computation

Review
CFD Simulation and Experimental Analyses of a
Copper Wire Woven Heat Exchanger Design to
Improve Heat Transfer and Reduce the Size of
Adsorption Beds
John White
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; john.white@bcu.ac.uk

Academic Editor: Qinjun Kang

Received: 20 August 2015; Accepted: 20 January 2016; Published: 6 February 2016

Abstract: The chief objective of this study is the proposal design and CFD simulation of a new
compacted copper wire woven fin heat exchanger and silica gel adsorbent bed used as part of an
adsorption refrigeration system. This type of heat exchanger design has a large surface area because
of the wire woven fin design. It is estimated that this will help improve the coefficient of performance
(COP) of the adsorption phase and increase the heat transfer in this system arrangement. To study
the heat transfer between the fins and porous adsorbent reactor bed, two experiments were carried
out and matched to computational fluid dynamics (CFD) results.

Keywords: adsorption; CFD; modelling; packed bed; silica gel; velocity

1. Introduction
This article attempts to provide insight into the working principles of a wire woven heat exchanger
used in an adsorption cooling system. The installation procedure for a test rig equipped with a
data logging system has been specified along with the calibration of sensors. Subsequently, the
method followed in conducting tests on a new configuration of adsorption cooling system is described.
The purpose of testing the system is to ascertain systems viability and interaction of individual
components. The tests also were carried out to determine the test rig parameter for use in a CFD
simulation. Several routine curves were generated for system components such as the adsorbent bed
evaporator and condenser.
In recent years, many researchers have investigated the enhancement of the thermal conductivity
of porous adsorbent beds in the hope of improving the thermal performance of such systems [1].
Mass transfer restrictions are also significant in manipulating the performance of this cooling
technology [26]. It is of late that computational fluid dynamics (CFD) research has been
presented [79]. In these studies, Darcys law [7,8] and the extended Darcy-Ergun equation [10]
were adopted as the momentum equation for water vapour flow in the porous adsorbent. However,
Darcys law is appropriate only for incompressible fluids. Past research studies have not clearly
investigated the thermal heat transfer of porous adsorbent bed in relation to the effect of the adsorbed
presence of the water vapour within the adsorbent.
Since the heat and mass transfer properties are greatly affected by the construction of the adsorbent
bed heat exchanger, the equivalent thermal conductivity should be defined as a function of the
configuration parameters. In this research study, an experimental test rig and a 3D model were used
to describe the heat transfer in an adsorbent bed. The solution from the experimental test rig and
the CFD model will be used to optimize the configuration of the adsorbent bed and the operating
conditions [10].

Computation 2016, 4, 8; doi:10.3390/computation4010008 www.mdpi.com/journal/computation

Computation 2016, 4, 8 2 of 24

2. Experimental Setup
The adsorption test rig consists of a condenser, evaporator and adsorbent bed. The adsorbent bed
contains a heat exchanger consisting of one silica gel filled copper wire woven finned heat exchanger.
The wire-finned heat exchanger contains 0.5 kg of silica gel in total. Heating and cooling water tanks are
used to provide the adsorption bed, condenser and evaporator with water at the desired temperatures.
Computation
During the 2016, 4, stage
desorption 8 of the cycle, the adsorption bed is heated to the temperature 2(80 of 23 C) while

the condenser is kept atSetup

2. Experimental 25 C [1,417]. During the adsorption stage of the cycle, the adsorption bed
is cooled down to 25 C and the evaporator to 15 C [10,14]. Valves with a timer are used to control

The adsorption test rig consists of a condenser, evaporator and adsorbent bed. The adsorbent
the heating
bedand cooling
contains a heatwater between
exchanger the cycles
consisting of oneof operation
silica gel filledofcopper
the adsorbent bed,
wire woven evaporator
finned heat and
condenser [10]. The wire-finned heat exchanger contains 0.5 kg of silica gel in total. Heating and cooling
exchanger.
water tanks are used to provide the adsorption bed, condenser and evaporator with water at the
Components
desired temperatures. During the desorption stage of the cycle, the adsorption bed is heated to the
temperature (80 C) while the condenser is kept at 25 C [1,417]. During the adsorption stage of the
The cycle,
experimental testbed
the adsorption rigissetup
cooledfor adsorption
down to 25 C andcooling system
the evaporator to measurements consisted
15 C [14,10]. Valves with a of the
followingtimer
components [10]:
are used to control the heating and cooling water between the cycles of operation of the
adsorbent bed, evaporator and condenser [10].
1. One adsorbent bed;
2. Components
Evaporator;
3. Condenser;The experimental test rig setup for adsorption cooling system measurements consisted of the
following components [10]:
4. Three water tanks one hot water tank, one cooling water tank and one chilled water tank;
5. Vacuum 1. pump;
One adsorbent bed;
2. Evaporator;
6. Manually3. switchable
Condenser; valves, solenoid valves and one diaphragm valve;
7. Sensors:4. Flow
Threemeters, pressure
water tanks one hottransducer andcooling
water tank, one type K thermocouple;
water tank and one chilled water tank;
8. 5. Vacuum pump;
Measuring: data logger (multiplexes with digital converter) transferring data to a
6. Manually switchable valves, solenoid valves and one diaphragm valve;
personal computer.
7. Sensors: Flow meters, pressure transducer and type K thermocouple;
8. Measuring: data logger (multiplexes with digital converter) transferring data to a
One flow meter is installed in each water system. Valves V2 and V3 act as the controllers for the
personal computer.
flow rates. The heat source is provided by a wire wound tube heat exchanger that is heated by the
One flow meter is installed in each water system. Valves V2 and V3 act as the controllers for the
heating coil. Hot water temperature is controlled by valve V5 [10].
flow rates. The heat source is provided by a wire wound tube heat exchanger that is heated by the
Valve V1 controls
heating coil. Hot the
watertemperature
temperature isofcontrolled
the chilled water.
by valve The controlled operation of the vacuum
V5 [10].
valves and the valves
Valve in heating
V1 controls and cooling
the temperature waterwater.
of the chilled systemThe are controlled
controlled byofathe
operation Programme
vacuum logic
controllervalves
(PLC)and the valves
system. in heating
Please and cooling
see Figure 1 forwater system are
Schematic viewcontrolled
of theby a Programme
adsorption logic test rig
cooling
with the controller
wire woven(PLC)fins.
system.ThePlease see Figure 1 for
temperature of Schematic
the coolingviewwater
of the adsorption cooling
is about 25 C, test
andrigthe
withhot water
the wire woven
fins. The temperature of the cooling water is about 25 C, and the hot water
temperature is 80 C.
temperature is 80 C.

Figure 1. Schematic view of the adsorption cooling test rig with the wire woven fins.
Figure 1. Schematic view of the adsorption cooling test rig with the wire woven fins.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 3 of 24

3. Heat Transfer Coefficients and Performance Modelling

The heat transfer coefficients of the adsorption of water vapour and the desorption of water vapour
are calculated from the experimentally measured temperatures of the porous adsorbent. The formula
for the heat transfer coefficient using log mean temperature difference is given by [6,917].

Qdes{ads
Uoverall (1)
A Bed LMTD

where Uoverall is the overall heat transfer coefficient, Qdes{ads is the desorption or adsorption heat, ABed
is the surface area and fin area of the porous adsorbent bed and LMTD is the log mean T temperature
difference is as [10].

Thw{cw Tdes{ads Thw{cw,out Tdes{ads
LMTD (2)
Thw{cw Tdes{ads
In
Thw{cw,out Tdes{ads

The adsorption and desorption heat of the system are estimated using the inlet and outlet
temperatures of the adsorbent beds, and are given by

Qdes{ads m hw{cw CP Tdes{ads Thw{cw,in Thw{cw,out (3)

Here mhw{cw is the flow of the hot water or cooling water flowing into the porous adsorbent
bed and CP (Tdes{ads ) is the heat of the water temperature passing through the porous adsorbent bed.
The heat transfer for adsorption and desorption of water vapour processes are measured from the
returning steady state temperatures of the AD cycle [918].
The performance of the adsorption cooling is obtained by using the key performance parameters,
namely the (SCC) specific cooling capacity and the (COP) coefficient of performance that are given
as follows,
tcycle
Qevap

SCC dt (4)
Msg
0
` `
Qevap m chilled CP Tevap Tchilled,in Tchilled , out (5)
tcycle
Qevap

COP dt (6)
Qdes
0

where mchilled is the chilled water flow rate and Qevap is the heat of evaporation of the water in the
evaporator chamber. The heat of condensation of the water is calculated using cooling water inlet and
outlet temperatures and flow rate of the condenser chamber, and it is stated as the following.
`
Qevap mcond CP pTcond q TCond,in Tcond,out (7)

4. Wire Wound Finned Tubes

A wire woven heat exchanger construction adopted for the adsorbent bed used as part of an
adsorption cooling system makes use of a surface in the form of wire helically wound fins. Copper
wire is used to give high conductivity and thus make the most of the efficiency of this form of
extended surface.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 4 of 24

For the purpose of this experiment a copper wire woven fin heat exchanger was manufactured
from drawings to the specifications shown in Table 1, provided to P. A. K Engineering Limited
(Staffordshire, UK), who donated it for the purpose of this study.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 4 of 23
Table 1. Specification for the copper wire woven fins.
Table 1. Specification for the copper wire woven fins.
Tube Diameter 15 mm
Tube TubeDiameter
Material 15 mm Copper
Tube
Computation Material
2016,
Wire 4, 8
Material Copper Copper wire 4 of 23

Wire Material
Copper Thickness Copper wire0.7 mm
Table 1. Specification for the copper wire woven fins.
Copper
Loops Thickness
per Turn 0.7 mm 70 turns per fin pitch
Loops Tube
perDiameter
Length of coPper Wire
Turn 15
70mm 1400fin
turns per mm per fin pitch
pitch
Tube
Maximum Material
Operation Temperature Copper 120 C
Length of coPper Wire 1400 mm per fin pitch
Wire Material Copper wire
Maximum Operation Temperature 120 C
Copper Thickness 0.7 mm
Table 1 showsLoops the specification
per Turn of the copper wire woven
70 turns finned
per fin pitch heat exchanger the copper tube
Table 1 shows theofspecification of the copper wire woven finned heat exchanger the copper tube
diameter is 15 mm,Length and thecoPper
thickness
Wire of the wire fin is 0.7
1400 mmmm.per finThe
pitchwire is made up of 70 loops per
diameter is 15 mm,
Maximumand the thickness
Operation of the wire fin120
Temperature is C
0.7 mm. The wire is made up of 70 loops per
turn, 360 degrees; the length of the wire per 360 turns is 1400 mm, and one turn is the equivalent to
turn, 360 degrees; the length of the wire per 360 turns is 1400 mm, and one turn is the equivalent to
one flat
onefin,
flat so two
fin, turns
so two
Table
of
turns
1 shows
wire
theof
fins
wire finsare
specification areone
one
of the
pitch. Figures
pitch.wire
copper Figures 2and
and3 heat
woven2finned
3show
showthethe stages
stages
exchanger the of
of preparing
preparing
copper tube the
the
copper wire woven
diameter is fin
15 heat
mm, andexchangers
the thickness covered
of the with
wire fin issilica
0.7 gel
mm. Thefor
copper wire woven fin heat exchangers covered with silica gel for the experiment. the
wire isexperiment.
made up of 70 loops per
turn, 360 degrees; the length of the wire per 360 turns is 1400 mm, and one turn is the equivalent to
one flat fin, so two turns of wire fins are one pitch. Figures 2 and 3 show the stages of preparing the
copper wire woven fin heat exchangers covered with silica gel for the experiment.

Figure 2. Wire wound heat exchanger being prepared for heat transfer testing. (ac) Epoxy was used
Figure 2. Wire wound heat exchanger being prepared for heat transfer testing. (ac) Epoxy was used
to attach silica
Figure gel to
2. Wire wire heat
wound fin; this is a similar
exchanger method for
being prepared to that
heat used bytesting.
transfer (Source SorTech)
(ac) [10].used
Epoxy was
to attach silica gelsilica
to attach to wire
gel tofin;
wirethis
fin; is
thisa is
similar
a similarmethod tothat
method to that used
used by (Source
by (Source SorTech)
SorTech) [10]. [10].

Figure 3. (a,b) Wire Aluminum mesh was used to cover the epoxy attach silica gel; (c,d) second
(a,b) Wire
Figure 3. covering Aluminum
of fine mesh. mesh was used to cover the epoxy attach silica gel; (c,d) second
Figure
covering 3. (a,b)
of fine Wire Aluminum mesh was used to cover the epoxy attach silica gel; (c,d) second
mesh.
covering of fine mesh.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 5 of 24
Computation 2016, 4, 8 5 of 23

The advantages of using the epoxy resin to attach the silica gel granule to the wire fin heat
The advantages of using the epoxy resin to attach the silica gel granule to the wire fin heat
exchanger are: (1) improved speed of heat transfer; (2) less volume and weight of silica gel;
exchanger are: (1) improved speed of heat transfer; (2) less volume and weight of silica gel; (3) improved
(3) improved vapour transport.
vapour transport.
5.5.Systems
SystemsMeasuring
MeasuringInstruments
Instrumentsand
andMeasuring
MeasuringPoints
Points
The
The test
test rig
rig incorporated
incorporated several
several measuring
measuring instruments
instruments toto produce
produce aa range
range ofof parameter
parameter
boundary conditions for the CFD simulation. These are described further on in this section,
boundary conditions for the CFD simulation. These are described further on in this section, where where
the
the various measuring points in the experiment are discussed
various measuring points in the experiment are discussed [10]. [10].

5.1.
5.1.Wire
WireFin
Finand
andThermocouple
ThermocouplePositions
Positions
The
The data
data collected
collected for
for the
the heat
heat transfer
transfer performance
performance evaluation
evaluationofof the
the wire
wire woven
woven fins
fins heat
heat
exchanger measuredby
exchanger was measured byattaching
attaching five
five K-type
K-type thermocouples
thermocouples at various
at various points
points on theon thewoven
wire wire
woven
fins as fins
shownas shown in Figure
in Figure 4 [9,10].4 [9,10].

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure4.4.(a)
(a)AA2D
2Drepresentation
representationof
ofthe
thelocation
locationofofthe
theK-type
K-typethermocouples
thermocouplesindicated
indicatedwith
with(N1,
(N1,N2,
N2,
N3,
N3,N4
N4andandN5);
N5);(b)
(b)A
A3D
3Drepresentation
representationofofthe
thelocation
locationofofthe
theK-type
K-typethermocouples
thermocouplesindicated
indicatedwith
with
(N1,
(N1,N2,
N2,N3,N3,N4N4and
andN5).
N5).

5.2. Temperatures
5.2. Temperatures
Listed here are the measuring point positioning in the experimental test rig:
Listed here are the measuring point positioning in the experimental test rig:
1. Five measuring points on the wire wound tubes heat exchanger;
1. Five measuring points on the wire wound tubes heat exchanger;
2. Two measuring points at opposite outside surfaces of the adsorbent;
2. Two measuring points at opposite outside surfaces of the adsorbent;
3. One measuring point at the flange fitting of the adsorbent bed;
3. 4. One measuring
Ambient point at the flange fitting of the adsorbent bed;
temperature;
4. 5. Ambient temperature;
Inlet and outlet temperatures of the three coolants;
5. 6. Inlet and outlet of
Temperature temperatures
the liquid inofthe
theevaporator.
three coolants;
6. Temperature of the liquid in the evaporator.
5.3. Temperature Sensors
All five temperature sensors were thermocouple type K. The sensors used in this system are
embedded in the wire wound tube heat exchanger. The temperature range was from 25 C up to
Computation 2016, 4, 8 6 of 24

5.3. Temperature Sensors

All five temperature sensors were thermocouple type K. The sensors used in this system are
embedded in the wire wound tube heat exchanger. The temperature range was from 25 C up to 80 C.
The sensors provided the current of 1 mA (also measured by the data logger through a high precision
resistance) through a constant current supply [3,10].

5.4. Vacuum Pressure Gauge and Solenoid Valves

With vacuum pressure gauges, the pressures in the evaporator, in the adsorbent bed and the
condenser are recorded one after another. For this system, the sensor had four outlets connected with
solenoid valves to the components. The data transducer controls the solenoid valves; this also has the
control sequences from a PLC connected to a computer programme [10].

5.5. Flow Meters

In the coolant and heating circuits of the test rig, flow meters are installed: one turbine velocity
flow meter and two acrylic water velocity flow meters [10].

5.6. The Data Logger

The measuring signals of all built-in sensors are scanned through multiple data acquisition system
channels by a data logger and then transmitted to a computer [118].

5.7. Vacuum Pumps

For low-temperature evaporation of the working fluid, a vacuum pump was necessary.
The vacuum pump is connected to the evaporator and adsorbent bed. A vacuum pump was used to
reduce the pressure below the vapour pressure of the water at ambient temperature [10].

6. Wire Woven Fin Heat Exchanger Test Rig

An adsorption test rig is designed with an evaporator and condenser of identical construction.
The reasons for designing this adsorption test rig is to compare the heat transfer performance of silica
gel adsorbent and water pairs on wire wound tubes and then to use data for CFD simulation [10].
Figure 5 shows a labelled photograph of the adsorption test rig layout, the adsorbent bed and
3D CAD design are shown in Figures 6 and 7 respectively. During the construction of the test rig,
there was difficulty in obtaining a full vacuum in the evaporator because of leakage in the gaskets.
The experiments were almost abandoned due to this problem; however, this problem was resolved by
using epoxy resin pasted onto the gasket and permanently sealing the gaskets, allowing tests to be
carried out. The drawback of this solution was that the evaporator is permanently locked. This is not a
problem in this study because the test rig is a temporary prototype to generate data for the purpose of
the CFD Simulation [10].
there was difficulty in obtaining a full vacuum in the evaporator because of leakage in the gaskets.
The experiments were almost abandoned due to this problem; however, this problem was resolved
by using epoxy resin pasted onto the gasket and permanently sealing the gaskets, allowing tests to
be carried out. The drawback of this solution was that the evaporator is permanently locked. This is
not a problem
Computation 2016, 4,in
8 this study because the test rig is a temporary prototype to generate data for
7 ofthe
24
purpose of the CFD Simulation [10].

Figure 5. The adsorption bed test rig.

Figure 5. The adsorption bed test rig.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 7 of 23

Figure 6. Helix copper coil heat exchanger (designed by J. White 2012 [10]).
Figure 6. Helix copper coil heat exchanger (designed by J. White 2012 [10]).
Computation 2016, 4, 8 8 of 24
Figure 6. Helix copper coil heat exchanger (designed by J. White 2012 [10]).

Figure 7. 3D
Figure 7. 3D Model
Model of
of test
test rig
rig design by John
design by John White
White 2012
2012 [10].
[10].

All the switch solenoid valves and vacuum pumps used in this adsorption cooling test equipment
All the switch solenoid valves and vacuum pumps used in this adsorption cooling test equipment
are controlled by a PLC programmer system connected to a computer. It is an automatically running
are controlled by a PLC programmer system connected to a computer. It is an automatically running
prototype [10].
prototype [10].
6.1. Testing Procedure
6.1. Testing Procedure
Before the experiment, the test equipment (evaporator, condenser, the adsorbent bed and piping
Before the experiment, the test equipment (evaporator, condenser, the adsorbent bed and piping
systems) is first vacuumed by a vacuum pump for approximately one hour. For the duration of the
systems) is first vacuumed by a vacuum pump for approximately one hour. For the duration of the
evacuation, hot water at 85 C is supplied to the porous adsorbent bed to heat-up the porous silica
evacuation, hot water at 85 C is supplied to the porous adsorbent bed to heat-up the porous silica gel
gel to remove moisture trapped in the adsorbent bed. When all moisture is completely removed, the
to remove moisture trapped in the adsorbent bed. When all moisture is completely removed, the test
test equipment was then ready for the experiment [10].
equipment was then ready for the experiment [10].
The adsorption cooling test rig was built with only one adsorbent bed; a copper wire woven
The adsorption cooling test rig was built with only one adsorbent bed; a copper wire woven
finned heat exchanger is used for this adsorbent bed. The adsorbent material (silica gel) are filled in
finned heat exchanger is used for this adsorbent bed. The adsorbent material (silica gel) are filled in
the spaces between the wire fins. The connection to the evaporator, adsorbent bed and condenser is by
valves 6 and 7. The evaporator is a cylindrical vacuum chamber [10].
At the bottom of the vacuum chamber, a helix copper coil heats the exchanger as shown in
Figure 6, this helix coil is covered with water.
The condenser is also made of a helical coil heat exchanger in a cylindrical vacuum chamber.
Throughout the adsorption process, water vapour is adsorbed by the porous adsorbent material silica
gel. Throughout this operation, valve 6 connected to the evaporator is opened, and valve 7 connected
to the condenser is kept closed [317]. At the same time, the adsorbent bed is cooled and maintained
at a temperature of 25 C. After reaching the water vapour saturation conditions in the adsorbent bed,
the desorption process is initiated using hot water input at a temperature of 80 C [10]. This function
is done by switching on solenoid valve 5 and solenoid valve V3. At the same moment in time, the
solenoid valves 4 and 2 are closed, and the valve connected to the condenser is opened. Water in the
adsorbent bed are desorbed due to the heat input. The water vapour desorbed from the silica gel
flows through valve 7 to the condenser vacuum chamber. Here the water vapour is condensing on the
surface of the condenser helical coil heat exchanger.
To simulate the results of the experiment underrating conditions, the parameters of the standard
operating conditions employed in the simulation code are shown in Table 2.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 9 of 24

Table 2. Parameters of the standard operating conditions employed in simulation code.

T in Chilled Water 15 C
T in Heating Water 80 C
T in Cooling Water 25 C
Condenser Pressure 101,325 Pa
Adsorbent Bed Pressure 101,325 Pa
Evaporator Pressure 1,011,000 Pa
Velocity 0.5 m/s
Time Cycle 480 s
Time Switching 30 s

6.2. Considerations and Assumptions

There is no refrigerant vapour or heat loss to the surroundings;
Adsorbent, refrigerant and heat exchanger temperatures are instantaneously the same;
Refrigerant exits the evaporator at saturated vapour condition;
Refrigerant exits the condenser at the liquid saturated condition;
Flow through the expansion valve is isenthalpic;
The isosteric heat of adsorption is assumed to be constant.

6.3. Adsorption Cooling System Simulation Stages

Components simulation models (sub-models);
Evaporator, condenser, adsorbent beds;
Sub-models validation study;
Integrating sub-models to form adsorption cooling system simulation model;
Adsorption cooling system simulation model validation study.

7. Result and Discussion

7.1. Analysis Standard Operating Condition

The test rig was first designed by using 3D SolidWorks CAD then tested by CFD modelling
to predict the heat transfer in the adsorbent bed. The simulation results are confirmed with the
experimental data as seen in Table 3. In this section, the results of the simulating the adsorbent bed
during adsorption and desorption will be discussed in comparison with the experimental data. Also,
the results of simulating the evaporator and condenser will be compared to experimental results.
To simulate the experimental results under usual working conditions, the parameters of the standard
operating conditions employed in simulation code as shown in Tables 35 are used.

Table 3. Temperature data-1.

Inlet temperature 60 C

Hot Water Cycle Flow velocity 0.5 m/s

Pressure 101,325 Pa
Inlet temperature 15 C

Chilled Water Cycle Flow velocity 0.5 m/s

Pressure 101,000 Pa
Inlet temperature 25 C

Cooling Water Cycle Flow velocity 0.5 m/s

Pressure 101,325 Pa
 Hot Water Cycle Flow velocity 0.5 m/s
Pressure 101,325 Pa
Inlet temperature 15 C
Chilled Water Cycle Flow velocity 0.5 m/s
Pressure 101,000 Pa
Computation 2016, 4, 8 Inlet temperature 25 C 10 of 24
Cooling Water Cycle Flow velocity 0.5 m/s
Pressure 101,325 Pa
Table 4. Temperature data-2.

Table 4. Temperature data-2. C

Inlet temperature 70
Hot Water Cycle Flow
Inletvelocity
temperature 0.5
70 C m/s
Hot Water Cycle Pressure
Flow velocity 101,325
0.5 m/s Pa
Pressure
Inlet temperature 101,325
15 Pa C
Chilled Water Cycle Flow
Inletvelocity
temperature 0.5
15 C m/s
Chilled Water Cycle Pressure
Flow velocity 101,000
0.5 m/s Pa
Pressure
Inlet temperature 101,000
25 Pa C
Cooling Water Cycle Inletvelocity
Flow temperature 25
0.5 C m/s
Cooling Water Cycle Pressure
Flow velocity 101,325
0.5 m/s Pa
Pressure 101,325 Pa
Table 5. Temperature data-3.
Table 5. Temperature data-3.
Inlet temperature 80 C
Inlet temperature 80 C
Hot Water Cycle Flow velocity 0.5 m/s
Hot Water Cycle Flow velocity
Pressure 0.5
101,325 m/s Pa
Pressure 101,325 Pa
Inlet temperature 15 C
Inlet temperature 15 C
Chilled Water Cycle Flow velocity 0.5 m/s
Chilled Water Cycle Flow velocity 0.5 m/s
Pressure 101,000 Pa
Pressure 101,000 Pa
Inlet temperature 25 C
Inlet temperature 25 C
Cooling Water Cycle Flow velocity 0.5 m/s
Cooling Water Cycle Flow velocity 0.5 m/s
Pressure 101,325 Pa
Pressure 101,325 Pa

Figure 8. The refrigerant temperature in the evaporator by J. White 2012 [10].

Figure 8. The refrigerant temperature in the evaporator by J. White 2012 [10].

Figure 8 depicts the refrigerant temperature variation in the evaporator. It can be observed that
the output temperature increases first and decreases subsequently. The experimental results from the
condenser inlet and outlet refrigerant temperatures are compared to the CFD simulation inlet and
outlet temperatures.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 10 of 23
Computation 2016, 4, 8 10 of 23
Figure 8 depicts the refrigerant temperature variation in the evaporator. It can be observed that
Figuretemperature
the output 8 depicts theincreases
refrigerant
firsttemperature variation
and decreases in the evaporator.
subsequently. It can be
The experimental observed
results fromthat
the
the output2016,
condenser
Computation temperature
inlet
4, and
8 increases
outlet first and
refrigerant decreases subsequently.
temperatures are comparedThe experimental
to the resultsinlet
CFD simulation from the
and
11 of 24
condenser
outlet inlet and outlet refrigerant temperatures are compared to the CFD simulation inlet and
temperatures.
outlet temperatures.

Figure 9. The refrigerant temperature in the condenser by J. White 2012 [10].

Figure 9. The refrigerant temperature in the condenser by J. White 2012 [10].
Figure 9. The refrigerant temperature in the condenser by J. White 2012 [10].
As seen in Figure 9 the CFD simulation results roughly agree with those of the experimental
data.As
Theseen
As inletin
seen Figure
inwater
Figure 99 the
to thethe CFD
CFD simulation
simulation
condenser results
results roughly
has a temperature roughly agree
andwith
agree
of 25 C, that those
with the of
those
to of the
the experimental
experimental
evaporator is 15 C;
data. The inlet water to the condenser has a temperature of 25 C, and that to the evaporator is
data. The
these inlet
values water to
indicate thethe
that condenser
pressurehas
ofacondenser
temperature of 25 at
is held C,101,325
and thatPa.toAt
thethe
evaporator
inceptionis of
15 the
C;
15 C; these values indicate that the pressure of condenser is held at 101,325 Pa. At the inception of the
these values indicate that
adsorption-desorption the the
period, pressure of condenser
pressure is heldincreases
in the condenser at 101,325 Pa.
and At the inception
decreases of the
subsequently.
adsorption-desorption
adsorption-desorption period,
period, the
the pressure
pressure in
in the
the condenser
condenser increases
increasesandanddecreases
decreasessubsequently.
subsequently.

Figure 10. Comparison of the outlet temperature of the CFD simulation and the experiment data by
J.Figure
White10. Comparison
2012 [10]. of the outlet temperature of the CFD simulation and the experiment data by
Figure 10. Comparison of the outlet temperature of the CFD simulation and the experiment data by
J. White 2012 [10].
J. White 2012 [10].
For an adsorption cooling system, the main two operating temperatures concerned are observed
For an10.
in Figure adsorption
These are cooling
the system, the main
temperature of two operatingheating
desorption temperatures
and theconcerned are observed
adsorption cooling
For an adsorption
in Figure 10.It These
temperature. cooling
may beare system, the
the temperature
significant main
to note that two
of the operating
desorption temperatures
heating andofthe
outlet temperatures concerned
adsorbentobserved
are
the adsorption cooling
bed are
in Figureby10.the
temperature.
affected These
Ittime
mayare thesignificant
be
constanttemperatureto of
and error desorption
note
of thethat the heating and the
outletsensors
temperature seeadsorption
Tableof5.thecooling
temperatures temperature.
adsorbent bed are
It may beby
affected significant to note that
the time constant andthe outlet
error temperatures
of the temperatureof sensors
the adsorbent bed5.are affected by the time
see Table
constant
7.2. and error
Comparative of the temperature sensors see Table 5.
Study
7.2. Comparative Study
In heat exchangers,
7.2. Comparative Study there may be different thermal heat transfer owing to the different type of
In heat exchangers,
heat exchanger there may
design, creating be different
different thermal
behavior heat
in the heattransfer owingTherefore,
exchanger. to the different type of
CFD thermal
In heat exchangers, there may be different thermal heat transfer owing to the different type of
heat exchanger design, creating different behavior in the heat exchanger. Therefore, CFD thermal
heat exchanger design, creating different behavior in the heat exchanger. Therefore, CFD thermal heat
transfer simulation analysis will help the design engineer to predict the behavior of the various types
Computation 2016, 4, 8 11 of 23
Computation 2016, 4, 8 11 of 23
Computation 2016, 4, 8 12 of 24
Computation 2016, 4, 8 11 of 23
heat transfer simulation analysis will help the design engineer to predict the behavior of the various
heat
typestransfer
of heat simulation analysis will help
exchanger performance. the design
The thermal engineer
heat transfertoCFD
predict the behavior
simulation of the various
performance results
heat
types transfer simulation analysis will help the design engineer to predict the behavior of the various
of heatof
from heatCFD
3D exchanger
aexchanger performance.
performance.
simulation model. Thecomparison
The thermal
A thermal heat
oftransfer
heat transfer CFD simulation
CFDexperimental
the simulation wire performance
performance
wovenresults
finnedresults
from a
heat
types
from of
a heatCFD
3D exchanger performance.
simulation model. AThe thermal heat
comparison of transfer
the CFD simulation
experimental wire performance
woven finnedresults
heat
3D CFD simulation model. A comparison of the experimental wire woven
exchanger and a 3D CFD simulation model of flat fin heat exchanger as shown in Figures 1113. finned heat exchanger and
from a 3D and
exchanger CFDa simulation
3D with
CFD model. Amodel
simulation comparison of heat
of flat fin the experimental wire woven finned1113.
heat
aThe
3D heat
CFD exchanger
simulation model theof capability
flat fin heatofexchanger
transferring moreexchanger
as shown to itsas1113.
in Figures
heat shown
tip in heat
willThe
haveFiguresexchanger
greater heat
exchanger
The heat and a 3D with
exchanger CFD the simulation
capabilitymodel of flat fin heat exchanger
of transferring astipshown in Figures 1113.
with the efficiency.
transfer capability of transferring more heat to its tip willmore
haveheat to its
greater heat will have
transfer greater
efficiency. heat
The heatefficiency.
transfer exchanger with the capability of transferring more heat to its tip will have greater heat
transfer
7.3. efficiency.
7.3. Experimental
Experimental Two Two Setup
Setup and
and Method
Method
7.3. Experimental
This Two Setup and Method
This experimental
experimental
7.3. Experimental apparatus
apparatus
Two Setup was
was designed
and Method designed to to perform
perform heatheat transfer
transfer analysis
analysis of
of heat
heat exchangers.
exchangers.
The adsorbent
This reactor
experimental bed section
apparatus is removable;
was designed this
to is to allow
perform changing
heat of
transfer
The adsorbent reactor bed section is removable; this is to allow changing of the different the different
analysis of heat
heat exchangers
exchangers.
heat
see
The This
Figure experimental
11see
adsorbent [10,17].
reactor11apparatus
bed was designed to perform heat transfer analysis of
section is removable; this is to allow changing of the different heat heat exchangers.
exchangers Figure [17,10].
The adsorbent
exchangers reactor11bed
see Figure section is removable; this is to allow changing of the different heat
[17,10].
exchangers see Figure 11 [17,10].

Figure 11. Heat exchanger test rig.

Figure 11. Heat exchanger test rig.
Figure 11. Heat exchanger test rig.
Figure 11. Heat exchanger test rig.
Thermocouples are implanted at intervals along each fin so that temperature is known at
Thermocouples
Thermocouples are
selected points as shownareimplanted
in Figureat
implanted intervals
12at It isalong
intervals
[10]. each
at along
this fin sofin
each
location that temperature
sothe
that that is known
temperature
convection is at selected
known
coefficient at
will be
Thermocouples
points as
selected shown
points in
as are in
Figure
shown implanted
12 [10].
FigureIt is
12 at
at intervals
this
[10]. Itlocation
is at along
that
this each
the
location fin sothe
convection
that that temperature
coefficient
convection will beisdetermined.
known
coefficient will at
be
determined. Temperature readings were examined at 60 s intervals to manage the efficiency of the
selected points
Temperature as shown
readings wereinreadings
Figure
examined 12 [10].
at Itsisintervals
at this location thatthe
the convectionofcoefficient will be
determined.
different heatTemperature
exchanger fins as shown were in60
examined
Table 6. at 60 to smanage
intervals toefficiency
manage the the different
efficiency ofheat
the
determined.
exchangerheat
different Temperature
finsexchanger
as shown fins readings
in Table 6.
as shown were examined
in Table 6. at 60 s intervals to manage the efficiency of the
different heat exchanger fins as shown in Table 6.

Figure 12. Setting up the wire woven heat transfer experiment.

Figure 12. Setting up the wire woven heat transfer experiment.
Figure 12.
Figure Setting up
12. Setting up the
the wire
wire woven
woven heat
heat transfer
transfer experiment.
experiment.

Figure 13. Setting up wire fin for heat transfer experiment.

Figure 13. Setting up wire fin for heat transfer experiment.
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Setting
Setting up
up wire
wire fin
fin for
for heat
heat transfer
transfer experiment.
experiment.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 13 of 24

Table 6 shows the heat exchanger heat transfer experimental results at 85 C.

Table 6. The stressed column indicates the values used for CFD simulation of the hot water cycle.

Test Wire Woven Fin Flat Fin

Time (s) T-hot in T-hot out T-hot in T-hot out
60 85 83.9 85 73.5
120 85 84.1 85 73.5
180 85 83.9 85 73.6
240 85 83.7 85 73.6
300 85 83.7 85 73.2
360 85 83.5 85 73.2
420 85 83.4 85 73.1
480 85 83.4 85 73.1
540 85 83.2 85 73.1
600 85 81.1 85 73.1
660 85 80.2 85 73.1
720 85 80.1 85 73.1
780 85 80.1 85 72.9

The yellow bottom rows indicate the values used for CFD simulation of the hot water cycle.

7.4. Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation of the Two Different Heat Exchangers
There are two different heat exchanger to be simulated, the flat fin heat exchanger and the wire
woven heat exchanger. Both heat exchangers were simulated with the packing of silica gel porous
medium, the results was compared to visualise the heat transfer performance of both.

7.5. The Physical Models

The fluid flow and thermal heat variables on the boundaries conditions of the model are:

1 Fluid flow inlet and outlet boundaries: temperature inlet, velocity inlet, temperature outlet;
2 Heat exchanger fin wall, repeating, and limit boundaries: fin wall, symmetry;
3 Internal fluid, solid;
4 Internal face boundaries: porous, fins wall, interior.

In the CFD simulation model, flow velocity was allocated to the flow inlet of the adsorbent bed;
this boundary condition expresses a flow velocity at the inlet of the bed. The flow exit boundary is
defined as a pressure outlet, and the outlet pressure is defined as atmospheric pressure. The adsorbent
bed and packing interior are defined as boundaries. The fin wall boundaries separate the fluid zone and
vapour in between the porous silica gel granules from the fin wall zones [9,10,17]. With the strength
of the boundary conditions a CFD simulation can define the physical model. It was then necessary
to determine how the solution will be established. This was done by setting the iteration parameters.
With all boundary conditions well-defined, some additional parameters and solving schemes were
selected. An initial state was assigned to the CFD simulation, which was used to help speed the
merging of the calculation. The computation is an iterative process that solves the governing equations
for flow and energy in each simulated cell. Depending on the difficulty of the model and the computer
resources available, CFD simulation can take anywhere from minutes to days [10]. The results of the
CFD simulation can be viewed and manipulated with post-processing software once the simulation
has converted to a solution.
The furthermost significant portions of CFD modelling are the construction of the mesh topology.
It has to be selected with enough elements to describe the methods correctly and with a degree of
smoothness that allows results within a reasonable period. When an optimal density has been found,
refining this will increase the model size without displaying more flow detail [1017]. Once it is
Computation 2016, 4, 8 13 of 23

The furthermost significant portions of CFD modelling are the construction of the mesh
topology. It has to be selected with enough elements to describe the methods correctly and with a
Computation 2016, 4, 8 14 of 24
degree of smoothness that allows results within a reasonable period. When an optimal density has
been found, refining this will increase the model size without displaying more flow detail [1017].
Once it is coarsened
coarsened the obscure
the mesh will mesh will obscure
possibly possibly
essential essential
parts of the parts of the The
flow detail. flowmesh
detail. The mesha
determines
determines
large part ofa creating
large partanofacceptable
creating ansimulation;
acceptable see
simulation;
Figure 14see Figures
which 14 which
illustrate theillustrate the stages
stages followed to
followed
achieve theto achieve the were
results that results that wereindiscussed
discussed in this section.
this section.

Figure 14. Porous adsorbent CFD simulation methodology.

Figure 14. Porous adsorbent CFD simulation methodology.

Define the Engineering Goal

Define the Engineering Goal
Engineering goals are the parameters which you need for the CFD simulation. Setting goals is
Engineering goals are the parameters which you need for the CFD simulation. Setting goals is
one way of assigning to the CFD Simulation what you are trying to get out of the investigation as
one way of assigning to the CFD Simulation what you are trying to get out of the investigation as well
well as a way to reduce the time CFD Flow Simulation needs to reach a solution.
as a way to reduce the time CFD Flow Simulation needs to reach a solution.
Goals can be set all through the entire domain (Global Goals), with some volumes (volume
Goals can be set all through the entire domain (Global Goals), with some volumes (volume Goals),
Goals), in a nominated surface area (Surface Goals), or at a given (Point Goals).
in a nominated surface area (Surface Goals), or at a given (Point Goals).
7.6.
7.6. Creating
Creating the
the Silica
Silica Gel
Gel Porous
Porous Medium
Medium
To generatea aporous
To generate porous medium
medium for adsorbent
for the the adsorbent bed,
bed, first first the
specify specify themediums
porous porous mediums
properties
properties (porosity, permeability type, etc.) in the Engineering Database and then
(porosity, permeability type, etc.) in the Engineering Database and then apply the porous medium apply the porous
medium to the spheres
to the spheres in the packed
in the packed bed assembly.
bed assembly. The data
The data shown shown in Figure
in Figure 15 were
15 were those
those specified
specified in
in this simulation.
this simulation.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 15 of 24
Computation 2016, 4, 8 14 of 23

Figure 15. Creating the silica gel porous medium in CFD Cosmos flow simulation.
Figure 15. Creating the silica gel porous medium in CFD Cosmos flow simulation.
For the porous medium simulation method, the CFD model has a mass of cells representing the
For
fluidthe porous
inlet medium
[1517]. simulation
This is followed method,
by the porousthe CFD model
adsorbent has aare
units that mass
usedoftocells
modelrepresenting
fluid flow the
fluid through porousThis
inlet [1517]. adsorbent [4,10,15].by
is followed Full
theflow field predictions
porous adsorbent are possible
units withused
that are the porous adsorbent
to model fluid flow
simulation method because the equations describe the resistance of the porous adsorbent
through porous adsorbent [4,10,15]. Full flow field predictions are possible with the porous adsorbent to flow:
simulation method because the equations describe the resistance of the porous adsorbent to flow:
= (8)
P
US2
Here the coefficient values and areallocated temperature-dependent
US values that describe (8)
L
the performance of a porous adsorbent. High values of and preclude flow at right angles to the
porousthe
Here adsorbent. Upstream
coefficient valuesand downstream
and of the water
are allocated vapour flow field are values
temperature-dependent solved using the
that describe
usual Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes methodology.
the performance of a porous adsorbent. High values of and preclude flow at right angles to the
porous adsorbent. Upstream and downstream of the water vapour flow field are solved using the
7.7. Thermophysical Properties
usual Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes methodology.
Once the model was established, boundary conditions were assigned to each section of the
model and were
7.7. Thermophysical used to simulate the actual conditions set by the adsorption cooling system.
Properties
Examples of common boundary conditions include velocity inlet, pressure inlet, pressure outlet, and
Once the model
temperature was
profile as established,
seen in Tablesboundary
79 [10]. conditions were assigned to each section of the model
and were used to simulate the actual conditions set by the adsorption cooling system. Examples of
common boundary conditionsTable 7. Thermophysical
include properties
velocity inlet, pressureof copper
inlet,tube.
pressure outlet, and temperature
profile as seen in TablesMaterial
79 [10]. Water
Density, (kg/m3) 1000
Table
Specific 7. Thermophysical
Heat properties of copper
Capacity CP (J/kgK) 4200 tube.
Thermal Conductivity, K (W/mK) 0.61
Material
Dynamic Viscosity, (kg/ms) 103 Water
0.96172
Density, (kg/m3 ) 1000
Specific Heat Capacity CP (J/kg K) 4200
Thermal Conductivity, K (W/m K) 0.61
Dynamic Viscosity, (kg/ms) 103 0.96172
Computation 2016, 4, 8 15 of 23

Computation 2016, 4, 8
Table 8. Thermo-physical properties of silica gel. 16 of 24

Thermophysical Properties of Silica Gel Type A

Specific Table
Surface Area (m /g)
2
8. Thermo-physical properties of silica650
gel.
Porous Volume (mL/g) 0.36
Average Pore Diameter
Thermophysical (A)of Silica Gel
Properties 22
Type A
Specific Surface
Apparent DensityArea (m2 /g)
(kg/m 3) 650
730
Porous
pH Value Volume (mL/g) 0.36
5.0
Average Pore Diameter (A) 22
Water Content (wt.%)
Apparent Density (kg/m ) 3 <2.0
730
Specific
pH ValueHeat Capacity (KJ/kgK) 0.921
5.0
Water Content
Thermal (wt.%) (W/mK)
Conductivity <2.0
0.174
Specific
Mesh SizeHeat Capacity (KJ/kg K) 0.921
1040
Thermal Conductivity (W/m K) 0.174
Mesh Size 1040
Table 9. Thermo-physical properties of alumina fins.

Property Value
Table 9. Thermo-physical properties Units
of alumina fins.
Elastic Modulus 1.1e+11 N/m2
Property
Poissons Ratio Value
0.37 Units
N/A
Elastic Modulus 1.1e+11 N/m 22
Shear Modulus 4e+10
DensityPoissons Ratio 0.37
8900 N/A
kg/m3
Shear Modulus 4e+10 N/m22
Tensile Density
Strength 394,380,000
8900
N/m
kg/m3
Compressive
TensileStrength
Strength in X 394,380,000 N/m22
N/m
Yield Strength
Compressive Strength in X 258,646,000 N/m2
Yield Strength 258,646,000 N/m 2
Thermal Expansion Coefficient 2.4e5 /K
Thermal Expansion Coefficient 2.4e5 /K
Thermal Conductivity 390 W/(mk)
Thermal Conductivity 390 W/(m k)
SpecificSpecific
Heat Heat 390
390 J/(kgK)
J/(kg K)
MaterialMaterial
Damping Ratio Ratio
Damping N/A

7.8. Surface
7.8. Surface Area and Volume
Area and Volume of
of Flat
Flat Fin
Fin Results
Results Generated
Generated by
by CFD
CFD
For most
For most finned
finned heat
heat exchangers,
exchangers, thethe materials
materials determine
determine transfers,
transfers, thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity and
and
the structures surface area to volume ratio. As mentioned, before increasing, the surface
the structures surface area to volume ratio. As mentioned, before increasing, the surface of a heat of a heat
exchanger will
exchanger will also
also increase
increasethe theheat
heattransfer
transferofofthe
theheat
heatexchangers.
exchangers.ToTo investigate
investigate thethe surface
surface area
area to
to volume
volume ratio
ratio andand
heatheat transfer
transfer of exchangers,
of heat heat exchangers, two different
two different types oftypes
heat of heat exchangers
exchangers were
were selected
selected
and and compared.
compared.
The length and
The length and the height of
the height of the
the flat
flat aluminium
aluminium heatheat exchanger
exchanger finfin are
are 32
32 mm
mm andand 32
32 mm,
mm,
respectively, as shown in Figures 16
respectively, as shown in Figures 16 and 17.and 17.

Figure 16. Drawing dimensions for Aluminium flat finned heat exchanger used to generate volume
and surface area of fin.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 17 of 24
Computation 2016, 4, 8 16 of 23
Computation 2016, 4, 8 16 of 23

Figure 17. Single flat fin volume and surface area generated by assigning mass properties to 3D
Figure 17. Single flat fin volume and surface area generated by assigning mass properties to 3D
Figure 17. Single flat fin volume and surface area generated by assigning mass properties to 3D
CAD
CADmodel.
model.
CAD model.
A mesh was created to focus on silica gel contact points and silica gel heat exchanger wall contact
A meshwas
A mesh wascreated
createdtoto focus
focus on on silica
silica gel contact points and gel
silica gelexchanger
heat exchanger wall
points. The porous silica gel geometry ingel contact
CFD flowpoints and silica
simulation was alsoheatprepared towall contact
match the
contact
points. points.
The The porous
porous silica silicageometry
gel gel geometry in in CFD
CFD flowflow simulation
simulation waswas alsoprepared
also preparedtotomatch
match the
the
outcomes of CFD codes. When real contact points are created, both surfaces that are contacting have
outcomes
outcomes of
of CFD
CFD codes.
codes. When real
When real contact
contact points
points are
are created,
created, both
both surfaces that
surfaces that are contacting
are contacting have
have
one common node [10,1517]. In surface mesh formation, this can be defined and does not pose any
one
one common
common
problems. Thenode
3D [10,1517].
node [10,1517].
mesh was In In surface
surface mesh
created mesh formation,
reasonablyformation, this
easily this can be
can
by the be defined
defined and
inclusion ofand
somedoes not
does not pose
nodes pose any
on any
the
problems.
problems. The 3D3Dmesh
interactive The
surfaces. In was
mesh created
thewaslaminar reasonably
created flow easilyeasily
reasonably
case, the by theby
solutioninclusion
the of some of
inclusion
parameters nodes
were someon the interactive
nodes
adjusted to on
getthe
a
surfaces. In surfaces.
interactive the laminar In flow case,
theseelaminarthe solution
flow parameters
case, were parameters
the solution adjusted to get
werea converging
adjusted to solution
get a
converging solution please Figure 18 [10,1517].
please see Figure
converging 18 [10,1517].
solution please see Figure 18 [10,1517].

Figure 18. Aluminium flat plate finned heat exchanger (a) and (b) presents the flat fin mesh.
Figure 18. Aluminium flat plate finned heat exchanger (a) and (b) presents the flat fin mesh.
Figure 18. Aluminium flat plate finned heat exchanger (a) and (b) presents the flat fin mesh.
The fin root temperature as seen in Figure 19a,b was set at 85 C, and the model was run until
The finapproached
the solution root temperature as seen
the steady inbehavior
state Figure 19a,b
afterwas setThe
750 s. at 85
finC,
rootand the modelchanged
temperature was runfrom
until
the The fin root
solution temperature
approached the as seenstate
steady in Figure
behavior19a,b was750
after 85 fin
sets.atThe C, and
root the model waschanged
temperature run until the
from
85 C to 73 C as the heat was conducted to the top edge of the fin. This shows a reduction in
solution approached
85 C to 73 of Cthe the steady
as Aluminum
the heat was state behavior after 750 s. The fin root temperature changed from 85 C
temperature
C as the heat flatconducted
plate fin by to12the
C.top
Thisedge of the in
reduction fin.temperature
This showsisapartly
reduction
due toin
to 73
temperature of the was conducted
Aluminum to the
flat plate top edge
finporous of
by 12 C. the fin. This
This reduction shows a reduction
in temperature in temperature of
the heat transfer from the Aluminum fin to adsorbent, see Figures 19 and 20. is partly due to
the
the Aluminum
heat transferflat plate
from thefin by 12 C. This
Aluminum fin toreduction in temperature
porous adsorbent, is partly
see Figures 19 due
and to
20.the heat transfer
from the Aluminum fin to porous adsorbent, see Figures 19 and 20.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 18 of 24
Computation 2016, 4, 8 17 of 23
Computation 2016, 4, 8 17 of 23

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 19. The contour thermal heat transfer temperature of the flat finned heat exchanger (a);
Figure 19.
Figure The contour
19. The contour thermal
thermal heat
heat transfer
transfer temperature
temperature of
of the
the flat
flat finned
finned heat
heat exchanger
exchanger (a);
(a);
The Centre of the fin is 85 C and the fin edge is 73 C (b).
The Centre of the fin is 85 C and the fin edge is 73 C (b).
The Centre of the fin is 85 C and the fin edge is 73 C (b).

Figure 20. Changes of heat transfer efficiency over time.

Figure 20. Changes of heat transfer efficiency over time.
Figure 20. Changes of heat transfer efficiency over time.
Temperature distribution in Figure 20 presents the temperature provided lengthwise of the
Temperature distribution in Figure 20 presents the temperature provided lengthwise of the
rectangular heat exchanger
Temperature fin. A
distribution inhigher
Figuregradient can be
20 presents thedetected near the
temperature base of the
provided heat exchanger
lengthwise of the
rectangular heat exchanger fin. A higher gradient can be detected near the base of the heat exchanger
fin due to
rectangular the temperature
heat difference
exchangerdifference between
fin. A higher the
gradient fin surface
cansurface and
be detected the
nearsurrounding porous
the base of the adsorbents
heatadsorbents
exchanger
fin due to the temperature between the fin and the surrounding porous
covering
fin due tothe
thefins.
temperature difference between the fin surface and the surrounding porous adsorbents
covering the fins.
covering the fins.
7.9. Surface Area and Volume of Wire Fin Results Generated by CFD
7.9. Surface Area and Volume of Wire Fin Results Generated by CFD
7.9. Surface
In this Area andthe
section, Volume of Wire
surface areaFin
andResults
volumeGenerated
of the two by different
CFD heat exchanger will be simulated
In this section, the surface area and volume of the two different heat exchanger will be simulated
usingInthe
thisexperimental input data
section, the surface obtained
area and volumeso of
asthe
to two
be able to visualize
different the CFDwill
heat exchanger simulated heat
be simulated
using the experimental input data obtained so as to be able to visualize the CFD simulated heat
transfer root contours.
using the experimental input data obtained so as to be able to visualize the CFD simulated heat transfer
transfer root contours.
root contours.
7.10. Wire Finned Heat Exchanger Surface Area and Volume
7.10. Wire Finned Heat Exchanger Surface Area and Volume
7.10. Wire Finned Heat Exchanger Surface Area and Volume
The surface area of one copper wire woven fin coil is 3079.53 square millimetres. This comprises
The surface area of one copper wire woven fin coil is 3079.53 square millimetres. This comprises
0.7 mmThecopper
surfacewire
area1400
of one
mm copper wirewoven
in length wovencoiled
fin coil is 3079.53
into 70 loopssquare millimetres.
as shown This
in Figures 21 comprises
and 22.
0.7 mm copper wire 1400 mm in length woven coiled into 70 loops as shown in Figures 21 and 22.
0.7 mm copper wire 1400 mm in length woven coiled into 70 loops as shown in Figures 21 and 22.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 19 of 24
Computation 2016, 4, 8 18 of 23
Computation 2016, 4, 8 18 of 23

Figure
Figure 21.
21. Drawing
Drawing dimension
dimension for
for copper
copper wire
wire woven
woven finned
finned heat
heat exchanger
exchanger used
used to
to generate
generate volume
volume
Drawing dimension
and surface area of the fin.
and surface area of the fin.
fin.

Figure 22. One wire woven fin volume and surface area generated 3D CAD model.
Figure 22. One wire woven fin volume and surface area generated 3D CAD model.
Figure 22. One wire woven fin volume and surface area generated 3D CAD model.
7.11. The Wire Woven Fin Adsorbent Bed
7.11. The Wire Woven Fin Adsorbent Bed
7.11. The Wire Woven Fin Adsorbent Bed
The method used to carry out the simulation of this type of adsorbent bed is the same as that
The method used to carry out the simulation of this type of adsorbent bed is the same as that
The method
described used
above. To to carry
reduce out the
the time forsimulation of thissmall
CFD simulation, type of adsorbentofbed
geometries the is the same
copper as that
fin with an
described above. To reduce the time for CFD simulation, small geometries of the copper fin with an
described above.
adsorbent packedTo reduceone
between the pitch
time for
wereCFD simulation,
used as a modelsmall geometries
for the of the copper
CFD simulation fin with
see Figure 23. an
adsorbent packed between one pitch were used as a model for the CFD simulation see Figure 23.
adsorbent packed between one pitch were used as a model for the CFD simulation see Figure 23.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 20 of 24
Computation 2016, 4, 8 19 of 23
Computation 2016, 4, 8 19 of 23

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 23. 3D model of the wire fin without silica gel and with silica
silica gel. (a) The wire fin has no silica
Figure 23. 3D model of the wire fin without
Figure 23. without silica
silica gel
gel and
and with
with silica gel.
gel. (a) The wire fin has no silica
gel
gel packing
packing as can be
be seen from
from the 3D
3D CAD model;
model; (b) The
The heat exchanger
exchanger has porous
porous adsorbent
packing as can
can be seen
seen from the
the 3D CAD
CAD model; (b) (b) The heat
heat exchanger hashas porous adsorbent
adsorbent
added
added to it as can be seen in the 3D model.
added to
to it
it as
as can
can be
be seen
seen in
in the
the 3D
3D model.
model.

In
In Figure 23a
Figure 23a the
23a the wire
the wire fin
wire fin has
fin has no
has no silica
no silica gel
silica gel packing.
packing. In
gel packing. In Figure
Figure 23b
23b the
the heat
heat exchanger
exchanger has
has porous
porous
In Figure In Figure 23b the heat exchanger has porous
adsorbent added
adsorbent added to
added to it.
to it. Both
it. Both Figure
Both Figure 23a,b
Figure 23a,b was
23a,b was simulated
was simulated as
simulated as can
as can be
can be seen
be seen in
seen in Figure
in Figure 24.
Figure 24.
24.
adsorbent
7.12. One Pitch of Woven Wire Finned
Wire Finned Heat
Finned Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchanger Mesh
Exchanger Mesh
Mesh
7.12. One Pitch of Woven Wire
The mesh for the one
the one pitch
one pitch of
pitch of woven
of woven wire
woven wire finned
wire finned heat
finned heat exchanger
heat exchanger contains
exchanger contains 187,365
contains 187,365 nodes
187,365 nodes and
nodes and
and
The mesh for the
84,383 elements; see Figure 24. The CFD program creates the mesh
84,383 elements; see Figure 24. The CFD program creates the mesh based onbased on the
on the input
the input parameters
input parameters
parameters
enter into the user-defined
the user-defined function
user-defined function menu.
function menu.
menu.
enter into the

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 24. CFD representations showing a mesh detail of the wire woven fin pack with the adsorbent.
Figure 24. CFD representations showing a mesh detail of the wire woven fin pack with the adsorbent.
Figure
(a) CFD
24. the
shows representations
CFD showing
simulation meshes a mesh
must havedetail of the wire
a sufficient woven
number fin pack
of points inwith the adsorbent.
the internal of the
(a) shows the CFD simulation meshes must have a sufficient number of points in the internal of the
(a) shows the CFD simulation meshes must have a sufficient number of points in the
computational domain to describe the physical domain correctly; (b) shows an appropriate numberinternal of the
computational domain to describe the physical domain correctly; (b) shows an appropriate number
computational domain to describe the physical domain correctly; (b) shows an appropriate
of points need to be specified on the boundary conditions to characterise it accurately. number of
of points
points need
need to specified
to be be specified
on on
thethe boundary
boundary conditions
conditions to characterise
to characterise it accurately.
it accurately.
In
In Figure
Figure 24
24 the
the CFD
CFD mesh
mesh quality
quality can
can bebe identified
identified through
through two
two main
main factors.
factors. The
The first
first factor
factor is
is
that In
theFigure
CFD 24 the CFD
simulation mesh
meshes quality
must can
have beaidentified
sufficient through
number two
of main
points factors.
that the CFD simulation meshes must have a sufficient number of points in the internal of thein the The first
internal factor
of the
is that the CFDdomain
computational
computational simulation
domain to meshes the
to describe
describe must
the have a domain
physical
physical sufficientcorrectly
domain number(Figure
correctly of points
(Figure in the
24a).
24a). Theinternal
The second of
second the
factor
factor
computational
requirement fordomain
CFD to
mesh describe
quality the
is physical
that an domain
appropriate correctly
number (Figure
of points24a).
requirement for CFD mesh quality is that an appropriate number of points need to be specified on
need The
to besecond factor
specified on
requirement
the boundaryfor
the boundary CFD mesh
conditions
conditions toquality
to is thatit
characterise
characterise itan appropriate
accurately
accurately number
(Figure
(Figure ofThis
24b).
24b). points
This need
needs
needs to beboundary
some
some specified points
boundary on the
points
to
to adapt
adapt according
according to
to the
the model
model surface
surface geometry.
geometry.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 21 of 24

boundary conditions to characterise it accurately (Figure 24b). This needs some boundary points to
adapt according to the model surface geometry.
Computation 2016, 4, 8 20 of 23
7.13. Computation
One Pitch2016,
of Wire
4, 8 Woven Finned Heat Exchanger with Adsorbent Packing 20 of 23
7.13. One Pitch of Wire Woven Finned Heat Exchanger with Adsorbent Packing
Figures
One25
7.13. Figures and
Pitch 26 present the temperature supplied along Packing
the length of the woven wire heat
25ofand
Wire26Woven Finned
present Heat Exchanger
the temperature with Adsorbent
supplied along the length of the woven wire heat
exchanger. A higher slope can be observed near the base of the fin due to the temperature change
exchanger.
FiguresA25 higher
and 26slope can be
present theobserved near supplied
temperature the base along
of the the
fin due to the
length temperature
of the change
woven wire heat
between the fin
between
exchanger.theAsurface
fin
higher
and
surface the
and
slope
surrounding
the
can surrounding
be
porous
porous
observed near
adsorbents
theadsorbents
covering
base of thecovering thethe
fin due to
fins.
fins.
the temperature change
between the fin surface and the surrounding porous adsorbents covering the fins.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 25. The heat transfer efficiency of the wire woven heat exchanger contour temperature is at
Figure 25. The heat transfer efficiency of the wire woven heat exchanger contour temperature is at
85 C and
Figure 25.the
Thefinheat
tip temperature is at 81ofC.
transfer efficiency (a)wire
the and woven
(b) are cut
heatinexchanger
two to speed up thetemperature
contour simulation time.
is at
85 C and the fin tip temperature is at 81 C. (a) and (b) are cut in two to speed up the simulation time.
85 C and the fin tip temperature is at 81 C. (a) and (b) are cut in two to speed up the simulation time.

Figure 26. Variations of heat transfer over time.

Figure 26. Variations of heat transfer over time.
Figure 26.
8. Validation of CFD Simulation Variations of heat transfer over time.
Model
8. Validation
The CFD of CFD Simulation
simulation Model
model was validated with the help of experimental data obtained from tests
8. Validation of CFD Simulation Model
conducted on simulation
The CFD the test rig.model
The detailed view of with
was validated the wire fins adsorption
the help test rig
of experimental is shown
data in from
obtained Figure 26.
tests
Measurement
The
conducted results
CFD simulation
on the were
model
test rig. used
The wasasvalidated
input
detailed viewparameters
ofwith thefor
the wire help
fins the CFD
of simulation
test rig ismodel
experimental
adsorption data ofinthe
obtained
shown cooling
from
Figure 26. tests
systemon
conducted that
Measurement
thewas developed
results
test rig.were to
The used evaluate theparameters
as input
detailed view performance ofthe
of the wireforfinsthis system
CFD at atest
different
simulation
adsorption model
rig temperature.
of the in
is shown In 26.
cooling
Figure
the validation
system that wasof the model
developed of
to the proposed
evaluate the wire woven
performance offin adsorbent
this system cooling
at a
Measurement results were used as input parameters for the CFD simulation model of the cooling system,
different the test
temperature. was
In
run validation
the so as to accumulate
of the model the
of relevant data wire
the proposed for the simulation.
woven The average system,
error between
the test CFD
system that was developed to evaluate the performance of fin
thisadsorbent
system atcooling
a different temperature. wasIn the
simulation
run andaccumulate
so as to the experimental data was
the relevant determined
data as:
for the simulation. The average error between CFD
validation of the model of the proposed wire woven fin adsorbent cooling system, the test was run so
simulation and the experimental data was determined as:
Computation 2016, 4, 8 22 of 24

as to accumulate the relevant data for the simulation. The average error between CFD simulation and
the experimental data was determined as:
Computation 2016, 4, 8 21 of 23

Computation 2016, 4, 8 1 |Calculated Value Measured Value| 21 of 23

=
N . Measured Value

=
Or in percentage (9)
.

1 |Calculated Value Measured Value|
Or in percentage (9)
r%s 100
N Measured Value
Or in percentage (9)
[%] =
. .
where is the average error, [%] N is=the number of samples.

. .
The system temperatures are an important variable input that influences the performance of the
where is the average error, N is the number of samples.
adsorption The
cooling system. The change occurring at the different
system temperatures are an important variable input that influences temperature during of
the performance the
thetest was
where is the average error, N is the number of samples.
used to adsorption
study its effect on the cooling capacity of the system. The total cooling
cooling system. The change occurring at the different temperature during the test wasadsorption cooling and
The system temperatures are an important variable input that influences the performance of the
heatingadsorption
desorption
used to study temperature
its effect on theboth
cooling system. The
coolingfrom
change the test
capacity
occurring
of and
at thesimulation
the system. The total data of the
cooling
different temperature system
the were
adsorption
during used as a
cooling
test was
and heating desorption
dependent temperature both from the test and simulation data of the system were used
usedvariable
to study and drawn
its effect against
on the cooling the inlet
capacity temperature
of the system. asThethe independent
total variable.
cooling adsorption Figures 27
cooling
as a dependent variable and drawn against the inlet temperature as the independent variable.
and 28 show the experimental
and heating validation
desorption temperature offrom
both the CFD simulated
the test cooling
and simulation dataand heating
of the system capacities
were used under
Figures 27 and 28 show the experimental validation of the CFD simulated cooling and heating
as a dependent
varyingcapacities
inlet temperature.variable and drawn against the inlet temperature as the independent variable.
under varying inlet temperature.
Figures 27 and 28 show the experimental validation of the CFD simulated cooling and heating
capacities under varying inlet temperature.

Figure 27. Comparison of the outlet temperature of the CFD simulation and the experiment data by
Figure 27. Comparison of the outlet temperature of the CFD simulation and the experiment data by
J. White 2012 [10].
J. WhiteFigure
201227.[10].
Comparison of the outlet temperature of the CFD simulation and the experiment data by
J. White 2012 [10].

Figure 28. Comparison of the outlet temperature of the CFD simulation and the experiment data by
J. White 2012 [10].
Figure 28. Comparison of the outlet temperature of the CFD simulation and the experiment data by
Figure 28. Comparison
J. White 2012 [10].of the outlet temperature of the CFD simulation and the experiment data by
J. White 2012 [10].
Computation 2016, 4, 8 23 of 24

The solid lines in all figures show the experimental outlet cooling and heating temperature
variation over time and dots represent the CFD cooling temperature variation over time. It is clear from
these figures that both simulation and test results show the same trend, i.e., the cooling temperature
was proportional. An agreement of validation was observed for most of the data error analysis, which
showed a deviation of 6% and 3.4% respectively.

9. Conclusions
The simulation code has been tested for stability in computation and can achieve CFD simulation
of the wire woven fin heat exchanger and the different components of the adsorption cooling system.
The comparison of CFD simulated results and experimental data proves that the CFD model is a reliable
tool. With this simulation tool, the time and cost of designing an adsorption cooling system could be
reduced by the design of an adsorbent bed system as it provides a valuable prediction for component
performances. With minor modifications, it can be extended for use with other configurations of the
multi-bed system.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

Notations
a Surface area of silica gel
C0 Inlet concentration (kg m3 )
C Bed concentration (kg m3 )
C2 Inertia resistance coefficient (m)
D Molecular diffusivity (m2 s1 )
Dp Particles diameter (m)
k Mass transfer coefficient (s1 )
P Partial pressure (Pa)
q Adsorbent capacity (mmol g1 )
qs Maximum capacity (mmol g1 )
t Time (s)
u Water vapour velocity (x-direction) (m s1 )
v Water vapour velocity (y-direction) (m s1 )
w Water vapour velocity (z-direction) (m s1 )

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