside. a I've absolutely
d One day b I really mustn't
everyone 4 She should take some form of Identification with
at the age of fifty her, shouldn't she?
whether they like aShe'd
it or not. b It might be
e This exercise is so diHcult one 5 It may be possible for you to go there without a
a genius to do it. visa after all.
f I didn't take the job because I fifiy hours a a It may not
week. b You might not
g Come on, you me drive you home. 6 Don't you think it's time we made our excuses
h You at your desk at nine sharp or else part and left?
of your salary a Hadn't
1 You for twenty-six weeks in the previous b Ought't
year to quahfy for unemployment benefit.
j I fmd I longer and
longer on my homework
at the moment just to keep up.

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