A Manual For The Prediction of Blast and Fragment Loadings On Structures. DOE-TIC-11268 (1981)

.
DOE/TIC-11268
A MANUAL FOR THE
PREDICTION OF BLAST
AND
FRAGMENT LOADINGS
ON STRUCTURES
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
ALBUQUERQUE OPERATIONS OFFICE
AMARILLO AREA OFFICE
AMARILLO, TEXAS
Change 1,'- 15 August 1981 \ \

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4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER
A Manual for the Prediction of Blast and Fragment Loadings on 5b. GRANT NUMBER
Structures
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6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER
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Department of Energy, Amarillo Energy Office,Amarillo ,TX,79101
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-7
FOREWORD
The purpose of t h i s manual i s t o provide Architect-Engineer (AE)

f i r m s guidance f o r t h e p r e d i c t i o n of a i r b l a s t , ground shock and f r a g -
ment l o a d i n g s on s t r u c t u r e s as a r e s u l t of a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s i n o r
n e a r t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s . Information i n t h i s manual i s t h e r e s u l t of an
e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e survey and d a t a g a t h e r i n g e f f o r t , supplemented by
some o r i g i n a l a n a l y t i c a l s t u d i e s on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of b l a s t phenomena.
Many p r e d i c t i o n e q u a t i o n s and graphs appear i n t h e manual, accompanied
by numerous example problems i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e i r u s e .
The manual i s complementary t o e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n manuals

and i s i n t e n d e d t o r e f l e c t t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t i n p r e d i c t i o n of
b l a s t and fragment l o a d s f o r a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s of high e x p l o s i v e s a t
t h e Pantex P l a n t . I n some i n s t a n c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r e x p l o s i o n s w i t h i n
b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t s t r u c t u r e s of complex geometry, r a t i o n a l e s t i m a t i o n of
t h e s e l o a d s i s beyond t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t , and tests o r a n a l y s e s
t o supplement e x i s t i n g d a t a o r a n a l y s i s methods are recommended.
Although t h e manual i s s p e c i f i c f o r t h e Pantex P l a n t , most predic-

t i o n methods are g e n e r a l enough t o apply t o o t h e r s a f e t y s t r u c t u r e s used
i n high e x p l o s i v e s o p e r a t i o n s .
This manual w a s prepared f o r t h e Department of Energy, Amarillo

Area O f f i c e , Amarillo, Texas by Southwest Research I n s t i t u t e , San Antonio,
Texas, under c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e U. S. Army Engineer D i v i s i o n , H u n t s v i l l e
(USAEDH) , H u n t s v i l l e , Alabama.
Comments f o r c o r r e c t i o n s and improvements a r e i n v i t e d from i n d i v i -

d u a l s o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n i n d u s t r y and t h e U. S . Government. Contact:
Department of Energy
Albuquerque Operations
Amarillo Area O f f i c e
F a c i l i t i e s and Maintenance Branch
P . 0 . Box 30030
Amarillo, Texas 79120
Phone : 806 1335-1581, Ext . 2161

FTS NO.: 572-2161
STATEMENT ON MANUAL PREPARATION
This manual was sponsored by the U. S . Department of Energy (DOE),

Amarillo Area Office, to satisfy the need to provide a design tool for
architect-engineer firms engaged in work for the Pantex Plant. The manual
provides state-of-the-art information and example problems for blast and
fragment load predictive techniques for structures at the plant.
At the request of the DOE Amarillo Area Office, the U. S. Army

Engineer Division, Huntsville (USAEDH) undertook the development of the
manual by providing contracting services as well as technical guidance.
Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), San Antonio, Texas, was

contracted to prepare the manual. SwRI was selected for its renowned
expertise in the field of blast engineering.
Mason 61 Hanger-Silas Mason Co., Inc. the Operating Contractor for

the U. S . Department of Energy, Pantex Plant, provided input for develop-
ment of manual scope, chapter formulation, and content. Technical review
throughout all phases of preparation was conducted by the personnel from
this agency.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This manual h a s been prepared by t h e s t a f f of Southwest Research

I n s t i t u t e , San Antonio, Texas. Many s t a f f members helped i n i t s prepar-
a t i o n , and w e cannot name them a l l . The p r i n c i p a l a u t h o r s were:
Chapters 1, 2 , 3 , and 4 D r . Wilfred E . Baker
Chapter 5 M r . P e t e r S . Westine
Chapter 6 M r . James J. Kulesz
Chapter 7 D r . James S . Wilbeck
Chapter 8 M r . Phineas A. Cox
Other s t a f f members who c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e s e a r c h ,

a n a l y s i s and t e c h n i c a l w r i t i n g i n c l u d e d M r . Mark G. Whitney, M r . Gerard' J.
Friesenhahn, M s . P a t r i c i a K . Moseley, D r . James L. Rand, M r . John P. Riegel
111, M s . Deborah J. S t m i t t s and M r . Van B. P a r r .
Throughout t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e manual, t h e a u t h o r s were a i d e d by

e x t e n s i v e guidance and review by s t a f f members from t h e U. S. Army Engineer
D i v i s i o n , H u n t s v i l l e ; Amarillo Area Off i c e , Albuquerque Operations , Depart-
ment of Energy; and Mason and Hanger-Silas Mason Company, I n c . , Pantex P l a n t ,
Amarillo. The s u p p o r t of t h e following i n d i v i d u a l s i s g r a t e f u l l y acknow-
ledged.
M r . C h a r l e s Huang, U. S. Army Engineer D i v i s i o n , H u n t s v i l l e
M r . Murray B u r n e t t e , U. S. Army Engineer D i v i s i o n , H u n t s v i l l e
M r . Lawrence M. Paradee, A m a r i l l o Area O f f i c e , DOE
M r . Bob L. S l a t e r , Amarillo Area O f f i c e , DOE
D r . C h e s t e r E. Canada, Mason and Hanger-Silas Mason Company
M r . A. G. Papp, Mason and Hanger-Silas Mason Company

CONTENTS
Chapter Page
1 INTRODUCTION 1- 1
1.1 Purpose and O b j e c t i v e 1- 1
1.2 Scope 1- 1
1.2.1 Topics Covered i n This Manual 1- 1
1.2.2 R e l a t e d Topics Covered i n Other Manuals 1- 2
1.2.3 Organization 1- 4
1.3 References 1- 6
2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 2- 1
2.1 Introduction 2- 1
2.2 G e n e r a l Procedure f o r Design o r E v a l u a t i o n of
B u i l d i n g s S u b j e c t e d t o High E x p l o s i v e Hazards 2- 3
2.2.1 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f Explosion Source
Characteristics 2- 3
2.2.2 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of A i r Blast Loading 2- 3
2.2.3 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of Ground Shock and
Crater i n g 2- 3
2.2.4 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of Fragment Charac-
ter i s t i c s 2- 4
2.2.5 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f B u i l d i n g , Equipment and
P e r s o n n e l Response t o Blast Loading 2- 4
2.2.6 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of B u i l d i n g , Equipment and
P e r s o n n e l Response t o Ground Shock 2- 4
2.2.7 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of B u i l d i n g , E q u i p m e n t and
P e r s o n n e l Response t o Fragment Impact 2- 4
2.2.8 I t e r a t i v e Design of E x p l o s i o n - R e s i s t a n t
Buildings 2- 5
2.3 Impact o f S a f e t y , S e c u r i t y and Other R e g u l a t o r y
Requirements o n B l a s t - R e s i s t a n t Design 2- 5
2.3.1 Typical Building Configurations 2- 5
2.3.1.1 Above-Ground B u i l d i n g s 2- 5
2.3.1.2 Earth-Covered B u i l d i n g s 2- 9
2.3.1.3 Venting Schemes 2- 9
2.3.2 Impact o f Blast and Fragment S a f e t y Regu-
l a t i o n s on Design and Spacing 2- 16
2.3.3 Impact of S e c u r i t y Requirements on Design
and Spacing 2-16
i
CONTENTS (continued)
Chapter Page
2.4 A p p l i c a b i l i t y and L i m i t s of A p p l i c a b i l i t y of
Manual 2-16
2.5 References 2-22
3 EXPLOSIVES AND DAMAGE MECHANISMS 3- 1

3.2 General Aspects o f Explosive Hazards 3- 1
3.2.1 Explosion Phenomena 3- 1
3.2.1.1 B l a s t from Bare Explosives i n
Air 3- 1
3.2.1.2 A i r Blast and Ground Shock from
Surface Bursts 3- 2
3.2.1.3 Ground Shock and C r a t e r i n g from
Buried Explosives 3- 3
3.2.1.4 Explosion of Cased Explosives 3- 3
3.2.2 High Explosive S e n s i t i v i t y 3- 4
3.2.2.1 Shock I n i t i a t i o n 3- 4
3.2.2.2 Impact I n i t i a t i o n 3- 6
3.2.2.3 Thermal I n i t i a t i o n 3-10
3.2.2.4 Friction 3-11
3.2.2.5 S t a t i c E l e c t r i c Discharge 3-14
3.2.3 TNT Equivalence 3-14
3.2.4 Venting E f f e c t s 3-14
3.3 Damage Mechanisms 3-16
3.3.1 A i r B l a s t Loading and Response 3-16
3.3.2 Fragment Impact E f f e c t s 3-17
3.3.3 C r a t e r i n g and Debris 3-17
3.3.4 Ground Shock 3-18
3.4 References 3-19
4 A I R BLAST 4- 1
4.2 General 4- 2
ii
CONTENTS ( c o n t i n u e d )
Page
4.2.1 Classes o f Explosions Considered 4- 2

4.2.2 E x p l o s i v e s Considered 4- 5
4.2.2.1 Types o f E x p l o s i v e s 4- 5
4.2.2.2 Geometry, D e n s i t y and
Casings 4- 7
4.3 B l a s t Waves from S i n g l e and M u l t i p l e Sources 4- 7
4.3.1 S i n g l e Explosion Source 4-10
4.3.1.1 S p h e r i c a l Geometry 4-17
4.3.1.2 Non-Spherical Geometry 4-55
4.3.2 M u l t i p l e Explosion Sources 4-68
4.3.2.1 Sequential Detonation 4-68
4.3.2.2 Simultaneous D e t o n a t i o n 4-81
4.4 E f f e c t s o f Containment and Venting 4-90
4.4.1 E f f e c t s Within S t r u c t u r e 4-90
4.4.1.1 9 I n i t i a l and R e f l e c t e d Shocks 4-90
4.4.1.2 Quasi-Static Pressures 4-9 8
4.4.2 Effects Outside S t r u c t u r e f o r Directional 4-117
Venting
4.4.3 E f f e c t s of Vent C l o s u r e s 4-118
4.4.4 Applications t o Specific Configurations 4-135
4.4.4.1 Single Cubicles 4-135
4.4.4.2 M u l t i p l e Bays 4-135
4.4.4.3 Tunnels Connected t o Chambers 4-140
4.4.4.4 Blast Doors 4-140
4.4.4.5 New F a c i l i t i e s 4-140
4.5 Methods o f P r e d i c t i n g B l a s t Loading 4-140
4.5.1 Frangible Panels 4-145
4.5.2 Blast-Resistant P a n e l s 4-145
4.5.3 C o r r i d o r Walls 4-145
4.5.4 B l a s t Doors 4-148
4.5.5 A i r B l a s t S p a l l i n g of C o n c r e t e Walls 4-149
4.6 Hazards t o P e r s o n n e l from A i r Blast 4-161
4.6.1 Primary B l a s t I n j u r y 4-161
4 -6.2 Tertiary Blast Injury 4-169
4.6.3 E a r Damagedue t o A i r Blast Exposure 4-176
iii
CONTENTS (continued)
Chapter Page
4.7 Recommended Tests o r Analyses 4-182

4.8 Comprehensive I l l u s t r a t i v e Examples 4-183
4.9 L i s t o f Symbols 4-201
4.10 References 4-206
5 CRATERING AND GROUND SHOCK 5- 1

5.2 S o i l Mechanics Overview 5- 3
5.2.1 General D i s c u s s i o n 5- 3
5.2.2 S o i l s a t Pantex F a c i l i t y 5- 6
5.2.3 R e l a t i o n s h i p Between Ground Motion
and Loads 5- 7
5.2.4 Determination of Wave Length 5- 10
5.3 E f f e c t s of Ground Shock 5-12
5.3.1 T h e o r e t i c a l Wave P r o p a g a t i o n Through
Soil 5-12
5.3.2 Approximate Buried Explosive Ground
Mot i o n R e l a t i o n s h i p s 5-22
5.3.3 S c r e e n i n g of Propagated S u r f a c e Waves 5-30
5.4 Coupling Between Explosive and S o i l 5-30
5.5 Explosive C r a t e r i n g 5-40
5.6 E f f e c t s of Ground Motion on B u i l d i n g s , Equip-
ment, and P e r s o n n e l 5-53
5.6.1 Shock S p e c t r a 5-53
5.6.2 S t r u c t u r a l Loading from Ground Shock 5-68
5.6.2.1 Load on Buried Wall 5-68 .
5.6.2.2 Load on Buried P i p e 5-74
5.6.3 Approximate Buried S t r u c t u r a l S o l u t i o n s 5-77
5.7 F u t u r e Needs 5-83
5.8 Flow Diagram 5-84
5.9 L i s t of Symbols 5-86
iv
. .. . . . ..
CONTENTS ( continued)
Chapter Page
6 FRAGMENTATION 6- 1
6.2 General Phenomena 6- 1
6.2.1 Primary Fragments 6- 4
6.2.1.1 Velocities 6- 5
6.2.1.2 Mass D i s t r i b u t i o n s 6- 7
6.2.1.3 S i z e and Shape D i s t r i b u t i o n s 6- 1 4
6.2.2 Secondary Fragments 6- 23
6.2.2.1 Unconstrained Secondary Frag-
ments 6- 24
6.2.2.2 C o n s t r a i n e d Secondary Fragments 6- 4 1
6 .2.3 B u i l d i n g Fragmentation 6- 48
6.2.4 T r a j e c t o r i e s and Impact C o n d i t i o n s 6- 52
6.2.4.1 Trajectories 6- 52
6.2.4.2 . Impact Mass D i s t r i b u t i o n and
Impact Range D i s t r i b u t i o n s 6- 57
6.2.4.3 Impact K i n e t i c E n e r g i e s 6- 7 1
6.3 Missile D i s p e r s i o n 6- 7 1
6.3.1 Experimentally-Based Methods 6- 7 1
6.3.2 Analytically-Based Methods 6- 79
6.4 Methods f o r A s s e s s i n g Fragment Impact Damage 6- 79
6.4.1 I m p a c t s on Metal S t r u c t u r e s 6- 79
6.4.1.1 General S o l u t i o n f o r P e n e t r a -
t i o n of Metal T a r g e t s b y
Fragments 6- 79
6.4.1.2 P e n e t r a t i o n of S t e e l T a r g e t s
by Wooden Rods 6- 84
6.4.1.3 P e n e t r a t i o n of S t e e l T a r g e t s
by Compact S t e e l Fragments 6- 84
6.4.2 Impact on C o n c r e t e and Masonry S t r u c t u r e s 6-100
6.4.2.1 S t e e l P i p e Missiles 6 -100
6.4.2.2 U t i l i t y P o l e Missiles 6-101
6.4.2.3 . '- Rod Missiles 6-101
6.4.2.4 S t e e l P l a t e Approximation
f o r Concrete Target 6-105
6.4.2.5 Armor-Piercing Fragments 6-105
6.4.2.6 Other Fragments 6-109
V
Chapter Page
6.4.3 Impacts on I n t e r i o r Walls 6-117

6.4.4 Impacts o n Roofing Materials 6- 120
6.4.5 Fragment P e n e t r a t i o n 6-123
6.4.5.1 Cohesive S o i l P e n e t r a t i o n 6-123

6.4.5.2 Sand P e n e t r a t i o n 6-?.30
6.4.5.3 P e n e t r a t i o n i n Miscellaneous
Materials 6-135
6.5 Hazards t o P e r s o n n e l from Fragments 6-144

6.5.1 Primary Fragment I n j u r i e s 6-144
6.5.2 Secondary Fragment I n j u r i e s 6 -147
6.6 E x p l o s i v e I n i t i a t i o n by Fragments 6-155
6.6.1 Bare E x p l o s i v e 6-155
6.6.2 Cased E x p l o s i v e s 6-156
6.6.3 Crush, Impact and Skid I n i t i a t i o n 6-166
6.7 Assessment o f Confidence i n P r e d i c t i o n Methods 6-166
6.7.1 I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Assumptions and Un-

certainties 6-166
6.7;2 Recommended Tests a n d / o r Analyses t o
V a l i d a t e Assumptions o r Reduce Uncer-
tainties 6-170
6.8 P r o c e d u r e f o r Performing a Fragmentation A n a l y s i s 6-171

7 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 7- 1

7.2 P r o p e r t i e s of Materials o f C o n s t r u c t i o n Under
D y n a m i c Loading 7- 2
7.2.1 P r o p e r t i e s o f Metals 7- 5
7.2.1.1 S t a t i c Behavior 7- 5
7.2.1.2 D y n a m i c Behavior 7- 7
7.2.2 P r o p e r t i e s o f C o n c r e t e and Masonry 7-10
7.2.2.1 S t a t i c Behavior 7-11
7.2.2.2 D y n a m i c Behavior 7-13
vi
Chapter Page
7.2.3 P r o p e r t i e s o f Woods 7-19

7.2.3.1 S t a t i c Behavior 7-19
7.2.3.2 Dynamic Behavior 7-20
7.2.4 P r o p e r t i e s of F r a n g i b l e Materials 7-24
7.3 Energy-Absorbing P r o p e r t i e s o f Materials 7- 25
7.3.1 S o i l o r Sand F i l l 7-27
7.3.2 Wood 7- 29
7.3.3 P l a s t i c and Metallic Foams 7-31
7.3.4 Composite Material 7-37
7.3.5 Discussion 7-40
7.4 T a b l e s of Dynamic Material P r o p e r t i e s 7-40
7.4.1 Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of S t r u c t u r a l
Metals 7-40
7.4.2 Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s o f S t r u c t u r a l Woods 7-4 3
7.4.3 A d d i t i o n a l References 7-45
7.5 L i s t o f Symbols . 7- 46
7.6 References 7-49
8 STRUCTURAL DESIGN 8- 1
8.2 Elements of Dynamic Response A n a l y s i s 8- 3
8.2.1 T r a n s i e n t and Quasi-Static Loads 8- 3
8.2.2 Material Behavior 8- 7
8.2.3 S t r u c t u r a l Behavior 8- 8
8.2.3.1 E l a s t i c - P l a s t i c Behavior 8- 8
8.2.3.2 E f f e c t o f Loading H i s t o r y
o n S t r u c t u r a l Response 8-10
8.2.3.3 S t r u c t u r a l Response t o
Ground Shock 8- 20
8.2.3.4 E f f e c t o f Damping 8- 20
8.2.3.5 Coupling i n Multi-Degree-
of-Freedom Systems 8- 2 1
8.2.3.6 Approximate Modal S o l u t i o n s 8- 24
8.2.3.7 One-Degree-of-Freedom Equiv-
a l e n t System 8- 24
8.2.3.8 Transient Solutions 8- 24
v ii
Chapter Page
8.3 A v a i l a b l e Methods f o r D y n a m i c Response 8-25

8.3.1 S i m p l i f i e d Methods 8- 25
8.3.2 Numerical Methods 8- 26
8.4 A n a l y s i s and Design P r o c e d u r e s 8- 3 1
8.4.1 Design Requirements 8- 32
8.4.2 S t r u c t u r a l Configuration 8- 32
8.4.3 P r e l i m i n a r y S i z i n g f o r D y n a m i c Loads 8- 33
8.4.4 Dynamic A n a l y s i s 8- 34
8.4.4.1 Dead Loads 8- 34
8.4.4.2 E f f e c t of A x i a l Loads 8- 35
8.4.4.3 B r a c i n g and Shear Walls 8-35
8.4.5 D e s i g n Iteration 8- 36
8.4.6 Flow C h a r t s 8- 36
8.4.6.1 Design f o r E x t e r n a l Loads 8- 4 1

8.4.6.2 Design f o r I n t e r n a l E x p l o s i o n s 8-51
8.6 Annotated R e f e r e n c e s 8-56
8.7 References 8-58
Appendix
A PROPERTIES OF EXPLOSIVES A- 1
B SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY B- 1
C UNIT CONVERSION TABLES c- 1
viii
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
2.1 Aerial V i e w of P a n t e x P l a n t 2- 6
2.2 Aerial V i e w o f Zone 11, P a n t e x P l a n t 2- 7
2.3 Aerial V i e w o f Zone 1 2 , Pantex P l a n t 2- 8
2.4 T y p i c a l Unbarricaded Above-Ground B u i l d i n g a t P a n t e x
P l a n t , B u i l d i n g 11-5 2-10
2.5 T y p i c a l B a r r i c a d e d Above-Ground Building a t Pantex
P l a n t , B u i l d i n g 11-20 2-11
2.6 P l a n V i e w o f West S e c t o r f o r a n Above-Ground Contain-
ment B u i l d i n g a t P a n t e x (New HE Machining F a c i l i t y ) 2-12
2.7a T y p i c a l Mounded O p e r a t i o n s S t r u c t u r e a t P a n t e x ,
B u i l d i n g FS-11 2-13
2.7b T y p i c a l Mounded S t a g i n g S t r u c t u r e s a t Pantex, B u i l d i n g s
4-101, 4-102 and 4-103 2-14
2.8 T y p i c a l Underground S t r u c t u r e s a t Pantex, B u i l d i n g
12-44 (Gravel G e r t i e s ) 2-15
2.9 D e t a i l f o r Venting Roof Design ( B u i l d i n g 11-14) 2-17
2.10 Detail of Venting Wall Panel ( B u i l d i n g 11-20) 2-18
2 .ll P l a n V i e w of New Design Containment Bay w i t h Maze
Venting 2- 1 9
3.1 Card Gap T e s t Arrangement 3- 5
3.2 Schematic of Card Gap T e s t Apparatus f o r L i q u i d s 3- 7
3.3 Schematic o f a Drop-Weight Impact T e s t Machine 3- 8
3.4 The Susan P r o j e c t i l e 3- 9
3.5 Schematic o f F r i c t i o n T e s t Apparatus 3-12
3.6 E l e c t r o s t a t i c D i s c h a r g e Spark T e s t Apparatus 3-15
4.1 P a n t e x P l a n t New P r o d u c t i o n P r o c e s s Flow 4- 4
4.2 P a n t e x Weapons D i s p o s a l 4- 6
4.3 I d e a l B l a s t Wave S t r u c t u r e 4-12
4.4 Hopki,ison-Cranz B l a s t Wave S c a l i n g 4-16
4.5 Side-On Blast Wave P r o p e r t i e s f o r Bare, S p h e r i c a l TNT
a t S e a Level 4-19
ix
ILLUSTRATIONS ( c o n t i n u e d )
Figure Page
4.6 Normally R e f l e c t e d Blast Wave P r o p e r t i e s f o r Bare,

S p h e r i c a l TNT a t Sea Level 4-21
4.7 B l a s t Wave P r o p e r t i e s f o r Drag and D i f f r a c t i o n Loading;
Bare, S p h e r i c a l TNT a t Sea Level 4-23
4.8 Regular Oblique R e f l e c t i o n of a P l a n e Shock from a Rigid
Wall 4-34
4.9 Mach R e f l e c t i o n s from a Rigid Wall 4-34
4.10 Angle of I n c i d e n c e v e r s u s Angle of R e f l e c t i o n f o r Shocks
of D i f f e r e n t S t r e n g t h s Undergoing Regular R e f l e c t i o n 4-36
4.11 R e f l e c t e d O v e r p r e s s u r e R a t i o as a Function o f Angle of
I n c i d e n c e f o r Various Side-On O v e r p r e s s u r e s 4-37
4.12 Peak O v e r p r e s s u r e v e r s u s S c a l e d P o s i t i o n f o r D i f f e r e n t
Scaled Distances 4-38
4.13 S c a l e d S p e c i f i c Impulse v e r s u s Scaled P o s i t i o n f o r
D i f f e r e n t Scaled Distances f o r S i n g l e Charge 4-39
4.14 E x p l o s i v e Charge Loading on a Wall as a Function o f
Position 4-40
4.15 Various Methods f o r P r e d i c t i n g Case E f f e c t s 4-42
4.16 Peak Side-On O v e r p r e s s u r e f o r S p h e r i c a l P e n t o l i t e 60/40
w i t h L i g h t , B r i t t l e Case 4-44
4.17 S c a l e d Side-On Impulse f o r S p h e r i c a l P e n t o l i t e 60/40
4.18 Scaled R e f l e c t e d Impulse f o r S p h e r i c a l P e n t o l i t e 60/40
4.19 Comparison o f Experimental Peak Side-On O v e r p r e s s u r e
( s o l i d c u r v e s ) w i t h Values C a l c u l a t e d from Equation
(4.35) (dashed c u r v e s ) as a F u n c t i o n of Azimuth Angle
0 and S c a l e d D i s t a n c e (R/W1/3) from the Charge, f o r
C y l i n d r i c a l Charges w i t h L / D R a t i o of 1 / 4 . 4-58
4.20 A s i n F i g u r e 4.19, Comparison of Experimental Values
t o Those C a l c u l a t e d from Equation (4.34) , L/D = 1 4-59
4.21 A s i n F i g u r e 4.19, Comparison of Experimental Values
t o Those C a l c u l a t e d from E q u a t i o n ( 4 . 3 4 ) , L/D = 6 4-60
X
Figure Page
4.22 R a t i o , E q u i v a l e n t S p h e r i c a l Mass t o C y l i n d e r Mass,

(0 = 0 " and 180") Based on Experimental Peak Side-On
O v e r p r e s s u r e , a t Sea Level Ambient C o n d i t i o n s 4- 6 1
( 0 = 90") Based on Experimental Peak Side-On Over-
p r e s s u r e , a t Sea Level Ambient Atmospheric C o n d i t i o n s 4-62
(0 = 45" and 135") Based on Experimental Side-On
O v e r p r e s s u r e , a t S e a Level Ambient Atmospheric
Conditions 4-63
4.25 Schematic f o r S e q u e n t i a l Explosion Tests of Zaker 4- 70
4.26 L a t e r a l Peak P r e s s u r e f o r a 1 : 2 Charge R a t i o 4- 71
4.27 A x i a l Peak P r e s s u r e f o r a 1 : 2 Charge R a t i o 4-72
4.28 L a t e r a l Peak P r e s s u r e f o r a 2 : l Charge R a t i o 4- 73
4.29 Axial Peak P r e s s u r e f o r a 2 : l Charge R a t i o 4-74
4.30 L a t e r a l Peak P r e s s u r e f o r a 1:l Charge R a t i o 4- 75
4.31 A x i a l Peak P r e s s u r e f o r a 1:l Charge R a t i o 4-76
4.32 T r a n s d u c e r Arrangement and Charge Placement f o r t h e
( a ) S i n g l e Charge, (b) Grouped Array, ( c ) H o r i z o n t a l
Array, and (d) Vertical Array Tests 4-82
4.33 Peak O v e r p r e s s u r e f o r Vertical Array Tests 4-83
4 -34 S p e c i f i c Impulse f o r V e r t i c a l Array T e s t s 4- 84
4.35 Schematic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Shock R e f l e c t i o n s from
I n t e r i o r Walls o f C y l i n d r i c a l Containment S t r u c t u r e 4-92
4.36 Comparison o f P r e d i c t e d 'and Measured P r e s s u r e P u l s e
a t P o i n t on S i d e w a l l o f C y l i n d r i c a l Containment Struc-
ture 4-93
4.37 E l a s t i c Spring-Mass System 4-95
4.38 Schematic of Repeated B l a s t Loading 4-96
4.39 Envelope of S o l u t i o n s f o r Maximum Displacement f o r
T r i p l e P u l s e B l a s t Loading 4-97
4.40 S c a l e d Average Unit B l a s t Impulse ( N = 1, k / L = 0.25
and 0.75, h/H = 0.25) 4-99
xi
F i gur e Page
4.41 T y p i c a l Time H i s t o r y o f I n t e r n a l P r e s s u r e a t I n n e r
Surface of Suppressive S t r u c t u r e 4- 10 2
4.42 S i m p l i f i e d Gas Venting P r e s s u r e 4-106
4.43 Peak Q u a s i - S t a t i c P r e s s u r e f o r TNT Explosion i n
Chambers 4-108
4.44 S c a l e d Blowdown D u r a t i o n v e r s u s S c a l e d M a x i m u m
Pressure 4-109
4.45 S c a l e d Gas P r e s s u r e Impulse v e r s u s S c a l e d I n i t i a l
P r e ss u r e 4-110
4.46 D e f i n i t i o n of E f f e c t i v e Area R a t i o f o r Various
S t r u c t u r a l Elements 4-112
4.47 Peak P o s i t i v e P r e s s u r e Behind S i d e w a l l of S m a l l Three-
Wall C u b i c l e w i t h Roof 4-119
4.48 S c a l e d Peak P o s i t i v e Impulse Behind S i d e w a l l of
Small Three-Wall C u b i c l e w i t h Roof 4-120
4.49 P l o t of Scaled Pressure versus Scaled Duration,
V a r i o u s S c a l e d Masses of Vent Covers (E), f o r = 0 4-128
4.50 P l o t o f S c a l e d Gas Impulse v e r s u s Scaled P r e s s u r e ,
Various M, f o r Ti = o 4- 129
4.51 P l o t o f S c a l e d P r e s s u r e v e r s u s Scaled D u r a t i o n ,
Various M y f o r H = 0.6 4-130
4.52 P l o t of Scaled gas Impulse v e r s u s Scaled P r e s s u r e ,
Various M y f o r H = 0.6 4-131
4.53 Vertical S e c t i o n of C e l l i n B u i l d i n g 12-44 4-136
4.54 P l a n V i e w of Bays i n B u i l d i n g 12-65 4-137
4.55 E l e v a t i o n of Earth-Covered C u b i c l e i n B u i l d i n g 12-65 4-138
4.56 P l a n V i e w of P o r t i o n o f B u i l d i n g 11-20 4- 139
4.57 P l a n V i e w o f P o r t i o n of B u i l d i n g 11-60 4-141
4.58 I n s i d e V i e w of Equipment and P e r s o n n e l Blast Doors i n
Gravel Gertie C e l l 4-142
4.59 O u t s i d e V i e w of Equipment B l a s t Door i n Gravel Gertie
Cell 4-143
4.60 Blast Door i n Bay 3, B u i l d i n g 11-20 4- 144
xii
Figure Page
4.61 P o r t i o n o f Bay-Corridor C o n f i g u r a t i o n i n B u i l d i n g
12-24 4-146
4.62 Second Type o f Bay-Corridor C o n f i g u r a t i o n i n Build-
i n g 12-24 4-147
4.63 P l a n V i e w o f B u i l d i n g 12-44 C e l l 1 Showing B l a s t
Doors and C o r r i d o r 4-150
4.64 a) S u p e r p o s i t i o n of S t r e s s e s During R e f l e c t i o n Pro-
cess f o r a T r i a n g u l a r P u l s e S t r i k i n g a Wall, and
b) Maximum S t r e s s v e r s u s P o s i t i o n f o r a T r i a n g u l a r
Wave Form 4-152
4.65 S p a l l Threshold f o r Blast Waves Loading Walls 4-155
4.66 Comparison of M a x i m u m S p a l l and W a l l Displacement
V e l o c i t i e s w i t h Standoff Distance 4-156
4.67 S c a l e d C o n c r e t e Wall V e l o c i t i e s due t o I m p u l s i v e
A i r Blast Loading 4-157
4.68 S u r v i v a l Curves f o r Lung Damage t o Man 4-163
4.69 Atmospheric P r e s s u r e as a F u n c t i o n of A l t i t u d e Above
Sea L e v e l 4-166
4.70 Skull Fracture 4-171
4.71 L e t h a l i t y from Whole Body T r a n s l a t i o n 4-172
4.72 P e r c e n t Eardrum Rupture as a F u n c t i o n o f O v e r p r e s s u r e 4-177
4.73 Human Ear Damage Curves f o r Blast Waves A r r i v i n g a t
Normal Angle o f Incidence 4- 179
4.74 Sketch of Room Loaded by I n t e r n a l Blast 4-187
4.75 A p p l i e d R e f l e c t e d S p e c i f i c Impulse Along Wall 4- 190
4.76 Peak R e f l e c t e d P r e s s u r e Along Wall 4-19 1
4.77 Applied R e f l e c t e d S p e c i f i c Impulse Along Wall 4-192
4.78 Peak R e f l e c t e d P r e s s u r e Along Wall 4-19 3
4.79 Geometry of P r o c e d u r e t o Calculate Average S p e c i f i c
R e f l e c t e d Impulse 4- 194
5.1 I n t e r g r a n u l a r S t r e s s on Area 5- 4
5.2 R a d i a l Displacement H i s t o r y ( a ) and Vertical Displace-
ment H i s t o r y ( b ) f r o m ' P o i n t Source a t S u r f a c e o f Elas-
t i c Medium 5-13
x i ii
ILLUSTRATIONS (continued)
Page
5.3 Schematic I l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e Waves Propagated from an

Energy Source 5-14
5.4 Dimensionless Displacement v e r s u s Depth R a t i o s f o r
R-Wave 5-16
5.5 V e l o c i t y of Wave F r o n t P r o p a g a t i o n 5-16
5.6 E f f e c t of Layering on I n c r e a s i n g Wave P r o p a g a t i o n
Velocity 5-17
5.7 E f f e c t of Layering on P a r t i c l e Motions 5- 1 8
5.8 R a d i a l Maximum Displacement v e r s u s Scaled Energy
Release i n Rock and S o i l 5-24
5.9 R a d i a l P a r t i c l e V e l o c i t y v e r s u s S c a l e d Energy Release
i n Rock and S o i l 5-25
5.10 E q u i v a l e n t E f f e c t i v e Energy R e l e a s e f o r Buried Detona-

t i o n s I n s i d e a Cavity 5- 32
5.11 Observed v e r s u s P r e d i c t e d P a r t i c l e V e l o c i t y f o r Coupled
Buried D e t o n a t i o n s 5-34
5.12 Observed v e r s u s P r e d i c t e d R a d i a l S o i l Displacement f o r
Coupled Buried D e t o n a t i o n s 5- 35
5.13 Mode of Response and Nomenclature 5-41
5.14 Apparent Crater Radius RA/d v e r s u s W7 / 2 4 / d i n Alluvium 5-45
5.15 Apparent Crater Volume V i j 3 / d v e r s u s W7/24/d i n Alluvium 5- 46

5.16 Apparent Crater Depth DA/d v e r s u s W7/24/d i n Alluvium 5- 47
5.17 Maximum Ejecta R a d i i f o r Large S o i l Chunks 5-48
5.18 Qual i t a t i v e Ground O s c i l l a t i o n Model 5-53

5.19 Human T h r e s h o l d s f o r Ground V i b r a t i o n s 5- 56
5.20 Shock S p e c t r a Diagram 5- 58
5.21 Displacement v e r s u s Frequency, Combined Data w i t h
Recommended S a f e B l a s t i n g C r i t e r i a 5-61
5.22 Shock S p e c t r a f o r Damage Within a S t r u c t u r e 5- 64
5.23 Example of a Load Imparted t o a S t r i p from a Buried Wall 5-69
5.24 Assumed D i s t r i b u t i o n of Impulse Imparted t o a P i p e 5- 75
xi v
,
. . .. . ... . . ... . . . .. . . . . ....... . . .... . . . . .. .. .
-
Figure Page
5.25 Normal S t r e s s e s i n Beam-Like Members 5- 78

5.26 Flow Diagram of Pantex Ground Shock Problem 5- 85
6.1 Nomenclature f o r Fragment T r a j e c t o r y A n a l y s i s 6- 3
6.2 V a r i a t i o n of Primary Fragment V e l o c i t y w i t h D i s t a n c e 6- 6
6.3 V e l o c i t y of Primary Fragments 6- 8
6.4 Dimensionless V e l o c i t y of Metal a s a F u n c t i o n of Loading
F a c t o r W/Wc 6- 9
6.5 Primary Fragment Shapes 6- 1 6
6.6 R e l a t i o n s h i p Between Fragment Weight and Fragment
Diameter 6-17
6.7a I n t e r a c t i o n o f B l a s t Wave w i t h I r r e g u l a r O b j e c t 6- 25
6.7b T i m e H i s t o r y of N e t T r a n s v e r s e P r e s s u r e on O b j e c t During
P a s s a g e of a Blast Wave 6-25
6.8 P i c t o r i a l E x p l a n a t i o n o f Appurtenance V a r i a b l e s 6- 28
\
6.9 Drag C o e f f i c i e n t , CD, f o r Various Shapes 6- 29
6.10 Nondimensional O b j e c t V e l o c i t y 7 a s a F u n c t i o n of Non-
dimensional Pressure and Nondimensional Impulse 6- 30
6.11 T a r g e t O r i e n t a t i o n f o r Unconstrained Tests 6-32
6.12 S p e c i f i c Acquired Impulse 6-33
6.13 S c a l e d Fragment V e l o c i t i e s f o r C o n s t r a i n e d C a n t i l e v e r
Beams 6-45
6.14 Magazine and B a r r i c a d e s 6-50
6.15 S c a l e d Curves f o r Fragment Range P r e d i c t i o n (Drag
Fragments) 6- 54
6.16 Cumulative P r o b a b i l i t y D i s t r i b u t i o n , Fragment Weight ( l b ) 6-62
6.17 Cumulative P r o b a b i l i t y D i s t r i b u t i o n , Fragment Range ( f t ) 6-63
6.18 Approximate P r o b a b i l i t y P e r c e n t a g e P o i n t s (n - 19) 6-66
6.19 Example S e c t o r e d Missile Map P a t t e r n f o r Measurement o f
Fragment D e n s i t y 6- 73
6.20 Nondimensional D e f l e c t i o n v e r s u s Nondimensional V e l o c i t y
f o r "Chunkytt Crushable Fragments 6- 62
6.21 Nondimensional L i m i t V e l o c i t y v e r s u s Nondimensional
Thickness f o r "Chunky" Non-Deforming Fragments 6-83
XV
Figure Page
6.22 P r e d i c t i o n o f P e n e t r a t i o n of S t e e l P l a t e 6- 86
6.23 P e r f o r a t i o n F a c t o r v e r s u s Vent Area R a t i o f o r D r i l l e d
Hole P a t t e r n s 6- 89
6.24 Scabbing Threshold f o r S t e e l P i p e s on Reinforced Con-
Crete Panels 6-102
6.25 Scabbing Threshold f o r S o l i d Rod Missiles Impacting
Reinforced Concrete P a n e l s 6-104
6.26 Sketch of a Fragment Impact 6- 104
6.27 Spa11 Threshold f o r Fragment Impacts (Various P r o j e c -
t i l e and T a r g e t M a t e r i a l s ) 6- 106
6 -28 L i m i t s of Concrete S p a l l i n g and P e r f o r a t i o n 6- 108
6.29 R e s i d u a l V e l o c i t y of Primary Fragment a f t e r P e r f o r a t i o n 6 - 110
6.30 Fragment Mass v e r s u s S t r i k i n g V e l o c i t y f o r S p e c i f i c
Damage t o Roofing Materials 6-122
6.31 Normalized S o l u t i o n f o r T r a n s i e n t Displacements 6- 127
6.32 Normalized S o l u t i o n f o r T r a n s i e n t V e l o c i t y 6- 128
6.33 Normalized S o l u t i o n f o r T r a n s i e n t R e t a r d i n g Force 6-129
6.34 Scaled Maximum P e n e t r a t i o n f o r Flat-Nosed P e n e t r a t o r s 6-131
6.35 Depth o f P o i n t e d P r o j e c t i l e P e n e t r a t i o n i n S o i l 6-132
6.36 Depth of P e n e t r a t i o n i n t o Sand by Standard Primary
Fragment 6-133
6.37 Primary Fragment Shapes 6- 134
6.38 R e s i d u a l Fragment V e l o c i t y Upon P e r f o r a t i o n of Sand
Layers 6-136
6.39 B a l l i s t i c L i m i t (VS0) v e r s u s Fragment Area/Weight f o r I s o -
l a t e d Human and Goat S k i n 6-145
6.40 P e r s o n n e l Response t o Fragment Impact (Abdomen and Limbs) 6- 150
6.41 P e r s o n n e l Response t o Fragment Impact ( S e r i o u s I n j u r y
Threshold) 6-151
-
6.42 I versus Kp f o r Bare E x p l o s i v e s 6- 157
- -
6.43 V50 v e r s u s % f o r Bare E x p l o s i v e s I n c l u d i n g l o E r r o r
Bands 6-158
Fi g u re Page
- -
6.44 V50 v e r s u s h , L i g h t E x p l o s i v e Confinement I n c l u d i n g
l o E r r o r Bands 6- 160
-
6.45 V50 v e r s u s K, Heavy Explosive Confinement I n c l u d i n g
l o E r r o r Bands 6- 1 6 1
--
6.46 I/h versus F, Heavy E x p l o s i v e Confinement I n c l u d i n g
l o E r r o r Bands 6- 162
6.47a Flow C h a r t 6-172
6.47b Flow Chart (Continued) 6-173
7.1 T y p i c a l S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves f o r E n g i n e e r i n g Materials 7- 3
7.2 S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves o f T y p i c a l Alloy S t e e l s and Struc-
t u r a l Aluminum 7- 6
7.3 S t r e s s - S t r a i n P r o p e r t i e s o f Mild S t e e l a t Various S t r a i n
Rates 7- 9
7.4 T y p i c a l S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves f o r Concrete 7-12
7.5 E f f e c t of Age o n Concrege Compressive S t r e n g t h f: 7-12
7.6 I n c r e a s e of Compressive S t r e n g t h fl w i t h Rate o f Load-
i n g f o r Concrete 7-14
7.7 I n c r e a s e o f Compressive S t r e n g t h w i t h Rate of S t r a i n
f o r Concrete 7-15
7.8 T y p i c a l S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves f o r "Weak" C o n c r e t e ,
i: = 10.1sec-1 7-16
7.9 T y p i c a l S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves f o r "Strong" Concrete,
i = 6 . 7 sec-1 7-16
7.10 V a r i a t i o n of Dynamic Secant Modulus w i t h Dynamic Com-
p r e s s i v e Strength f o r Concrete 7-18
7.11 V a r i a t i o n of Dynamic S t r a i n Energy w i t h t h e Dynamic
S t r e n g t h f o r Concrete 7-18
7.12 The Three P r i n c i p a l Axes of Wood w i t h Respect t o G r a i n
D i r e c t i o n and Growth Rings 7-19
7.13a T y p i c a l S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves f o r Two Matched S i t k a
Spruce Specimens 7-21
7.13b T y p i c a l S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves f o r ' h o Matched Maple
Specimens 7-21
7.14 V a r i a t i o n of Crush S t r e n g t h w i t h Rate o f S t r a i n 7-22
xvii
Figure Page
7.15 V a r i a t i o n of Maximum Crush S t r e n g t h of Various Woods

with Strain-Rate 7-23
7.16 The Immediate E f f e c t of Temperature on t h e Modulus of
E l a s t i c i t y of Wood Relative t o t h e Value a t 68'F 7-30
7.17 Impact Bending S t r e n g t h v e r s u s Wood F i b e r D i r e c t i o n 7-32
7.18 Honeycomb Crush S t r e n g t h v e r s u s D e n s i t y f o r Standard
Honeycomb Material 7-34
7.19 Tension D i s t r i b u t i o n Along Reinforcements 7-39
8.1 Dynamic Load F a c t o r s (DLF) and T i m e t o Maximum Response
(h)f o r D i f f e r e n t F ( t ) ' s 8- 5
8.2 E l a s t i c - P l a s t i c S o l u t i o n f o r Bending of Blast-Loaded
Beams 8- 6
8.3 Displacements of One-Degree-0f-Freedom System w i t h a
Bi-Linear R e s i s t a n c e Function 8- 9
8.4 E l a s t i c and I n e l a s t i c Responses of Two-Story B u i l d i n g
Frame Subjected t o S i n u s o i d a l Support Motions 8-11
8.5 Schematic Overpressure-Time H i s t o r y i n Confined Gas
o r Dust Explosion 8-13
8.6 Comparison of Zero and F i n i t e R i s e Times on t h e P-i
Diagram 8- 14
8.7 E f f e c t of Change i n t r / t d f o r F i n i t e Rise T i m e Loading 8-16
8.8 Effect of Plasticity 8-17
8.9 Recorded Pressure-Time H i s t o r i e s from B u r s t i n g Spheres 8-18
8.10 Schematic of Blast Loading from Vessel B u r s t 8-18
8.11 E f f e c t s of Loading Which C h a r a c t e r i z e s a B u r s t i n g Vessel 8-19
8.12a E f f e c t o f Support S t i f f n e s s OR Maximum Displacements 8-22
8.12b Load T r a n s f e r Through F l e x i b l e S t r u c t u r e s 8- 23
8.13 Design f o r E x t e r n a l Explosions 8- 37
8.14 Design f o r I n t e r n a l Explosions 8-40
miii
TABLES
Tab 1e Page
2.1 DOE P r o t e c t i v e Design Requirements by Type o f A c t i v i t y 2-20

4.1 Pantex Mission 4-3
4.2 P r o p e r t i e s o f Explosives and Explosive Chemicals 4- 8
4.3 " C o r r e c t i o n F a c t o r s " f o r Blast Parameters f o r A l t i t u d e
Atnospheric Conditions 4-28
4.4 Normally R e f l e c t e d Blast Wave Overpressures f o r Stand-
a r d Sea-Level Ambient Conditions 4- 32
4.5 T e s t Conditions f o r S e q u e n t i a l Explosions 4-69
4.6 P r e s s u r e s and Impulses f o r S i n g l e and M u l t i p l e Charges 4- 8 8
4.7 Non-constant Loading Over Plate 4-116
4.8 P h y s i c a l Parameters A f f e c t i n g Venting 4-123
4.9 Dimensionless T e r m s f o r Vented Chamber 4-124
4.10 Blast Loading on Wall 4-158
4 .ll C r i t e r i a f o r T e r t i a r y Damage ( D e c e l e r a t i v e Impact)
t o t h e Head 4- 1 7 0
4.12 C r i t e r i a f o r T e r t i a r y Damage I n v o l v i n g T o t a l Body Impact 4-170
4.13 Blast Loads as a Function o f Wall P o s i t i o n X, f o r Mini-
mum Standoff = 1 8 f t , W = 300 l b 4- 1 9 6
4.14 "Blowout Panel" Blast Loads 4-197
6.1 Gurney Energies f o r Various Explosives 6- 10
6.2 M o t t S c a l i n g Constants for M i l d S t e e l Casings and
Various Explosives 6- 1 2
6.3 V a r i a t i o n s i n S t r a i n Energy C o e f f i c i e n t s U/TAR 6- 4 2
6.4 Data Base f o r B u i l d i n g Fragmentation 6- 58
6.5 Cumulative P e r c e n t i l e s f o r P l o t t i n g Fragment Weights and
Ranges 6- 6 1
6.6 L i s t i n g of Estimated Means, Standard D e v i a t i o n s , and "Wl'
S t a t i s t i c s f o r Log-Normal D i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r Weights and
Ranges o f Fragments 6- 65
6.7 R e s u l t a n t C o e f f i c i e n t s from M u l t i p l e L i n e a r Regression
A n a l y s i s on Missile D i s p e r s i o n 6- 7 4
xix
TABLES (continued)
Table Page
6.8 L i s t o f Parameters f o r P e n e t r a t i o n of Metal S h e e t s and

Plates 6- 81
6.9 Nondimensional Terms f o r P e n e t r a t i o n of Metal S h e e t s and
Plates 6- 81
6.10 Material P r o p e r t i e s 6- 85
6.11 E m p i r i c a l C o n s t a n t s f o r P r e d i c t i n g Compact Fragment L i m i t
V e l o c i t y f o r Mild Steel T a r g e t s 6- 88
6.12 E m p i r i c a l C o n s t a n t s f o r P r e d i c t i n g Compact Fragment
R e s i d u a l V e l o c i t y f o r Mild S t e e l T a r g e t s 6- 88
6.13 Penetration Factors 6- 109
6.14 Ranges o f V e l o c i t y f o r Equations (6.59) and (6.60) 6-118
6.15 Fragment Impact Damage for R o o f i n g Materials 6-121
6.16 Nose Shape F a c t o r s 6-125
6.17 THOR C o n s t a n t s 6 - 138
6.18 Range of V a r i a b l e s i n E q u a t i o n s (6.69), (6.70) and (6.71) 6-139
6.19 50 P e r c e n t P r o b a b i l i t y o f Glass Fragments P e n e t r a t i n g Ab-
dominal C a v i t y 6 - 148
6.20 T e n t a t i v e C r i t e r i a f o r I n d i r e c t B l a s t E f f e c t s from Non-
p e n e t r a t i n g Fragment s 6 - 148
7.1 D y n a m i c I n c r e a s e F a c t o r s f o r Concrete 7-13
7.2 P r o p e r t i e s of Energy D i s s i p a t i o n Materials a t 40 P e r c e n t
Deformation 7-35
7.3 Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of S t e e l 7-41
7.4 Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of 6061 Aluminum Alloy Sheet and
Plate 7-42
7.5 Clear Wood S t r e n g t h Values 7-44
8.1 Comparison of C a p a b i l i t i e s of General Purpose Computer
Programs 8-28
8.2 A d d i t i o n a l F e a t u r e s o f t h e Most S u i t a b l e Pr'ograms fox
E l a s t i c - P l a s t i c Behavior 8-29
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
Problem Page
4.1 L i m i t o f Regular Shock R e f l e c t i o n 4-48

4.2 R e f l e c t e d O v e r p r e s s u r e f o r Oblique Shock 4-48
4.3 Comparison o f Free-Air and Ground B u r s t B l a s t
Parameters 4-49
4.4 B l a s t Parameters f o r Steel-Cased HE 4-51
4.5 B l a s t Parameters f o r B r i t t l e Cased HE 4-52
4.6 R e f l e c t i o n F a c t o r f o r S t r o n g Shocks 4-53
4.7 Peak O v e r p r e s s u r e f o r C y l i n d r i c a l HE 4-64
4.8 E q u i v a l e n t Sphere Weight f o r C y l i n d r i c a l HE 4-65
4.9 B l a s t P r e s s u r e s f o r S e q u e n t i a l l y Detonated Charges 4-79
4.10 Blast P r e s s u r e s and Impulses f o r S i m u l t a n e o u s l y
Detonated Charges 4-87
4.11 I n t e r n a l B l a s t Loading P a r a m e t e r s f o r Vented
Structure 4- 113
4.12 Vented Gas P r e s s u r e s I n c l u d i n g Vent Cover Mass
Effects 4-132
4.13 C o n c r e t e Spa11 S i z e and V e l o c i t y 4-158
4.14 Lung Damage from A i r B l a s t 4-16 7
4.15 T e r t i a r y Blast Damage t o Humans 4-174
4.16 E a r B l a s t I n j u r y t o Humans 4-180
4.17 Use o f Figures 4.5 Through 4.7 t o P r e d i c t A i r
Blast P a r a m e t e r s 4-183
4.18 I n t e r n a l B l a s t P r e d i c t i o n s from T h i s Manual and
TM 5-1300 4-186
5.1 P r e s s u r e and Impulse Imparted t o S l a b on Grade 5- 9
5.2 Rayleigh Wave P r o p e r t i e s 5-11
5.3 V e r t i c a l P a r t i c l e Displacement and R-Wave V e l o c i t y 5-19
5.4 Maximum R a d i a l S o i l Displacement and P a r t i c l e
Velc c i t y 5-28
5.5 Maximum R a d i a l S o i l Displacement and P a r t i c l e
V e l o c i t y f o r C a v i t y Charge 5-37
xxi
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS ( c o n t i n u e d )
Problem Page
5.6 Crater Type and Dimensions 5-50

5.7 Ejecta Radius 5-51
5.8 Ground Shock E f f e c t s i n Hardened S t r u c t u r e 5-66
5.9 P r e s s u r e s and Impulses on Buried B e a m 5-72
5.10 Ground Shock Loading on Buried P i p e 5-76
5.11 S t r e s s i n E l a s t i c B e a m from Ground Shock 5-80
5.12 S t r e s s e s i n Buried P i p e from Ground Shock 5-81
6.1 I n i t i a l and S t r i k i n g V e l o c i t i e s of Primary
Fragment 6-18
6.2 Primary Fragment Weights and Numbers 6-19
6.3 Fragment P r e s e n t e d A r e a 6-21
6.4 V e l o c i t y of Near-Field Unconstrained Secondary
Fragment 6-36
6.5 1:elocity o f F a r - F i e l d Unconstrained Secondary
Fragment 6-38
6.6 V e l o c i t y o f Unconstrained Secondary Fragment a t
Intermediate Distance 6-39
6.7 V e l o c i t y of Constrained Secondary Fragment 6-46
6.8 Maximum Fragment Range 6-55
6.9 Fragment Number and Density f o r B u i l d i n g Explo-
si o n 6-68
6.10 Fragment Density i n S e c t o r About Explosion
Source 6-76
6.11 Sheet Denting 6-92
6 -12 L i m i t v e l o c i t y f o r Rigid Fragment Impact on S t e e l
Plate 6-93
6.13 L i m i t V e l o c i t y f o r Wooden Rod S t r i k i n g S t e e l P l a t e 6-94
6.14 L i m i t V e l o c i t y f o r S t e e l Fragment S t r i k i n g S t e e l
Plate 6-95
6.15 R e s i d u a l Fragment V e l o c i t y 6-96
6.16 R e s i d u a l Fragment Weight 6-98
xxii
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS (continued)
Problem Page
6.17 Concrete Scabbing f o r S t e e l P i p e I m p a c t 6-111

6.18 Concrete Scabbing f o r S t e e l Rod I m p a c t 6-112
6.19 Concrete S p a l l i n g f o r Wood Rod Impact 6-113
6.20 Me t a l Fragment Impact on Concre t e 6-114
6.21 P e r f o r a t i o n o f I n t e r i o r Walls 6-119
6.22 P e n e t r a t i o n I n t o Cohesive S o i l 6-140
6.23 P e n e t r a t i o n I n t o Sand 6-141
6.24 Thickness of Aluminum t o Stop S t e e l Fragment 6-142
6.25 Fragment P e n e t r a t i o n of Human Skin 6-152
6.26 Human Head I n j u r y from Fragment Impact 6-152
6.27 Human Body I n j u r y from Fragment Impact 6-153
6.28 Lower L i m i t of Head Impact E f f e c t s 6-153
6.29 HE I n i t i a t i o n by Fragment Impact 6-163
6.30 HE I n i t i a t i o n by Fragment Impact 6-164
xxiii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVE
The purpose o f t h i s manual i s t o provide Architect-Engineer (AE) f i r m s

guidance f o r t h e p r e d i c t i o n of a i r b l a s t , ground shock and fragment l o a d i n g s
o f s t r u c t u r e s as a r e s u l t of a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s i n o r near t h e s e s t r u c -
tures.
The primary o b j e c t i v e i s t o develop a manual which i s complementary t o

e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n manuals and can be used ( i n combination w i t h o t h e r
manuals) by AE f i r m s t o d e s i g n new b u i l d i n g s which are r e s i s t a n t t o b l a s t and
f r a g m e n t a t i o n e f f e c t s of an a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n . Another o b j e c t i v e i s t o
a i d i n t h e assessment of t h e e x p l o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t c a p a b i l i t i e s of e x i s t i n g
b u i l d i n g s a t t h e Pantex P l a n t .
The manual i s s p e c i f i c f o r new o r e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s a t t h e Pantex

P l a n t . However, most d a t a and p r e d i c t i o n methods are p r e s e n t e d i n g e n e r a l
terms and can b e a p p l i e d t o o t h e r h i g h e x p l o s i v e f a c i l i t i e s i f proper modi-
f y i n g f a c t o r s are used.
1.2 SCOPE
1.2.1 Topics Covered i n This Manual
These t o p i c s are:
0 General c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a f f e c t i n g b l a s t , ground shock, and fragment

h a z a r d s i n high-explosive f a c i l i t i e s
e E x p l o s i v e s and damage mechanisms
0 A i r b l a s t from a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s r e s u l t i n g i n b o t h i n t e r n a l and
e x t e r n a l b l a s t loading of s t r u c t u r e s
0 A i r b l a s t s p a l l i n g of c o n c r e t e w a l l s
0 A i r b l a s t h a z a r d s t o personnel
0 C r a t e r i n g and ground shock, i n c l u d i n g e f f e c t s on b u i l d i n g s , equip-

ment, and p e r s o n n e l
0 Fragmentation, i n c l u d i n g , m e t h o d s f o r p r e d i c t i n g fragment c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s , t r a j e c t o r i e s ; d i s p e r s i o n and impact e f f e c t s
0 Hazards t o p e r s o n n e l from fragments
1-1
0 Explosive i n i t i a t i o n by fragments, o v e r p r e s s u r e s , h e a t , f r i c t i o n ,
c r u s h i n g , pinching , e t c .
0 Dynamic p r o p e r t i e s o f materials of c o n s t r u c t i o n
0 Overview of dynamic s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n methods
Included i n appendices are t a b l e s of p r o p e r t i e s of e x p l o s i v e s , a n ex-

t e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y , and a n S I metric c o n v e r s i o n t a b l e .
Methods and procedures included i n t h e manual a r e intended t o b e ap-

p l i e d by a n e n g i n e e r w i t h a working knowledge o f s t r u c t u r a l dynamics, w i t h
t h e a i d o f , a t most, a desk c a l c u l a t o r . Example problems are included f o r
a l l p r e d i c t i o n graphs. Confidence levels f o r p r e d i c t i o n methods are c i t e d
throughout and needs f o r d e s i g n v e r i f i c a t i o n by proof tests o r experimental
r e s e a r c h are i d e n t i f i e d where a p p r o p r i a t e .
General t h e o r y o r fundamental p r i n c i p l e s a r e g i v e n f o r each t o p i c i f

needed, and advanced concepts and t h e o r i e s i d e n t i f i e d , b u t n o t r i g o r o u s l y
t r e a t e d i n t h e manual.
1.2.2 Related Topics Covered i n Other Manuals
The complementary n a t u r e o f t h i s manual r e q u i r e s i t s u s e i n conjunc-

t i o n w i t h o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s (1.141.20), r a t h e r t h a n as a s i n g l e comprehensive
manual, i f one wishes t o cover a l l aspects of l o a d i n g from a c c i d e n t a l explo-
s i o n s , r e s p o n s e t o and damage from such e x p l o s i o n s , and d e s i g n f o r r e s i s t a n c e
t o o r s u r v i v a l under a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s . R e l a t e d i t e m s which are n o t
covered i n depth i n t h i s manual, b u t a r e w e l l t r e a t e d i n o t h e r g e n e r a l r e f e r -
ences, are t h e f o l l o w i n g :
0 Basic p h y s i c s of a i r b l a s t
0 D e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s methods f o r e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c dynamics of s t r u c t u r e s
Fundamental s t u d i e s of c r a t e r i n g and ground shock
E x t e r i o r * and terminal b a l l i s t i c s o f fragments and a c c i d e n t missiles

o v e r wide ranges of m i s s i l e and t a r g e t p r o p e r t i e s
0 Fundamentals o f dynamic p r o p e r t i e s of materials
0 Detonation p h y s i c s
Two good g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e s on b a s i c p h y s i c s of a i r b l a s t a r e Baker

( R e f , 1.1) and Swisdak (Ref. 1 . 2 ) . Both of t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s a l s o i n c l u d e
* E x t e r i o r b a l l i s t i c s i s t h e s c i e n c e of f l i g h t of high-speed o b j e c t s through
the air.
1-2 0
e x t e n s i v e t a b l e s and graphs f o r p r e d i c t i o n o f b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s f o r h i g h
explosives .
There are a number of good r e f e r e n c e s which p r e s e n t d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s
methods f o r e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c dynamics of s t r u c t u r e s . W e recommend Biggs
(Ref. 1 . 3 ) , N o r r i s , e t a l . (Ref. 1.4), "Suppressive S h i e l d s " (Ref. 1.5),
Crawford, e t a l . (Ref. 1 . 6 ) , TM5-1300 (Ref. 1.7), o r Cox, e t a l . (Ref. 1 . 8 ) .
All r e f e r e n c e s p r e s e n t approximate methods f o r dynamic s t r u c t u r a l response
which a r e w e l l v a l i d a t e d . Refs. 1 . 3 through 1 . 7 use e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same
approximation methods, w h i l e Ref, 1 . 8 employs a somewhat d i f f e r e n t approach.
C r a t e r i n g and ground shock from b u r i e d o r ground c o n t a c t e x p l o s i o n s

are covered i n a number o f r e f e r e n c e s . Of t h e s e , good g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e s ,
a v a i l a b l e only f o r ground shock p r o c e s s e s , are R i c h a r t , e t a l . (Ref. 1 . 9 ) and
Barkan (Ref. 1.10). The r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o Chapter 5 f o r c r a t e r i n g r e f e r -
e n c e s , which are s c a t t e r e d throughout t h e l i t e r a t u r e .
S t u d i e s of f l i g h t and impact o f fragments and missiles from a c c i d e n t a l

e x p l o s i o n s and planned d e t o n a t i o n s a r e r e l a t i v e l y few, p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e
m a j o r i t y of t h e fragments are secondary ones such as pieces of equipment o r
s t r u c t u r e which were a t some d i s t a n c e from t h e e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e . S i m i l a r l y ,
t h e r e are few comprehensive r e f e r e n c e s f o r impact e f f e c t s of r e l a t i v e l y
massive secondary fragments o r missiles. Refs. 1.11 and 1 . 1 2 have t h e most
complete s t u d i e s , b u t they r e f e r t o fragments from l i q u i d p r o p e l l a n t explo-
s i o n s and gas vessel b u r s t s . The most complete s t u d y f o r secondary d e b r i s
h a z a r d s from a c c i d e n t a l HE e x p l o s i o n s i s c o n t a i n e d i n Chapter 6 o f t h i s
manual.
There a r e many r e f e r e n c e s g i v i n g dynamic p r o p e r t i e s of s t r u c t u r a l

metals. Ref. 1.13 i s a good g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e on t h i s t o p i c . On t h e o t h e r
hand, t h e r e are few such r e f e r e n c e s f o r dynamic p r o p e r t i e s o f c o n c r e t e , e a r t h
o r g r a v e l , and f r a n g i b l e materials which form a l a r g e p a r t of s t r u c t u r e s a t
t h e Pantex P l a n t . Chapter 7 c o n t a i n s a d i s t i l l a t i o n of d a t a which are a v a i l -
able for these materials.
The p h y s i c s of d e t o n a t i o n of h i g h e x p l o s i v e s h a s been s t u d i e d f o r many

y e a r s , b o t h i n t h e U. S. and ab'road. There are several good r e f e r e n c e t e x t s
on t h i s s u b j e c t , w i t h p e r h a p s s t h e b e s t and most r e a d a b l e b e i n g Johansson and
Persson (Ref. 1 . 1 4 ) . Other good r e f e r e n c e s on t h i s t o p i c a r e an Army manual
on p r i n c i p l e s of e x p l o s i v e b e h a v i o r (Ref. 1.15), and a set of symposium pro-
c e e d i n g s on b e h a v i o r and u t i l i z a t i o n of e x p l o s i v e s i n e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n
( R e f . 1 . 1 6 ) . A good working knowledge o f t h i s t o p i c i s v e r y u s e f u l i n pre-
d i c t i o n of such t o p i c s ' as fragment v e l o c i t i e s and masses , and e x p l o s i v e
i n i t i a t i o n by fragment impact.
There a r e a l s o several g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e s which c o n t a i n background

material u s e f u l i n more t h a n one area r e l a t e d t o t h i s manual. TM5-1300 (Ref.
1 . 7 ) and "Suppressive S h i e l d s " (Ref. 1.5) c e r t a i n l y are i n t h i s c a t e g o r y , b u t
one c a n a l s o g l e a n much u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n from a summary r e p o r t on research
1-3
d u r i n g World War I1 i n many aspects of b a l l i s t i c s (Ref. 1 . 1 7 ) , and a t r a n s -
l a t i o n o f German b a l l i s t i c r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s from t h e same era (Ref. 1 . 1 8 ) .
The minutes of e x p l o s i v e s s a f e t y seminars f o r t h e Department of Defense Ex-
p l o s i v e s S a f e t y Board (DDESB) are a l s o q u i t e u s e f u l , and w i l l be c i t e d many
t i m e s i n t h e r e f e r e n c e l i s t s . The f i n a l g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e c o n t a i n i n g good
background material a p p e a r s - i n a n u n l i k e l y s o u r c e , t h e Annals of t h e New York
Academy of S c i e n c e s , as t h e proceedings of a 1968 seminar on e x p l o s i v e s a f e t y
t o p i c s (Ref. 1 . 1 9 ) .
1.2.3 Organization
This manual i s o r g a n i z e d i n t o e i g h t c h a p t e r s and s u p p o r t i n g appendices.

This f i r s t c h a p t e r serves a s a b r i e f i n t r o d u c t i o n , and c o n t a i n s no t e c h n i c a l
d e t a i l s , b u t a l l following c h a p t e r s are t e c h n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d .
Chapter 2 c o v e r s g e n e r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n e x p l o s i v e s a f e t y and design

a t t h e Pantex P l a n t . It c o v e r s t h e scope of e x p l o s i v e s a f e t y i n a g e n e r a l
way, d e s c r i b e s g e n e r a l procedures f o r d e s i g n i n g o r e v a l u a t i n g b u i l d i n g s sub-
j e c t e d t o h i g h e x p l o s i v e h a z a r d s , g i v e s t y p i c a l b u i l d i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , and
d i s c u s s e s impact of s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s and procedures on e x p l o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t
d e s i g n . The a p p l i c a b i l i t y and l i m i t s o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e manual a r e
noted.
Chapter 3 g i v e s q u a l i t a t i v e d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e predominant a s p e c t s o f
e x p l o s i v e h a z a r d s and damage meclianisms a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a c c i d e n t a l explo-
s i o n s . The e f f e c t s are a l s o l i m i t e d t o t h o s e which could conceivably occur
from a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n of HE o r chemicals used i n p r o c e s s i n g o f HE a t
Pantex. This c h a p t e r serves as a preview of Chapters 4 , 5 , and 6 .
Chapter 4 g i v e s r e l a t i v e l y d e t a i l e d coverage of a i r b l a s t from t h o s e

classes o f a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s which could conceivably o c c u r i n t h e Pantex
P l a n t . Topics covered i n c l u d e b l a s t waves from s i n g l e and m u l t i p l e s o u r c e s ,
e f f e c t s of containment and v e n t i n g , methods of p r e d i c t i n g b l a s t l o a d s on
s t r u c t u r e s f o r b o t h i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l e x p l o s i o n s , a i r b l a s t s p a l l i n g of
c o n c r e t e w a l l s , and a i r b l a s t h a z a r d s t o p e r s o n n e l .
C r a t e r i n g and ground shock are covered i n Chapter 5. Basic phenomena

are d i s c u s s e d , and methods are given f o r p r e d i c t i o n of e x p l o s i v e c r a t e r i n g ,
ground shock waves, and e f f e c t s of ground motion on b u i l d i n g s , equipment, and
personnel.
Chapter 6 c o v e r s f r a g m e n t a t i o n and i t s e f f e c t s f o r e x p l o s i o n s which

could o c c u r a t Pantex. General phenomena a r e d i s c u s s e d , followed by methods
f o r p r e d i c t i n g fragment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f l i g h t , and impact e f f e c t s . A
s p e c i a l t o p i c included i n t h i s chapter i s the p r e d i c t i o n of explosive i n i t i -
a t i o n by fragment i m p a c t s .
Chapters 4 , 5 and 6 are t h e l o n g e s t and most d e t a i l e d c h a p t e r s i n t h e

manual, b u t t h e y a r e supported by two r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t c h a p t e r s g i v i n g
1-4
"a
d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n . Chapter 7 g i v e s d a t a on dynamic p r o p e r t i e s of materials
of c o n s t r u c t i o n which are o r could b e used i n e x p l o s i v e s f a c i l i t i e s a t t h e
Pantex P l a n t w h i l e Chapter 8 g i v e s an overview of d e s i g n methods f o r s t r u c -
t u r e s t y p i c a l a t Pantex.
I n each c h a p t e r g i v i n g p r e d i c t i o n methods, t h e r e i s a s e c t i o n w i t h one

o r more example problems f o r each method. Each c h a p t e r a l s o c o n t a i n s a l i s t
o f symbols and a l i s t of a l l r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d i n t h e c h a p t e r .
A n c i l l a r y material i n c l u d e d i n t h e manual are appendices g i v i n g a set

of u n i t c o n v e r s i o n t a b l e s t o and from S I m e t r i c u n i t s , e x p l o s i v e p r o p e r t i e s ,
and an e x t e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y .
t
1-5
1.3 REFERENCES
1.1 Baker, W. E . , Explosions i n A i r , U n i v e r s i t y of Texas Press, A u s t i n ,

Texas, 1973.
1.2 Swisdak, M. M., Jr., "Explosion E f f e c t s and P r o p e r t i e s : P a r t I - Ex-

p l o s i o n E f f e c t s i n Air," NSWC/WOL/TR 75-116, Naval S u r f a c e Weapons Cen-
t e r , White Oak, S i l v e r Spring, Maryland, October 1975.
1.3 Biggs, J. M., I n t r o d u c t i o n t o S t r u c t u r a l Dynamics, M c G r a w - H i l l Book

Company, New York, New York, 1964.
1.4 N o r r i s , C. H., Hansen, R. J . , Holley, M. J . , Biggs, J. M., Namyet, S .

and Minami, J. V . , S t r u c t u r a l Design f o r Dynamic Loads, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, N e w York, New York, 1959.
1.5 "Suppressive S h i e l d s S t r u c t u r a l Design and A n a l y s i s Handbook," U. S .

Army Corps o f E n g i n e e r s , H u n t s v i l l e D i v i s i o n , HNDM-1110-1-2, 1977.
1.6 Crawford, Robert E., Higgins, C o r n e l i u s , J., Bultmann, H . , T h e A i r

Force Manual f o r Design and A n a l y s i s of Hardened S t r u c t u r e s , " Report
No. AFWL-TR-74-102, C o n t r a c t N o . F29601-74-C-0018, C i v i l Nuclear Sys-
tems C o r p o r a t i o n , Albuquerque, New Mexico, October 1974, Second P r i n t -
i n g October 19 76.
1.7 S t r u c t u r e s t o R e s i s t t h e E f f e c t s o f A c c i d e n t a l Explosions, Department

of t h e Army T e c h n i c a l Manual TM 5-1300, Department of t h e Navy P u b l i -
c a t i o n NAVkAC P-397, Department of t h e - A i r - Force Manual AFM 88-22,
Department of t h e Army, t h e Navy, and t h e A i r Force, June 1969.
1.8 Cox, P. A., Westine, P. S . , Kulesz, J. J . , and Esparza, E. D . , "Analy-

sis and E v a l u a t i o n of S u p p r e s s i v e S h i e l d s , " Edgewood Arsenal C o n t r a c t o r
Report, ARCFL-CR-77028, Report No. 1 0 , C o n t r a c t No. DAAA15-75-C-0083,
Edgewood A r s e n a l , Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, January 1978.
1.9 R i c h a r t , F. E . , Jr., H a l l , J. R . , J r . , and Woods, R. D . , V i b r a t i o n s of

S o i l s and Foundations, P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , Englewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y ,
1970.
1.10 Barkan, D. D., Dynamics of Bases and Foundations, M c G r a w - H i l l Book

Company, New York, New York, 1962.
1.11 Baker, W. E . , Kulesz, J. J . , , P c k e r , R . E . , Bessey, R. L . , Westine, P.

S . , P a r r , V. B . , And Oldham, 'G. A., 'Workbook f o r P r e d i c t i n g P r e s s u r e
Wave and Fragment E f f e c t s o f Exploding P r o p e l l a n t Tanks and Gas S t o r a g e
Vessels," NASA CR-134906, NASA L e w i s Research Center, November 1975.
1-6
t
1 . 1 2 Baker, W . E . , Kulesz, J. J., R i c k e r , R. E., Westine, P. S., P a r r , V. B . ,
Vargas, L . M . , and Moseley, P. K . , "Workbook f o r E s t i m a t i n g t h e E f f e c t s
of A c c i d e n t a l Explosions i n P r o p e l l a n t Handling Systems, 'I NASA C o n t r a c t o r
Report 3023, C o n t r a c t NAS 3-20497, NASA Lewis Research Center, August,
1978.
1 . 1 3 H u f f i n g t o n , N o r r i s J . , J r . , (Ed.), Behavior of Materials Under Dynamic

Loading, The American S o c i e t y of Mechanical Engineers, New York, New
York, 1965.
1.14 Johansson, C . H. and Persson, P . A., Detonics of High E x p l o s i v e s , Aca-

demic P r e s s , London and New York, 1970.
1.15 U. S . Army Material Command, Engineering Design Handbook: Principles

of Explosive Behavior, AMC Pamphlet AMCP 706-180, 1972.
1 . 1 6 "Behavior and U t i l i z a t i o n of Explosives i n Engineering Design and Bio-

chemical P r i n c i p l e s Applied t o Chemical Medicine, I' Proceedings of t h e
1 2 t h Annual Symposium American S o c i e t y of Mechanical Engineers, New
Mexico S e c t i o n , March 1972.
1 . 1 7 O f f i c e of S c i e n t i f i c Research and Development, " E f f e c t s of Impact and

Explosion, I' Summary Technical Report, N a t i o n a l Defense Research
Committee, Washington, D . C . , 1946. AD 221 586
1.18 Doering, W. and Burkhardt, G . , " C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e Theory of Detona-

t i o n , " T r a n s l a t i o n from t h e German as Technical Report No. F-TX-1227-
I A (GDAM A9-T-4G), Headquarters, Air Material Command, Wright-Patterson
AFB, Ohio, Nay 1949. AD 77863
1.19 "Prevention of and P r o t e c t i o n Against A c c i d e n t a l Explosions of Muni-

t i o n s , F u e l s , and Other Hazardous Mixtures," Annals of t h e New York
Academy o f S c i e n c e s , Vol. 1 5 2 , A r t . 1, October 1968.
1.20 "Fundamentals of P r o t e c t i o n Design (Non-Nuclear) , ' I Department o f t h e

Army Technical Manual, TM 5-855-1, Department of t h e Army, J u l y 1965.
1-7
CHAPTER 2
GENEUL CONS IDERATI ONS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
I n d e s i g n i n g b u i l d i n g s s u b j e c t t o h i g h e x p l o s i v e h a z a r d s , an AE f i r m
would normally d i v i d e t h i s complex problem i n t o a series o f g e n e r a l s t e p s o r
d i s c i p l i n e s , as f o l l o w s :
A. Develop Conceptual B u i l d i n g Designs
1. Consider o p e r a t i o n s i n b u i l d i n g s
2. Determine t y p e s and q u a n t i t i e s o f e x p l o s i v e s i n each c e l l o r

unit.
B. D e f i n e t h e Explosion Environment
1. Determine e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
2. Determine a i r b l a s t l o a d s from s i n g l e o r m u l t i p l e e x p l o s i o n
sources
3. Determine p o s s i b l e ground shock a n d f o r c r a t e r i n g e f f e c t s
4. Determine c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f fragments from c a s i n g s f o r explo-

s i v e m a t e r i a l s and nearby o b j e c t s and s t r u c t u r e s .
C. P r e d i c t B u i l d i n g , Equipment, and Personnel Response
1. Determine r e s p o n s e t o a i r b l a s t l o a d i n g
2. Determine r e s p o n s e t o ground shock
3. Determine r e s p o n s e t o fragment impact.
D. Perform I t e r a t i v e Design t o P r o v i d e Explosion R e s i s t a n c e
We w i l l p r e s e n t i n t h i s manual d a t a and d e s i g n i n f o r m a t i o n which w i l l

a i d a n AE f i r m i n a l l o f t h e s e s t e p s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f S t e p D, which
s h o u l d be r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e i n o t h e r manuals. To assist i n t h e p l a n n i n g of
S t e p D , a f l o w c h a r t i s p r e s e n t e d i n Chapter 8 which p r o v i d e s a procedure
f o r t h e a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n of s t r u c t u r e s ( e x i s t i n g and new).
I n many i n s t a n c e s , q u a n t i t i e s o f e x p l o s i v e s which c a n b e p r e s e n t i n
v a r i o u s f a c i l i t i e s a t Pantex, t h e t y p e s o f e x p l o s i v e s o r o t h e r hazardous
materials which can b e s t o r e d o r worked on t o g e t h e r , d i s t a n c e s between
2-1
b u i l d i n g s and areas, and many o t h e r f a c t o r s which impinge d i r e c t l y on b l a s t -
r e s i s t a n t b u i l d i n g d e s i g n are f i x e d o r l i m i t e d by e x i s t i n g s a f e t y , s e c u r i t y
and o t h e r r e g u l a t o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s . A t Pantex, some of t h e p e r t i n e n t regula-
t i o n s o r manuals i n e f f e c t are:
1. ERDA F a c i l i t i e s General Design Handbook (Ref. 2.1)
2. Seismic Hazard and B u i l d i n g S t r u c t u r e Behavior a t t h e Pantex

F a c i l i t y (Ref. 2 . 2 )
3. Development of Design Basis Tornadoes and Design Manual f o r t h e

Pantex P l a n t S i t e ( R e f , 2 . 3 )
4. AMCR 385-100, S a f e t y Manual (Ref. 2 . 4 )
5. TM 5-1300, S t r u c t u r e s t o R e s i s t t h e E f f e c t s of A c c i d e n t a l Explosions
(Ref. 2.5)
6. DOD Ammunition and Explosives S a f e t y Standards (Ref. 2.6)
7. Pantex P l a n t Design C r i t e r i a Manual ( R e f . 2 . 7 )
Reference 2 . 1 i n p a r t i c u l a r i n c l u d e s a number of o t h e r r e g u l a t i o n s and guides

by r e f e r e n c e , i n c l u d i n g References 2.4 and 2.5. This d e s i g n c r i t e r i a hand-
book a l s o d e f i n e s t h r e e high-explosive h a z a r d classes, w i t h d e c r e a s i n g poten-
t i a l f o r e x p l o s i v e a c c i d e n t as t h e c l a s s number increases. An AE f i r m in-
volved i n d e s i g n of p r o t e c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n a t Pantex should review t h i s
handbook, and t h e o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d h e r e , t o i n s u r e compliance. Some of
t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f ' t h e r e g u l a t i o n s are d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r .
The e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s a t t h e Pantex P l a n t i n c l u d e many t y p e s , con-

s t r u c t e d o r modified from 1944 t o t h e p r e s e n t . There are a number of above-
ground b u i l d i n g s , b o t h w i t h and w i t h o u t b a r r i c a d e s ; mounded, earth-covered
b u i l d i n g s ; shallow-buried b u i l d i n g s ; s t o r a g e i g l o o s ; and containment s t r u c -
t u r e s . These b u i l d i n g s have v a r i o u s d e s i g n s f o r v e n t i n g e x p l o s i o n p r e s s u r e s
and v a r y i n g d e g r e e s of b l a s t r e s i s t a n c e . Planned new d e s i g n s cover t h e same
spectrum of b u i l d i n g t y p e s , b a r r i c a d i n g o r l a c k of b a r r i c a d i n g , and v e n t i n g
o r containment as do e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g s . Examples are given l a t e r i n t h i s
chapter.
References 2 . 1 through 2.9 are documents which e s t a b l i s h c r i t e r i a f o r

d e s i g n o f s t r u c t u r e s t o b e r e s i s t a n t t o e x p l o s i o n s and n a t u r a l phenomena.
This manual i s not a c r i t e r i a document, nor i s i t a manual f o r s t r u c t u r a l
d e s i g n . Rather, i t i s a d e s i g n a i d f o r p r e d i c t i n g b l a s t and fragment load-
i n g from a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s , and i t i s i n t e n d e d f o r u s e as a complement
t o o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s d e s i g n manuals.
2-2
. -. . - . .
2.2 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN OR EVALUATION OF BUILDINGS SUBJECTED TO

H I G H EXPLOSIVE HAZARDS
2.2.1 Determination of Explosion Source C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
P o t e n t i a l a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e s a t t h e Pantex P l a n t c o n s i s t
p r i m a r i l y of h i g h e x p l o s i v e s (HE), i n one of s e v e r a l forms, and i n v a r i o u s
s t a t e s and c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . Because some e x p l o s i v e s s y n t h e s i s i s done a t
Pantex, p o t e n t i a l l y e x p l o s i v e l i q u i d chemicals are a l s o p r e s e n t i n some f a c i l -
i t i e s . The s t a t e o f t h e s o l i d e x p l o s i v e s can b e p r e s s e d HE, b u l k ( l o o s e ) HE,
o r c a s t HE. Although most e x p l o s i v e s a r e HMX-based, RDX-based, o r TATB
p r e s s e d e x p l o s i v e s , o l d e r t y p e s of c a s t a b l e e x p l o s i v e s such a s TNT o r Compo-
s i t i o n B are a l s o p r e s e n t i n some f a c i l i t i e s . The o l d e r t y p e s are u s u a l l y
p r e s e n t i n l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s of 100 t o 500 pounds as s i n g l e items. Chapter
4 and Appendix A g i v e much more d e t a i l on types and p r o p e r t i e s of explosion
s o u r c e s . Air b l a s t s o u r c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r a l l t y p e s of e x p l o s i v e s can
b e determined u s i n g t h e s e d a t a .
2.2.2 Determination of Air Blast Loading
Once t h e t y p e , q u a n t i t y and c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e s a r e
d e f i n e d , t h e n e x t s t e p i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e e x p l o s i o n environment i s t h e
d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e a i r b l a s t l o a d i n g . The g e n e r a l phenomena and q u a l i t a t i v e
d i s c u s s i o n s of e x p l o s i o n s are covered i n Chapter 3 , w h i l e much more d e t a i l e d
phenomenology of a i r b l a s t i s coOered i n Chapter 4 . I n p a r t i c u l a r , one f i r s t
determines f r e e - f i e l d b l a s t wave c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h e s p e c i f i e d e x p l o s i o n
s o u r c e o r s o u r c e s , and then determines a c t u a l i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l b l a s t
l o a d i n g on s t r u c t u r e s o r p a r t s of s t r u c t u r e s . Details o f t h e s e procedures,
w i t h example problems, appear i n Chapter 4 .
2.2.3 Determination of Ground Shock and C r a t e r i n g
I n some a c c i d e n t s c e n a r i o s a t Pantex, c o u p l i n g of t h e e x p l o s i o n t o
t h e ground may b e e f f i c i e n t enough t o develop s i g n i f i c a n t ground shock o r
t o c a u s e craters t o b e formed. These i n c l u d e :
1. Explosion i n a n earth-covered s t o r a g e i g l o o
2. Explosion i n a s t r o n g , b u r i e d containment c e l l *
3. Surface explosion with explosive source i n c o n t a c t w i t h f l o o r o r

ground.
These t h r e e s i t u a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t degrees of c o u p l i n g o f t h e explo-

s i o n t o t h e ground. Each i s d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n Chapter 5, and methods
f o r p r e d i c t i o n of ground shock and c r a t e r i n g e f f e c t s are given i n t h a t chap-
t e r , t o g e t h e r w i t h a number of example problems.
*See Chapter 5, S e c t i o n 5.1, f o r d i s c u s s i o n of b u r i e d s t r u c t u r e s and c o n t a i n -

ment.
2-3
2.2.4 Determination of Fragment C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
Many a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s cause e x t e n s i v e f r a g m e n t a t i o n , and t h e re-

s u l t i n g high-speed fragments i n t u r n cause much of t h e damage from t h e explo-
s i o n . Those fragments which a r e generated by t h e c a s i n g s o r c o n t a i n e r s which
surround e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e s are termed primary fragments. Secondary fragments
are formed by p i e c e s of equipment n e a r e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e s and p i e c e s of t h e
s t r u c t u r e s i n which t h e e x p l o s i o n o c c u r r e d . The d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s and i m p a c t e f f e c t s of b o t h primary and secondary fragments one could
e x p e c t i n e x p l o s i o n s i n Pantex f a c i l i t i e s i s a major t o p i c i n t h i s manual.
Chapter 6 c o v e r s t h i s t o p i c , and g i v e s many graphs and formulas f o r predic-
t i o n o f f r a g m e n t a t i o n . E x a m p l e problems are g i v e n i n t h a t c h a p t e r .
2.2.5 Determination of B u i l d i n g , Equipment, and P e r s o n n e l Response t o Blast

Loading
Once t h e e x p l o s i o n environment i s d e f i n e d f o r a d e s i g n b a s i s e x p l o s i o n
a t Pantex, t h e f i r s t s t e p i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f b u i l d i n g and equipment re-
sponse i s t o determine response t o a i r b l a s t l o a d i n g . This response can b e
t o p p l i n g o r t r a n s l a t i o n , e l a s t i c s t r u c t u r a l r e s p o n s e , o r e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c re-
sponse up t o r u p t u r e o r complete f a i l u r e . We r e i t e r a t e t h a t t h i s manual
does n o t c o n t a i n d e t a i l e d procedures f o r such response p r e d i c t i o n . B u t ,
Chapter 8 does g i v e a n overview of dynamic s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n and reviews
v a r i o u s manuals and r e f e r e n c e s which can b e used f o r such d e s i g n .
2.2.6 Determination of B u i l d i n g , Equipment, and Personnel Response t o Ground

Shock
Ground shock motions c a n b e similar t o seismic d i s t u r b a n c e s f o r s u r -

f a c e s t r u c t u r e s , shallow-buried s t r u c t u r e s , b u i l d i n g equipment, and p e r s o n n e l .
I n t e n s e ground shocks can a l s o d i s p l a c e and damage b u r i e d p i p i n g . These
e f f e c t s a r e t r e a t e d a t some l e n g t h i n t h i s manual, b e c a u s e they are n o t read-
i l y a v a i l a b l e elsewhere. The d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t , and a number of example
problems, appear i n Chapter 5 .
2.2.7 Determination of B u i l d i n g , Equipment, and Personnel Response t o Frag-

ment I m D a c t
Primary fragments from HE e x p l o s i o n s are g e n e r a l l y numerous, m e t a l l i c ,

s m a l l ( l e s s t h a n a pound i n w e i g h t ) , and high v e l o c i t y (up t o 9,000 f e e t p e r
s e c o n d ) . They a r e e f f i c i e n t p e n e t r a t o r s of most b u i l d i n g materials, and
e f f i c i e n t f o r k i l l i n g o r s e r i o u s l y wounding humans. Secondary fragments are
u s u a l l y r e l a t i v e l y few, c a n b e q u i t e massive (up t o t o n s i n w e i g h t ) , are
u s u a l l y slower than primary fragments (hundreds of f e e t p e r second), and can
c o n s i s t o f a v a r i e t y o f m a t e r i a l s , i n c l u d i n g chunks of r e l a t i v e l y weak mater-
i a l s such as wood o r c o n c r e t e . They are u s u a l l y poor p e n e t r a t o r s , b u t can
cause damage t o s t r u c t u r e s and humans by simple momentum t r a n s f e r d u r i n g im-
p a c t . Much more i s known a b o u t response t o primary fragment impact t h a n i s
known f o r secondary fragment impact.
2-4
Chapter 6 c o v e r s o u r c u r r e n t s t a t e of knowledge f o r p r e d i c t i n g impact
e f f e c t s o f b o t h t y p e s of fragments. Terms commonly used i n t h i s f i e l d , such
as p e n e t r a t i o n , p e r f o r a t i o n and s p a l l i n g , are d e f i n e d and procedures are
g i v e n f o r d e t e r m i n i n g impact e f f e c t s on s t r u c t u r e s , people, and HE. A number
of example problems on fragment impact e f f e c t s appear i n Chapter 6 .
2.2.8 Iterative Design of Explosion-Resistant Buildings
An AE f i r m , i n d e s i g n i n g e x p l o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t b u i l d i n g s f o r t h e Pantex
f a c i l i t y , w i l l u s u a l l y f i n d t h a t f o r most p a r t s of t h e b u i l d i n g , t h e l i m i t i n g
r e s p o n s e t o one o r more of t h e e x p l o s i o n environment c o n d i t i o n s w i l l f a r o u t -
weigh o t h e r d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , such as r e s p o n s e t o seismic d i s t u r b a n c e s ,
and t o r n a d i c winds (Refs. 2.2, 2.3, 2.8, and 2 8 9 ) b u t t h e f i r s t d e s i g n w i l l
o f t e n prove t o b e s e r i o u s l y overdesigned o r underdesigned. The AE must then
r e d e s i g n , and check t o determine whether t h e new d e s i g n , which may now b e
optimized f o r a i r b l a s t r e s i s t a n c e , i s a d e q u a t e f o r ground shock, fragment
impact r e s i s t a n c e , and o t h e r d e s i g n l o a d i n g s . The d e t a i l e d procedures f o r
such i t e r a t i v e d e s i g n are n o t given i n t h i s manual, b u t Chapter 8 g i v e s a
flow c h a r t t o i n d i c a t e t h e s t e p s a n AE f i r m may have t o f o l l o w d u r i n g t h e
i t e r a t i v e design process.
2.3 IMPACT OF SAFETY, SECURITY AND OTHER REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS ON BLAST-

RESISTANT DESIGN
2.3.1 Typi c a l B u i l d i n g C o n f i g u r q t i o n s
There are many t y p e s of b u i l d i n g s e x i s t i n g o r planned f o r t h e Pantex

P l a n t . F i g u r e 2.1 g i v e s a n aerial view of t h e e n t i r e p l a n t , and F i g u r e s 2.2
and 2 . 3 show t h e complexes o f b u i l d i n g s i n Zone 11 and Zone 1 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
One c a n see i n t h e s e photos a number o f above-ground b u i l d i n g s , b o t h b a r r i -
caded and u n b a r r i c a d e d ; and a l s o several t y p e s of earth-covered b u i l d i n g s .
2.3 .l.1 Above-Ground B u i l d i n g s
These are of four. types:
Unbar r i cad ed
Barricaded
Controlled venting
Vented *
Most of t h e above-ground b u i l d i n g s i n Zones 11 and 1 2 are m u l t i p l e -

bay b u i l d i n g s . The m a j o r i t y of b u i l d i n g s i n b o t h zones are wood o r s t e e l
framed w i t h c l a y t i l e , masonry b l o c k o r b r i c k w a l l s and r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e ,
blast-resistant walls. Some of t h e b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t b u i l d i n g s are vented.
2- 5
2-6
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A t y p i c a l unbarricaded b u i l d i n g , used f o r t e s t i n g w i t h small quanti-
t i e s of HE, i s B u i l d i n g 11-5, shown i n Figure 2.4.
F i g u r e 2.5 shows an above-ground b a r r i c a d e d b u i l d i n g , B u i l d i n g 11-20.

This multi-bay b u i l d i n g i s used f o r HE p r e s s i n g , and h a s a double-revetted
b a r r i c a d e p l a c e d on one s i d e t o arrest fragments and p i e c e s of blowout p a n e l s
i n t h e e v e n t of an e x p l o s i o n i n a bay.
Few of t h e e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g s are designed f o r complete o r n e a r l y

complete e x p l o s i o n containment, b u t a new d e s i g n f o r a h i g h e x p l o s i v e s machin-
i n g f a c i l i t y ( R e f s . 2.10 and 2.11) i s e s s e n t i a l l y a containment s t r u c t u r e ,
w i t h minimal e x p l o s i o n v e n t i n g and complete fragment containment b e i n g fea-
t u r e s o f t h e d e s i g n . Figure 2.6 i s a p l a n v i e w o f t h e w e s t s e c t o r of t h i s
facility.
2 . 3 .l.2 Earth-Covered B u i l d i n g s
These b u i l d i n g s a r e of t h r e e types:*
Mounded s t r u c t u r e s
Shallow-buried s t r u c t u r e s
Underground s t r u c t u r e s
An example of a mounded s t r u c t u r e i s B u i l d i n g FS-11, F i g u r e 2 . 7 a .

This b u i l d i n g i s used f o r gaging and has an e x p l o s i v e l i m i t of 400 pounds.
I n Zone 4 i s a series of service magazines f o r s t o r i n g v a r i o u s

q u a n t i t i e s of HE, up t o 9,000 pounds i n one bay. These magazines are
examples of shallow-buried s t r u c t u r e s . They are v i s i b l e i n F i g u r e 2.7b.
I n Zone 1 2 , t h e r e i s a series o f underground containment c e l l s , o r

Gravel Gerties, designated Building 12-44. These c e l l s have a reinforced
c o n c r e t e c y l i n d r i c a l w a l l and a r o o f of 1 7 f e e t o r more of g r a v e l , sup-
p o r t e d by a c a b l e s u p p o r t system. Each c e l l and a d j a c e n t s t a g i n g bays
form one f a c i l i t y . Access i s through equipment and p e r s o n n e l b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t
doors. There are p r e s e n t l y seven such c e l l f a c i l i t i e s l o c a t e d c l o s e t o each
o t h e r ( F i g u r e 2.8).
2.3.1.3 Venting Schemes
Many o f t h e Pantex b u i l d i n g s employ some scheme f o r e x p l o s i o n v e n t -

i n g . The most c o m n t y p e s are r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t r o o f s and o u t s i d e w a l l s i n
multi-bay e x p l o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t b u i l d i n g s . Some new d e s i g n s w i l l employ mazes
*The d i s t i n c t i o n s between t h e s e t y p e s o f b u i l d i n g s a r e somewhat a r b i t r a r y .

I n Chapter 5 , a l l are simply c l a s s e d as b u r i e d s t r u c t u r e s .
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Figure 2 . 4 Typical Unbarricaded Above-Ground Building

at Pantex Plant, Building 11-5
Figure 2.5 Typical Barricaded Abdve-Ground Building
a t Pantex Plant, Building 11-20
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Figure 2 . 6 P l a n V i e w of West Sector or an Above-Ground Containment

Building a t Pantex '(New HE Development Machining F a c i l i t y )
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and open passageways f o r v e n t i n g , and w i l l u s e b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t blowout c o v e r s
o v e r l a r g e r equipment openings. The Gravel Gertie s t r u c t u r e s are designed as
containment b u i l d i n g s which should a t t e n u a t e b l a s t waves, as w e l l a s a r r e s t
fragments.
An o l d d e s i g n f o r l i g h t , v e n t i n g roof c o n s t r u c t i o n i s shown i n Fig-

u r e 2.9, and a d e s i g n f o r a l i g h t , v e n t i n g w a l l p a n e l i n F i g u r e 2.10. Maze
v e n t i n g i n a new d e s i g n is shown i n F i g u r e 2.11.
'2.3.2 Impact of Blast and Fragment S a f e t y Regulations on Design and Spacing
I n most i n s t a n c e s , proximity of e x p l o s i v e s t o r a g e and h a n d l i n g f a c i l i -

t i e s t o each o t h e r , t o i n h a b i t e d b u i l d i n g s , t o roadways, e t c . , i s d i c t a t e d
by c u r r e n t e x p l o s i v e s s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s such a s AMCR 385-100 (Ref. 2 . 4 ) ,
which g i v e s q u a n t i t y - d i s t a n c e s t a n d a r d s . These s t a n d a r d s are based p a r t l y
on a c c i d e n t d a t a , p a r t l y on l i m i t i n g a i r b l a s t o v e r p r e s s u r e s , and p a r t l y on
v e r y approximate fragment s a f e t y d i s t a n c e s . I f one c a n prove by t e s t o r con-
servative a n a l y s i s t h a t a l l fragments a r e c o n t a i n e d i n a n e x p l o s i v e f a c i l i t y ,
s a f e t y d i s t a n c e s can sometimes b e d r a s t i c a l l y reduced. I f one can prove by
t e s t o r c o n s e r v a t i v e a n a l y s i s that b l a s t pressures a r e completely contained
o r s t r o n g l y a t t e n u a t e d , one c a n a l s o reduce s a f e t y d i s t a n c e s .
I n t h e Pantex P l a n t , r a d i o l o g i c a l s a f e t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t e n must b e
c o n s i d e r e d t o g e t h e r w i t h e x p l o s i v e s s a f e t y , because t h e HE i s o f t e n p r e s e n t
i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o plutonium, o r i n t h e same assembly. Reference 2 . 1
s p e c i f i e s v a r i o u s t y p e s of p r o t e c t i v e d e s i g n , dependent on t h e class o f t h e
e x p l o s i o n h a z a r d ( C l a s s I b e i n g severe, Class I1 moderate, and Class I11
minimal h a z a r d ) , whether HE i s p r e s e n t a l o n e o r w i t h plutonium, and whether
t h e HE-Pu combination i s cased o r uncased. Table 2.1 summarizes t h e s e re-
quirements.
An AE f i r m involved i n d e s i g n a t Pantex s h o u l d b e c e r t a i n t o check

References 2 . 1 , 2.4 and 2 . 1 3 t o a s s u r e compliance w i t h t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s .
2.3.3 Impact of S e c u r i t y Requirements on Design and Spacing
I n a n e x p l o s i v e s f a c i l i t y l i k e t h e Pantex P l a n t , s e c u r i t y i s n e c e s s a r -
i l y v e r y s t r i c t . Needs f o r s u r v e i l l a n c e , c o n t r o l of a c c e s s , p r e v e n t i o n of
t h e f t o r s a b o t a g e , e t c . , may i n many cases d i c t a t e f a c i l i t y c o n f i g u r a t i o n o r
s p a c i n g which may c o n f l i c t w i t h e x p l o s i v e s a f e t y r e q u i r e m e n t s . The AE w i l l
b e g i v e n guidance as r e q u i r e d by DOE.
2.4 APPLICABILITY AND LIMITS OF APPLICABILITY OF MANUAL
This manual i s s p e c i f i c f o r h e l p i n g d e f i n e b l a s t , ground shock, and

fragment h a z a r d s f o r t h e Pantex P l a n t . We r e i t e r a t e t h a t i t i s not a
s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n manual, b u t should a i d s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n e r s i n d e f i n i n g
t h e i r dynamic i n p u t l o a d s f o r v a r i o u s f a c i l i t i e s w i t h i n t h e p l a n t . E f f e c t s
a r e emphasized i n example problems f o r t y p i c a l q u a n t i t i e s of HE t h a t would
b e p r e s e n t i n v a r i o u s Pantex f a c i l i t i e s .
2-16
Built-up Tar and Gravel Roof (20 year speciflcation)
Over 1 inch Insulation Board, 2 Inch Poured Perlited
Gypsum Deck and 112 inch Gypsum Board Form
- High Gravel Guard. See / \
\ / \
Cornice Det.
8815 Purlins 8B15 Purlins

N
I
P
Concrete
Filled Haydite Notch Concrete
Lintel Blocks Walls for Purlins
85 Top and Bo L3x3x4 Hangers
Weld to GI 6
4 inch Haydit 8815 Purlins
Block
2 inch
Styrofoam Insulation
T 12.5
unway Beam
6 WF 15.5 Col.
6 Inch Haydite Block
Figure 2.9 Detail for Venting Roof Design (Building 11-14)

SJ82
to
112 in. Non-combustible Wall

Board. Tape All Joints And
I Openings.
Figure 2.10 Detail of Venting Wall Panel (Building 11-20)
2-18
B l a s t Doors
Blas
Ac ce
Maze - Acts as a
Light Fragment S t o p
Industrial
Door
Figure 2.11 Plan Viewlof New Design Containment

Bay with Maze Venting
1 -
2-19
Table 2 . 1 DOE P r o t e c t i v e Design Requirements
By Type O f A c t i v i t y (Ref. 2.1)
Type o f A c t i v i t y
Class I HE Class I1 HE Class 111 HE
HE-PU HE-PU HE-PU
AMCR 385-100 Requirements

For A c t i v i t y Involved X X X X X X
Explosion P r o t e c t i o n For
P e r s o n n e l i n Other Occu-
p i e d Areas I n c l u d i n g
A d j a c e n t Bays X X X
N
I
N
0 E x p l o s i o n P r o t e c t i o n For n
A l l P e r s o n n e l (Remote w
H
I3
Operation) X
C o n t r o l o f Plutonium I n
8
W
PI
The Event of an Explo- w H
0 0 X
sion z 2
High L e v e l P r o t e c t i o n
From N a t ur a 1 Phenomena X X X
Normal P r o t e c t i o n From
N a t u r a 1 Phenomena X X X X
R a d i o l o g i c a l Considera-
tions X X
Although t h i s manual i s s p e c i f i c f o r t h e Pantex P l a n t , much o f t h e mater-
i a l i s q u i t e g e n e r a l and s h o u l d be a p p l i c a b l e t o many h i g h e x p l o s i v e s f a c i l i -
t i e s o t h e r t h a n Pantex. But, AE f i r m s a r e c a u t i o n e d t h a t i t should b e used
o u t s i d e of P a n t e x o n l y i f p r o p e r modifying f a c t o r s a r e a p p l i e d .
2-21
2.5 REFERENCES
2.1 "ERDA Manual Appendix 6301, F a c i l i t i e s General Design C r i t e r i a Handbook,"

ERDA, D i v i s i o n o f C o n s t r u c t i o n P l a n n i n g and S u p p o r t , March 1977.
2.2 URS/John A . B l u m e and A s s o c i a t e s , E n g i n e e r s , "Seismic Hazard and B u i l d i n g

S t r u c t u r e Behavior a t t h e Pantex F a c i l i t y , " p r e p a r e d f o r U. S . ERDA,
A m a r i l l o Area O f f i c e , A p r i l 1976.
2.3 Department o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , Texas Tech U n i v e r s i t y , " F i n a l R e p o r t .

Development of Design Basis Tornadoes and Design Manual f o r t h e Pantex
P l a n t S i t e , " p r e p a r e d f o r U. S . AEC, A m a r i l l o Area O f f i c e , August 1975.
2.4 AMCR 385-100, " S a f e t y . S a f e t y Manual," Department o f t h e Army, Headquar-

ters, U. S . Army Material Development and Readiness Command. ( B a s i c
document d a t e d A p r i l 1970, b u t r e v i s i o n s through J a n u a r y 1 9 7 7 ) .
2.5 TM5-1300, S t r u c t u r e s t o R e s i s t t h e E f f e c t s of A c c i d e n t a l E x p l o s i o n s ,
Department of t h e Army T e c h n i c a l Manual, 1969.
2.6 DOD 5154.45, "DOD Ammunition and E x p l o s i v e s S a f e t y S t a n d a r d s , " Department

o f Defense, O f f i c e of t h e A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r y o f Defense (Manpower,
Reserve A f f a i r s and L o g i s t i c s ) , J a n u a r y 1978.
2.7 "Pantex P l a n t D e s i g n Criteri.a Manual," (PDCM Vol. I & II), c u r r e n t e d i -

tion.
2.8 URS/John A. B l u m e and A s s o c i a t e s , E n g i n e e r s , "Seismic Design o f Build-

i n g s and S p r i n k l e r Systems f o r the P a n t e x F a c i l i t y , " p r e p a r e d f o r U . S.
ERDA, A m a r i l l o Area O f f i c e , A p r i l 1976.
2.9 Department of C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , Texas Tech U n i v e r s i t y , "Design Manual

f o r Tornado R e s i s t a n t S t r u c t u r e s a t t h e P a n t e x P l a n t S i t e , " p r e p a r e d f o r
U. S. AEC, A m a r i l l o Area O f f i c e , November 1974.
2.10 Booker A s s o c i a t e s , I n c . , " T i t l e I Design A n a l y s i s , Volume I of 11. Re-

placement of High E x p l o s i v e s Machining F a c i l i t y , " P a n t e x P l a n t , A m a r i l l o ,
Texas, J a n u a r y 1 979.
2 . 1 1 Booker A s s o c i a t e s , Inc., " T i t l e I1 Design A n a l y s i s , Volume I1 of I V .

S t r u c t u r a l C a l c u l a t i o n s . Replacement o f High E x p l o s i v e s Machining F a c i l -
i t y , P a n t e x P l a n t , A m a r i l l o , Texas, September 1979.
2.12 Booker A s s o c i a t e s , I n c . , " T i t l e I1 Design A n a l y s i s . Volume 111 o f Iv.

More S t r u c t u r a l C a l c u l a t i o n s . Replacement o f High E x p l o s i v e s Develop-
ment Machining F a c i l i t y , " P a n t e x P l a n t , A m a r i l l o , Texas, September 1979.
2-22
2.13 "Interim Safety Criteria for the Design of Production Plant Explosive
Facilities," Available from U.S. Department of Energy, Albuquerque
Operations Office, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
2-23
CHAPTER 3
EXPLOSIVES AND DAMAGE MECHANISMS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The t o p i c of e x p l o s i v e s and damage mechanisms i s e x t e n s i v e , and we g i v e

i n t h i s c h a p t e r p r i m a r i l y q u a l i t a t i v e d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e predominant chara-
t e r i s t i c s and e f f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s . The e f f e c t s a r e
a l s o l i m i t e d t o t h o s e which could conceivably o c c u r a t Pantex. This c h a p t e r
serves as a preview o f more d e t a i l e d and e x p l i c i t d i s c u s s i o n s and q u a n t i t a -
t i v e e f f e c t s i n Chapter 4 , 5 and 6.
3.2 GENERAL ASPECTS OF EXPLOSIVE HAZARDS
3.2.1 Explosion Phenomena
Here w e d i s c u s s t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e x p l o s i o n s o f s o l i d o r
l i q u i d e x p l o s i v e materials, and of t h e a i r b l a s t waves o r ground shocks gen-
e r a t e d by such e x p l o s i o n s , and t h e i r t r a n s m i s s i o n through a i r o r e a r t h .
Aspects covered are:
Blast from b a r e e x p l o s i v e s i n a i r
A i r b l a s t and ground shock from s u r f a c e b u r s t s
Ground shock and c r a t e r i n g from b u r i e d e x p l o s i v e s , i n c l u d i n g e f f e c t s

of a i r s p a c e around e x p l o s i v e s
E x p l o s i o n of cased e x p l o s i v e s , i n c l u d i n g b l a s t and f r a g m e n t a t i o n .
3.2.1.1 B l a s t From Bare Explosives i n A i r
Bare, s o l i d e x p l o s i v e s must d e t o n a t e t o produce any e x p l o s i v e e f f e c t

o t h e r than a f i r e . The t e r m d e t o n a t i o n r e f e r s t o a v e r y r a p i d and s t a b l e
chemical r e a c t i o n which proceeds through t h e e x p l o s i v e material a t a speed D,
c a l l e d t h e d e t o n a t i o n v e l o c i t y , which i s s u p e r s o n i c i n t h e u n r e a c t e d explo-
s i v e . * D e t o n a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s a r e o f t h e o r d e r o f 25,000 f t p e r s e c f o r most
h i g h e x p l o s i v e s . The d e t o n a t i o n wave r a p i d l y c o n v e r t s t h e s o l i d o r l i q u i d
e x p l o s i v e i n t o a v e r y h o t , dense, h i g h - p r e s s u r e g a s , and t h e volume of t h i s
gas which had been t h e e x p l o s i v e material t h e n i s t h e s o u r c e o f s t r o n g b l a s t
waves i n a i r .
Only a b o u t o n e - t h i r d of t h e t o t a l chemical energy a v a i l a b l e i n most

h i g h e x p l o s i v e s i s r e l e a s e d i n t h e d e t o n a t i o n p r o c e s s . The remaining two-
"See Reference 3.1 o r 3.2 f o r good g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n of t h e d e t o n a t i o n

process.
3- 1
t h i r d s i s r e l e a s e d more slowly i n e x p l o s i o n s i n a i r as t h e d e t o n a t i o n pro-
d u c t s mix w i t h a i r and b u m . T h i s a f t e r b u r n i n g p r o c e s s has o n l y a s l i g h t
e f f e c t on b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s because i t is so much slower t h a n detona-
tion.
When t h e d e t o n a t i o n f r o n t r e a c h e s t h e s u r f a c e of a b a r e e x p l o s i v e ,
i t i s t r a n s m i t t e d i n t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a i r as a n i n t e n s e shock wave. which
p r o p a g a t e s outward a t h y p e r s o n i c speed.* The p r e s s u r e , temperature, ana den-
s i t y behind t h e shock f r o n t are v e r y h i g h , and t h e r e i s a l s o a s t r o n g outward
f l o w o f d e t o n a t i o n p r o d u c t s and air.* The shock f r o n t slows v e r y r a p i d l y as
i t d i v e r g e s outward, and decays r a p i d l y i n s t r e n g t h ( p r e s s u r e ) , temperature,
d e n s i t y , and outward flow. E v e n t u a l l y , t h e wave becomes s o weak t h a t i t be-
haves l i k e a sound wave. Then, t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n speed i s c o n s t a n t a t sound
speed (Mach l), t h e changes i n p r e s s u r e and a l l o t h e r p h y s i c a l parameters
from t h e ambient a i r are very small, and t h e wave can c a u s e no damage. For
a n AE f i r m c o n s i d e r i n g damaging e f f e c t s o f a i r b l a s t waves a t Pantex, t h i s
" f a r - f i e l d ' ' regime is o f l i t t l e i n t e r e s t , except f o r p o s s i b l e b l a s t wave
f o c u s i n g a t g r e a t d i s t a n c e s by inhomogeneous a t m o s p h e r i c e f f e c t s . ?
More complete d i s c u s s i o n of a i r b l a s t waves, d e f i n i t i o n s of terms,

and p r e d i c t i o n graphs and e q u a t i o n s , a l l appear i n Chapter 4 . Reference 3 . 3
i s a good g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e on t h i s t o p i c f o r background reading.
3.2.1.2 Air Blast and Ground Shock from S u r f a c e B u r s t s
An e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e d e t o n a t e d on t h e ground s u r f a c e w i l l g e n e r a t e
b o t h i n t e n s e a i r b l a s t waves and a l s o ground shock waves of moderate s t r e n g t h .
The p a r t i t i o n i n g of t h e e x p l o s i o n energy between a i r and ground shock i s , t o
some e x t e n t , determined by t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s u r f a c e i n t h e immedi-
a t e v i c i n i t y of t h e e x p l o s i v e and t h e e x p l o s i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n . A h e a v i l y
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s l a b w i l l , f o r example, a c t as a b e t t e r r e f l e c t o r t h a n a
s o f t bed of s a n d . But, any s o l i d s u r f a c e is a f a i r l y e f f i c i e n t r e f l e c t o r ,
so t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e e x p l o s i v e energy d r i v e s t h e a i r b l a s t wave. The
e f f e c t i v e energy f o r a i r b l a s t w i l l always b e a t least 1 . 7 t i m e s t h e energy
f o r a n e x p l o s i o n i n " f r e e - a i r " away from t h e ground (See Reference 3.4). In
t h i s manual, w e do n o t p r e s e n t s e p a r a t e c u r v e s and formulas f o r a i r b l a s t
from s u r f a c e e x p l o s i o n s , b u t show i n C h a p t e r - 4 how t o u s e t h e f r e e - a i r b l a s t
c u r v e s f o r t h i s s i t u a t i o n . Ground shock from s u r f a c e e x p l o s i o n s i s d i s -
cussed i n more d e t a i l i n Chapter 5.
* A t t h e s u r f a c e o f TNT e x p l o s i v e d e t o n a t e d i n a i r , t h e i n i t i a l shock speed

i s a b o u t twenty-six times t h e speed of sound (Mach 2 6 ) , and t h e i n i t i a l
flow v e l o c i t y i s a b o u t Mach 22.
tFocusing i s n o t d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s manual.
3- 2
3.2.1.3 Ground Shock and C r a t e r i n g From Buried Explosives
An e x p l o s i o n from a b u r i e d e x p l o s i v e d r i v e s a wave i n t o t h e ground

which i s c a l l e d a ground shock. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h i s wave a r e v e r y
d i f f e r e n t from a n a i r b l a s t wave. I n i t i a l p r e s s u r e s are much h i g h e r , b u t t h e
wave v e l o c i t y i s v e r y l i t t l e more t h a n t h e v e l o c i t y of a compression wave (P
wave) i n a seismic d i s t u r b a n c e . P a r t i c l e v e l o c i t i e s are l o w , and t h e t i m e
h i s t o r i e s o f v e l o c i t y and displacement i n t h e ground resemble seismic d i s t u r -
bances, w i t h an i n i t i a l s t r o n g p u l s e followed by s e v e r a l decaying, o s c i l l a t -
i n g p u l s e s . The c h a r a c t e r of t h e ground shock p u l s e i s profoundly a f f e c t e d
by t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e ground s u r f a c e and by l a y e r i n g , o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o i l
p r o p e r t i e s , as i t propagates outward from t h e e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e . I f t h e explo-
s i o n o c c u r s i n an underground c a v i t y w i t h some a i r space around t h e e x p l o s i v e ,
t h e ground shock p u l s e c a n be d r a s t i c a l l y a t t e n u a t e d , compared t o e x p l o s i o n s
i n intimate contact with the s o i l .
A b u r i e d e x p l o s i o n w i l l i n v a r i a b l y form some kind of c r a t e r , o r

c a v i t y i n t h e ground. The t y p e of c r a t e r i s dependent on t o t a l e x p l o s i o n
energy, d e p t h of b u r i a l , and t o a lesser ' e x t e n t , t h e t y p e of s o i l . For s h a l -
low-buried e x p l o s i o n s , t h e e x p l o s i v e g a s e s v e n t through t h e ground s u r f a c e ,
and t h e r e c a n b e c o n s i d e r a b l e e j e c t a thrown up and o u t , w i t h some f a l l i n g
back i n t o t h e c r a t e r . Below some b u r i a l d e p t h , t h e e x p l o s i v e g a s e s w i l l n o t
v e n t , and a more o r less s p h e r i c a l c a v i t y , c a l l e d a camouflet, i s formed.
Chapter 5 c o v e r s t h e t o p i c s of ground shock and c r a t e r i n g i n some

d e t a i l . Methods are given i n Chapter 5 f o r p r e d i c t i o n of ground shock charac-
t e r i s t i c s f o r e x p l o s i o n s which could o c c u r i n Pantex f a c i l i t i e s , w i t h a number
of example problems. Methods are a l s o given f o r p r e d i c t i o n of c r a t e r i n g mode,
and dimensions of c r a t e r s , i n t h e form of s c a l e d c u r v e s . C r a t e r i n g example
problems a l s o a p p e a r i n Chapter 5.
3.2.1.4 E m l o s i o n o f Cased EXDlOSiVeS
When a n e x p l o s i v e i s c o n t a i n e d i n a c a s i n g , t h e c a s i n g a f f e c t s t h e
b l a s t wave g e n e r a t e d by an e x p l o s i o n and p r o v i d e s a s o u r c e of damaging, high-
speed fragments. For a c a s i n g made o f a d u c t i l e material, r a p i d expansion
o c c u r s when t h e v e r y high p r e s s u r e - d e t o n a t i o n p r o d u c t s impinge on t h e i n n e r
s u r f a c e of t h e c a s i n g . When t h e c a s i n g h a s expanded t o about 1.5 times i t s
o r i g i n a l d i a m e t e r , i t r u p t u r e s i n t o many fragments, and t h e e x p l o s i o n g a s e s
escape between t h e gaps i n t h e fragments. The b l a s t wave forms, and o u t r u n s
t h e fragments f o r a t i m e . But a i r shock speed decays much more q u i c k l y t h a n
fragment speed, and t h e fragments e v e n t u a l l y p a s s through and o u t r u n t h e
b l a s t wave.
The c h a r a c t e r of b o t h t h e b l a s t wave and t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n are a f -

f e c t e d by o v e r a l l geometry of t h e c a s i n g and e x p l o s i v e , t h e mass o f each, and
t h e c a s i n g materials. Thin, l i g h t c a s i n g s can a c t u a l l y enhance t h e b l a s t
wave, f o r r e a s o n s t h a t a r e n o t e n t i r e l y clear, w h i l e heavy c a s i n g s u s u a l l y
a t t e n u a t e t h e b l a s t . Fragment v e l o c i t i e s , numbers, and mass d i s t r i b u t i o n s
3-3
are s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d by c a s i n g material and t h i c k n e s s . The fragments are
u s u a l l y numerous, and c a n have v e l o c i t i e s as h i g h as 9,000 f t p e r sec.
Chapter 6 i s devoted t o f r a g m e n t a t i o n , and g i v e s metkods f o r pre-

d i c t i n g fragment v e l o c i t i e s and masses f o r cased e x p l o s i v e s . Predictions f o r
a t t e n u a t i o n o r enhancement o f a i r b l a s t by c a s i n g s appear i n Chapter 4.
Example problems are g i v e n f o r p r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s and e q u a t i o n s i n b o t h chap-
ters.
3.2.2 High Explosive S e n s i t i v i t y
T h i s d i s c u s s i o n c e n t e r s on t h o s e s t i m u l i which can i n i t i a t e v i o l e n t
r e a c t i o n s o r d e t o n a t i o n s i n h i g h e x p l o s i v e s and chemicals used i n e x p l o s i v e
p r o c e s s i n g . "Standard" tests f o r s e n s i t i v i t y are i d e n t i f i e d and d i s c u s s e d
b r i e f l y . * The s t i m u l i i n c l u d e :
Shock i n i t i a t i o n
Impact i n i t i a t i o n
Thermal i n i t i a t i o n
Friction
Static electric discharge.
3.2.2.1 Shock I n i t i a t i o n
High e x p l o s i v e s c a n always b e d e t o n a t e d by s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g
shock waves, because t h i s i s t h e i r mode of i n i t i a t i o n i n n o d use. I n
a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s , t h e s o u r c e of t h e s t r o n g shock c a n b e a d e t o n a t i n g
e x p l o s i v e o r high-speed fragments launched by a n e x p l o s i o n . A l l secondary
h i g h e x p l o s i v e s are r e l a t i v e l y ? i n s e n s i t i v e t o shock i n i t i a t i o n , f o r s a f e t y
i n u s e , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , and s t o r a g e .
The most commonly used test to d e t e r m i n e shock s e n s i t i v i t y i s t h e

c a r d gap test (See Refs. 3.5 and 3 . 6 ) . The test arrangement i s shown i n Fig-
u r e 3.1. A donor e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e is d e t o p t e d , and d r i v e s a s t r o n g shock
through a series of i n e r t c a r d s which f i l l s a gap between t h e donor and a n
a c c e p t o r c h a r g e b e i n g t e s t e d . Detonation o f t h e a c c e p t o r i s assumed i f t h e
s t e e l w i t n e s s p l a t e h a s a c l e a n h o l e blown through i t . The number of c a r d s
*The word "standard" i s i n q u o t a t i o n s because t h e r e are many v a r i a t i o n s of

some of t h e tests, dependent on t h e agency which developed each test and on
t h e agency o r l a b o r a t o r y conducting t h e tests. Tests d e s c r i b e d M Y o r may
n o t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t t h o s e conducted a t Pantex.
tSafe r e l a t i v e t o primary o r i n i t i a t i n g e x p l o s i v e s .
3-4
P
Engineers Special.
Blasting Cap (3-2)
Wood Block
Pcntolite Booster
Card Gap Cellulose

Acetate C a r d s
0.01 inch each
Propellant. or
Explosives Composi-
-
-7
tion Sample
Cardboard Tube
Steel Tube
1/16 inch Air Gap Between

Steel Tube and Plate
310 inch
Witness Plate
W o o d Stand
Ground
7
Figure 3.1 Card Gap Test Arrangement (Ref. 3.5)
3-5
i s v a r i e d from t e s t t o t e s t u n t i l l i m i t s are determined f o r d e t o n a t i o n and
no d e t o n a t i o n .
An i n s t r u m e n t e d v e r s i o n o f t h e c a r d gap t e s t i s used t o determine

shock s e n s i t i v i t y f o r l i q u i d s (see F i g u r e 3.2 and Ref. 3 . 7 ) . Here, t h e deto-
n a t i o n v e l o c i t y i n t h e l i q u i d i s measured by a r e s i s t a n c e probe running t h e
l e n g t h of t h e t u b e used t o c o n t a i n t h e l i q u i d . The r e s i s t a n c e w i r e i n t h e
c e n t e r o f a v e r y l i g h t , thin-walled aluminum t u b e is s h o r t e d by t h e c o l l a p s -
i n g t u b e , and g i v e s a c o n t i n u o u s measure of d e t o n a t i o n o r shock f r o n t l o c a -
t i o n . I f t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e f r o n t c o n t i n u o u s l y decays, t h e r e i s no deto-
n a t i o n . I f i t r e a c h e s and s u s t a i n s a f i x e d , h i g h v a l u e , d e t o n a t i o n h a s oc-
curred.
Another s t a n d a r d shock s e n s i t i v i t y t e s t i s t h e No. 8 b l a s t i n g cap

test (Ref. 3.5). A 2-inch cube of e x p l o s i v e s i s placed on a l e a d c y l i n d e r
1.5-inches i n d i a m e t e r by 4-inches h i g h , which i s i n t u r n placed on a mild
s t e e l p l a t e , 0.5-inches t h i c k by 12-inches square. A No. 8 b l a s t i n g c a p i s
p o s i t i o n e d w i t h i t s f l a t end i n co,ntact w i t h t h e c e n t e r of t h e s u r f a c e of t h e
e x p l o s i v e cube o p p o s i t e t h e l e a d c y l i n d e r . Mushrooming of t h e l e a d c y l i n d e r
is c o n s i d e r e d evidence of d e t o n a t i o n . The t e s t i s conducted a minimum of f i v e
times, o r u n t i l d e t o n a t i o n o c c u r s .
3.2.2.2 Impact I n i t i a t i o n
The most common t y p e o f ' impact test f o r i n i t i a t i o n i s a drop weight

t e s t . There are a b e w i l d e r i n g number of such tests, b u t a l l are similar i n
impacting a q u i t e small sample of t e s t material on an a n v i l o r b a s e w i t h a
r e l a t i v e l y massive guided drop w e i g h t . Height of drop is v a r i e d i n some
s y s t e m a t i c manner u n t i l an a v e r a g e h e i g h t i s o b t a i n e d f o r a c h i e v i n g a v i o l e n t
r e a c t i o n o f t h e material.
F i g u r e 3.3 shows a s c h e m a t i c of one drop weight impact test appara-

t u s (Ref. 3.6). This test i n v o l v e s p l a c i n g t h e sample on a f i x e d a n v i l i n a
r e s t r i c t e d b u t unconfined state. The sample t h i c k n e s s is.similar i n dimen-
s i o n t o t h a t o c c u r r i n g i n p r o c e s s i n g . A hammer of known c o n t a c t area i s
p o s i t i o n e d above t h e sample and t h e weight i s r a i s e d t o a predetermined
h e i g h t and dropped. Normally, sample i n i t i a t i o n i s d e t e c t e d by a u d i b l e ,
v i s u a l , s e n s o r y means o r by i n f r a r e d a n a l y s i s o f s e l e c t e d decomposition pro-
d u c t s . A t e s t i s comprised o f twenty "no i n i t i a t i o n " t r i a l s a t a given i n p u t
and a t least one i n i t i a t i o n a t t h e n e x t h i g h e r i n t e r v a l ( i . e . , 25% g r e a t e r
energy i n p u t ) . The energy d e l i v e r e d t o t h e sample i s measured w i t h a f o r c e
gage.
A h i g h e r v e l o c i t y and l a r g e r scale impact t e s t i s t h e Susan test

(Ref. 3.8). The Susan S e n s i t i v i t y t e s t i s a p r o j e c t i l e impact t e s t w i t h t h e
p r o j e c t i l e shown i n F i g u r e 3.4. The weight of e x p l o s i v e i n t h e p r o j e c t i l e
head i s a b o u t 1 l b . The t a r g e t i s armor-plated steel. The r e s u l t s of t h e
tests are e x p r e s s e d i n terms of a " s e n s i t i v i t y " c u r v e i n which t h e r e l a t i v e
It
p o i n t - s o u r c e d e t o n a t i o n energy" r e l e a s e d by t h e e x p l o s i v e as a r e s u l t of t h e
impact i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e p r o j e c t i l e . The relative
3-6
0 TEST CYLINDER. 301 S T A I M S S STIR. KI(LD. 4
0 CAP
0 FLANGES BMTS NOT S H W N 1
@ COOWT JACKET. 20 GAUGE SHEET MEIAL. 1 in. FOAM INSULATION
@ BRASS DIAPHRAGM
@ THERMOCOUPLE. CHRWELCO(STANTAN
@ TESTGAS INLET
@ TESTGAS OUTLET
@ COOCING COIL FOR LIQUID NITROGEN
@ VELOCITY PROBE
0 BOOmRWEU
Figure 3.2 Schematic of Gap Test Apparatus for Liquids (Ref. 3.7)
3-7
G1 RODS TO GUIDE WEIGHT
FALLING WEIGHT (VARIABLE MASS)

(STANDARD = 4 . 4 LBS. )
VARIABLE
INTERMEDIATE HAMMER
& (VARIABLE) (STANDARD = 2.7 LBS. )
-
+GUIDE COLLAR
-EXPLOSIVE SAMPLE
VARIABLE GAP DISTANCE
- IMPACT ANVIL
FORCE GAGE
MOUNTING BASE
MACHINE BASE
Figure 3.3 Schematic of a Drop-Weight Impact Test Machine (Ref. 3.6)
3-a
m
cu
hi
d
3-9
b
p o i n t - s o u r c e d e t o n a t i o n energy c a n b e d e r i v e d from a t r a n s i t - t i m e measurement

of t h e a i r shock from t h e p o i n t of impact t o a p r e s s u r e gauge 1 0 f t away.
The r e s u l t s determined i n t h i s manner are somewhat s u b j e c t i v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y
when t h e r e a c t i o n l e v e l shows a l a r g e b u t r e l a t i v e l y slow i n c r e a s e w i t h t i m e .
The p r e f e r r e d way t o g e t a t t h e "point-source d e t o n a t i o n energy'' a t p r e s e n t
i s t o r e l a t e i t t o t h e o v e r p r e s s u r e measured 10 f t from t h e impact. T h i s re-
s u l t s i n much more r e p r o d u c i b l e d a t a and i s n o t s u b j e c t t o many of t h e e r r o r s
o f t h e t r a n s i t - t i m e measurements.
The energy scale i s s e t t o r a n g e from z e r o f o r no chemical r e a c t i o n

t o approximately 100 f o r t h e most v i o l e n t d e t o n a t i o n - l i k e r e a c t i o n s ( a l l ex-
p l o s i v e consumed) f o r t h e most e n e r g e t i c e x p l o s i v e s . L e s s v i o l e n t burning
r e a c t i o n s t h a t appear t o consume a l l of t h e e x p l o s i v e can g i v e v a l u e s on t h e
scale as low a s 4 0 ; t h e energy e q u i v a l e n t of TNT f u l l y r e a c t e d a s a p o i n t
s o u r c e , would r e g i s t e r a t 70 on t h e scale. For each e x p l o s i v e c o n s i d e r e d ,
comments are made on t h e d e t a i l s of t h e i m p a c t p r o c e s s t h a t seem t o b e a r on
t h e impact s a f e t y of a n e x p l o s i v e . Remarks a b o u t p r o b a b i l i t i e s of l a r g e
r e a c t i o n s a r e r e l e v a n t t o unconfined c h a r g e s i n t h e 25-lb c l a s s . Smaller
unconfined c h a r g e s show a t r e n d o f d e c r e a s i n g r e a c t i o n l e v e l as t h e charge
s i z e g e t s smaller.
3.2.2.3 Thermal I n i t i a t i o n
There are a number of s t a n d a r d tests of t h e thermal s t a b i l i t y of

e x p l o s i v e s , which can a l s o i n d i c a t e s e n s i t i v i t y t o thermal i n i t i a t i o n . Sev-
e r a l such tests, a s d e s c r i b e d i n Reference 3 . 8 , follow.
Thermal changes i n e x p l o s i v e materials can b e measured i n s e v e r a l

ways, q u a l i t a t i v e l y and q u a n t i t a t i v e l y . For h i g h e x p l o s i v e s (HE), one gener-
a l l y u s e s d i f f e r e n t i a l thermal a n a l y s i s (DTA), thermogravimetric a n a l y s i s
(TGA) and tests ( p y r o l y s i s , CRT o r vacuum s t a b i l i t y ) t h a t measure t h e amount
of gas evolved when a n HE i s h e a t e d f o r a s t a t e d p e r i o d of t i m e a t e l e v a t e d
temperature. Heating rates are 10C/min.
a . D i f f e r e n t i a l Thermal A n a l y s i s (DTA). I n t h e u s u a l DTA a n a l y s i s ,

i d e n t i c a l c o n t a i n e r s a r e set up (one c o n t a i n i n g t h e sample and t h e o t h e r con-
t a i n i n g a s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e s u b s t a n c e ) i n i d e n t i c a l thermal geometries w i t h
t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r s a r r a n g e d so as t o g i v e b o t h t h e temperature of each con-
t a i n e r and t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t e m p e r a t u r e s between c o n t a i n e r s . The d a t a are
d i s p l a y e d a s a DTA t h e q o g r a m i n which t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e i s p l o t t e d
a g a i n s t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e sample. The s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e material
chosen i s one whose thermal b e h a v i o r does n o t change r a p i d l y . Such a p l o t
, i s almost a s t r a i g h t l i n e i f t h e sample a l s o h a s no r a p i d l y changing thermal
behavior ( o r i f i t i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e s t a n d a r d m a t e r i a l ) . Excursions
above and below a background l i n e are due t o endo- o r exothermic (heat-
a b s o r b i n g o r h e a t - r e l e a s i n g ) changes. The DTA a n a l y s e s permit i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
f o r phase changes, decomposition and k i n e t i c i n f o r m a t i o n , m e l t i n g p o i n t s , and
thermal s t a b i l i t y . Sample s i z e s are of t h e o r d e r of 20 mg.
3-10
b . Pyr o l y s i s . The sample i s placed i n a p y r o l y s i s chamber which i s
then f l u s h e d w i t h helium. When t h e a i r h a s been swept o u t , t h e temperature
of t h e chamber i s r a i s e d a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e . G a s e v o l u t i o n i s measured a s a
f u n c t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e by a b r i d g e formed by two thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y c e l l s .
Sample s i z e s a r e of t h e o r d e r of 10 mg.
c . Thermogravimetric A n a l y s i s (TGA). The o b j e c t i v e i n a TGA i s t o

determine whether t h e r e a r e any weight changes i n a sample, e i t h e r when i t i s
h e l d a t a f i x e d temperature o r when i t s temperature i s changed i n a programmed
l i n e a r f a s h i o n . The d a t a are g e n e r a l l y p l o t t e d a s weight v e r s u s temperature
o r time o r as weight change v e r s u s temperature o r t i m e . The TGAs a r e u s e f u l
f o r o n l y a l i m i t e d number of p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , e . g . , vapori-
z a t i o n phenomena, b u t they are extremely u s e f u l f o r o b t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on
chemical p r o p e r t i e s such as thermal s t a b i l i t y and chemical r e a c t i o n s . They
are a l s o u s e f u l f o r o b t a i n i n g k i n e t i c d a t a . Sample s i z e s a r e of t h e o r d e r
of 1 0 mg.
d . LLL R e a c t i v i t y T e s t (CRT). The s a m p l e i s heated a t 120C (393K)

f o r 22 h o u r s . A two-stage chromatography u n i t i s used t o measure t h e i n d i -
v i d u a l volumes of N2, NO, CO, N20 and C02 evolved p e r 0.25 g of e x p l o s i v e
d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . The test i s used p r i n c i p a l l y t o determine t h e r e a c t i v i t y
of e x p l o s i v e s w i t h o t h e r materials. When o p e r a t e d as a simple t e s t of explo-
s i v e s t a b i l i t y , t h e r e s u l t s are expressed i n terms of t h e sum of t h e s e v o l -
umes.
A crude thermal i n i t i a t i o n t e s t i s s p e c i f i e d i n Reference 3.5, a s

follows:
"(1) P l a c e a 2-inch sample on a bed of kerosene-soaked sawdust and

i g n i t e t h e sawdust w i t h an e l e c t r i c match-head i g n i t e r . Per-
form t h i s t e s t twice.
(2) P l a c e f o u r 2-inch samples end t o end i n a s i n g l e row i n con-

t a c t w i t h each o t h e r on a s i n g l e bed o f kerosene-soaked s a w -
d u s t and i g n i t e t h e sawdust w i t h an e l e c t r i c match-head
i g n i t e r a t one end.
(3) Record r e s u l t s under I g n i t i o n and Unconfined Burning T e s t .I1
The sample summary d a t a s h e e t i n Reference 3.5 shows t h a t t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s

t e s t are t o b e recorded under " I g n i t i o n and Unconfined Burning T e s t " as a d i d
o r d i d n o t explode. I f b u r n i n g o n l y o c c u r s , a v e r a g e b u r n i n g t i m e i n seconds
i s recorded.
3.2.2.4 Fricti.on
A s t a n d a r d f r i c t i o n t e s t d e s c r i b e d i n Reference 3 . 6 employs q u i t e
s m a l l samples of e x p l o s i v e material. The a p p a r a t u s i s shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y
i n F i g u r e 3.5. T h i s t e s t s i m u l a t e s f r i c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s o c c u r r i n g i n t h e
3-11
FRICTION FORC
FRICTION FORCE
Figure 3 . 5 Schematic of Friction Test Apparatus (Ref. 3.6)
3-12
p r o c e s s when an e x p l o s i v e i s s u b j e c t e d t o a f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e between moving
components, such as i n t h e m i x e r , o r d u r i n g disassembly, machining and mater-
ial h a n d l i n g . The sample i s placed on t h e a n v i l , a known f o r c e i s a p p l i e d
h y d r a u l i c a l l y through a s t a t i o n a r y wheel, and a pendulum i s used t o p r o p e l
t h e s l i d i n g a n v i l a t a known v e l o c i t y p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f o r c e v e c t o r . Nor-
m a l l y , sample i n i t i a t i o n i s d e t e c t e d by a u d i b l e , v i s u a l , s e n s o r y means o r by
i n f r a r e d a n a l y s i s of s e l e c t e d decomposition p r o d u c t s . A v a l i d t e s t i s com-
p r i s e d of 20 c o n s e c u t i v e "no i n i t i a t i o n s " and a t least one i n i t i a t i o n a t
t h e n e x t h i g h e r test i n t e r v a l . Force l e v e l s are d e c r e a s e d by 25 p e r c e n t
i n t e r v a l s , and v e l o c i t y levels are reduced 1 f t per' sec whenever an i n i t i -
a t i o n i s o b t a i n e d a t 10 l b f o r c e a t a given v e l o c i t y . Force i s measured
b y h y d r a u l i c gauges and v e l o c i t y by a s l i d i n g p o t e n t i o m e t e r .
A r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e - s c a l e test which can probably be c l a s s e d a s a

f r i c t i o n test i s t h e s k i d test used a t Pantex and Lawrence Livermore Labora-
t o r y . A d e s c r i p t i o n from Reference 3.8 f o l l o w s .
"Results from a s l i d i n g impact s e n s i t i v i t y t e s t ( s k i d t e s t ) with

l a r g e h e m i s p h e r i c a l b i l l e t s of HE have proved v a l u a b l e f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e
p l a n t - h a n d l i n g s a f e t y of HEs. The test was developed a t AWRE i n England.
I n t h e ILL-Pantex v e r s i o n o f t h i s t e s t , t h e e x p l o s i v e b i l l e t , sup-
p o r t e d on a pendulum d e v i c e , is allowed t o swing down from a p r e s e t h e i g h t
and s t r i k e a t a n a n g l e on a sand-coated steel t a r g e t p l a t e . Impact a n g l e s
employed are 1 4 deg ( 0 . 2 4 r a d ) and 45 deg (0.79 r a d ) ( d e f i n e d as t h e a n g l e
between t h e l i n e of t h e b i l l e t t r a v e l and t h e h o r i z o n t a l t a r g e t s u r f a c e ; t h e
h e i g h t s v a r y ) . The s p h e r i c a l s u r f a c e of t h e b i l l e t serves t o c o n c e n t r a t e t h e
f o r c e of t h e impact i n a small area; t h e pendulum arrangement g i v e s t h e im-
p a c t b o t h a s l i d i n g o r s k i d d i n g component as w e l l as a v e r t i c a l one. The re-
s u l t s of t h e t e s t are expressed i n terms of t h e t y p e o f chemical e v e n t pro-
duced by t h e impact as a f u n c t i o n of impact a n g l e and v e r t i c a l drop. Chemi-
c a l e v e n t s are d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s :
No r e a c t i o n ; charge r e t a i n s i n t e g r i t y .
Burn o r s c o r c h marks on HE o r t a r g e t ; c h a r g e r e t a i n s i n t e g r i t y .
Puff o f smoke, b u t no flame o r l i g h t v i s i b l e i n high-speed

photography. Charge may r e t a i n i n t e g r i t y o r may b e broken
i n t o l a r g e pieces.
Mild low-order r e a c t i o n w i t h flame o r l i g h t ; c h a r g e broken up

and s c a t t e r e d .
Medium low-order r e a c t i o n w i t h flame o r l i g h t ; major p a r t of HE

consumed.
V i o l e n t d e f l a g r a t i o n ; v i r t u a l l y a l l HE consumed.
Detonation
3-13
The s l i d i n g - i m p a c t t e s t r e s u l t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t i n d i c a t i o n s of p l a n t -
h a n d l i n g s a f e t y because t h e drop h e i g h t s and impact a n g l e s used i n t h e t e s t
a r e q u i t e w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s one might f i n d f o r t h e a c c i d e n t a l drop of a n ex-
p l o s i v e b i l l e t . The t e s t i s used n o t o n l y t o e v a l u a t e t h e r e l a t i v e s e n s i t i v -
ity of d i f f e r e n t e x p l o s i v e s u s i n g t h e sand-coated t a r g e t as a r e f e r e n c e s u r -
f a c e , b u t a l s o t o e v a l u a t e t y p i c a l p l a n t f l o o r c o v e r i n g s , u s i n g LX-10 as a
reference explosive.
3.2.2.5 S t a t i c E l e c t r i c Discharge
A human can, i n t h e low humidity environment which o f t e n p r e v a i l s a t

Pantex, b u i l d up enough e l e c t r o s t a t i c c h a r g e t o g e n e r a t e a s i g n i f i c a n t elec-
t r i c spark on touching a n e l e c t r i c a l l y grounded o b j e c t . A t e s t t o s i m u l a t e
t h i s h a z a r d and t o determine t h e e f f e c t on a s m a l l e x p l o s i v e sample h a s been
developed (Ref. 3 . 6 ) .
The e l e c t r o s t a t i c t e s t a p p a r a t u s i s shown i n F i g u r e 3.6. The sample

t o b e t e s t e d i s placed on a s p e c i a l h o l d e r which a s s u r e s t h a t e l e c t r o s t a t i c
d i s c h a r g e w i l l pass through t h e sample. A c a p a c i t o r i s charged w i t h a 5000
v o l t p o t e n t i a l . The d i s c h a r g e n e e d l e i s lowered u n t i l a s p a r k i s drawn
through t h e s a m p l e . l k e n t y c o n s e c u t i v e f a i l u r e s a t a given d i s c h a r g e energy
l e v e l w i t h one i n i t i a t i o n a t t h e n e x t h i g h e r i n p u t c o n s t i t u t e s a n e l e c t r o -
s t a t i c d i s c h a r g e s e n s i t i v i t y t e s t . A new sample i s used f o r each t r i a l .
Secondary h i g h e x p l o s i v e s are c o n s i d e r e d i n s e n s i t i v e t o s t a t i c d i s -
c h a r g e from humans; they may b e s e n s i t i v e t o d i s c h a r g e s from equipment.
3.2.3 TNT Equivalence
When e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e s c o n s i s t of s o l i d s o r l i q u i d s which are h i g h ex-

p l o s i v e s o r s i m i l a r e n e r g e t i c materials c o n t a i n i n g t h e i r own o x i d a n t s , a l l
w i l l g e n e r a t e b l a s t waves which are q u i t e similar i n c h a r a c t e r . The s t r e n g t h s
and d u r a t i o n s o f t h e waves may d i f f e r because t h e e x p l o s i v e materials M Y have
d i f f e r e n t h e a t s o f d e t o n a t i o n and combustion, and d i f f e r e n t d e n s i t i e s . Be-
cause of t h e preponderance of measured b l a s t d a t a f o r TNT e x p l o s i v e , one c a n
make a n approximate c o n v e r s i o n f o r o t h e r e x p l o s i v e s e q u i v a l e n t weight o r mass
of TNT, based on comparative h e a t s of d e t o n a t i o n . These procedures are de-
s c r i b e d i n more d e t a i l i n Chapter 4 , w h i l e Appendix A i n c l u d e s TNT e q u i v a l e n c e
numbers f o r many e x p l o s i v e s .
3.2.4 Venting E f f e c t s
An e x p l o s i o n o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n a chamber which i s v e n t e d , e i t h e r w i t h
uncovered o r l i g h t l y covered v e n t openings, w i l l g e n e r a t e i n t e r n a l and e x t e r -
n a l b l a s t l o a d s which c a n b e a f f e c t e d by t h e d e g r e e and c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e
vents .
3-14
Figure 3.6 Electrostatic Discharge Spark Test Apparatus
(Ref. 3 . 6 )
3-15
Within a v e n t e d e n c l o s u r e , t h e i n i t i a l a i r b l a s t l o a d i n g o n t h e i n t e r -
i o r s u r f a c e s of t h e e n c l o s u r e w i l l be m o s t l y u n a f f e c t e d by t h e v e n t s i f
even v e r y l i g h t v e n t c l o s u r e s are p r e s e n t . Open v e n t s w i l l have minimal
e f f e c t on t h e f i r s t r e f l e c t e d i n t e r n a l shock l o a d , b u t may somewhat a t t e n u a t e
l a t e r r e f l e c t e d shocks.
A s shocks r e v e r b e r a t e w i t h i n a vented e n c l o s u r e , t h e y w i l l d i s s i p a t e
a f t e r s e v e r a l r e f l e c t i o n s , b u t t h e thermal energy a v a i l a b l e from t h e e x p l o s i o n
w i l l h e a t t h e a i r and may c a u s e a r i s e i n gas p r e s s u r e i n t h e e n c l o s u r e b e f o r e
v e n t i n g can r e d u c e t h i s p r e s s u r e .
The p r o c e s s e s of shock r e f l e c t i o n and s u b s e q u e n t g a s p r e s s u r e r i s e and

decay a r e d e s c r i b e d i n more d e t a i l i n Chapter 4 . T h i s c h a p t e r a l s o g i v e s
graphs and e q u a t i o n s f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e shock and g a s l o a d s , and a number o f
example problems.
When a n e x p l o s i o n o c c u r s i n a v e n t e d e n c l o s u r e , t h e v e n t i n g p r o c e s s c a n
a l l o w some escape of t h e i n i t i a l b l a s t wave, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e v e n t s are
open. The shock e m i t t e d from t h e v e n t s can b e h i g h l y d i r e c t i o n a l , and c a n b e
i n t e n s e enough t o damage nearby s t r u c t u r e s o r i n j u r e p e o p l e nearby. Direc-
t i o n a l v e n t i n g i s d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 4 ; b u t , f o r p r e d i c t i o n o r a v a r i e t y
of v e n t e d e n c l o s u r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s
a p p e a r i n Reference 3 . 9 . An AE f i r m i s r e f e r r e d t o t h i s r e f e r e n c e f o r pre-
d i c t i o n o f b l a s t p r e s s u r e and i m p u l s e s o u t s i d e d i r e c t i o n a l l y v e n t e d e n c l o -
s u r e s . For uniformly v e n t e d e n c l o s u r e s see Reference 3.10.
3.3 DAMAGE MECHANISMS
3.3.1 A i r B l a s t Loading and Response
The b l a s t wave g e n e r a t e d by a n e x p l o s i o n i n a i r and b e i n g t r a n s m i t t e d

through t h e a i r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d p r i m a r i l y a s noted e a r l i e r , by i t s t r a n s -
m i s s i o n v e l o c i t y U, by a peak o v e r p r e s s u r e Ps, by a p o s i t i v e p h a s e d u r a t i o n
t d , and by a s p e c i f i c impulse is, which i s t h e i n t e g r a l o f t h e o v e r p r e s s u r e
o v e r t h e p o s i t i v e phase d u r a t i o n . When t h i s wave i n t e r a c t s w i t h any s o l i d
o b j e c t o r s u r f a c e , i t r e f l e c t s from t h e s u r f a c e , and d i f f r a c t s around t h e
o b j e c t , producing p r e s s u r e l o a d s which v a r y r a p i d l y i n t i m e , and l o a d s which
u s u a l l y d i f f e r markedly from t h e f r e e - f i e l d p r o p e r t i e s mentioned e a r l i e r . I n
t h i s introductory chapter, we w i l l not discuss these processes i n d e t a i l ,
because t h e y a r e d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 4 . P r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s and example prob-
l e m s a l s o o c c u r i n Chapter 4 . Reference 3 . 3 a l s o g i v e s good g e n e r a l d i s c u s -
s i o n s o f t h e r e f l e c t i o n and d i f f r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s . We merely n o t e h e r e t h a t
t h e b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u c t u r a l l o a d i n g a r e u s u a l l y re-
f l e c t e d o v e r p r e s s u r e p,, r e f l e c t e d s p e c i f i c impulse i,, peak d r a g p r e s s u r e
Q, and decay c o n s t a n t b , r a t h e r t h a n t h e f r e e - f i e l d p r o p e r t i e s .
S t r u c t u r e s , equipment, and p e r s o n n e l loaded by a i r b l a s t waves o f t e n

respond t o t h e s e r a p i d l y v a r y i n g p r e s s u r e s i n a complex manner. C h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c response t i m e s f o r t h e s e "targets" are very important i n determining
3-16
which b l a s t l o a d i n g parameters govern response o r damage. If t h e r e s p o n s e
t i m e s a r e l o n g compared t o l o a d i n g t i m e , s p e c i f i c impulse and t h e i n e r t i a
(mass p e r u n i t a r e a ) of t h e t a r g e t u s u a l l y govern. I f t h e r e s p o n s e t i m e s a r e
s h o r t compared t o l o a d i n g t i m e , peak o v e r p r e s s u r e and l o a d e d area dominate i n
d e t e r m i n i n g r e s p o n s e . I f the response and l o a d i n g times a r e s i m i l a r , a l l o f
t h e parameters mentioned must b e c o n s i d e r e d . The i m p o r t a n t f a c e t of t h e re-
sponse f o r a n AE f i r m t o remember i s t h a t t h e s e problems a r e a l w a y s dynamic
response problems, and o n l y i n i s o l a t e d i n s t a n c e s c a n t h e i n e r t i a o f the
s t r u c t u r e and r e l a t i v e l o a d i n g and r e s p o n s e times b e i g n o r e d .
This manual does n o t cover dynamic s t r u c t u r a l r e s p o n s e i n d e t a i l , b u t

elements of such c a l c u l a t i o n a r e o u t l i n e d i n Chapter 8 . The dynamic r e s p o n s e
and i n j u r y o r d e a t h t o p e r s o n n e l s u b j e c t e d t o b l a s t l o a d i n g are d i s c u s s e d i n
some d e t a i l i n Chapter 4 , and p r e d i c t i o n graphs f o r e f f e c t s of b l a s t waves on
p e r s o n n e l a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h a t c h a p t e r , t o g e t h e r w i t h e x a m p l e problems.
3.3.2 Fragment Impact E f f e c t s
The terms primary fragment and secondary fragment were d e f i n e d i n Sec-

t i o n 2.2.4. R e c a l l t h a t primary fragments a r e u s u a l l y s m a l l , numerous and
have h i g h v e l o c i t y . They c a n c a u s e damage t o s t r u c t u r e s by p e n e t r a t i o n o r
p e r f o r a t i o n and i n j u r e o r k i l l p e r s o n n e l by t h e same p r o c e s s e s . They can a l s o
c a u s e i n i t i a t i o n o f h i g h e x p l o s i v e and consequent e s c a l a t i o n of a minor explo-
s i v e a c c i d e n t i n t o a major one. ,These e f f e c t s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 6 .
Secondary fragments, on t h e o t h e r hand, a r e u s u a l l y l a r g e , few i n num-

b e r , and have low v e l o c i t y . They can a l s o be of r e l a t i v e l y weak, c r u s h a b l e
material such as c o n c r e t e o r wood. They can p e n e t r a t e o r p e r f o r a t e l i g h t
s t r u c t u r e s , b u t are much more a p t t o c a u s e damage o r i n j u r y by n o n - p e n e t r a t i n g
impact. The s t a t e of knowledge f o r impact e f f e c t s of t h e l a r g e r and innre
c r u s h a b l e secondary fragments i s poor, b u t such p r e d i c t i o n methods and equa-
t i o n s as a r e a v a i l a b l e are p r e s e n t e d i n Chapter 6 .
A s i s t r u e throughout t h i s manual, Chapter 6 a l s o g i v e s example prob-

l e m s t o i l l u s t r a t e u s e of a l l p r e d i c t i o n methods.
3.3.3 C r a t e r i n g and Debris
Close t o b u r i e d e x p l o s i o n s , t h e ground i s v i o l e n t l y d i s p l a c e d and

c r a t e r s a r e formed. For s h a l l o w b u r i a l , t h e r e c a n b e c o n s i d e r a b l e e j e c t a
which r a i n s down i n t h e v i c i n i t y and back i n t o t h e c r a t e r . Buried o r s u r -
face s t r u c t u r e s located c l o s e t o o r within t h e crater radius, o r d i r e c t l y
o v e r camouflets (deep, b u r i e d e x p l o s i o n c a v i t i e s ) , can s u f f e r s e v e r e damage
by b e i n g v i o l d n t l y d i s p l a c e d . Usually, o n e simply assumes d e s t r u c t i o n o f
any s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n t h e c r a t e r r a d i u s f o r a shallow-buried e x p l o s i o n . Graphs
and e q u a t i o n s f o r p r e d i c t i n g c r a t e r i n g e f f e c t s a p p e a r i n Chapter 5 , t o g e t h e r
w i t h example problems.
3-17
3.3.4 Ground Shock
A t d i s t a n c e s from b u r i e d o r s u r f a c e e x p l o s i o n s beyond c r a e e r r a d i i ,
ground shock damage can o c c u r t o b u i l d i n g s , p e r s o n n e l , and equipment, in-
c l u d i n g b u r i e d p i p e s . Ground shock p u l s e s t r a v e l a t s e i s m i c v e l o c i t i e s and
a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t r a n s i e n t d i s p l a c e m e n t s and v e l o c i t i e s which l o o k l i k e
h e a v i l y damped s i n e waves. Depending on t h e r e s p o n s e time f o r the s t r u c t u r e
s u b j e c t e d t o ground shock, e i t h e r t h e peak v e l o c i t y o r t h e peak d i s p l a c e m e n t
i n t h e ground shock wave may more n e a r l y c o r r e l a t e w i t h maximu; r e s p o n s e o r
damage. Response t o ground shock waves i s d i s c u s s e d i n some d e t a i l i n Chapter
5 , w i t h p r e d i c t i o n e q u a t i o n s and example problems given i n t h a t c h a p t e r .
3-18
3.4 REFERENCES
3.1 Johansson, C . H. and Persson, P . A . , Detonics of High E x p l o s i v e s , Aca-

demic P r e s s , London and New York, 1970.
3.2 Engineering Design Handbook, P r i n c i p l e s of Explosive Behavior, AMCP 706-

180, Headquarters, U. S. Army Material Command, Washington, D . C . , A p r i l
1972.
3.3 Baker, W. E . , Explosions i n A i r , U n i v e r s i t y of Texas P r e s s , A u s t i n ,

Texas, 1973.
3.4 Kingery, C . N., "Air Blast Parameters Versus D i s t a n c e f o r Hemispherical

TNT Surface B u r s t s , " BRZ, Report No. 1344, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Mary-
l a n d , September 1966.
3.5 "Explosives Hazard C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Procedures ,'I Department of t h e Army

Technical B u l l e t i n TB 700-2, Repartment of t h e Navy P u b l i c a t i o n NavOrd
I n s t . 8020.3, Department of t h e A i r Force T e c h n i c a l Order TO llA-1-47,
Defense Supply Agency Reg. DSAR 8220.1, May 1 9 , 1967.
3.6 Hazards of Chemical Rockets and P r o p e l l a n t s Handbook, Volume 11, S o l i d

Rocket P r o p e l l a n t P r o c e s s i n g , Handling, S t o r a g e and T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , CPIA/
3.7 Ribovich, J . , Watson, R . , and Gibson, F . , "Instrumented Card-Gap T e s t , "

AIAA J o u r n a l , -
6, 7 , 1968, pp. 1260-1263.
3.8 Dobratz, B r i g i t t a M., " P r o p e r t i e s of Chemical Explosives and Explosive

Simulants," UCRL-51319 Rev. 1, U . S. Atomic Energy Commission C o n t r a c t
No. W-7405-Eng-48, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i -
f o r n i a , Livermore, C a l i f o r n i a , J u l y 31, 1 9 7 4 .
3.9 Keenan, W. A., and Tancreto, J. E., Technical Report No. R828, "Blast
Environment from F u l l y and P a r t i a l l y Vented Explosions i n C u b i c l e s , "
C i v i l Engineering Laboratory, Naval C o n s t r u c t i o n B a t t a l i o n C e n t e r , P o r t
Hueneme, C a l i f o r n i a , November 1975.
3.10 "Suppressive S h i e l d s S t r u c t u r a l Design and A n a l y s i s Handbook," (1977),
U. S . Army Corps of Engineers, H u n t s v i l l e D i v i s i o n , HNDM-1110-1-2.
3-19
CHAPTER 4
A I R BLAST
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Almost by d e f i n i t i o n , any a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n which o c c u r s above ground

d r i v e s a n a i r b l a s t wave i n t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g atmosphere. T h i s wave can i n t e r -
a c t w i t h and l o a d t h e w a l l s o f any containment s t r u c t u r e ; o r can e x i t through
v e n t i n g p a n e l s and l o a d nearby s t r u c t u r e s o r o t h e r " t a r g e t s " such as v e h i c l e s ,
humans, e t c . ; o r can l o a d nearby t a r g e t s i f i t o c c u r s i n t h e open. It i s of-
t e n t h e primary s o u r c e of damage from a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s , and i t is a l l -
p e r v a s i v e , i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h e v e r y t h i n g i n i t s p a t h and even b e i n g h e a r d a s a
"bang" o r "boom" a t d i s t a n c e s too g r e a t t o b e damaging.
The P a n t e x P l a n t i s used as a b a s i s f o r t h i s s t u d y . However, t h e mater-

i a l s p r e s e n t e d are g e n e r a l enough t o b e a p p l i c a b l e t o f a c i l i t i e s h a n d l i n g HE
s i m i l a r t o t h e o p e r a t i o n s a t Pantex.
The p h y s i c s o f a i r b l a s t g e n e r a t i o n and i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t a r g e t s i s com-

p l e x , and i s t h e t o p i c of voluminous l i t e r a t u r e . Some b a s i c r e f e r e n c e s on
t h i s t o p i c f o r supplemental r e a d i n g , which p r o v i d e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f b a s i c
a i r b l a s t p h y s i c s f o r s i n g l e and m u l t i p l e e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e s and e f f e c t s o f
containment and v e n t i n g a r e l i s t e d below:
Reference Topics Covered
4.1 B a s i c a i r b l a s t p h y s i c s and t h e o r y , computa-

t i o n a l methods, b l a s t s c a l i n g , d i f f r a c t i o n
and r e f l e c t i o n , e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , i n s t r u m e n t a -
t i o n , s c a l e d - b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s , b l a s t
t r a n s d u c e r s , photography, and d a t a r e d u c t i o n
methods
4.2 Scaled c u r v e s o f b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s
4.3 Blast environment w i t h i n v e n t e d and unvented

p r o t e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e s , b l a s t waves o u t s i d e
vented s t r u c t u r e s .
4.4 Blast p h y s i c s f o r e x p l o s i o n s i n a i r , s c a l e d
b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s
4.5 A c o m p i l a t i o n o f s c a l e d b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s
f o r bare, spherical Pentolite
4.6 General d e s c r i p t i o n of a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s ,
and b l a s t waves from such e x p l o s i o n s
4-1
Reference Topics Covered
4.7 D e s c r i p t i o n of b l a s t waves from n u c l e a r

weapons e x p l o s i o n s
Many more r e f e r e n c e s l i s t e d i n t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y (Appendix d) w i l l a l s o be

c i t e d i n t h i s chapter.
This c h a p t e r :
(1) p r e s e n t s p r e d i c t i o n graphs and methods f o r determining f r e e - f i e l d

and r e f l e c t e d b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s , and t h e manner i n which t h e s e b a s i c pro-
p e r t i e s c a n b e a p p l i e d t o p r e d i c t i n g time-varying l o a d s on v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r e s
t y p i c a l of t h o s e i n t h e Pantex P l a n t ;
(2) c o n t a i n s d a t a on p r o p e r t i e s of e x p l o s i v e s which could b e involved i n

a c c i d e n t s i n t h e Pantex P l a n t ;
( 3 ) p r e s e n t s p r e d i c t i o n methods f o r some damage e f f e c t s which a r e d i r e c t l y

r e l a t e d t o a i r b l a s t wave c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i n c l u d i n g s p a l l i n g o f c o n c r e t e w a l l s
and t h e damaging e f f e c t s of a i r b l a s t on humans; and
( 4 ) provides i l l u s t r a t i v e example problems.
4.2 GENERAL
This s e c t i o n i n c l u d e s g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e c l a s s e s o f e x p l o s i o n s
and e x p l o s i v e s p e r t i n e n t t o p o t e n t i a l a c c i d e n t s a t t h e Pantex P l a n t . Table
4.1 g i v e s t h e c u r r e n t m i s s i o n of t h e Pantex P l a n t . A l l b u t one of t h e l i n e
items i n t h i s mission, manufacture of mock h i g h e x p l o s i v e , i n v o l v e some poten-
t i a l f o r explosive accidents.
4.2.1 Classes o f Explosions Considered
A c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s c o u l d , conceivably, o c c u r i n v a r i o u s o p e r a t i o n s
s o w e f i r s t review t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s b r i e f l y .
I n conducting t h e i r m i s s i o n f o r new p r o d u c t i o n , t h e Pantex s t a f f re-

c e i v e s p o t e n t i a l l y e x p l o s i v e and i n e r t chemicals and unbonded o r l o o s e h i g h
e x p l o s i v e s , mixes and p r e s s e s t h e r a w materials, conducts i n s p e c t i o n s , ma-
c h i n e s t h e p r e s s e d e x p l o s i v e s , assembles e x p l o s i v e s components i n t o a s s e m b l i e s ,
does more i n s p e c t i o n s , and f i n a l l y packages and s h i p s t h e f i n a l p r o d u c t . This
p r o c e s s flow i s shown i n Figure 4.1. The p o t e n t i a l f o r chemical e x p l o s i o n s
e x i s t s a t many s t a g e s o f t h i s p r o c e s s , i n c l u d i n g t r a n s p o r t and s t o r a g e of
v a r i o u s q u a n t i t i e s of h i g h e x p l o s i v e s and e x p l o s i v e chemicals, e i t h e r i n con-
t a i n e r s o r b a r e ?r w i t h some type o f o u t e r c a s i n g o r c o n t a i n e r .
I n performing t h e i r mission of weapons d i s p o s a l , Pantex s t a f f receives

s u r p l u s weapons, i n s p e c t s them, disassembles them, and d i s p o s e s of t h e compon-
e n t s . This process flow i s shown i n F i g u r e 4.2. U n t i l t h e high explosive
4-2
.
Table 4.1 Pantex Mission
To manufacture h i g h e x p l o s i v e s (HE) and o t h e r components and, w i t h sup-

p l i e d components, perform f i n a l assembly of n u c l e a r weapons.
To manufacture mock HE components and, w i t h s u p p l i e d components, per-

form f i n a l assembly of type u n i t s f o r DOE and DOD t e s t i n g and t r a i n i n g
programs.
To perform new material and s t o c k p i l e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s , weapon modifi-

c a t i o n s and r e p a i r work n e c e s s a r y on a l l e x i s t i n g weapons w i t h i n t h e U.S.
n u c l e a r w a r reserve.
To d i s p o s e of weapons which are s u r p l u s t o s t o c k p i l e r e q u i r e m e n t s .
To provide t e c h n i c a l s u p p o r t i n t h e f i e l d o f h i g h e x p l o s i v e s and t o
f a b r i c a t e e x p l o s i v e d e v i c e components f o r t h e d e s i g n agency l a b o r a t o r i e s .
To m a i n t a i n a c t i v e p o r t i o n s of t h e p l a n t f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e above
activities.
4-3
4
U
CJ
9
a
U
c
4-4
components have been disposed o f by b u r n i n g , t h e r e i s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r acci-
d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n d u r i n g s t o r a g e , t r a n s p o r t and t h e o p e r a t i o n s shown i n t h e
figure .
Because t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s i n t h e P a n t e x P l a n t in-
v o l v e s p r i m a r i l y h i g h e x p l o s i v e s , t h e c l a s s e s o f e x p l o s i o n w e must c o n s i d e r
i n t h e manual a r e q u i t e l i m i t e d . From Reference 4.6, w e see t h a t t h e r e are
many classes o f a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s , i n c l u d i n g such e v e n t s a s s i m p l e pres-
s u r e v e s s e l b u r s t s , runaway chemical r e a c t i o n s i n v e s s e l s , vapor cloud explo-
s i o n s , molten m e t a l and w a t e r r e a c t i o n s , and f i n a l l y m u n i t i o n s e x p l o s i o n s .
Even munition e x p l o s i o n s o f t e n i n v o l v e v i o l e n t r e a c t i o n s of s o l i d o r l i q u i d
p r o p e l l a n t s which are n o t t r u e high e x p l o s i v e s . So, o u r t a s k of d e f i n i n g
e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e s f o r p o t e n t i a l a c c i d e n t s a t Pantex i s somewhat s i m p l e r t h a n
f o r a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s i n g e n e r a l . We can b a s i c a l l y r e s t r i c t o u r s e l v e s t o
high e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e s .
E l a b o r a t e s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s a r e t a k e n a t Pantex and o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s
which manufacture h i g h e x p l o s i v e s and munitions c o n t a i n i n g h i g h e x p l o s i v e s .
Furthermore, o n l y secondary ( e . g . , r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e ) e x p l o s i v e s a r e
handled i n p o t e n t i a l l y damaging q u a n t i t i e s i n such f a c i l i t i e s . But i n s p i t e
of a l l p r e c a u t i o n s and s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s , s e v e r e l y damaging e x p l o s i v e a c c i -
d e n t s have o c c u r r e d a t t h e Pantex P l a n t and s i m i l a r f a c i l i t i e s . The most
s e r i o u s a c c i d e n t a t Pantex o c c u r r e d i n 1977 d u r i n g an e x p l o s i v e machining
o p e r a t i o n i n a bay of B u i l d i n g 11-14A (Ref. 4.81, w i t h t h e d e t o n a t i o n o f two
s i z e a b l e p i e c e s of p r e s s e d high e x p l o s i v e . Three d e a t h s and severe s t r u c t u r a l
damage r e s u l t e d . Probably t h e most s p e c t a c u l a r e x p l o s i o n a t a f a c i l i t y l i k e
t h e Pantex P l a n t occurred i n 1963 a t Medina F a c i l i t y w i t h d e t o n a t i o n o f
111,500 pounds of high e x p l o s i v e i n a s t o r a g e magazine ( R e f . 4 . 7 1 ) . There
were no d e a t h s o r i n j u r i e s , b u t damage a t a d i s t a n c e ( p r i m a r i l y broken win-
dows) was e x t e n s i v e .
I n e x p l o s i v e s a f e t y s t u d i e s , t h e r e have been a number o f t e s t s simu-

lating HE e x p l o s i v e a c c i d e n t s , on b o t h f u l l and model scale. These tests a r e
t o o numerous t o d i s c u s s i n d e t a i l h e r e , b u t w e n o t e t h a t many are r e p o r t e d i n
t h e Minutes of t h e Explosives S a f e t y Board (DDESB). S p e c i f i c s t u d i e s p e r t i -
n e n t t o t h i s manual are c i t e d i n r e f e r e n c e s i n v a r i o u s c h a p t e r s and i n t h e
bibliography.
4.2.2 Explosives Considered
T h i s s e c t i o n i n c l u d e s a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e t y p e s o f h i g h e x p l o s i v e s and
p o t e n t i a l e x p l o s i v e s which are o r could b e p r e s e n t w i t h i n t h e P a n t e x P l a n t .
A number of p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s e e x p l o s i v e s a r e g i v e n i n Appendix A .
4.2.2.1 Types o f Explosives
Most o f t h e types of e x p l o s i v e which c o u l d a c c i d e n t a l l y explode i n

t h e P a n t e x P l a n t a r e secondary h i g h e x p l o s i v e s which a r e s o l i d a t normal
ambient t e m p e r a t u r e s . Also, a l l e x p l o s i v e s f a b r i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s p r e s s i n g and
machining r a t h e r t h a n m e l t c a s t i n g . So t h e e x p l o s i v e s only e x i s t i n t h e s o l i d
4-5
'GI
c
I
m
Figure 4 . 2 Pantex Weapons D i s p o s a l

s t a t e , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r s t a g e i n t h e p r o c e s s e s c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e p l a n t .
Although s o l i d , t h e explo&ives can b e i n g r a n u l a r o r f l a k e form, e i t h e r mixed
w i t h i n e r t bonding materials o r by themselves, o r they c a n b e c o n s o l i d a t e d by
p r e s s i n g . N o primary e x p l o s i v e s are processed i n t h e f a c i l i t y . Some poten-
t i a l l y e x p l o s i v e l i q u i d and s o l i d chemicals c a n b e p r e s e n t i n t h o s e p a r t s o f
t h e p l a n t devoted t o e x p l o s i v e s y n t h e s i s . I n ' t h e p l a n t , e x p l o s i v e s , o r hard-
ware c o n t a i n i n g e x p l o s i v e components, are n o t normally m a r r i e d t o o t h e r m a r -
g i n a l l y e x p l o s i v e materials such as s o l i d o r l i q u i d p r o p e l l a n t s .
These l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e o p e r a t i o n s and classes of e x p l o s i v e s employed

i n t h e Pantex P l a n t narrow t h e l i s t of materials w e need t o c o n s i d e r . But
t h e r e i s s t i l l a n e x t e n s i v e l i s t of h i g h e x p l o s i v e chemical compounds o r mix-
t u r e s of t h e s e compounds which a r e handled i n t h e p l a n t . We g i v e h e r e t a b l e s
o f d a t a a v a i l a b l e i n s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s f o r a number of t h e s e e x p l o s i v e s and
chemicals f o r ready r e f e r e n c e . Primary d a t a s o u r c e s are References 4.9, 4.10
and 4.11. Because t h e d a t a are r a t h e r voluminous, t h e y are given i n t a b l e s
i n Appendix A. The t y p e s o f d a t a are i n d i c a t e d i n Table 4 . 2 .
4.2.2.2 Geometrv. Densitv and Casings
Explosives are p r e s e n t i n t h e Pantex P l a n t i n . a wide v a r i e t y of geo-

metries. D e n s i t i e s range from t h e average d e n s i t y of l o o s e , f l a k e o r g r a n u l a r
e x p l o s i v e as i t comes from a commercial manufacturer o r from t h e in-house
s y n t h e s i s f a c i l i t y up t o d e n s i t i e s a f t e r p r o s s i n g , which are c l o s e t o c r y s t a l
d e n s i t y f o r t h e HE. They can b e b a r e , i n l i g h t c o n t a i n e r s f o r t r a n s p o r t a b o u t
t h e p l a n t ; i n packing c o n t a i n e r s f o r b u l k HE, w i t h one o r more metal o r o t h e r
h i g h s t r e n g t h o u t e r c a s i n g s i n a weapon; o r w i t h several l a y e r s of s t r o n g
o u t e r c a s i n g when a weapon i s i n a s h i p p i n g c o n t a i n e r . To some e x t e n t , t h e s e
v a r i a t i o n s p a r a l l e l t h e p o s s i b l e geometries, d e n s i t i e s , and c a s i n g v a r i a t i o n s
found i n c o n v e n t i o n a l HE weapons manufacture, t r a n s p o r t and s t o r a g e . One
no t a b l e d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h e primary damage mechanism f o r many c o n v e n t i o n a l
HE warheads - i n v o l v e s high-speed f r a g m e n t a t i o n . This i s n o t normally t h e case
f o r t h e weapons a t t h e P a n t e x P l a n t , s o t h e primary f r a g m e n t h a z a r d s s h o u l d
b e less s e v e r e than a t a LAP (Load, Assembly and Pack) p l a n t f o r f r a g m e n t a t i o n
ordnance .
4.3 BLAST WAVES FROM SINGLE AND MULTIPLE SOURCES
I n a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s i n v o l v i n g HE, some s t i m u l u s u s u a l l y i n i t i a t e s
an e x p l o s i o n i n one p i e c e of HE. I f t h i s p i e c e is i s o l a t e d o r s h i e l d e d i n
some manner so t h a t no o t h e r h i g h e x p l o s i v e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y can b e i n i t i a t e d
by b l a s t o r fragments from t h e f i r s t e x p l o s i o n , then t h e b l a s t waves come
from a s i n g l e e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e . But high-speed primary o r secondary fragments*
can impact o t k e r nearby p i e c e s of h i g h e x p l o s i v e , o r t h e i n t e n s e a i r shock wave
*Fragmentation i s d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n Chapter 6 .
4-7
Table 4 . 2 P r o p e r t i e s o f Explosives and Explosive Chemicals
ITEM PROPERTY
1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Common N a m e
Chemical N a m e
Formulation
Color
Physical State
T h e o r e t i c a l Maximum Density
Nominal Density
Molecular Weight
Melting P o i n t
Vapor P r e s s u r e
Toxicity
2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Common Name
H e a t of Formation
Heat of Detonation
H e a t .of Combustion
3 SENSITIVITY AND INITIATION
Common Name
Drop Weight T e s t
Skid T e s t
F r i c t i o n Pendulum Test
Explosion Temperature
R i f l e B u l l e t Impact Test
Susan T e s t
Gap Test
4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Common Name
Density
Hugonio t I n t e r c e p t
Hugoniot Slope
Range of Data
4-8
.-. .-. . - -. .- . . . ..... .. -.--.
Table 4 . 2 P r o p e r t i e s of E x p l o s i v e s and E x p l o s i v e Chemicals (Con't)
ITEM PROPERTY
5 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Comon Name
Thermal C o n d u c t i v i t y
Thermal Expansion C o e f f i c i e n t s
S p e c i f i c Heat
TZlermal S t a b i l i t y
6 PERFORMANCE
Common Name
Detonation Velocity
Chapman-Jouget D e t o n a t i o n P r e s s u r e
Explosive Energy
Equation of S t a t e
TNT Equivalence
C r i t i c a l Energy
4-9
from t h e f i r s t e x p l o s i o n c a n l o a d t h e s e same p i e c e s o r low-speed s k i d d i n g and
impact can cause i n i t i a t i o n and r e s u l t i n d e f l a g r a t i o n o r d e t o n a t i o n . The de-
l a y t i m e between e x p l o s i o n s of m u l t i p l e s o u r c e s can b e s o s h o r t t h a t t h e en-
t i r e sequence of e x p l o s i o n s c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d as a s i n g l e simultaneous explo-
s i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, f o r w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d s o u r c e s , d e l a y s can b e g r e a t
enough t h a t t h e s e q u e n t i a l e x p l o s i o n s c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e , e p a r a t e e v e n t s . ,
I n between i s a "gray area" where t h e m u l t i p l e e x p l o s i o n s may o r may n o t b e
t r e a t e d as a s i n g l e e x p l o s i o n .
Our understanding of s i n g l e - s o u r c e e x p l o s i o n s and t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a and

methods f o r p r e d i c t i o n of b l a s t waves c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s v a s t l y s u p e r i o r t o
o u r knowledge and d a t a f o r m u l t i p l e - s o u r c e e x p l o s i o n s . S i m i l a r l y , o u r know-
l e d g e of b l a s t waves f o r s p h e r i c a l s i n g l e s o u r c e s i s s u p e r i o r t o o u r knowledge
f o r o t h e r e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e geometries.
For s p h e r i c a l s i n g l e - s o u r c e e x p l o s i o n s , w e p r e s e n t graphs of s c a l e d com-

p i l e d d a t a which w i l l a l l o w p r e d i c t i o n of many b l a s t parameters, from t h e s u r -
f a c e o f t h e s o u r c e o u t t o d i s t a n c e s . w h e r e t h e b l a s t wave i s s o weak t h a t i t
i s a sound wave. Close t o c y l i n d r i c a l b l a s t s o u r c e s , w e g i v e some d a t a on t h e
e f f e c t of s o u r c e geometry. Limited d a t a on s e q u e n t i a l l y d e t o n a t e d and simul-
taneously detonated m u l t i p l e sources are a l s o presented. Implications of b l a s t
wave s c a l i n g are d i s c u s s e d , w i t h o u t p r o o f .
4.3.1 S i n g l e Explosion Source
When a s i n g l e , h i g h e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e i s i n i t i a t e d by some s t i m u l u s , i t
may burn, d e f l a g r a t e , o r d e t o n a t e . Detonation i s by f a r t h e most severe reac-
t i o n , so i n t h i s manual devoted t o e x p l o s i v e s a f e t y h a z a r d s , w e w i l l hence-
f o r t h assume t h a t t h e e x p l o s i v e d e t o n a t e s .
The p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r i n g i n d e t o n a t i o n s i n high e x p l o s i v e s have

been e x h a u s t i v e l y s t u d i e d , and are w e l l d e s c r i b e d i n g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e s such
as 4 . 1 1 and 4 . 1 2 . W e w i l l d i s c u s s t h e s e p r o c e s s e s only i n s o f a r as they a f f e c t
b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s .
A d e t o n a t i o n wave i s a v e r y r a p i d wave o f chemical r e a c t i o n which, once

i t i s i n i t i a t e d , travels a t a s t a b l e s u p e r s o n i c speed, c a l l e d t h e d e t o n a t i o n
v e l o c i t y , i n a high explosive. Typically, d e t o n a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s f o r pressed
o r c a s t h i g h e x p l o s i v e s r a n g e from 22,000 - 28,000 f t / s e c . A s t h e d e t o n a t i o n
wave p r o g r e s s e s through t h e condensed e x p l o s i v e , i t c o n v e r t s t h e e x p l o s i v e
w i t h i n a f r a c t i o n of a microsecond i n t o v e r y h o t , d e n s e , h i g h p r e s s u r e g a s .
P r e s s u r e s * immediately behind the d e t o n a t i o n f r o n t range from 2,700,000 -
4,900,000 p s i .
The most i m p o r t a n t s i n g l e parameter f o r d e t e r m i n i n g a i r b l a s t wave

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h i g h e x p l o s i v e s i s t h e t o t a l h e a t of d e t o n a t i o n , E. This
*These p r e s s u r e s are c a l l e d Chapman-Jouget, o r C J , p r e s s u r e s .
4-10
q u a n t i t y i s , i n g e n e r a l , d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e t o t a l weight W o r mass M
o f t h e e x p l o s i v e . Any given e x p l o s i v e h a s a s p e c i f i c h e a t o f d e t o n a t i o n , AH
p e r u n i t weight o r mass, which can b e e i t h e r c a l c u l a t e d from chemical r e a c t i o n
formulas o r measured c a l o r i m e t r i c a l l y (see References 4.11 and 4 . 1 2 ) . So E
e q u a l s W-AH o r M*AH, depending on u n i t s f o r AH. Values f o r AH f o r many explo-
s i v e s are given i n t a b l e s i n Appendix A.
I f t h e d e t o n a t i n g e x p l o s i v e i s b a r e , t h e d e t o n a t i o n wave propagates o u t
i n t o t h e surrounding a i r a s an i n t e n s e shock o r b l a s t wave, and i s d r i v e n by
t h e expanding h o t gases which had been t h e e x p l o s i v e m a t e r i a l . I f i t i s en-
cased, t h e d e t o n a t i o n wave simply overpowers t h e c a s i n g material, and d r i v e s
i t outward a t h i g h v e l o c i t y u n t i l t h e c a s i n g fragments. The h i g h p r e s s u r e
g a s e s then v e n t o u t p a s t t h e c a s i n g fragments and a g a i n d r i v e a s t r o n g b l a s t
wave i n t o t h e surrounding atmosphere.
A s t h e b l a s t wave expands, i t decays i n s t r e n g t h , l e n g t h e n s i n d u r a t i o n ,

and slows down, both because of s p h e r i c a l d i v e r g e n c e and because t h e chemical
r e a c t i o n i s o v e r , e x c e p t f o r a f t e r b u r n i n g , as t h e h o t e x p l o s i o n p r o d u c t s mix
w i t h t h e surrounding a i r .
Good d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a i r b l a s t waves appear i n

References 4 . 1 , 4 . 4 , and 4.7. The d e s c r i p t i o n h e r e is paraphrased from Refer-
ence 4.1.
A s a b l a s t wave p a s s e s through t h e a i r o r i n t e r a c t s w i t h and l o a d s a

s t r u c t u r e o r t a r g e t , r a p i d v a r i a t i o n s i n p r e s s u r e , d e n s i t y , t e m p e r a t u r e and
p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y occur. The p r o p e r t i e s of b l a s t waves which are u s u a l l y de-
f i n e d are r e l a t e d b o t h t o t h e p r o p e r t i e s which can b e e a s i l y measured o r ob-
served and t o p r o p e r t i e s which c a n be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h b l a s t damage p a t t e r n s .
It i s r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o measure shock f r o n t a r r i v a l t i m e s and v e l o c i t i e s and
e n t i r e t i m e h i s t o r i e s of o v e r p r e s s u r e s . Measurement of d e n s i t y v a r i a t i o n s and
t i m e h i s t o r i e s o f p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y are more d i f f i c u l t , and no r e l i a b l e m e a -
surements of temperature variations exist.
C l a s s i c a l l y , t h e p r o p e r t i e s which are u s u a l l y d e f i n e d and measured are

t h o s e of t h e undisturbed o r side-on wave as i t propagates through t h e a i r .
Figure 4 . 3 shows g r a p h i c a l l y some of t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s i n a n i d e a l wave (Ref-
e r e n c e 4.1). P r i o r t o shock f r o n t a r r i v a l , t h e p r e s s u r e i s ambient p r e s s u r e
p o . A t a r r i v a l t'ime ta, t h e p r e s s u r e rises q u i t e a b r u p t l y ( d i s c o n t i n u o u s l y ,
i n an i d e a l wave) t o a peak v a l u e P$ + p o . The p r e s s u r e t h e n d e c a y s t o am-
b i e n t i n t o t a l t i m e t, + td+, d r o p s t o a p a r t i a l vacuum of a m p l i t u d e P' and
e v e n t u a l l y r e t u r n s t o P o i n t o t a l t i m e ta + t3 + ti. The q u a n t i t y PZ'L usu-
a l l y termed t h e peak side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e , o r merely t h e peak o v e r p r e s s u r e .
The p o r t i o n cf t h e t i m e h i s t o r y above i n i t i a l ambient p r e s s u r e is c a l l e d t h e
p o s i t i v e phase, of d u r a t i o n t;. That p o r t i o n below p o , o f amplitude PS and
d u r a t i o n t d i s called t h e n e g a t i v e phase. P o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s p e c i f i c
4-11
+
ps + Po
t r PCSlTlVE PHASE
I
NEGATIVE
"' xI-
PHASE
PO %- T 7.-
0
t + t
+ t + t; + t;
0 ta a d a
Time
Figure 4 . 3 I d e a l Blast Wave S t r u c t u r e
4-1 2
impulses*, d e f i n e d by
t + t~+
/ t
a
and
t
+
+ t +t,
a d
[PO
a
r e s p e c t i v e l y , a r e a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t b l a s t wave p a r a m e t e r s . These impulses a r e

shown by t h e cross-hatched areas o f F i g u r e 4 . 3 .
I n most b l a s t s t u d i e s , t h e n e g a t i v e phase of t h e b l a s t wave i s ignored

because 6 >> and i$ >> is, and o n l y b l a s t parameters a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
p o s i t i v e phase a r e considered o r r e p o r t e d . The p o s i t i v e s u p e r s c r i p t is t h e n
dropped and t h e parameters w i t h o u t s u p e r s c r i p t s r e p r e s e n t t h e p o s i t i v e phase.
The i d e a l side-on parameters almost n e v e r r e p r e s e n t t h e a c t u a l p r e s s u r e load-
i n g a p p l i e d t o s t r u c t u r e s o r t a r g e t s f o l l o w i n g an e x p l o s i o n . So a number o f
o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s are d e f i n e d t o e i t h e r more c l o s e l y approximate r e a l b l a s t
l o a d s o r t o p r o v i d e upper limits f o r such l o a d s . (The p r o c e s s e s o f r e f l e c t i o n
and d i f f r a c t i o n w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . ) P r o p e r t i e s of f r e e -
f i e l d b l a s t waves o t h e r t h a n side-on p r e s s u r e which can b e i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u c -
t u r a l l o a d i n g are:
Density p
Particle velocity u
Shock f r o n t v e l o c i t y U
2
Dynamic p r e s s u r e q = p u / 2
Time c o n s t a n t b
*The u n i t s o f i Q and isare f o r c e t i m e s t i m e d i v i d e d by l e n g t h s q u a r e d , o r

p r e s s u r e t i m e s t i m e . They a r e , t h e r e f o r e , s p e c i f i c impulse o r impulse p e r
u n i t area, r a t h e r t h a n t r u e impulse, which h a s u n i t s o f f o r c e t i m e s t i m e .
4-1 3
Because of t h e importance of t h e dynamic p r e s s u r e q in d r a g o r wind
e f f e c t s and t a r g e t tumbling, i t i s o f t e n r e p o r t e d as a b l a s t wave p r o p e r t y .
In some i n s t a n c e s drag s p e c i f i c impulse i d , d e f i n e d as
t + t
a d
id =( p u2 d t (4.3)
I ta a
is also reported.
Although i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e f i n e t h e p o t e n t i a l o r k i n e t i c energy i n
b l a s t waves, i t i s n o t customary i n a i r b l a s t technology t o r e p o r t o r compute
t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s . For underwater e x p l o s i o n s , t h e u s e of "energy f l u x d e n s i t y "
i s more common. This q u a n t i t y is given approximately by
(4.4)
't
a
where p and a are d e n s i t y and sound v e l o c i t y i n water ahead of t h e shock.

0 0
A t t h e shock f r o n t i n f r e e a i r , a number o f wave p r o p e r t i e s are i n t e r -

r e l a t e d through t h e Rankine-Hugoniot e q u a t i o n s . The two o f t h e s e t h r e e equa-
t i o n s most o f t e n used are (Reference 4 . 1 ) :
(4.5)
Ps (u - us)
2
+ ps
-- Po u2 + Po
I n t h e s e e q u a t i o n s , s u b s c r i p t s r e f e r s t o peak q u a n t i t i e s immediately behind

t h e i d e a l shock f r o n t , and
Ps = ps + Po (4.7)
4-14
S c a l i n g of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of b l a s t waves from e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e s is a
common p r a c t i c e , and anyone who h a s even a rudimentary knowledge of b l a s t
technology u t i l i z e s t h e s e l a w s t o p r e d i c t t h e p r o p e r t i e s of b l a s t waves from
l a r g e - s c a l e e x p l o s i o n s based on t e s t s on a much smaller s c a l e . S i m i l a r l y ,
r e s u l t s of tests conducted a t sea level ambient atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s a r e
r o u t i n e l y used t o p r e d i c t t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f b l a s t waves from e x p l o s i o n s deto-
n a t e d under h i g h a l t i t u d e c o n d i t i o n s . It i s n o t t h e purpose i n t h i s manual
t o review o r d e r i v e l a w s f o r s c a l i n g of b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s , which are ade-
q u a t e l y summarized i n Reference 4.1. But, w e w i l l s t a t e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of
t h e l a w s most commonly used.
The most common form o f b l a s t s c a l i n g is Hopkinson-Cranz o r "cube-root"

s c a l i n g . This l a w , f i r s t formulated by B. Hopkinson (Reference 4.13) and i n -
dependently by C . Cranz (Reference 4 . 1 4 ) , s t a t e s t h a t s e l f - s i m i l a r b l a s t waves
are produced a t i d e n t i c a l s c a l e d d i s t a n c e s when two e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s of simi-
l a r geometry and of t h e same e x p l o s i v e , b u t of d i f f e r e n t s i z e s , a r e d e t o n a t e d
i n t h e same atmosphere. It i s customary t o use as a s c a l e d d i s t a n c e a dimen-
s i o n a l parameter,
Z = R/E 113
or
Z = R/W 113 (4.9)
where R i s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e , E i s t h e
t o t a l h e a t of d e t o n a t i o n o f t h e e x p l o s i v e and W i s t h e t o t a l w e i g h t o f a s t a n -
dard e x p l o s i v e such as TNT. The c o r r e c t e q u a t i o n , Equation 4.8 o r 4.9, w i l l
F i g u r e 4 . 4 shows s c h e m a t i c a l l y t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s
b e a p p a r e n t i n t h e problem.
o f Hopkinson-Cranz b l a s t wave s c a l i n g . An o b s e r v e r l o c a t e d a t a d i s t a n c e R
from t h e c e n t e r of an e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension d w i l l b e
s u b j e c t e d t o a b l a s t wave w i t h a m p l i t u d e P , d u r a t i o n t d , and a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
t i m e h i s t o r y . The i n t e g r a l of t h e p r e s s u r e - t i m e h i s t o r y i s t h e i m p u l s e i.
The Hopkinson-Cranz s c a l i n g l a w t h e n s t a t e s t h a t an o b s e r v e r s t a t i o n e d a t a
d i s t a n c e XR from t h e center o f a s i m i l a r e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
dimension Ad d e t o n a t e d i n t h e same atmosphere w i l l f e e l a b l a s t wave o f
11s i m i l a r " form w i t h a m p l i t u d e P , d u r a t i o n Atd and impulse A i . A l l character-
i s t i c t i m e s are s c a l e d by t h e same f a c t o r as t h e l e n g t h s c a l e f a c t o r A . In
Hopkinson s c a l i n g , p r e s s u r e s , t e m p e r a t u r e s , d e n s i t i e s and v e l o c i t i e s a r e un-
changed a t homologous t i m e s . Hopkinson's s c a l i n g l a w h a s been t h o r o u g h l y
v e r i f i e d by many experiments conducted o v e r a l a r g e range o f e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e
e n e r g i e s . A much more complete d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s l a w and a d e m o n s t r a t i o n of
i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y i s g i v e n i n Chapter 3 of Baker (Reference 4 . 1 ) .
4-15 Change 1 - 15 August 1981

-4-
09
E
io
cn
P
-- ;; 11 p
~
~
......
........
.....
......
:*.;.+< ......
.................
.2:::::::::::::y........................
..........T:.....
i
;
. -
'-
-I
.....
......
........
.......
..........
........
.........
........
............
................
.~ .............L. ,-
+AT+
Figure 4 . 4 Hopkinson-Cranz Blast Wave Scaling

The b l a s t s c a l i n g l a w which i s almost u n i v e r s a l l y used t o p r e d i c t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f b l a s t waves from e x p l o s i o n s a t h i g h a l t i t u d e i s t h a t of
Sachs (Reference 4.15). Sachs' l a w s t a t e s t h a t d i m e n s i o n l e s s o v e r p r e s s u r e
and dimensionless impulse can be expressed as unique f u n c t i o n s o f a dimension-
l e s s s c a l e d d i s t a n c e , where t h e dimensionless parameters i n c l u d e q u a n t i t i e s
which d e f i n e t h e ambient atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s p r i o r t o t h e e x p l o s i o n . Sachs'
scaled pressure is
(4 . l o )
Sachs' s c a l e d impulse i s d e f i n e d as*
- ia
i = 0
(4.11)
113 2/3
E Po
where a, i s ambient sound v e l o c i t y . These q u a n t i t i e s a r e a f u n c t i o n of dimen-

s i o n l e s s s c a l e d d i s t a n c e , d e f i n e d as*
113
-
R=R(%) (4.12)
Both s c a l i n g l a w s apply t o r e f l e c t e d b l a s t wave parameters, as w e l l a s

side-on p a r a m e t e r s t .
4 . 3 . 1 .I SDherical Geometrv
Most o f t h e s o u r c e s o f compiled d a t a f o r a i r b l a s t waves from h i g h

e x p l o s i v e s are l i m i t e d t o b a r e , s p h e r i c a l e x p l o s i v e s i n " f r e e - a i r , " i . e . ,
d i s t a n t from t h e n e a r e s t r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e , o r hemisphere i n c o n t a c t o r near-
l y i n c o n t a c t w i t h a good r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e such as t h e ground. W e present
h e r e s c a l e d curves f o r a v a r i e t y o f side-on and normally r e f l e c t e d parameters.
The curves are s c a l e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Hopkinson-Cranz ( o r cube-root) l a w , and
are s p e c i f i c f o r s p h e r i c a l TNT e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s d e t o n a t e d under s t a n d a r d sea
l e v e l c o n d i t i o n s of p o = 14.696 p s i and a, = 1116 f t / s e c .
*Note t h a t , i f charge weight W i s used i n s t e a d of energy E, t h e s e parameters

have dimens i o n s .
-:See S e c t i o n 4.4.1.1 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of b l a s t wave r e f l e c t i o n .
4-17
The d a t a are given i n t h r e e l a r g e - s c a l e c u r v e s , F i g u r e s 4.5, 4.6 and
4.7. A l l t h r e e curves employ weight-scaled d i s t a n c e , Z = R/W1/3 as a b s c i s s a e .
The usage o f "W" r e f e r s t o TNT-equivalent w e i g h t s . The s u b s c r i p t "TNT" w i l l
h e n c e f o r t h b e dropped. F i g u r e 4.5 p r e s e n t s t h e s c a l e d form of t h e f o l l o w i n g
parameters :
Peak side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e ,
pS
Side-on s p e c i f i c impulse, i
S
Shock a r r i v a l t i m e , ta
P o s i t i v e phase d u r a t i o n , td
These q u a n t i t i e s have a l l been d e f i n e d p r e v i o u s l y . F i g u r e 4.6 p r e s e n t s t h e

parameters :
Peak normally r e f l e c t e d o v e r p r e s s u r e , P
r
Normally r e f l e c t e d s p e c i f i c impulse, i
r
These q u a n t i t i e s are d e f i n e d i n e x a c t l y t h e same manner as t h e corresponding

side-on parameters, b u t are g r e a t e r b e c a u s e of p r e s s u r e enhancement caused by
a r r e s t i n g flow behind t h e r e f l e c t e d shock wave. D u r a t i o n s t d f o r t h e p o s i t i v e
phases of normally r e f l e c t e d waves are e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same as f o r side-on
waves. F i g u r e 4.7 g i v e s o t h e r parameters which are h e l p f u l i n d e t e r m i n i n g
l o a d s on drag-type o b j e c t s . These q u a n t i t i e s are:
Peak s c a l e d p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y , = u /ao
S S
Peak dynamic p r e s s u r e , Q
-
Scaled shock v e l o c i t y , U = U/ao
T i m e c o n s t a n t f o r p r e s s u r e decay, b
The q u a n t i t i e s us and U have a l r e a d y been d e f i n e d . The q u a n t i t y Q i s t h e

MX~IUUIU v a l u e f o r dynamic p r e s s u r e q, i . e . ,
2
Q = pSus 12 (4.13)
where p s i s peak d e n s i t y immediately behind t h e shock f r o n t . The "time con-

s t a n t " b i s determined from f i t t i n g d a t a t o t h e e m p i r i c a l modified F r i e d l a n d e r
e q u a t i o n [See Chapter 1 of Baker (Reference 4 . 1 ) ] ,
(4.14)
4-18
IO' IO0 IO' IO2 10' I
SCALED DISTANCE R/W'I3, ft / Ib'"
F i g u r e 4.5 Side-On B l a s t Wave P r o p e r t i e s f o r Bare,

S p h e r i c a l . TNT a t Sea Level
.-
u)
P
.
a
w
Llc
3
03
v)
w
a
a
Llc
w
>
0
c3
w
I-
B
-I
LL
w
E
Y
a
W
a
SCALED DISTANCE R/W1/3, ft 1~ b ~ / ~
F i g u r e 4.6 Normally R e f l e c t e d Blast Wave P r o p e r t i e s f o r

Bare, S p h e r i c a l TNT a t Sea Level
ii
Y
Figure 4.7 Blast Wave P r o p e r t i e s For Drag And D i f f r a c t i o n Loading;

Bare, S p h e r i c a l TNT A t Sea Level
This e q u a t i o n approximates t h e p o s i t i v e phase i n F i g u r e 4 . 3 . The method of
f i t t i n g is d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 6 o f Reference 4 . 1 , b u t t h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s
f o r b i n t h a t r e f e r e n c e are i n e r r o r and have been r e c a l c u l a t e d c o r r e c t l y i n
p l o t t i n g Figure 4.7.
The u s e of F i g u r e s 4 . 5 , 4.6 and 4.7 i s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 4 . 8 i n Example

Problem 4 . 1 7 .
One can u s e t h e c u r v e s i n F i g u r e s 4 . 5 , 4.6 and 4.7 f o r ground b u r s t

explosions* by a d j u s t i n g t h e t o t a l charge w e i g h t W i n t h e ground b u r s t t o
account f o r b l a s t wave s t r e n g t h e n i n g due t o ground r e f l e c t i o n . For a p e r f e c t
r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e , t h e weight i s simply doubled, i . e . ,
W' = 2w (4.15)
For s i g n i f i c a n t c r a t e r i n g , a s normally o c c u r s f o r h i g h e x p l o s i v e s d e t o n a t e d
w h i l e r e s t i n g on t h e ground, f i t s t o d a t a g i v e a lower r e f l e c t i o n f a c t o r . W e
s u g g e s t then t h a t
W' = 1.8W (4.16)
These new e f f e c t i v e weights a r e t h e n used d i r e c t l y w i t h F i g u r e s 4 . 5 , 4.6 and

4.7 t o p r e d i c t b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s f o r ground b u r s t s . A more complete d i s -
cussion of surface r e f l e c t i o n is given l a t e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n .
a . E f f e c t o f Type of Explosive. S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , Hopkinson-Cranz

s c a l i n g and t h e curves i n F i g u r e s 4 . 5 , 4.6 and 4.7 a r e o n l y v a l i d f o r s p h e r i -
cal TNT e x p l o s i v e . But t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e b l a s t waves from - a l l condensed
h i g h e x p l o s i v e s a r e remarkably s i m i l a r . Work d u r i n g World War I1 (Reference
4 . 1 6 ) gave t w o d i f f e r e n t e q u i v a l e n c e f a c t o r s based on comparisons o f peak
side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e s and side-on s p e c i f i c impulses from a number of d i f f e r e n t
e x p l o s i v e s i n e x i s t e n c e then. The e x p l o s i v e Composition B (60% TNT, 40% RDX
by weight) w a s used a s a s t a n d a r d f o r t h i s work. Swisdak (Reference 4 . 4 )
g i v c s "TI;? cquivalcncc" ciirvcs f o r s c v c r a l h i c h c x p l o s i v c s based o n a i r b l a s t
n e a s u r e n e n t s , i n c l u d i n g a number of c a s t e x p l o s i v e s w i t h and w i t h o u t aluminum.
H e a l s o g i v e s average TNT e q u i v a l e n c e numbers f o r o v e r p r e s s u r e and separate
numbers f o r impulse. I n a series of v e r y c a r e f u l f r e e - a i r b l a s t measurements
*TM 5-1300 h a s s e p a r a t e sets of a i r b l a s t c u r v e s f o r a i r b u r s t and ground

b u r s t . Those curves w i l l y i e l d e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s
i f one u s e s t h e r e f l e c t i o n m u l t i p l i e r s suggested h e r e . F i g u r e s 4 . 5 , 4.6 and
4.7 c o n t a i n l a t e r d a t a t h a n comparable c u r v e s i n TM 5-1300, and s h o u l d sup-
p l a n t them.
4-25
of TNT and Composition B , P o t t e r and J a r v i s ( R e f e r e n c e 4.17) found t h a t t h e y
c o u l d u s e t h e e q u i v a l e n c e f a c t o r 1.0 l b o f Composition B = 1 . 5 lb o f TNT o v e r
a r a t h e r wide range of o v e r p r e s s u r e s . * For f o u r p l a s t i c - b o n d e d e x p l o s i v e s ,
PBX-108, PBX-109, AFX-103 and AFX-702, Goodman and Giglio-Tos ( R e f e r e n c e 4.18)
determined e q u i v a l e n t weight f a c t o r s compared t o 50/50 P e n t o l i t e , u s i n g v a l u e s
o b t a i n e d from o v e r p r e s s u r e and impulse measurements. There have b e e n v e r y few
measurements o f a i r b l a s t f o r d e t o n a t i o n s o f l o o s e o r g r a n u l a r h i g h e x p l o s i v e s .
One can c o n s e r v a t i v e l y assume t h a t t h i s material i s i n i t s c a s t o r p r e s s e d
s t a t e , b u t t h e d e g r e e o f c o n s e r v a t i s m i s unknown.
I n g e n e r a l , t h e e q u i v a l e n t w e i g h t f a c t o r s found by comparing a i r
b l a s t d a t a from d i f f e r e n t h i g h e x p l o s i v e s v a r y l i t t l e w i t h s c a l e d d i s t a n c e ,
and a l s o v a r y l i t t l e dependent o n whether peak o v e r p r e s s u r e o r side-on i m p u l s e
i s used f o r t h e comparisons. So w e f e e l t h a t a s i n g l e number t o a d j u s t f o r
explosive type w i l l y i e l d q u i t e adequate p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e purposes of t h i s
manual. ( T h i s procedure i s used i n References 4.3 and 4.12.) When a c t u a l
comparative b l a s t d a t a e x i s t , a s i n References 4.4, 4.17 o r 4.18, t h e s e d a t a
c a n b e used t o d e t e r m i n e a s i n g l e number f o r TNT e q u i v a l e n c e by a v e r a g i n g .
When no such d a t a e x i s t , comparative v a l u e s of h e a t s of d e t o n a t i o n AH f o r TNT
and t h e e x p l o s i v e i n q u e s t i o n c a n b e used t o p r e d i c t TNT e q u i v a l e n c e . These
v a l u e s a r e given f o r various e x p l o s i v e s i n t a b l e s i n Appendix A .
b . Modified Sachs S c a l i n g . Sachs s c a l i n g l a w i n d i c a t e d by Equa-

t i o n s 4.10, 4 . 1 1 and 4.12 can b e used t o p r e d i c t t h e v a r i a t i o n o f b l a s t wave
p r o p e r t i e s w i t h ambient c o n d i t i o n s o t h e r t h a n t h e sea-level c o n d i t i o n s f o r
which F i g u r e s 4 . 5 , 4.6 and 4.7 were p r e p a r e d . The P a n t e x P l a n t i s l o c a t e d
a b o u t 3500 f t above sea l e v e l , s o t h e mean ambient c o n d i t i o n s d i f f e r measur-
a b l y from t h o s e a t sea l e v e l . To a p p l y E q u a t i o n s 4.10, 4.11 and 4.12, t h e am-
b i e n t atmospheric p r e s s u r e and sound v e l o c i t y must b e known. S i n c e sound
v e l o c i t y i s a f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e , i t would s u f f i c e t o know ambient p r e s -
s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e . An a d e q u a t e estimate o f t h e i r v a l u e can b e o b t a i n e d ,
provided t h e a l t i t u d e i s known, from R e f e r e n c e 4.19:
-5.25588
p = 14.6965
-
288.15
1.9812 X H 1 (psi) (4.171-f
See Appendix A f o r p r e s e n t recommended v a l u e .
CMany s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s are given i n Reference 4.19 t o a l l o w c a l c u l a t i o n

w i t h f a i r accuracy o v e r v e r y l a r g e a l t i t u d e changes. One s h o u l d round t o no
more t h a n f o u r s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s a f t e r c a l c u l a t i o n .
4-26
- 1.9812 X H
where H i s a l t i t u d e r e l a t i v e t o sea l e v e l , i n f e e t .
1'I2 (ft/sec> (4.18)*
The e q u a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t t h e "U. S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 . I '
For t h e Pantex P l a n t l o c a t e d a t a n a l t i t u d e of 3500 f e e t

a. would have c a l c u l a t e d s t a n d a r d v a l u e s of 1 2 . 9 3 p s i a and 1103 f e e t p e r sec-
ond, r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t a n d a r d sea l e v e l v a l u e s o f 14.70 p s i a
and 1116 f e e t p e r second.
A l l b l a s t parameter v a l u e s f o r b a r e , s p h e r i c a l HE can b e d e t e r -
mined from F i g u r e s 4.5 through 4.7 w i t h t h e a i d of Sachs' s c a l i n g l a w f o r at-
mospheric c o n d i t i o n s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e a t sea level. The f o l l o w i n g computa-
t i o n a l procedure s h o u l d b e used:
1. C a l c u l a t e Hopkinson-scaled d i s t a n c e ,
Z = R/W1l3 ft/lb1I3. (4.19)@
2. Calculate a " c o r r e c t e d " Z* v a l u e t o a c c o u n t f o r ambient a t -

mospheric p r e s s u r e p a t a l t i t u d e H:
z* = Z(P/P0>
113 . * (4.20)
3. U t i l i z i n g t h e proper b l a s t parameter curve ( F i g u r e s 4 . 5

through 4 . 7 ) , f i n d t h e b l a s t p a r a m e t e r v a l u e corresponding
t o t h e Z* v a l u e .
4. M u l t i p l y t h e v a l u e o b t a i n e d i n (3) by t h e p r o p e r " c o r r e c t i o n
f a c t o r " from Table 4.3 t o o b t a i n a b l a s t parameter v a l u e ad-
j u s t e d t o atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s a t a l t i t u d e H.
Example problem 4.17 i n S e c t i o n 4 . 8 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e above pro-

c e d u r e f o r a l l b l a s t parameters i n F i g u r e s 4.5 through 4.7. This c a l c u l a t i o n
shows t h a t t h e c o r r e c t i o n s f o r t h e b l a s t parameters side-on p r e s s u r e and s i d e -
on s p e c i f i c impulse a r e less t h a n 10 p e r c e n t f o r a l l s c a l e d d i s t a n c e s . So, a n
AE f i r m need n o t f o r m a l l y apply t h i s c o r r e c t i o n f o r d e s i g n of Pantex f a c i l i t i e s .
*Many s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s are given i n Reference 4.19 t o a l l o w c a l c u l a t i o n

w i t h f a i r accuracy over very l a r g e a l t i t u d e changes. One s h o u l d round t o no
more t h a n f o u r s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s a f t e r c a l c u l a t i o n .
4-2 7
Table 4.3 " C o r r e c t i o n F a c t o r s " f o r Blast Parameters
f o r A l t i t u d e Atmospheric Conditicms
Parameter Correction Factor?
Side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e , PS PIP,
R e f l e c t e d o v e r p r e s s u r e , Pr PIP,
Dynamic p r e s s u r e , Q PIP,
. (>)
4
Side-on s p e c i f i c impulse, iS (PIP,) 213
R e f l e c t e d s p e c i f i c impulse, ir (PIP,) 2 1 3 ).:(

I
Time o f arrival, ta
Dura t i o n o f o v e r p r e s s u r e , td
Shock v e l o c i t y , U 1
Peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y , u S 1
Decay c o n s t a n t , b 1
Scaled distance, Z
tp and a are ambient a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s a t a l t i t u d e H , while po and a. are

ambient a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s a t sea l e v e l .
po = 14.6965 p s i a
a. = 1116.4 f t / s e c
4-28
e
Equations 4.17 and 4.18 y i e l d s t a n d a r d a c c e p t e d estimates of t h e
p r e s s u r e and s o n i c v e l o c i t y a t an a l t i t u d e H. The a c t u a l p r e s s u r e and s o n i c
v e l o c i t y w i l l v a r y about t h e s t a n d a r d a c c e p t e d v a l u e s a c c o r d i n g t o l o c a l m e t e -
o r o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y a t t i m e of e x p l o s i o n . Extreme m e t e o r o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y
( e . g . , severe thunderstorms, abnormal t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s ) c o u l d a p p r e c i a b l y
change t h e ambient atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s from t h e s t a n d a r d a c c e p t e d v a l u e s a t
a g i v e n a l t i t u d e . But, t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s a r e much less t h a n t h e v a r i a t i o n due
t o a l t i t u d e a l o n e , and no c o r r e c t i o n s need b e made by a n AE f i r m , if h e a l s o
ignores a l t i t u d e correction.
c. Normal R e f l e c t i o n . An upper l i m i t t o b l a s t l o a d s i s o b t a i n e d i f
one i n t e r p o s e s a n i n f i n i t e , r i g i d w a l l i n f r o n t of t h e wave, and r e f l e c t s t h e
wave normally. A l l flow behind t h e wave i s s t o p p e d , and p r e s s u r e s a r e con-
s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r t h a n side-on. The p r e s s u r e i n normally r e f l e c t e d waves is
u s u a l l y d e s i g n a t e d p r ( t ) , and t h e peak r e f l e c t e d o v e r p r e s s u r e , Pr. The i n -
t e g r a l of o v e r p r e s s u r e o v e r t h e p o s i t i v e phase, d e f i n e d i n Equation (4.211, i s
t h e r e f l e c t e d s p e c i f i c impulse ir. D u r a t i o n s of t h e p o s i t i v e phase of normally
r e f l e c t e d waves a r e almost t h e same as f o r side-on waves, t d . The parameter
ir h a s been measured c l o s e r t o h i g h e x p l o s i v e b l a s t s o u r c e s t h a n have most
b l a s t parameters.
The Hopkinson-Cranz s c a l i n g l a w d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r a p p l i e s t o
s c a l i n g of r e f l e c t e d b l a s t wave parameters j u s t as w e l l a s i t does t o side-on
waves. That i s , a l l r e f l e c t e d b l a s t d a t a t a k e n under t h e same a t m o s p h e r i c
c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e same t y p e of e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e can b e reduced t o a common
b a s e f o r comparison and p r e d i c t i o n . Sachs' l a w f o r r e f l e c t e d waves f a i l s
c l o s e t o h i g h e x p l o s i v e b l a s t s o u r c e s b u t i t does apply beyond a b o u t t e n
charge r a d i i .
The l i t e r a t u r e c o n t a i n s c o n s i d e r a b l e d a t a on normally r e f l e c t e d
b l a s t waves from h i g h e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e s , u s u a l l y b a r e s p h e r e s of P e n t o l i t e o r
TNT [Goodman (Ref. 4 . 5 ) , J a c k and Armendt (Ref. 4.201, Dewey, e t a l . (Ref.
4.21), Johnson, e t a l . (Ref. 4.22), J a c k (Ref. 4.23) , Wenzel and Esparza (Ref.
4.24)]. S o , from t h e s e s o u r c e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u c t s c a l e d c u r v e s f o r
Pr and ir f o r s p e c i f i c condensed e x p l o s i v e s over f a i r l y l a r g e r a n g e s of s c a l e d
d i s t a n c e . F i g u r e 4.6 shows one such p a i r of c u r v e s . Measurements f o r re-
f l e c t e d s p e c i f i c impulse extend i n t o smaller s c a l e d d i s t a n c e s , i . e . , c l o s e r
t o t h e b l a s t s o u r c e , t h a n do measurements of r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e because a
much s i m p l e r measurement t e c h n i q u e s u f f i c e s f o r s p e c i f i c impulse measurement
[Johnson, e t . a l . (Ref. 4.22) and Dewey, e t a l . ( R e f . 4.2111. Furthermore,
r e f l e c t e d s p e c i f i c impulses can b e p r e d i c t e d i n t o t h e s u r f a c e of a condensed
s p h e r i c a l e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e , u s i n g a s i m p l e formula a p p l i c a b l e i n t h e s t r o n g
shock regime g i v e n by Baker (Ref. 4.25).
4-29
-- L
.
(4.22)
ir 2
4 ITR
where
MT = % + MA (4.23)
i s t o t a l mass of e x p l o s i v e ME p l u s mass of e n g u l f e d a i r MA, and R i s d i s t a n c e

from t h e c h a r g e c e n t e r . Very c l o s e t o t h e b l a s t s o u r c e , ME >> MA, and Equation
(4.22) g i v e s a s i m p l e 1/R2 r e l a t i o n f o r v a r i a t i o n o f ir w i t h d i s t a n c e , f o r
s t r o n g shocks. This r e l a t i o n i s a l s o noted by Dewey, e t a l . (Ref. 4.21).
Equation (4.22) i s used t o p l o t t h e dashed p o r t i o n of t h e c u r v e f o r s c a l e d ir
i n F i g u r e 4.6.
I
Unfortunately, f o r e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e s o t h e r than b a r e spheres-of
s o l i d h i g h e x p l o s i v e s , v e r y l i t t l e d a t a e x i s t f o r normally r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e s
and s p e c i f i c impulses. For shock waves weak enough t h a t air behaves as a p e r f e c t
g a s , t h e r e i s a f i x e d and well-known r e l a t i o n between peak r e f l e c t e d o v e r p r e s s u r e
and peak side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e [Doering and Burkhardt ( R e f . 4.26), Baker (Ref.
4.1)IY
- 2
- (v + 1) Ps
P
r
=2P
S
+ (4.24)
(y - 1) 5S + 2y
where
-
P = Pr/Po (4.25)
r
and
-
P = p /Po (4.26)
S S
-
A t low i n c i d e n t o v e r p r e s s u r e s (Ps -+ o ) , the r e f l e c t e d overpres-
s u r e approaches t h e a c o u s t i c l i m i t of twice t h e i n c i d e n t overpressure. I f
one were t o assume a c o n s t a n t y = 1 . 4 f o r a i r f o r s t r o n g shocks, t h e upper
l i m i t would a p p e a r t o b e pr = 8Fs. But, a i r i o n i z e s and d i s s o c i a t e s as sho
s t r e n g t h s i n c r e a s e , and y i s n o t c o n s t a n t . I n f a c t , t h e real upper l i m i t
Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981 4-30

r a t i o i s n o t e x a c t l y known, b u t i s p r e d i c t e d by Doering and Burkhardt (Ref.
4.26) t o b e as h i g h as 20. Erode (Ref. 4.27) has a l s o c a l c u l a t e d t h i s r a t i o
f o r normal r e f l e c t i o n of shocks i n sea level a i r , assuming a i r d i s s o c i a t i o n
and i o n i z a t i o n . H i s e q u a t i o n , given w i t h o u t n o t i n g i t s limits of a p p l i c a b i l i t y ,
i s , f o r Ps i n p s i ,
P 2.655 x ~ o - ~ P
r = S
+ 2 +
s' 1 + 1.728 X 10-4P
S
+ 1.921 X 10-9 Ps 2
-6 2
4.218 X + 4.834 X 10-2P
S
+ 6.856 X 10 P
S
-6 2 (4.27)
1 + 7.997 X 10-3P
S
+ 3.844 X 1 0 ps
We have c a l c u l a t e d t h i s r a t i o , and have used F i g u r e 4.5 t o determine c o r r e -

sponding s c a l e d d i s t a n c e s , f o r a wide r a n g e of side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e s . R e s u l t s
are t a b u l a t e d i n Table 4.4. They r e a c h t h e proper l o w p r e s s u r e asymptote of
twice side-on peak o v e r p r e s s u r e , and a g r e e remarkably w e l l w i t h t h e e m p i r i c a l
f i t t o d a t a f o r Pr i n F i g u r e 4.6. The r a t i o f o r t h e p e r f e c t g a s , Equation
(4.24) i s a l s o i n c l u d e d f o r comparison. One can see t h a t , above Ps = 100 p s i
and s t a n d a r d atmosphere c o n d i t i o n s , t h e l a t t e r e q u a t i o n i s i n c r e a s i n g l y i n
e r r o r and should n o t b e used. Brode's e q u a t i o n g i v e s a maximum r e f l e c t i o n
f a c t o r a t t h e s u r f a c e of a s p h e r i c a l HE charge a t sea l e v e l of Pr/Ps = 13.92.
Use o f t h i s formula i s a n improvement o v e r p r e d i c t i o n s from TM 5-1300, and
should be used i n p r e f e r e n c e t o t h a t r e f e r e n c e a t small-scaled d i s t a n c e s .
d . Oblique R e f l e c t i o n . Although normally i n c i d e n t b l a s t wave pro-

p e r t i e s u s u a l l y p r o v i d e upper l i m i t s t o b l a s t l o a d s on s t r u c t u r e s , the more
u s u a l case of l o a d i n g o f l a r g e , f l a t s u r f a c e s i s r e p r e s e n t e d by waves which
s t r i k e a t o b l i q u e i n c i d e n c e . Also, as a b l a s t wave from a s o u r c e some d i s -
t a n c e from t h e ground r e f l e c t s from t h e ground, t h e a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e must
change from normal t o o b l i q u e .
There have been many t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s o f o b l i q u e shock wave

r e f l e c t i o n from p l a n e s u r f a c e s , and some.experiments. The g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l
p r o c e s s e s a r e w e l l d e s c r i b e d i n References 4.1, 4.16 and 4.28.
W e w i l l summarize t h e i r work h e r e and p r e s e n t c u r v e s which can b e

used t o estimate. some of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of o b l i q u e l y r e f l e c t e d waves; u s u a l l y
shock f r o n t p r o p e r t i e s and geometry o n l y .
4-31
T a b l e 4.4 Normally R e f l e c t e d Blast Wave O v e r p r e s s u r e s
f o r S t a n d a r d Sea-Level Ambient C o n d i t i o n s
113 P IPS P
r
, psi P /P t
r s
R/WrnT r
3
(Brode) Based On P e r f e c t Gas
Ps, P s i Eq. (4.27) Eq. (4.27). Eq. (4.24)
ft/lb1I3
1 2.055 2.055 2.058

33.64
5 2.250 11.25 2.278

11.88
10 2.478 24.79 2.532

7.765
50 3.862 193.1 3.962

3.612
4.930 492.8 4.958
2.793 100
500 7.565 3,783.0 (6.976)

1.425
1,000 8.559 8,559 .O (7.440)

0.8931
5,000 11.96 59,800.0 (7.879)

0.2611
10,000 13.60 136,000 .O (7.939)

0~ 4 7 1
12,040 13.92 167,600 .O (7.949)

0.1272*
* Denotes s c a l e d d i s t a n c e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o s u r f a c e o f s p h e r i c a l TNT c h a r g e .
t P a r e n t h e s e s i n t h i s column i n d i c a t e v a l u e s which are t o o g r e a t l y i n e r r o r

t o b e used.
4-32
Oblique r e f l e c t i o n i s c l a s s e d as e i t h e r r e g u l a r o r Mach r e f l e c -
t i o n , dependent on i n c i d e n t a n g l e and shock s t r e n g t h . Geometries of t h e s e
two cases are shown i n F i g u r e s 4.8 and 4 . 9 . I n r e g u l a r r e f l e c t i o n , t h e i n c i -
d e n t shock t r a v e l s i n t o s t i l l a i r (Region One) a t v e l o c i t y U, w i t h i t s f r o n t
making t h e a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e a1 w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e w a l l . P r o p e r t i e s behind
t h i s f r o n t (Region Two) are t h o s e f o r a f r e e a i r shock. On c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
w a l l , t h e flow behind t h e i n c i d e n t shock i s t u r n e d , because t h e component nor-
m a l t o t h e w a l l must b e z e r o , and t h e shock i s r e f l e c t e d from t h e w a l l a t a
r e f l e c t i o n a n g l e aR t h a t i s d i f f e r e n t from a1. C o n d i t i o n s i n Region Three i n -
d i c a t e r e f l e c t e d shock p r o p e r t i e s . A p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r flush-mounted i n t h e
w a l l would r e c o r d o n l y t h e ambient and r e f l e c t e d wave p r e s s u r e s ( d i r e c t jump
from Region One t o Region Three) as t h e wave p a t t e r n t r a v e l e d a l o n g t h e w a l l ;
whereas, one mounted a t a s h o r t d i s t a n c e from t h e w a l l would r e c o r d t h e ambient
p r e s s u r e , t h e n t h e i n c i d e n t wave p r e s s u r e , and f i n a l l y t h e r e f l e c t e d wave p r e s -
s u r e . Some i n t e r e s t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of t h i s r e g u l a r l y r e f l e c t e d shock, given
by Kennedy (Ref. 4.16) are as f o l l o w s :
1. For a g i v e n s t r e n g t h of i n c i d e n t shock, t h e r e i s some c r i t i -

c a l a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e aextreme, such t h a t t h e t y p e of r e f l e c -
t i o n d e s c r i b e d above cannot occur f o r aI > aextreme.
2. For each gaseous medium t h e r e i s some a n g l e a such t h a t f o r

aI > a* t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e r e f l e c t e d shock i s g r e a t e r t h a n
i t i s f o r head-on r e f l e c t i o n . For a i r (approximated a s an
i d e a l gas w i t h y = 1 . 4 0 ) , a = 3923.
3. For a given s t r e n g t h of i n c i d e n t shock, t h e r e i s some v a l u e

f o r aI = un
such t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e r e f l e c t e d shock,
Pr/po i s a minimum.
4. The a n g l e of r e f l e c t i o n aR i s an i n c r e a s i n g monotonic func-

t i o n of t h e a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e UI.
A s noted i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n of r e g u l a r o b l i q u e r e f l e c t i o n , t h e r e
i s some c r i t i c a l a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e , dependent on shock s t r e n g t h , above which
r e g u l a r r e f l e c t i o n cannot o c c u r . I n 1877, E r n s t Mach showed t h a t t h e i n c i d e n t
and r e f l e c t e d shocks would c o a l e s c e t o form a t h i r d shock. Because of t h e
geometry of t h e shock f r o n t s , they were termed t h e Mach V o r Mach Y , w i t h t h e
s i n g l e shock formed by t h e c o a l e s c e d i n c i d e n t and r e f l e c t e d shocks normally
c a l l e d t h e Mach s t e m . The geometry of Mach r e f l e c t i o n i s shown i n F i g u r e 4 . 9 .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i n c i d e n t and r e f l e c t e d shocks I and R, w e now have t h e
Mach shock M; t h e j u n c t i o n T of t h e t h r e e shocks i s c a l l e d t h e t r i p l e p o i n t .
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e i s a l s o a s l i p s t r e a m S, a boundary between r e g i o n s of d i f -
f e r e n t p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y and d i f f e r e n t d e n s i t y , b u t of t h e same p r e s s u r e .
When a 1 i n F i g u r e 4.8 exceeds Ctextreme, t h e Mach wave M i s formed a t t h e w a l l
and grows a s t h e shock systems move a l o n g t h e w a l l w i t h t h e l o c u s of t h e
t r i p l e p o i n t b e i n g a s t r a i g h t l i n e AB.
4-33
-0
Fi'gure 4 . 8 Regular Oblique Reflection Of A Plane Shock

From R "kigid Wall (Reference 4.16)
R I
Figure 4 . 9 Mach Reflections From A Rigid Wall

(Reference 4.16)
4-34
Harlow and Amsden (Ref. 4.28) p r e s e n t a resume o f t h e o r y and ex-
periment on r e g u l a r r e f l e c t i o n and t h e l i m i t of r e g u l a r r e f l e c t i o n (which i s
a l s o t h e start of Mach r e f l e c t i o n ) . Two u s e f u l c u r v e s from their paper a r e
given here. F i g u r e 4.10 g i v e s a n g l e of r e f l e c t i o n aR a s a f u n c t i o n of a n g l e
of i n c i d e n c e a1 i n t h e r e g u l a r r e f l e c t i o n regime. The parameter 5 is d e f i n e d
as
(4.28)
S PO
[Harlow and Amsden (Ref. 4.28) c a l l 5 t h e shock s t r e n g t h , b u t i t i s , i n f a c t ,

t h e i n v e r s e of t h e shock s t r e n g t h . ] I n v e r t i n g Equation (4.28) w e a l s o have
the relation
- -
- -*s
=-- 1 1 (4.29)
ps Po E
A set of c u r v e s from t h e l i t e r a t u r e (Ref. 4.7) i s i n c l u d e d as

F i g u r e 4.11 t o a l l o w p r e d i c t i o n of r e f l e c t e d peak p r e s s u r e f o r o b l i q u e shocks.
These c u r v e s g i v e Pr/P, as a f u n c t i o n of Ps and aI f o r i n c i d e n t shock over-
p r e s s u r e s P, up t o 50 p s i .
There a r e some r e c e n t d a t a f o r s t r o n g b l a s t waves r e f l e c t e d from

a nearby w a l l which i n c l u d e b o t h normal and o b l i q u e r e f l e c t i o n s (Refs. 4.24
and 4.43). The t e s t arrangement i n c l u d e s a number of flush-mounted p r e s s u r e
transducers i n the w a l l . The d a t a a r e shown i n F i g u r e s 4 . 1 2 and 4 . 1 3 . In
t h e s e f i g u r e s , X i s t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e from t h e normal t o t h e wall through
t h e c h a r g e c e n t e r and R i s s t a n d o f f , measured t o t h e c h a r g e c e n t e r (See F i g u r e
4.14). These d a t a are a t much g r e a t e r p r e s s u r e s t h a n t h e d a t a i n F i g u r e 4.11,
b u t do n o t cover a l l shock f r o n t o b l i q u i t i e s . There are c u r v e s g i v e n a s
F i g u r e 4-6 i n TM 5-1300 which show r e f l e c t i o n f a c t o r s f o r both s t r o n g and weak
shocks as a f u n c t i o n of o b l i q u i t y . The lower c u r v e s i n t h a t f i g u r e a g r e e w e l l
w i t h F i g u r e 4.11, b u t t h e o r i g i n of t h e c u r v e s f o r s t r o n g shocks i s n o t known.
The s h a r p drops i n a l l of t h e upper c u r v e s i n t h a t f i g u r e a t a1 = 45 do - not
a g r e e w i t h t h e d a t a i n F i g u r e 4.12.
The AE is c a u t i o n e d t h a t t h e r e are s i g n i f i c a n t d a t a gaps i n pre-

d i c t i o n of p r e s s u r e s and impulses f o r o b l i q u e r e f l e c t i o n s , and t h a t a d d i t i o n a l
experiments and code c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e needed t o f i l l t h e s e gaps. I n a
s p e c i f i c problem a t Pantex, DOE w i l l p r o v i d e guidance.
e. E f f e c t of Casing on A i r B l a s t . Because of f r a g i l i t y and i n i t i a -

t i o n s e n s i t i v i t y , most HE i n weapon systems i s encased i n a tough, e x t e r i o r
s h e l l o r case. Experimental d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t b l a s t parameters o f cased HE
4-35
"I
Figure 4.10 Angle of Incidence versus Angle of Reflection

for Shocks of Different Strengths Undergoing Regular Reflection
(Reference 4.28)
4-36
4-37
VI
U
4-38
Figure 4.13 Scaled Specific Impulse versus Scaled Position
for Different Scaled Distances for Single Charge
(Reference 4.43)
4-39
ARGE
Figure 4.14 Explosive Charge Loading on a Wall as

a Function of Position
>
4-40
3
are s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from those determined for b a r e c h a r g e s , as ob-
t a i n e d from F i g u r e s 4.5 through 4 . 7 . The a d d i t i o n of c a s i n g t o a n e x p l o s i v e
charge changes t h e f u n c t i o n a l format of t h e b l a s t p a r a m e t e r s ; no l o n g e r are
t h e y simply a f u n c t i o n o f s c a l e d s t a n d o f f (R/W1/3), b u t they become f u n c t i o n s
of o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . A d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s which could b e i m p o r t a n t , b e s i d e s
s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e R and c h a r g e weight W are:
1. case w e i g h t , Wc,
2. case material p r o p e r t i e s such as toughness and d e n s i t y ,
3. case t h i c k n e s s ,
4. e x p l o s i v e p r o p e r t i e s such as d e t o n a t i o n v e l o c i t y and d e n s i t y .
Charge shape and ambient atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s could a l s o b e im-

p o r t a n t ; however, t h e s e v a r i a b l e s c o m p l i c a t e t h e a n a l y s i s and a r e t r e a t e d i n
s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n s . The cased c h a r g e s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l , t h e r e -
f o r e , b e assumed s p h e r i c a l i n shape w i t h mean sea l e v e l atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s .
The a d d i t i o n of a l a r g e number of independent v a r i a b l e s t o t h e f u n c t i o n a l f o r -
m a t f o r b l a s t parameters h a s t h e u n d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e d i f f i -
c u l t y of d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of any s i n g l e v a r i a b l e . The n e t
result i s t h e need f o r a l a r g e amount o f e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a o f t h e "proper"
type, t h a t i s , i n a t e s t matrix i n which t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of each v a r i a b l e i s
i n v e s t i g a t e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y . With such a l a r g e number of v a r i a b l e s , assump-
t i o n s have been made by v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o s i m p l i f y matters. One
approach i s t o assume t h a t t h e o n l y v a r i a b l e s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e
b l a s t parameters o t h e r t h a n charge weight W and s t a n d o f f R , i s c a s i n g w e i g h t ,
Wc. An e q u i v a l e n t b a r e charge weight, W', c a n t h e n b e d e f i n e d . An e q u i v a l e n t
scaled distance,
Z' = R/(W') 113 (4.30)
i s c a l c u l a t e d and t h e b l a s t parameters are o b t a i n e d as p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d

from F i g u r e s 4.5 through 4.7. Various f u n c t i o n a l f o r m a t s f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
W' have been suggested by d i f f e r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s (Ref. 4.30), w i t h Equation
(4.31) g i v i n g t h e b e s t f i t f o r s t e e l - c a s e d e x p l o s i v e s .
W' = k . 2 + (1 +o;8/w)j
C
w (4.31)
F i g u r e 4.15 i s a p l o t of t h i s e q u a t i o n , w i t h experimental d a t a , p l o t t e d as
p o i n t s . The d a t a p o i n t s f o r s t e e l - c a s e d e x p l o s i v e s f i t e q u a t i o n (4.31) r a t h e r
w e l l . But, t h e r e n a i n i n g d a t a p o i n t s f o r o t h e r mterials can b e s e e n t o a g r e e
very p o o r l y w i t h t h e e q u a t i o n .
4-41
t 0
1.8 0 S t e e l Case 0
0 0 8
0 A 1 Cas&
0
0 Tungsten Case* 0
1.6 a Cast A 1 356-T6 8
0
A A 1 Oxide*
A Cast Magnesium
0 i Ip 0
A292 T6 A
1.4 0
0 Lead Case* 8 8
0 0
S i l i c o n Carbide* A
(Crystolon 600)
=4
0 8 0
1.2
* A l l t h e s e mater-a s i n
.
p a r t i c l e form, bonded with
plastic
0 0 A
1 .o A
U
5
4 0.8
(d
?
" L o
d
3 Equation (4.31)
U
w (Only Steel-Cased
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
I 1111 I I I I I I l l 1 1 1 I I 1
0 I"' I I I
100 10 1 0.1
Case Weight/Charge Weight WC /W
F i g u r e 4.15 V a r i o u s Methods For P r e d i c t i n g Case E f f e c t s
4-42
The remaining d a t a were o b t a i n e d from a t e s t program conducted a t
BRL [Dewey, e t a l . (Ref. 4 . 3 0 ) ] . The purpose o f t h e t e s t program was t o d e t e r -
mine a more a c c u r a t e f u n c t i o n a l format f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f b l a s t p a r a m e t e r s
f o r cased c h a r g e s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n maximum l e t h a l i t y a t c l o s e s c a l e d stand-
o f f d i s t a n c e s ( 1 < R/W1/3 < 3 f t / l b 1 / 3 ) . The legend i n F i g u r e 4.15 i n d i c a t e s
t h a t a v a r i e t y o f - m a t e r i a l s w e r e used as c a s i n g s , and W' i s g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r
t h a n W, t h e c h a r g e w e i g h t . A l l materials used as c a s i n g s were h i g h l y b r i t t l e
o r were h e l d t o g e t h e r w i t h a b r i t t l e m a t r i x materia!,. It w a s a l s o found by
Dewey, e t a l . (Ref. 4.30) t h a t W' i t s e l f i s dependent on R f o r a g i v e n c h a r g e
weight W and t h a t Sachs' s c a l i n g d i d n o t a p p l y t o c h a r g e s c a s e d w i t h l i g h t ,
f r a n g i b l e materials. Dewey, e t a l . s u g g e s t e d a n a l t e r n a t i v e f u n c t i o n a l format
which seemed t o f i t t h e d a t a p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l f o r r e f l e c t e d s p e c i f i c impulse-
A modified s c a l e d d i s t a n c e i s d e f i n e d :
Z' = R (4.32)
(W + wc) 1 / 3
The b l a s t parameters are t h e n c a l c u l a t e d as p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d p e r

F i g u r e s 4.5 through 4.7. Equation (4.32) e f f e c t i v e l y adds t h e c a s i n g mass as
a d d i t i o n a l HE. S p e c i f i c impulse r e t a i n s t h e same energy s c a l i n g f a c t o r (WO)1 / 3
a s do d u r a t i o n and a r r i v a l t i m e . The d a t a from BRL (Dewey, e t a l . ) and a l s o
from a t e s t program conducted by NOL [ F i l l e r (Reference 4 . 3 1 ) ] are used as t h e
b a s i s f o r F i g u r e s 4.16 through 4.18. The d a t a extend t o a maximum s c a l e d
d i s t a n c e of 15 f t / l b 1 I 3 P e n t o l i t e . The i n d i v i d u a l d a t a p o i n t s a r e n o t
p l o t t e d ( e x c e p t f o r s t e e l c a s i n g ) ; r a t h e r , a d a t a range i s p l o t t e d t o g e t h e r
w i t h a s o l i d c u r v e f o r b a r e HE, P e n t o l i t e 6 0 / 4 0 w a s used i n b o t h t e s t pro-
grams, and hence, W i s i n pounds of P e n t o l i t e 60/40. Note t h a t t h e steel-
cased c h a r g e s (circles i n F i g u r e 4.18) produce t h e g r e a t e s t d i s c r e p a n c y i n
accord w i t h t h e r e s u l t s of F i g u r e 4.15.
Various e x p l a n a t i o n s have been proposed f o r t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e

e f f e c t i v e e x p l o s i v e weight W' o v e r b a r e c h a r g e weight W. One proposed ex-
p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t t h e c a s i n g p r e v e n t s s p a l l a t i o n of HE from t h e s u r f a c e of a
c h a r g e d u r i n g d e t o n a t i o n , e f f e c t i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e c h a r g e weight
W' over b a r e c h a r g e weight W. Another t h e o r y i s t h a t a mechanical e f f i c i e n c y
i s involved, o r ''impedance matching" between t h e e x p l o s i o n g a s e s and t h e cas-
i n g material. There i s a n obvious need f o r more e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n
i n t h i s s u b j e c t area.
I n a d d i t i o n t o a s p e c i f i c impulse from a i r b l a s t , t h e s h e l l cas-

i n g , from t h e momentum i n i t s fragments, i m p a r t s a n a d d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r a l
s p e c i f i c impulse. The t o t a l s p e c i f i c impulse which must b e r e s i s t e d by a
s t r u c t u r e i s t h e sum of t h e s p e c i f i c impulses from a i r b l a s t and from
fragments. Although t h e s e s e p a r a t e s p e c i f i c impulses do n o t a r r i v e a t t h e
4-4 3 Change 1 - 15 August 1981

I I I I 1 I l l I -1 I
Bare Spherical Pentolite 6 0 / 4 0
100
Data Spread f o r Spherical

Pentolite 6 0 / 4 0 With Brittle
TI
m
I
L
cn
P4
10
2 I I I 1 I I 1 1 1 I I I 1
1 10 60
Figure 4 . 1 6 Peak Side-On Overpressure f o r Spherical Pentolite

6 0 / 4 0 with Light, Brittle Case
4-4 4
70 - I I I I I l l 1 1
- -
- -
- -
- x
- Bare, Spherica
Pencolite
Data Spread For
Spherical P e n t o l i t e
-
60/ 40
0
a
10 - --
-
n
-
-
L)
3
+ -
al
- -
U
.I+
4
- -
0
U - -
5a
V
r
n
3 - Y -
H
2 I I I 1 I I I I I
1 10 20
Figure 4.17 Scaled Side-On Impulse f o r Spherical P e n t o l i t e

60/40 with Light, Brittle Case

600
-
I I I l l I I I 1 1 1
-
- Bare, Spherical Pencolite 60140 -
- -
Data Spread-,For Spherical
- Pentolite 60140 W i c h
Brittle Casing
-
100 -- --
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
Circles are
Sceel-Cased Peatolice
- 60140 Spherical Charges -
0
10 I I l 1 1 l 1 I I I I I ,
Figure 4.18 Scaled Reflected Impulse for Spherical Pentolite

6 0 / 4 0 with Light, Brittle Case
Change 1 - 15 August 1 9 8 1 4-46

same t i m e , s t r u c t u r a l c a l c u l a t i o n s are c o n s e r v a t i v e i f t h i s assumption i s
made. Should one wish t o make a more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s , t h e t i m e s o f a r r i v a l
can b e determined s e p a r a t e l y by u s i n g Figure 4.5 t o compute t h e a i r b l a s t
a r r i v a l t i m e and by d i v i d i n g t h e s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e by fragment v e l o c i t y t o
estimate t h e a r r i v a l t i m e f o r fragments.
Chapter 6 , Fragmentation, d e s c r i b e s approximate r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r

e s t i m a t i n g fragment v e l o c i t i e s o r d i s t r i b u t i o n s . These r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e used
t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a v e r a g e s p e c i f i c impulse from t h e many fragment c a s i n g p a r t i -
c l e s which s t r i k e a s t r u c t u r e ( p l a t e ) . P a r t i c u l a r l y c r i t i c a l i n t h i s estima-
t i o n p r o c e s s i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f fragment d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h e Gurney e q u a t i o n
(See Table 6.1) i n Chapter 6 f o r fragment v e l o c i t y . The a v e r a g e r e f l e c t e d
s p e c i f i c impulse ir imparted t o t h e p l a t e from fragment i m p a c t s i s e s t i m a t e d
u s i n g Equation ( 4 . 3 3 ) .
m(A)Vf
cos0 da (4.33)
*plate
where
i i s t h e r e f l e c t e d s p e c i f i c impulse,
r
m(A) is t h e a r e a l m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e fragments,
i s t h e average fragment v e l o c i t y u s i n g Gurney e q u a t i o n s ,

vf
A i s t h e s u r f a c e area of t h e p l a t e ,
plate
0 i s t h e a n g l e o f impact w i t h 90 d e g r e e s d e f i n e d a s normal
impact .
An e x p r e s s i o n must b e determined f o r m(A), t h e a r e a l mass d i s t r i -
b u t i o n o f fragments. The e x p r e s s i o n w i l l depend on c h a r g e shape and p l a t e
l o c a t i o n . For example, a c e n t r a l l y d e t o n a t e d s p h e r i c a l - c a s e d c h a r g e would
produce a n i s o t r o p i c fragment d i s t r i b u t i o n , w h i l e a c y l i n d e r would produce a
narrow beam width fragment spray. The impact o b l i q u i t y f a c t o r , cos0, a l s o
w i l l depend on c h a r g e geometry, s t a n d o f f , and p l a t e o r i e n t a t i o n . The impulse
t h u s computed w i l l be an a v e r a g e v a l u e o v e r t h e e n t i r e p l a t e and, fragment
impact b e i n g a d i s c r e t e phenomenon, any s m a l l s e c t i o n of p l a t e could e x p e r i -
ence a much h 4 g h e r s p e c i f i c impulse. This would b e t r u e i n p a r t i c u l a r f o r
c a s i n g s t h a t produce l a r g e , chunky fragments. Hence, o n e must a l s o d e s i g n
a g a i n s t s p a l l a t i o n and p e r f o r a t i o n by fragments (See Chapter 6 , Fragmentation).
4-47
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4 . 1
PROBLEM*- Find t h e maximum a n g l e a1 a t which r e g u l a r r e f l e c t i o n would occur f o r

a g i v e n shock s t r e n g t h i n v e r s e 5, and r e f l e c t i o n a n g l e aR f o r t h i s a I '
GIVEN: P = peak side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e
S
= ambient atmospheric p r e s s u r e
PO
FIND: a and a REFERENCE

I R
PO
SOLUTION: 1. 5 = Eq. ( 4 . 2 8 )
ps + Po
2. Read a Extreme corresponding t o t h e calcu-
lated 5 F i g . 4.10
3. Read g,
f o r g i v e n 5 and a I F i g . 4.10
CALCULATION
GIVEN: P = 25 p s i
S
po = 1 4 . 7 p s i
FIND: aI and 0"~

SOLUTION: 1. 5 = 25 + 14.7 = 0.37
2. E n t e r i n g F i g u r e 4.10, t h e maximum a n g l e a1
f o r r e g u l a r r e f l e c t i o n i s found t o b e 41'
3. Also, from F i g u r e 4 . 1 0 , t h e r e f l e c t i o n
a n g l e aR is='
*The primary u s e of F i g u r e 4.10 f o r an AE i s t o determine t h e v a l u e of shock

o b l i q u i t y f o r which t h e Mach s t e m starts t o form. The f i g u r e a l s o g i v e s
a n g l e of r e f l e c t i o n f o r given a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e and shock s t r e n g t h , b u t
t h i s i s of much less p r a c t i c a l u s e f o r an AE i n t e r e s t e d i n s u r f a c e l o a d i n g .
PROBLEM - Determine t h e peak r e f l e c t e d o v e r p r e s s u r e f o r a n o b l i q u e l y r e f l e c t e d

b l a s t wave o f i n t e r m e d i a t e s t r e n g t h .
GIVEN: a = a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e of b l a s t wave ( d e g r e e s )
I
P = peak side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e o f b l a s t wave
S
4-48
FIND: pr REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine r e f l e c t e d o v e r p r e s s u r e r a t i o
Fig. 4.11
Pr/P S
2. Calculate reflected pressure Eq. (4.25) &

p r = (Pr/Ps)(Ps> Eq. (4.26)
CALCULATION
GIVEN: a = 60"
I
P = 50 p s i
S
FIND: Pr
SOLUTION: 1. E n t e r i n g F i g u r e 4.11 P /Ps = 1.8

r
2 . P = (1.8) (50) = 90 p s i
r
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4.3
PROBLEM - Determine t h e b l a s t parameters u s i n g F i g u r e 4.5 f o r a s p h e r i c a l

f r e e - a i r b l a s t ; and compare t o a ground b u r s t of same e x p l o s i v e
w e i g h t , a t sea level atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s .
GIVEN: R = d i s t a n c e from c e n t e r o f e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e
(standoff [ f t ] )
W = weight and t y p e of HE
FIND: Free-Air B l a s t REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. E q u i v a l e n t TNT e x p l o s i v e weight Appendix A

W = Explosive w e i g h t times TNT- f o r TNT
equivalency f a c t o r Equivalencies
2. C a l c u l a t e Hopkinson-scaled d i s t a n c e
Z = R/W
113 Eq. (4.19)
3. Determine t h e r e q u i r e d b l a s t parameters
corresponding t o Z F i g . 4.5
FIND: Ground B u r s t With C r a t e r i n g
SOLUTION: 1. Find a d j u s t e d TNT weight W' = 1.8 W Eq. (4.16)

TNT
Z' = R/W
.1/ 3 Eq. (4.19)
3. Determine t h e r e q u i r e d b l a s t parameters
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o Z' Fig. 4.5
4-49
CALCULATION
GIVEN: R = 20 f t
W = 58.6 l b Composition B
FIND: Free-Air Blast
SOLUTION: 1. W = ( 5 8 . 6 ) ( 1 . 0 9 2 ) = 6 4 l b
1/3
2 . Z = 20/64 = 5 ft/lb
3. E n t e r F i g u r e 4.5 f o r Z = 5 f t / l b 1 l 3 and r e a d :
P = 24 p s i
S
i
1/3
7 = 1X psi-sec/lb
t
= 1.38 X sec/lb
1/3
p-7
t
= 1 . 5 X 10
-3 s e c / l b 113
3%
W
For t i m e s and impulse, m u l t i p l y s c a l e d v a l u e s
-2
iS = (1 X 1 0 - 2 ) ( 6 4 1 / 3 ) p s i - s e c = 4 X 10 psi-sec
-3
t d = ( 1 . 3 8 X 1 0 - 3 ) ( 6 4 I 3 ) sec = 5.52 X 1 0 sec
-3
= (1.5 X 10-3)(64 sec = 6.0 X 1 0 sec
ta
These v a l u e s can b e compared t o c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e s
o b t a i n e d i n S e c t i o n 4 . 8 f o r e f f e c t of a l t i t u d e
-
FIND: Ground B u r s t With C r a t e r i n g
SOLUTION: 1. W = 1 . 8 W = ( 1 . 8 ) ( 6 4 ) = 115.2 l b
1/3
2 . 2 = 2 0 / 1 1 5 . 2 1 / 3 = 4.11 f t / l b
3. Enter F i g u r e 4.5 f o r Z = 4.11 f t / l b 1 l 3 and r e a d :
P = 37 p s i
S
i
psi-sec/lb 1 / 3
,n3 = 1 . 2 X
t
= 1.25 X s e c / l b1 / 3
7
4-50
t
1/3
*= 1.04 X sec/lb
W
For t i m e s and impulse, m u l t i p l y s c a l e d v a l u e s
1/3
by 'TNT
-2
i = (1.2 X 10-2)(115.21/3) p s i - s e c = 5.84 X 10 psi-sec
S
td
= (1.25 X 10-3)(~~5.2 sec = 6.08 X sec
-3
t
a = (1.04 x (115.2 'I3) sec = 5.06 X 1 0 sec
PROBLEM - Determine t h e peak side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e , r e f l e c t e d o v e r p r e s s u r e ,

side-on impulse, and r e f l e c t e d impulse f o r s t e e l - c a s e d HE.
( s t a n d o f f [f t ] )
W = weight and t y p e of HE
W = casing weight
C
FIND: Ps, P,, is, and ir REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. E q u i v a l e n t TNT e x p l o s i v e w e i g h t Table 6 of

W = (W)(TNT F a c t o r ) Appendix A
2. Calculate an a d j u s t e d explosive weight
Eq. (4.31)
3. C a l c u l a t e modified Hopkinson-scaled
distance
Z' = R/W* 1/3
Eq. (4.30)
4. Determine t h e r e q u i r e d b l a s t parameters F i g . 4.5 &
corresponding t o Z F i g . 4.6
CALCULATION
GIVEN: R = 20 f t
W = 9.16 l b Composition B
W = 5 1 b
C
FIND: Ps, Pr, is, and i r
SOLUTION: 1. W = (1.092)(9.16) = 10 l b
J
4-51
2. W = r0.20 + (1 + 5/10) J 10 l b
W = 7.3 l b
1/3
3. Z = 20/7.3/~ = 10.3 f t / l b
4. Enter F i g u r e 4.5 and f i n d P
S
and i
S
/$I3
P = 5.6 p s i
S
1/3
i = 5 X psi-sec/lb
S
,1/3
M u l t i p l y s c a l e d side-on impulse by W
-3
i
S
= (5 x (7 . 3 l l 3 ) psi-sec = 9.7 x 10 psi-sec
1/3
E n t e r F i g u r e 4.6 and f i n d Pr and i /W
r
P = 15 psi
r
i /W13 = 1.4 X 10
-2 p s i - s e c / l b 1 / 3
r
,1/3
M u l t i p l y s c a l e d r e f l e c t e d impulse by W
-2
i = (1.4 X 10-2)(7.31/3) p s i - s e c = 2.7 X 10 psi-sec
r
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4.5
PROBLEM - Determine t h e peak side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e , side-on impulse, r e f l e c t e d

o v e r p r e s s u r e , and r e f l e c t e d impulse, f o r HE c a s e d i n b r i t t l e o r f r a g -
mented c a s i n g material.
(standoff [ f t ] )
W = w e i g h t and type of HE
Wc = c a s i n g w e i g h t o f b r i t t l e material
FIND : Ps, is, Pr, and ir REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. .Equivalent TNT e x p l o s i v e weight

W = E x p l o s i v e w e i g h t times TNT- T a b l e 6 of
equivalency f a c t o r Appendix A
2 . C a l c u l a t e modified Hopkinson-scaled
distance
Z = R/(W +
Wc)
1/3
Eq. (4.32)
3. Determine t h e r e q u i r e d b l a s t parameters F i g . 4.5 &
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o Z F i g . 4.6
4-52
CALCULATION
GIVEN: R = 20 f t
W = 10 l b of TNT
W =51b
C
-
FIND: Ps, is, Pry and ir
SOLUTION: 1. WmT = (1) (10) = 1 0 l b
2. Z = 20/(10 + 5) 1 1 3
113
Z = 8.1 f t / l b
3. E n t e r F i g u r e 4.5 and f i n d PS and iS /d/ 3
P = 8.8 p s i
S
i
S
= 6.5 X 10-3psi-sec/lb 113
M u l t i p l y s c a l e d side-on impulse by $ / 3
i = (6.5 X (101/3) psi-sec = 1 . 4 X psi-sec
S
Enter F i g u r e 4.6 and f i n d P and i /W1 / 3

r r
Pr = 25 p s i
i /$I3 = 1 . 8 X 1 0-2 p s i - s e c / l b 1 / 3
r
1/3
M u l t i p l y s c a l e d r e f l e c t e d impulse by W
i = (1.8) ( l o l l 3 ) p s i - s e c = 3.9 X 1 0-2 psi-sec
r
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4.6
PROBLEM - The r e f l e c t i o n f a c t o r (Pr/Ps) c l o s e t o a n e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e may n o t

b e c a l c u l a b l e from F i g u r e 4.6, b u t i n s t e a d one may have t o u s e
Equation (4.27) f o r t h e s e s t r o n g s h o c k s . The problem i s t o d e t e r -
mine r e f l e c t i o n f a c t o r (Pr/Ps) and Pr c l o s e i n t o a c h a r g e .
GIVEN: Z = s c a l e d d i s t a n c e (R/W1 / 3 )
FIND: Pr REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine i f s c a l e d d i s t a n c e i s below
t h a t where t h e Pr c u r v e e x t e n d s i n F i g u r e
4.6. I f n o t , r e a d v a l u e o f P,. F i g . 4.6
4-53
2. If n o t on F i g u r e 4.6, r e a d v a l u e of Ps
from t h e c u r v e i n F i g u r e 4.5 (which ex-
tends t o charge surface) F i g . 4.5
3. Use Equation (4.27) t o s o l v e f o r r e f l e c -
tion factor Eq. (4.27)
4. U s e r e s u l t s of S t e p 3 t o o b t a i n P r
CALCULATION
-
FIND: Pr
SOLUTION: 1. Examining F i g u r e 4.6 shows t h a t t h e Pr c u r v e

does n o t e x t e n d i n t o
2 = R/W = 2.0 x 10-1
2. U s i n g Figure 4.5
3
P = 7.0 X 10 psi
S
3. Using Equation (4.27)
pr
-I 3
2.655 X (7.0 X 10 + 2 +
3
1 + 1.728 X l o 4 (7.0 X 10 ) + 1.921 XIO- (7 X lo3)
3 2
4.218 X + 4.834 X lo-* (7.0 X lo3) + 6.856 X lo4 (7.0 X 10 )
3 2
1 + 7.997 X (7.0 X lo3) + 3.844 X (7.0 X 10 )
= 12.82 = R e f l e c t i o n F a c t o r
r Ips
P
r
= (Pr/P ) X P
S S
= 12.82 X 7.0 X lo3 = 8.97 X lo4 psi
4-54
4.3.1.2 Non-Spherical Geometry
A b a r e high e x p l o s i v e , when p r o p e r l y i n i t i a t e d i n f r e e a i r , w i l l un-

dergo a n extremely r a p i d chemical decomposition w i t h release of energy, i n t h e
form of a " d e t o n a t i o n wave." The d e t o n a t i o n wave, w i t h o r i g i n a t t h e s i t e of
i n i t i a t i o n , w i l l p r o p a g a t e r a d i a l l y through t h e e x p l o s i v e a t a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
" s t e a d y s t a t e " d e t o n a t i o n v e l o c i t y . I f t h e e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e is i n i t i a t e d a t
i t s c e n t e r of mass and i s s p h e r i c a l i n shape, t h e d e t o n a t i o n wave should r e a c h
t h e e n t i r e c h a r g e s u r f a c e a t t h e same i n s t a n t o r w i t h i n a few microseconds of
t h e same t i m e . A shock wave w i l l t r a v e l through t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a i r , i t s
s t r e n g t h a f u n c t i o n of r a d i a l s t a n d o f f from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e mass of t h e ex-
plosion. The t e c h n i q u e s developed f o r e s t i m a t i o n of b l a s t p a r a m e t e r s assumed
a s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e i n f r e e a i r , o r e q u i v a l e n t l y , a h e m i s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e rest-
i n g on a s u r f a c e t h a t i s a p e r f e c t r e f l e c t o r of b l a s t waves.
Most ordnance d e v i c e s are non-spherical i n shape. For a non-spheri-

c a l c h a r g e , a shock wave w i l l n o t e n t e r t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a i r as a s p h e r i c a l
wave, n o r a t t h e same i n s t a n t o v e r t h e e n t i r e c h a r g e s u r f a c e . The shape and
s t r e n g t h o f t h e shock wave e n t e r i n g t h e air w i l l depend b o t h upon c h a r g e geo-
metry, and upon t h e r e l a t i v e l o c a t i o n a t which i n i t i a t i o n o c c u r r e d . The b l a s t
parameters w i l l b e f u n c t i o n s n o t o n l y of r a d i a l s t a n d o f f , b u t a l s o o f azimuth
and p o s s i b l y e l e v a t i o n . There e x i s t s no e a s i l y determined " c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r "
as w a s t h e c a s e , f o r example, f o r h i g h a l t i t u d e ambient a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s .
Experimental programs have been conducted by v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s a t

v a r i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e b l a s t f i e l d around non-spheri-
c a l e x p l o s i v e s of s i m p l e , r e g u l a r geometries ( c y l i n d e r s , cubes, c o n e s , e t c . )
(See References 4.34 through 4.38). S e v e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s were common t o t h e
i n v e s t i g a t o r s . One w a s t h a t t h e l a r g e s t o v e r p r e s s u r e always o c c u r r e d i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f t h e charge f a c e w i t h g r e a t e s t p r e s e n t e d s u r f a c e area, and a n o t h e r ,
t h a t m u l t i p l e p r e s s u r e "peaks" o c c u r r e d i n t h e i n i t i a l p o s i t i v e o v e r p r e s s u r e
phase. S h o r t - d u r a t i o n photographs showed t h a t t h e m u l t i p l e p r e s s u r e peaks
correspond t o m u l t i p l e shocks, produced along edges o f e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s where
d e t o n a t i o n waves from d i f f e r e n t f a c e s o f t h e c h a r g e i n t e r f a c e and form what i s
termed a " b r i d g e wave" analogous t o t h e Mach s t e m formed w i t h r e f l e c t e d b l a s t
waves (Reference 4.34). The secondary shocks t e n d t o o v e r t a k e and c o a l e s c e
w i t h t h e l e a d i n g shocks as r a d i a l s t a n d o f f from t h e c h a r g e is i n c r e a s e d . Ex-
p e r i m e n t a l l y i t h a s been found t h a t t h e u s e of h e m i s p h e r i c a l end caps on cy-
l i n d r i c a l c h a r g e s w i l l e l i m i n a t e t h e f o r m a t i o n of b r i d g e waves. For a c h a r g e
of a p a r t i c u l a r non-spherical geometry, as s t a n d o f f i n c r e a s e s , t h e b l a s t wave
becomes more s p h e r i c a l and o n l y small e r r o r s are induced by n e g l e c t i n g c h a r g e
shape.
A l a r g e quantity of d a t a f o r c y l i n d r i c a l c h a r g e s has been amassed by

experimental i n v e s t i g a t o r s . P l o o s t e r (Reference 4.33) h a s c u r v e - f i t t h e d a t a
o b t a i n e d from a t e s t program conducted a t Denver Research I n s t i t u t e by W i s o t s k i
and Snyer (Reference 4.32). The c u r v e f i t is of t h e f u n c t i o n a l form Ps = f

(2, L/D, 0) where Ps i s peak side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e , Z i s t h e s c a l e d r a d i a l
s t a n d o f f from the c y l i n d e r , L/D i s t h e c y l i n d e r l e n g t h t o d i a m e t e r r a t i o , and
8 is the azimuth a n g l e ( s e e F i g u r e 4-22 f o r d e f i n i t i o n ) . The d a t a b a s e f o r the
c u r v e f i t c o n s i s t e d of Comp B c y l i n d e r s w i t h length-to-diameter r a t i o s rang-
ing from 1 / 4 t o 1 0 / 1 . The a v e r a g e ambient atmospheric p r e s s u r e w a s 1 2 . 0 3
p s i a . Peak side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e v a l u e s ranged from 2 t o 100 p s i g . ' h o equa-
t i o n s r e s u l t e d from t h e curve f i t :
For c h a r g e s L/D F 1
y = [2.0467 - 0.1146X + (0.1285 - 0.0342X) cos0
+ (0.0621 - 0.328OX) COS 20 + (-0.0029 + 0.0304X) COS 30
+ (-0.1532 - 0.998X) COS 401
+ [-2.1617 + 0.142213 + (-0.2079 + 0.1161X) COS@
+ (-0.4178 + 0.3686X) COS 20 + (-0.1372 + 0.0648X) COS 30
+ + 0.1191X) COS 401 X

(-0.3484
+ [0.4366 + 0.0418X + (0.0138 + 0.0983X) cos0
+ (0.1178 + 0.1451X) COS 20 + (0.2556 - 0.043X) COS 30
+ (0.3123 + 0.1616X) cos 401 X 2 , (4.34)
and f o r disc-shaped c h a r g e s (L/D < 1):
y [2.0467 - 0.1753X + (0.1285 + 0.0728X) COS@
+ (0.0621 - 0.2503X) COS 20 + (-0.0029 + 0.0079X) COS 30
- 0.1534 COS 401
+ [-2.1616+ 0.0464X + (-0.2079 - 0.2174X) COSO

+ 1-0.4178 + 0.3426X) COS 20 + (-0.1372 - 0.1171X) C O S 30
+ (-0.3484 - 0.3449X) COS 401 X
+ [0.4366 + 0.0053X + (0.0138 + 0.0006X) cos0
+ (0.1178 - 0.2656X) COS 20 + (0.2556 + 0.2072X) cos 30
+ (0.3123 - 0.2140X) COS 401 X 2 (4.35)
4-56
where :
X = Rn(L/D) ( 4
X = Rn(0.0893 R/W 1/3) (b)
y = En pS - 0.20; P
S
= 1.22eY (c) (4.36)
The o r i g i n a l e q u a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d by P l o o s t e r have been modified t o

a l l o w c a l c u l a t i o n s a t s t a n d a r d sea l e v e l c o n d i t i o n s w i t h TNT as t h e e x p l o s i v e .
E m p i r i c a l c u r v e f i t s are g e n e r a l l y v a l i d only w i t h i n t h e range of t h e

d a t a b a s e o f t h e curve f i t , and t h u s , Equations (4.34) and (4.35) should b e
u t i l i z e d w i t h the l i m i t a t i o n s of the d a t a b a s e l i s t e d above. F i g u r e s 4.19
through 4.21 are p l o t s comparing t h e curve f i t t o t h e a c t u a l d a t a (Ref. 4 . 3 2 ) .
A f r e q u e n t c o n v e n t i o n used i n p r e s e n t i n g d a t a i s " e q u i v a l e n t s p h e r i c a l weight"
f o r a non-spherical charge a t a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n relative t o t h e charge.
F i g u r e s 4.22 through 4.24 are p l o t ' s of t h e r a t i o of e q u i v a l e n t s p h e r i c a l
charge w e i g h t t o c y l i n d e r c h a r g e w e i g h t , a s a f u n c t i o n o f s c a l e d s t a n d o f f a z i -
muthal l o c a t i o n , and L/D r a t i o .
Some d a t a e x i s t f o r e x p l o s i o n s of n o n - s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e s on t h e ground
s u r f a c e ( s e e Ref. 4.35). But, t h e s e d a t a are n o t e x t e n s i v e enough t o develop
p r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s and e q u a t i o n s s u c h as Equations (4.34) and ( 4 . 3 5 ) . The pre-
s e n c e of a n e x t e n s i v e and massive r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s u c h as t h e ground o r t h e
f l o o r o f a n e x p l o s i v e bay c o m p l i c a t e s b l a s t wave p r e d i c t i o n f o r n o n - s p h e r i c a l
c h a r g e s i n two ways: (1) t h e complex s h a p e of t h e b l a s t waves from t h e non-
s p h e r i c a l s o u r c e are made even more complex by r e f l e c t i o n from t h e r e f l e c t i n g
s u r f a c e , and ( 2 ) most r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s are n o t i d e a l and assumptions m u s t
b e made on energy a b s o r p t i o n by t h e s u r f a c e .
For e s t i m a t i o n of b l a s t p a r a m e t e r s f o r n o n - s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e s on t h e
ground, o r on f l o o r s on g r a d e , i t i s recommended t h a t , u n l e s s s p e c i f i c d a t a
such as i n Reference 4.35 a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h a r g e s h a p e ,
the c h a r g e b e assumed t o b e of h e m i s p h e r i c a l shape l o c a t e d on t h e s u r f a c e .
A r e f l e c t i o n f a c t o r o f 1 . 7 t o 2.0 should t h e n b e used as m u l t i p l i e r f o r t h e
charge w e i g h t t o o b t a i n a n e q u i v a l e n t f r e e - a i r s p h e r e w e i g h t , which i s t h e n
used t o e n t e r F i g u r e s 4.5 through 4 . 7 f o r p r e d i c t i o n o f b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s .
I f n o n - s p h e r i c a l geometry w i l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t b l a s t wave para-

meters i n Pantex P l a n t a p p l i c a t i o n s , DOE w i l l p r o v i d e guidance t o t h e AE.
Where n e c e s s a r y , t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l b e g i v e n i n t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a .
4-57
100
10
1/3
.9.43 f t / l b
0, degrees
F i g u r e 4.19 Comparison of Experimental Peak Side-on Over-

p r e s s u r e ( s o l i d c u r v e s ) w i t h Values C a l c u l a t e d from Equation
4.35 (dashed c u r v e s ) a s a Function of Azimuth Angle 0 and
Scaled D i s t a n c e (R/W1/3) from t h e Charge, f o r C y l i n d r i c a l
Charges w i t h L/D R a t i o of 1 / 4 . IJumbers a t Right I n d i c a t e
Scaled D i s t a n c e f o r Each P a i r of Curves
4-58
100
5.79
6.75
7.72
.rl
v1 9.26
a
L 10
v1
P4
11.12
15.44
Z = 19.30 f t / l b 113
I 1 I I 1 1
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
0, degrees
. L
F i g u r e 4.20 A s i n F i g u r e 4.19, Comparison of Experimental

Values t o Those C a l c u l a t e d from Equation 4.34, LID = 1
4-59
100
10
1
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
0 , degrees
F i g u r e 4 . 2 1 As i n F i g u r e 4.19, Comparison of Experimental

Values t o Those C a l c u l a t e d from E q u a t i o n 4 . 3 4 , L/D = 6
4-60
10
0.1
1 10 100
Scaled D i s t a n c e R/d/3,f t / l b 113
F i g u r e 4 . 2 2 R a t i o , E q u i v a l e n t S p h e r i c a l Mass t o C y l i n d e r Mass, ( 0 = 0'

and 180') Based on E x p e r i m e n t a l Peak Side-On O v e r p r e s s u r e , a t Sea L e v e l
Amb i e n t Atmo s p h e r i c C o n d i t i o n s
4-61
4 .O
1'
w
0.2
S c a l e d D i s t a n c e R/W 1/3 , f t / l b 113
F i g u r e 4 . 2 3 R a t i o , E q u i v a l e n t S p h e r i c a l Mass t o C y l i n d e r Mass, ( 0 = g o " ) ,

Based on E x p e r i m e n t a l Peak Side-On O v e r p r e s s u r e , a t Sea L e v e l
Amb i e n t Atmospheric Cond i t i o n s
4-62
10
L I
I
---
D e t o n a t i o n a t 180"
- Dashed Curves 1 3 5 O
S o l i d Curves 45"
0.4
1 10 20
S c a l e d D i s t a n c e R/W 113 , ft/lb1'3
F i g u r e 4 . 2 4 R a t i o , E q u i v a l e n t S p h e r i c a l Mass t o C y l i n d e r Mass, ( 0 =
45O and 1 3 5 O ) Based on E x p e r i m e n t a l Peak S i d e - O n O v e r p r e s s u r e , a t Sea
Level Ambient Atmospheric C o n d i t i o n s
4-63
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4.7
PROBLEM - Determine peak side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e around a b a r e , c y l i n d r i c a l free-

a i r HE e x p l o s i o n .
GIVEN: R = d i s t a n c e from center of e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e

(standoff [ f t ] )
W = w e i g h t and t y p e of HE ( l b )
0 = Azimuth a n g l e i n d e g r e e s (See F i g u r e s 4.22
through 4.24)
LID = length-to-diameter r a t i o of charge
FIND: Ps REFERENCE
T a b l e 6 of
SOLUTION: 1. E q u i v a l e n t TNT e x p l o s i v e w e i g h t Appendix A
W = E x p l o s i v e w e i g h t t i m e s TNT- f o r TNT
equivalency f a c t o r Equivalencies
Z = R/W 1 / 3 Eq. (4.19)
3. Calculate modified Hopkinson-scaled
d i st ance
X = Rn (0.08932) Eq. (4.36b)
4. C a l c u l a t e modified L I D r a t i o
X = Rn (L/D) Eq. (4.36a)
5. Calculate P
S
O b t a i n y from Equation ( 4 . 3 4 ) , t h e n
s u b s t i t u t e y i n t o Equation ( 4 . 3 6 ~ ) Eq. (4.34) &
= 1.22 eY Eq. ( 4 . 3 6 ~ )
pS
CALCULATION
GIVEN:
~~ R = 25 f t
W = 52.6 l b Comp B
0 = 0 , 45, 90 d e g r e e s
L/D = 1
FIND :
pS
SOLUTION: 1. E q u i v a l e n t TNT e x p l o s i v e w e i g h t
W = (1.092)(52.6) = 57.4 l b
2. Z = 25157.4 'I3 = 6.48 f t / l b
113
3. X = Rn(0.0893 X 6.48) = -0.547
4-64
4. X = kn(1) = 0
For 0 = 0'
y -
(2.0467 + 0.1285
[-2.1617 -
cos(0)
0.2079 cos(0)
+ 0.0621 cos(0) - 0.0029 cOS(0) - 0.1532 COs(O)] +
- 0.4178 COS(O) - 0.1372 coS(0) - 0.3484 COS (O)] X
(-0.547) + L0.4366 + 0.0138 cos(0) + 0.1178 cos(0) + 0.2556 cos(0) +
0.3123 cos(O)] X (-0.45712 4.211
4.211
= 1.22 e
pS
P = 82.3 p s i
S
For 0 = 45"
y -
[2.0467 + 0.1285 cos(45) + 0.0621 coS(90) - 0.0029 coa(135) - 0.1532 c o s ( l 8 0 ) ) +
[-2.1617 - 0.2079 cos(45) - 0.4178 cos(90) - 0.1372 ~ ~ ( 1 3 5- )0.3484 ~ 0 ~ ( 1 8 0 X) ]
(-0.547) + [0.4366 + 0.0138 cos(45) + 0.1178 cos(90) + 0.2556 cos(135) +
0.3123 ~ o s ( 1 8 O ) lX (-0.547)2 3.299
3.299
P = 1.22 e
S
P = 33.0 p s i
S
For 0 = 90"
y - [2.0467
[-2.1617
+ 0.1285
- 0.2079
cos(90)
cos(90)
+ 0.0621
- 0.4178
cos(l80)
cos(l80)
- 0.0029
- 0.1372
Cos(270)
COs(270)
- 0.1532
-
cos(360)l +
0.3484 ~ 0 ~ ( 3 6 0 X) ]
+ + + 0.1178 + 0.2536 +
(-0.547) [0.4366
0.3123 c o s ( 3 6 0 ) ] X (-0.54712
3.165
-
0.0138 CoS(90)
3.165
cO~(180) COS(270)
P = 1.22 e
S
P = 28.9 psi
S
(These v a l u e s could have b e e n o b t a i n e d from F i g u r e 4 . 2 0 ,
b u t w i t h one t o two d i g i t accuracy.)
PROBLEM - Determine t h e e q u i v a l e n t s p h e r i c a l weight (TNT) f o r a c y l i n d e r

charge .
GIVEN: R = d i s t a n c e from c e n t e r of e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e
( s t a n d o f f If t ] )
W = welght and t y p e of HE ( l b )
0 = azimuth a n g l e i n d e g r e e s (See F i g u r e s 4 . 2 2
through 4 . 2 4 )
L/D = length-to-diameter r a t i o o f c h a r g e
-
FIND: E q u i v a l e n t S p h e r i c a l Weight REFERENCE
W = e x p l o s i v e weight times TNT- Table 6 o f
equivalency f a c t o r Appendix A
2 . C a l c u l a t e Hopkinson-scaled d i s t a n c e Eq. ( 4 . 1 9 )
4-65
3. Obtain t h e r a t i o , Equivalent S p h e r i c a l F i g . 4.22,
MassICylinder Mass d i r e c t l y from F i g u r e s F i g . 4.23, &
4.22 through 4.24 F i g . 4.24
4. The e q u i v a l e n t s p h e r i c a l w e i g h t o f TNT
i s found b y m u l t i p l y i n g t h e r a t i o from
S t e p 3 by t h e c y l i n d e r w e i g h t W
E q u i v a l e n t s p h e r i c a l w e i g h t (TNT) = W X ' r a t i o
CALCULATION
GIVEN: R = 25 f t
W = 52.6 l b Comp B
0 = 0 , 45, 90, 135, 180 d e g r e e s
L/D = 6
FIND : E q u i v a l e n t Spherical. Weight
W = (1.092)(52.6) = 57.4 lb
2. 2 = 25/57.4 = 6.48 f t / l b 1 I 3
3. From F i g u r e 4.22 :
For 0 = 0 "
R a t i o = 0.4
For 0 = 180'
Ratio = 1.3
From F i g u r e 4.23:
F o r 0 = 90"
Ratio = 1.6
From F i g u r e 4.24:
For 0 = 45"
Ratio = 1.3
For 0 = 135'
R a t i o = 1.3
4. The e q u i v a l e n t s p h e r i c a l w e i g h t i s l i s t e d
below i n t a b u l a r form, f o r
z = 6.48 f t / l b 1 I 3 , L/D = 6
-
0 Ratio E q u i v a l e n t S p h e r i c a l Weight ( l b )
0 0.4 23 .O
45 1.3 74.6
90 1.6 91.8
135 1.3 74.6
180 1.3 74.6
4-66
'These e q u i v a l e n t weights can d i c t a t e w a l l d e s i g n ,
f o r e x p l o s i o n s of l a r g e L/D c y l i n d r i c a l c h a r g e s ,
even a t c o n s i d e r a b l e s t a n d o f f s . The r a t i o of 1 . 6
a t 90" azimuth a n g l e a p p l i e s a t a r a t h e r l a r g e
s c a l e d d i s t a n c e f o r a c c i d e n t s i n e x p l o s i v e bays.
4-67
4.3.2 M u l t i p l e Explosion Sources
When a m u l t i p l e e x p l o s i o n o c c u r s , b l a s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can b e v e r y
d i f f e r e n t from t h a t measured f o r e i t h e r a s i n g l e charge of t h e t o t a l c h a r g e
weight o r any one of t h e s e p a r a t e c h a r g e s t r e a t e d a l o n e . I n between two o r
more c h a r g e s d e t o n a t e d a t t h e same t i m e o r c l o s e i n t i m e , shock waves w i l l i n -
t e r a c t through r e f l e c t i o n and c a u s e h i g h peak p r e s s u r e s . Outside an area in-
c l u d i n g two o r more c h a r g e s , b l a s t waves can c o a l e s c e f o r some s t a n d o f f range
i n t o a s i n g l e b l a s t wave w i t h enhanced o v e r p r e s s u r e . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g sec-
t i o n s methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g b l a s t wave parameters f o r b o t h s e q u e n t i a l and
simultaneous d e t o n a t i o n s are d i s c u s s e d and c o n s e r v a t i v e assumptions i n areas
where t h e r e i s a l a c k of i n f o r m a t i o n are g i v e n . To d a t e , t h e r e appear t o b e
no examples o f u s e of m u l t i p l e e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e d a t a i n a c t u a l f a c i l i t y de-
s i g n . S p e c i f i c recommendations appear i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s .
4.3.2.1 S e q u e n t i a l Detonation
There e x i s t l i t t l e b l a s t d a t a which c a n b e used t o c h a r a c t e r i z e b l a s t

waves from s e q u e n t i a l d e t o n a t i o n s . The bulk o f the work done w a s by Zaker
(Ref. 4 . 3 8 ) i n a two-part s t u d y on t h e s u b j e c t . His work w a s d i r e c t e d toward
s a f e t y s t u d i e s concerning b l a s t e f f e c t s n e a r ( b u t n o t between) b o t h two and
t h r e e s e q u e n t i a l l y d e t o n a t e d c h a r g e s . Zaker n o t e s t h a t an e x p l o s i o n i n a
s i n g l e bay of a m u l t i p l e u n i t s t o r a g e f a c i l i t y can c a u s e t h e i n i t i a t i o n of a
second e x p l o s i o n i n a n o t h e r bay (through fragment impact, f o r example) w i t h
t h e r e s u l t t h a t b l a s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s away from t h e e x p l o s i o n c a n b e similar
t o b l a s t from a n e x p l o s i v e weight of t h e t o t a l of a l l charges involved i n -
s t e a d of any one c h a r g e . Although t h e r e i s a d e l a y i n i n i t i a t i o n , t r a i l i n g
shock waves can o v e r t a k e and c o a l e s c e w i t h l e a d i n g shock waves. The l e a d shock
passes through a i r and compresses t h e g a s , h e a t s i t and i m p a r t s a momentum t o
t h e g a s p a r t i c l e s . As a second shock t r a v e l s through t h i s d i s t u r b e d medium,
i t w i l l have an i n c r e a s e d shock v e l o c i t y because sound speed i n c r e a s e s w i t h
temperature, t h e medium i s d e n s e r , and t h e r e i s momentum flow i n t h e d i r e c t i o n
of shock v e l o c i t y (Ref. 4 . 3 8 ) .
Zaker's work i n c l u d e d development of a f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e computer

model ( c a l l e d BLOWUP) used t o d e t e r m i n e n u m e r i c a l l y p r e s s u r e f i e l d s a b o u t se-
q u e n t i a l d e t o n a t i o n s of s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e s . Small s c a l e experiments of two and
t h r e e s e q u e n t i a l l y d e t o n a t e d e q u a l and unequal c h a r g e s w e r e conducted f o r
comparison w i t h numerical p r e d i c t i o n s , T h i s s e c t i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e two-
charge experiments. The experiments included 16 two-spherical charge tests
w i t h a t o t a l charge weight of 2 l b o f C-4 e x p l o s i v e s e p a r a t e d by a p l a t e a t a
d i s t a n c e of 10 i n c h e s , c e n t e r t o c e n t e r . This i s e q u i v a l e n t t o 2 . 5 l b of TNT.*
The t e s t combinations of c h a r g e s and d e l a y t i m e are shown i n Table 4 . 5 . Fig-
u r e 4.25 shows t h e t e s t s e t u p which i n c l u d e s p r e s s u r e measurements a l o n g l i n e s
b o t h l a t e r a l and a x i a l t o t h e c h a r g e c e n t e r s , and a d i v i d i n g w a l l between
charges ( t o prevent sympathetic d e t o n a t i o n ) . The d a t a were p r e s e n t e d i n s c a l e d
c u r v e s which a r e reproduced i n F i g u r e s 4 . 2 6 through 4 . 3 1 . These i n c l u d e t i m e
"According t o Zaker, which i s n o t t h e same r e l a t i o n s h i p l i s t e d i n Appendix A.
4-68
.- ... . .-
Table 4.5 Test C o n d i t i o n s f o r S e q u e n t i a l Explosions ( R e f e r e n c e 4.38)
SCALED TIME DELAYS ms/lb 1 1 3

tdelayy
CHARGE RATIO*
I
1:l 0.60, 1.07, 1 . 5 8 , 2.14, 2.59, 3.17, 3.65, a n d 4.11
2 :1 0.58, 1.16, 1.62, and 2.57
1:2 1.0, 1.64, 2.14, and 3.22
*Ratio of t h e two c h a r g e s : 1:l = 1 l b C-4 e a c h , 2 : l = 413 and 2 / 3 l b C-4,

1 : 2 = 213 and 4 / 3 l b C-4
4-69
> R
Axial P r e s s u r e Gages
+ + .c. + + +
0 0 0 0 I
6?5 990 13.6 20.9 S c a l e d Distance 37.1 42.0 -
ft
From Charge Cen-
Top
6*5
9 .o
)a
Side View
,
t e r Of Mass =
'TOTAL
R
113
13.6
S c a l e d D i s t a n c e Between Charges
, S ft
$0.9 113
= 0.614 -
113
lb
b
'TOTAL
\
37.1
F i g u r e 4.25 Schematic f o r S e q u e n t i a l E x p l o s i o n T e s t s
of Zaker (Reference 4.38)
20
10
9
8
.d 7
VI
a 6
.
)
VI 5
PI
aJ
&I
3
4
VI
VI
QI
&I
a 3
1
.9
.8
.7
6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50
S c a l e d Distance Z , f t / l b 113
F i g u r e 4.26 L a t e r a l Peak P r e s s u r e f o r a 1 : 2 Charge R a t i o
4-71
20
10
9
8
7
6
50
1/3
S c a l e d Distance Z , f t / l b
F i g u r e 4.27 Axial Peak P r e s s u r e f o r a 1 : 2 Charge R a t i o
4-72
5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50
Scaled D i s t a n c e 2 , f t / l b 113
F i g u r e 4.28 Lateral Peak P r e s s u r e for a 2:l Charge Ratio
4-73
20
10
9
8
7
6
113
Scaled Distance Z , f t / l b
Figure 4.29 Axial Peak P r e s s u r e f o r a 2:l Charge R a t i o
4-74
20
10
9
8
.d
01
a 7
I
0
6
!&
aJ 5
Ll
1
v1
01
a,
4
k
a
k
$ 3
0
1
.9
.a
5 10 20 30 40 50
. I -
Scaled D i s t a n c e 2, f t / l b " - '
Figure 4.30 L a t e r a l Peak P r e s s u r e f o r a 1:l Charge R a t i o
4-75
20
10
9
.r( 8
v)
a 7
PI
v) 6
5 6 7 8 9 1 0 20 30 40 50
1/3
S c a l e d D i s t a n c e Z , ft/lb
Figure 4.31 Axial Peak P r e s s u r e f o r a 1:l Charge R a t i o
4-76
d e l a y i s o c l i n e s of peak p r e s s u r e as a f u n c t i o n of s t a n d o f f f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
d i r e c t i o n and c h a r g e r a t i o . This peak p r e s s u r e i s t h e h i g h e s t p r e s s u r e re-
corded of e i t h e r shock ( b u t n o t b o t h peaks) o r of t h e c o a l e s c e d shock. Zaker's
conclusions w e r e :
0 The e f f e c t of f i r i n g t h e charge f a r t h e s t from t h e a x i a l l i n e

f i r s t and t h e e f f e c t of t h e d i v i d i n g w a l l r e d u c e s t h e t i m e de-
l a y i n a x i a l d i r e c t i o n by a b o u t 1 . 3 m s / l b l / 3 compared t o t h a t
i n the lateral direction.
0 These same two c o n d i t i o n s can cause t h e peak p r e s s u r e of t h e

f i r s t shock, when uncoalesced, t o b e less t h a n expected f o r
a s i n g l e charge w i t h no b a r r i e r . For l o n g d e l a y t i m e s , t h e
second shock may travel w i t h i n t h e n e g a t i v e phase of t h e f i r s t ,
t h e r e b y c a u s i n g lower peak p r e s s u r e i n t h e second shock. If
t h e s e two e v e n t s combine, then n e i t h e r peak p r e s s u r e of t h e
two p u l s e s would b e as high as t h e expected peak p r e s s u r e of
t h e l a r ' g e r of t h e two charges d e t o n a t e d by i t s e l f w i t h no w a l l .
0 The t r a i l i n g p u l s e i n t h e uncoalesced wave c l o s e i n is com-

p a r a b l e t o t h a t of t h e r e f e r e n c e curve f o r t h e t o t a l c h a r g e
weight.
e When c o a l e s c e n c e o c c u r s ,t h e peak p r e s s u r e f o l l o w s t h e t o t a l
r e f e r e n c e curve f o r t h e t o t a l c h a r g e weight.
0 For 1:l r a t i o c h a r g e s i n t h e lateral d i r e c t i o n , t h e r e i s no

tendency f o r shocks t o c o a l e s c e w i t h i n t h e d a t a l i m i t f o r
time d e l a y s l a r g e r t h a n 3.2 m s / l b l / 3 . I n the axial direc-
t i o n f o r 1:1, a l l t i m e d e l a y s r e s u l t e d i n c o a l e s c e n c e in-
c l u d i n g t h e l o n g e s t of 4.11 m s / l b l / 3 . When c o n s i d e r i n g t h e
p r e v i o u s l y mentioned r e d u c t i o n i n t i m e d e l a y o f 1 . 3 m s / l b l / 3
f o r a x i a l d i r e c t i o n , then adding t h i s t o t h e 3.2 m s / l b l / 3
( l a L e r a l c o a l e s c e n c e t i m e ) , t h e c o a l e s c e n c e is expected t o
occur up t o 4.5 ms/lb1/3 i n t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n .
0 Coalescence o c c u r s more r e a d i l y f o r 1:2 r a t i o t h a n f o r t h e

2:l r a t i o .
For 2 : l and 1:2 r a t i o s , t h e r e i s no tendenc of c o a l e s c e n c e

f o r l a t e r a l d e l a y s g r e a t e r t h a n 2.6 ms/lbl/q and 3 . 7 m s / l b l / 3 ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y . A reduction of 1 . 3 m s / l b l / 3 occurs f o r both
2 : l and 1:2 t h r e s h o l d c o a l e s c e n c e t i m e s i n t h e axial d i r e c -
tion r e l a t i v e t o the lateral direction.
4-77
The s c a l e d c u r v e s i n F i g u r e s 4.26 through 4.31 should only b e used f o r
s c e n a r i o s i n v o l v i n g similar s c a l e d charge s p a c i n g and o v e r t h e s c a l e d d i s t a n c e s
shown in t h e graphs. Although t h i s limits t h e u s e of t h e c u r v e s , a n a l t e r n a t e
approach e x i s t s . This approach i s t o c o n s i d e r t h e t o t a l c h a r g e weight i n de-
t e r m i n i n g peak p r e s s u r e s when s e q u e n t i a l d e t o n a t i o n s a r e b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d .
S p e c i f i c impulse i s n o t d i s c u s s e d i n Zaker's work. A c o n s e r v a t i v e method f o r
p r e d i c t i n g impulse would b e t o calculate t h e impulse of each c h a r g e s e p a r a t e l y
and t h e n sum f o r a t o t a l impulse. T h i s i s as opposed t o u s i n g t h e t o t a l c h a r g e
weight f o r d e t e r m i n i n g impulse. The f o l l o w i n g example shows why:
Consider two 0.5-lb c h a r g e s of TNT.
-
i r a t a s t a n d o f f of 10 f t f o r 1 l b i s 1.5 X p s i - ~ e c / l b l / (See
~
F i g u r e 4 . 6 ) . This g i v e s an ir = 1.5 X psi-sec.
-
ir a t a 10 f t s t a n d o f f f o r 0.5-lb TNT i s 1.1 X l
o
'
* p~i-sec/lbl/~.
T h i s r e l a t e s t o an i, of 8.73 X 10-3 p s i - s e c . Considering t w i c e t h i s amount

g i v e s i r ( T O T a ) = 1 . 7 5 X 10-2 p s i - s e c which i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t from 1 lb of
TNT. This o c c u r s because t h e f a c t o r o f 2 i s n o t taken t o t h e one-third r o o t i n
t h e s c a l i n g f o r t h e two 0.5-lb c h a r g e s . T h i s c a n b e important when c o n s i d e r i n g
a s t r u c t u r e w i t h a ;low r e s p o n s e t i m e . The two p r e s s u r e waves could a r r i v e un-
c o a l e s c e d a t t h e 8 - r u c t u r e w i t h i n a time s p a n which i s s h o r t compared t o t h e
s t r u c t u r a l r e s p o n s e t i m e , and t h e - t o t a l impulse should b e i n c l u d e d . When t h e
s p a c i n g between p u l s e s i s similar t o t h e r e s p o n s e t i m e of t h e s t r u c t u r e , r e s o -
nance o r a n t i - r e s o n a n c e i s p o s s i b l e . ( S t r u c t u r a l resonance f o r m u l t i p l e
pulses is discussed i n S e c t i o n 4 . 4 . )
4-78
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4.9
PROBLEM - Determine b l a s t p r e s s u r e from two e q u a l s e q u e n t i a l l y d e t o n a t e d

c h a r g e s s e p a r a t e d by a s h o r t d i v i d i n g w a l l . Compare w i t h pre-
d i c t i o n f o r a s i n g l e charge o f t h e t o t a l w e i g h t .
GIVEN: W = s i n g l e charge weight = (1/2)W = (1/2) Total

TOTAL
charge w e i g h t
R = standoff
S = separation distance
t = time d e l a y i n d e t o n a t i o n
delay
FIND: ps REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine i f s c e n a r i o matches t h a t o f

e x p e r i m e n t a l work; i . e . , c h a r g e s on ground,
s e p a r a t e d by t h e c o r r e c t s c a l e d d i s t a n c e ,
and w i t h similar s c a l e d t i m e d e l a y
2. I f s c e n a r i o i s t h e same, determine s c a l e d
d i s t a n c e (R/W 'I3) and u s e F i g u r e s 4 - 3 0 F i g . 4.30 &
TO TAL
and 4.31 f o r o b t a i n i n g p r e s s u r e F i g- . 4.31
3. Use W and g r o u n d - r e f l e c t i o n f a c t o r
TOTAL
F i g . 4.5
w i t h F i g u r e 4.5 i f s c e n a r i o i s n o t t h e
P Curve
same o r f o r comparison w i t h S t e p 2 S
CALCULATION
GIVEN: W = 50 lb
W = 100 l b
TOTAL
R = 100 f t
S = 2.85 f t
= 9.90 m s
tdelay
FIND: Ps
SOLUTION: 1. Scaled s e p a r a t i o n = 'I3 = 2.85/1001/3 = 0.614 f t / l b 1/11

s/wToTAL
Scaled d e l a y t i m e t = t ll3 = 9.90 ms/1001/3 =
delay de1ay"TOTAL
2.13 ms/lb 1/3
These s c a l e d v a l u e s are such t h a t t h e c u r v e f o r t h e t i m e
d e l a y of 2.14 m / l b l / 3 f o r the e q u a l double c h a r g e c u r v e
can be used
2. Scaled s t a n d o f f Z = 1/3 = 100/1001/3 = 21.5 f t / l b 1 / 3
R/WToT~L
From F i g u r e 4.30, l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e = 2.0 p s i
4-79
From Figure 4.31, a x i a l p r e s s u r e = 2.7 p s i
3. For comparison w i t h a s i n g l e charge of weight
equal t o W u s e a ground r e f l e c t i o n fac-
TOTAL
t o r of 2
W = 2 X W = 200 l b
TOTAL
Calculate scaled distance
113
R = R/W* I3 = 100/ZO0113 = 1 7 . 1 f t / l b
Using P curve i n F i g u r e 4 . 5 t o o b t a i n
S
P = 2.55 p s i
Note t h a t f o r t h i s example problem, t h e b l a s t
o v e r p r e s s u r e o b t a i n e d u s i n g t h e doubled s i n g l e
charge approximation i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same
as t h e l a r g e r of t h e two p r e s s u r e s f o r sepa-
r a t e d c h a r g e s . For r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e s c a l e d
d i s t a n c e s , then, an AE can simply u s e a s i n g l e
charge w i t h t h e t o t a l weight of t h e p a i r of
c h a r g e s . Had the v a l u e s for t and 2 been
delay
d i f f e r e n t , s a y 3 . 1 7 and 15 r e s p e c t i v e l y , reduc-
t i o n i n peak o v e r p r e s s u r e would have been s i g -
n i f i c a n t . S o , simply summing t h e c h a r g e s
weight would b e very c o n s e r v a t i v e i n t h i s o t h e r
case.
4-80
4.3.2.2 Simultaneous D e t o n a t i o n
This s e c t i o n i n c l u d e s a d i s c u s s i o n o n b l a s t wave i n t e r a c t i o n s and

methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g b l a s t f i e l d p a r a m e t e r s f o r two o r more HE c h a r g e s deto-
n a t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . There e x i s t l i t t l e o r no d a t a f o r u n e q u a l c h a r g e s deto-
n a t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . Some e q u a l c h a r g e d a t a are a v a i l a b l e a s a r e s u l t of
s c a l e d n u c l e a r b l a s t f i e l d enhancement s t u d i e s . The k i l l area o f a t o t a l
c h a r g e w e i g h t h a s been shown t o i n c r e a s e b y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d e t o n a t i n g s e v e r a l
smaller c h a r g e s i n s t e a d of one l a r g e c h a r g e . There i s b l a s t f i e l d enhancement
between c h a r g e s where b l a s t waves m e e t and r e s u l t i n r e f l e c t i v e p r e s s u r e s .
O u t s i d e t h e l i n e o f c e n t e r o f t h e c h a r g e s , b l a s t waves c o a l e s c e t o a c t as a
s i n g l e t o t a l weight charge. Several r e p o r t s i n c l u d i n g d a t a o n t h i s t y p e o f
work are r e p o r t s on t h e Dipole West t e s t program [ R e i s l e r , e t a l . ( R e f . 4 . 3 9 ) ]
and White T r i b e program [Armendt, e t a l . (Refs. 4.40, 4.41, and 4 . 4 2 ) ] . The
Dipole West program i n c l u d e d two-charge tests o f v e r t i c a l l y and h o r i z o n t a l l y
s e p a r a t e d l a r g e - s c a l e charges. The White T r i b e e x p e r i m e n t s c o n c e n t r a t e d on
three-charge t e s t s i n a t r i a n g u l a r a r r a y . Most tests were r u n w i t h l a r g e
c h a r g e s a l t h o u g h some s m a l l scale t e s t s were made w i t h good comparison. Also,
Brode (Ref. 4.27) d i s c u s s e s numerical methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g b l a s t wave en-
hancement between s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d e t o n a t e d c h a r g e s . Several of t h e s e r e p o r t s
u s e computer model p r e d i c t i o n s f o r comparison i n t h e i r work.
Work by Hokanson, Esparza, and Wenzel (Ref. 4.43) w a s done t o char-

a c t e r i z e b l a s t wave parameters on a r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e from s i m u l t a n e o u s deto-
n a t i o n s . I n t h i s work, t h r e e c h a r g e s w e r e a r r a n g e d i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t con-
f i g u r a t i o n s : grouped, h o r i z o n t a l , and v e r t i c a l a r r a y s ( F i g u r e 4.32) above a
n e a r - p e r f e c t r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e ( t h e ground). A series of s i n g l e c h a r g e
t e s t s o f t o t a l t h e t h r e e charge w e i g h t s w a s conducted t o e s t a b l i s h a b a s e l i n e
f o r comparison. The r e s u l t s a r e given i n Reference 4.43 i n s c a l e d form u s i n g
t h e t o t a l charge weight f o r s c a l i n g purposes. Standoff ( R / W T O T & ~ / ~w) a s
measured from t h e r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e t o t h e c e n t e r of mass o f t h e t h r e e
c h a r g e s and c h a r g e weight e q u a l t o t h e t o t a l weight of t h e t h r e e c h a r g e s .
Scaled c h a r g e s i z e w a s h e l d r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t a t 0.0425 < r / R < 0.154 where
r = c h a r g e r a d i u s , R = normal d i s t a n c e from c h a r g e t o w a l l , and h e n c e , t h e u s e
o f t h i s work s h o u l d be l i m i t e d t o s i t u a t i o n s w i t h i n t h i s range. The d a t a pre-
s e n t e d i n Reference 4.43 i n c l u d e peak p r e s s u r e , s c a l e d s p e c i f i c impulse, s c a l e d
p o s i t i v e d u r a t i o n , and s c a l e d t i m e o f a r r i v a l as a f u n c t i o n o f s c a l e d p o s i t i o n .
The d a t a c u r v e s a r e drawn from d a t a p o i n t s which a r e a n a v e r a g e of two measure-
ments. The d a t a , even i n s c a l e d form, a r e t o o voluminous f o r i n c l u s i o n i n t h i s
manual. But, two u s e f u l f i g u r e s f o r s i n g l e - c h a r g e d a t a from t h i s and o t h e r
r e f e r e n c e s are i n c l u d e d , F i g u r e s 4.12 and 4.13, where X i s d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e
r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e measured from c h a r g e c e n t e r of mass p r o j e c t i o n on w a l l and
Z = R / W T O T A L ~ / ~ (See F i g u r e s 4.14 and 4.32). These can b e used f o r p r e d i c t i o n
o f s t r o n g shock l o a d s on w a l l s supplementing F i g u r e 4.11 f o r weaker s h o c k s .
F i g u r e s 4.33 and 4.34 are examples of t h e many e m p i r i c a l c u r v e s from R e f e r e n c e
4.43. These f i g u r e s g i v e p r e s s u r e s and s c a l e d s p e c i f i c impulses v e r s u s s c a l e d
d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e f o r t h r e e e q u a l and evenly s p a c e d c h a r g e s
a t a s c a l e d s t a n d o f f o f 1.29 f t / l b 1 l 3 . The s c a l e d c h a r g e s p a c i n g S f r i s 2.28
(where r i s t h e c h a r g e r a d i u s ) .
4 -'8 1
a
b
f '.'
d *7
F i g u r e 4 . 3 2 Transducer Arrangement and Charge Placement f o r t h e

( a ) S i n g l e Charge, ( b ) Grouped Array, ( c ) H o r i z o n t a l Array and
(d) Vertical Array Tests (Reference 4 . 4 3 )
4-82
10000
600
400
200
1000
600
400
200
-
100
S i n g l e Charge Data
60
(Ref. F i g u r e 4 . 3 4 )
40
20
10
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
X/ R
Figure 4.33 Peak O v e r p r e s s u r e F o r V e r t i c a l A r r a y Tests

(Reference 4.43)
4-8 3
10
S i n g l e Charge Data
6 . .
i
4 '
* 2
1 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5
IO
X/ R
F i g u r e 4.34 S p e c i f i c Impulse For V e r t i c a l Array Tests

( R e f e r e n c e 4.4 3)
4-84
Hokanson, e t a l . (Ref. 4 . 4 3 ) concluded as f o l l o w s :
0 The p r e s s u r e and impulse f o r grouped a r r a y s a t small s c a l e d d i s -

t a n c e s are lower t h a n f o r s i n g l e charges. The d i s p a r i t y between
grouped a r r a y and s i n g l e charge p r e s s u r e s i s mre pronounced than
f o r impulses.
0 For h o r i z o n t a l a r r a y s , r e g i o n s e x i s t where t h e p r e s s u r e and im-

p u l s e exceed what would b e expected from a s i n g l e c h a r g e . The
l o c a t i o n of maximum r e s p o n s e i s dependent on t h e c h a r g e s p a c i n g
and t h e s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e , b u t g e n e r a l l y i s found halfway between
c h a r g e s . Other r e g i o n s o f enhanced p r e s s u r e and impulse e x i s t
j u s t beyond t h e o u t s i d e charge. For v e r y wide c h a r g e s p a c i n g s ,
t h e p r e s s u r e and impulse are n e a r l y c o n s t a n t o v e r t h e e n t i r e
range i n X/R. For v e r y narrow charge s p a c i n g s , t h e r e g i o n s of
enhanced p r e s s u r e a r e l e s s pronounced t h a n f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e
charge s p a c i n g s .
0 Only one combination of charge s p a c i n g s and s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e s

w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r v e r t i c a l a r r a y s . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t
two r e g i o n s o f ' e n h a n c e d p r e s s u r e and impulse e x i s t , one d i r e c t l y
under t h e v e r t i c a l a r r a y and a n o t h e r f o r X/R > 1.5.
0 The tests conducted v e r i f i e d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t a t l a r g e s c a l e d

d i s t a n c e s , t h e b l a s t parameters measured f o r m u l t i p l e c h a r g e s
could approach t h o s e of a s i n g l e charge. The d i s t a n c e a t which
t h e c u r v e s b e g i n t o c o a l e s c e i s a p p a r e n t l y t h e g r e a t e s t f o r widely
spaced h o r i z o n t a l a r r a y s and t h e smallest f o r grouped a r r a y s .
Based on t h e above o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e f o l l o w i n g recommendations are made:
Where a p p l i c a b l e , these measurements can b e used t o o b t a i n a more

r a t i o n a l d e s i g n f o r munition p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e
expected a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n c o n f i g u r a t i o n f a l l s w i t h i n t h e r a n g e
of s c a l e d d a t a i n Ref. 4 . 4 3 . Caution should b e e x e r c i s e d , however,
when e x t r a p o l a t i o n of t h e s e r e s u l t s i s r e q u i r e d beyond s c a l e d d i s -
tances, p o s i t i o n s , o r charge s i z e s t e s t e d .
Only one combination of s c a l e d d i s t a n c e and c h a r g e s p a c i n g w a s i n -

v e s t i g a t e d f o r v e r t i c a l a r r a y s . These t e s t s should b e r e p e a t e d t o
determine whether t h e t r e n d s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e c o n c l u s i o n s w i l l
e x i s t f o r o t h e r v a l u e s of Z and X/R.
The gage placement f o r t h e h o r i z o n t a l a r r a y tests r e s u l t e d i n poor

r e s o l u t i o n of t h e v a r i a t i o n i n r e s p o n s e as a f u n c t i o n of S / r , par-
t i c u l a r l y i n t h e r e g i o n between c h a r g e s . Should tests o f t h i s
n a t u r e b e r e p e a t e d i n t h e f u t u r e , more measurement p o s i t i o n s should
be provided i n t h i s c r i t i c a l r e g i o n .
4-85
0 Computer programs which could p r e d i c t t h e p r e s s u r e and impulse a c t -
i n g on a b a r r i e r due t o m u l t i p l e charge d e t o n a t i o n s do n o t e x i s t a t
t h e p r e s e n t time. A three-dimensional program would b e r e q u i r e d ,
and even i f a v a i l a b l e , would b e very expensive t o r u n . A cheaper
and probably a s a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n t e c h n i q u e can b e d e v i s e d , based
on e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n . However, t h e d a t a a r e probably i n s u f f i -
c i e n t t o accomplish t h i s g o a l . T h e r e f o r e , f u r t h e r m u l t i p l e detona-
t i o n t e s t s should b e conducted and a n a t t e m p t should b e made t o
generate empirical p r e d i c t i o n techniques.
4-8 6
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4.10
PROBLEM - Determine b l a s t p r e s s u r e and s p e c i f i c impulse on a r e f l e c t i n g s u r -

f a c e due t o t h r e e e q u a l s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e s i n a v e r t i c a l a r r a y ( s e e
Figure 4 . 3 3 ) . Compare w i t h p r e s s u r e and impulse from one c h a r g e o f
e q u a l weight of t h e sum of t h e t h r e e on t h e same s u r f a c e . Assume
c h a r g e s a r e l o c a t e d on t h e ground. The c h a r g e s are d e t o n a t e d s i m -
ultaneously.
GIVEN: R = p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i s t a n c e from s u r f a c e t o
c e n t e r of mass o f t h e t h r e e c h a r g e s
W = c h a r g e weight
S = charge spacing
X = d i s t a n c e along s u r f a c e
p = d e n s r t y of HE
REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine r a d i u s of c h a r g e and

determine i f r / R i s w i t h i n
0.0425 < < 0.154
acceptable l i m i t s R
2. U s e ground r e f l e c t i o n f a c t o r o f
2 and t o t a l weight o f t h r e e
charges t o o b t a i n a n e f f e c t i v e 'eff = 2 X 3 X W
(Weff). Use Weff t o d e t e r m i n e
113
Z = R/W
s c a l e d s t a n d o f f (Z) eff
3. Use c h a r g e r a d i u s t o d e t e r m i n e -
scaled separation distance (s> S = S/r
4. Use F i g u r e s 4.33 and 4.34 t o de-
termine p r e s s u r e and impulse f o r
v a r i o u s X/R f o r t h e separated Fig. 4.33 &
charges F i g . 4.34
5. U s e F i g u r e s 4 . 1 2 and 4 . 1 3 t o
d e t e r m i n e p r e s s u r e and i m p u l s e
f o r various X/R f o r t h e s i n g l e F i g . 4.12 &
charge Fig. 4 . 1 3
CALCULATION
GIVEN: W = t h r e e charges o f 50 l b o f TNT each

= 150 l b t o t a l
R = 8.7 f t
3
= 0.06 l b / i n
PHE
s = 1.11 f t
X = various
4-8 7
FIND: Pr and ir
SOLUTION: 1. mine r a d i u s o f any one s p h e r i c a l c
\. J. \ I
-
r = 5.84 i n
= 0.056 which i s d i t h i n a c c e p t a b l e
8*7 ft l 2 in/ft
r a n g e o f 0.0425 < r / R < 0 . 1 5 4
2. U s e a ground r e f l e c t i o n f a c t o r o f 2 and t o t a l weight of
t h e three c h a r g e s t o o b t a i n a n e f f e c t i v e
w = w = X 2 = 2 X 150 = 300 l b
eff 'TOTAL
Use W t o s o l v e f o r Z
z=-= R 8 - 7 f t = 1 . 3 f t / l b1 1 3
(300)
Weff
3. Calculate S
- S
S = - = 1.11 ft10.487 = 2.28
r
F i g u r e s 4 . 3 3 and 4.34 a r e a p p l i c a b l e f o r t h i s Z v a l u e
and t h e value
4. Using F i g u r e s 4 . 3 3 and 4 . 3 4 , several v a l u e s of X/R
w e r e e v a l u a t e d f o r p r e s s u r e and i m p u l s e from s e p a r a t e d
c h a r g e s , on a r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e . The v a l u e s are l i s t e d
i n Table 4 . 6
5. Using F i g u r e s 4.12 and 4 . 1 3 , several v a l u e s o f X/R
corresponding to Step 4 w e r e evaluated f o r p r e s s u r e
and impulse from a s i n g l e c h a r g e , on a r e f l e c t i n g s u r -
face. The values are l i s t e d i n Table 4.6
T a b l e 4.6 P r e s s u r e s and Impulses f o r S i n g l e and M u l t i p l e Charges
From S t e p 4 , M u l t i p l e Charges From S t e p 5 , S i n g l e Charge

- I -
i i
P p si-msec i
p s i - m s ec
X
- X P i
R ft psi 1b1j3 psi-sec psi 1 P 3 psi-se<
~ ~~~~
I x lo3 200 1.1 5.5 x 10 130 0.69

3 3
L.5 x 10 55 0.29 4.2 X 10 92 0.49
2 3
7.5 x 10 42 0.22 1.7 X 10 55 0.29
2
3.8 X 10 42 0.22 3.0 X lo2 17 0.090
4-88
I n t h i s case, p r e s s u r e s and impulses are g r e a t e r f o r t h e m u l t i p l e c h a r g e s t h a n
f o r t h e s i n g l e c h a r g e w i t h t h e same t o t a l w e i g h t a t X = 0 and X = 17.4 f t , b u t
t h i s p a t t e r n reverses a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s t a n c e s . One would have t o i n t e -
g r a t e t h e s e v a l u e s over t h e w a l l area t o compare t o t a l i m p u l s e s a p p l i e d t o t h e
wall.
4-89
4.4 EFFECTS OF CONTAINMENT AND VENTING
Explosions which occur w i t h i n s t r u c t u r e s normally develop a v e r y complex

p r e s s u r e - t i m e h i s t o r y a t any p o s i t i o n b o t h i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e s t r u c t u r e .
Although t h i s complex l o a d i n g cannot b e p r e d i c t e d e x a c t l y , approximations and
model r e l a t i o n s h i p s have been developed which c a n b e used t o d e f i n e b l a s t
l o a d s w i t h a g r e a t d e a l of confidence. This s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s t h e s e methods
which i n c l u d e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f b l a s t l o a d s due t o i n i t i a l and r e f l e c t e d s h o c k s ,
q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , d i r e c t i o n a l and uniform v e n t i n g e f f e c t s , and v e n t
c l o s u r e e f f e c t s . Also, b l a s t l o a d p r e d i c t i o n methods a r e a p p l i e d t o s p e c i f i c
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . Example problem 4 . 1 1 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e t e c h n i q u e s developed i n
t h i s section.
4.4.1 E f f e c t s Within S t r u c t u r e s
The l o a d i n g from a HE d e t o n a t i o n w i t h i n a v e n t e d o r unvented s t r u c t u r e

c o n s i s t s o f two almost d i s t i n c t phases. The f i r s t phase i s t h e r e f l e c t e d
b l a s t l o a d i n g , which c o n s i s t s of a n i n i t i a l h i g h p r e s s u r e s h o r t d u r a t i o n re-
f l e c t e d wave p l u s perhaps several l a t e r r e f l e c t e d p u l s e s . The second phase i s
a quasi-static p r e s s u r e p u l s e . These two phases of l o a d i n g ar.e d i s c u s s e d i n
this section.
4.4.1.1 I n i t i a l and R e f l e c t e d Shocks
I n i t i a l and r e f l e c t e d shocks c o n s i s t of t h e i n i t i a l h i g h p r e s s u r e ,
s h o r t d u r a t i o n r e f l e c t e d wave, p l u s perhaps several l a t e r r e f l e c t e d p u l s e s
a r r i v i n g a t times c l o s e l y approximated by twice t h e a v e r a g e t i m e of a r r i v a l a t
t h e chamber w a l l s . These l a t e r p u l s e s are u s u a l l y a t t e n u a t e d i n a m p l i t u d e be-
c a u s e of a n i r r e v e r s i b l e thermodynamic p r o c e s s , and they a r e complex i n wave-
form because of t h e complexity o f t h e r e f l e c t i o n p r o c e s s w i t h i n t h e s t r u c t u r e ,
whether vented o r unvented.
The s i m p l e s t case o f b l a s t wave r e f l e c t i o n is t h a t of normal r e f l e c -

t i o n of a p l a n e shock wave from a p l a n e , r i g i d s u r f a c e . I n t h i s case, t h e
i n c i d e n t wave moves a t v e l o c i t y U through s t i l l a i r a t ambient c o n d i t i o n s .
The c o n d i t i o n s immediately behind t h e shock f r o n t are t h o s e f o r t h e f r e e - a i r
shock wave d i s c u s s e d above. When t h e i n c i d e n t shock wave strikes t h e p l a n e
r i g i d s u r f a c e , i t i s r e f l e c t e d from i t . The r e f l e c t e d wave now moves away
from t h e s u r f a c e w i t h a v e l o c i t y U, i n t o t h e flow f i e l d and compressed r e g i o n
a s s o c i a t e d with t h e i n c i d e n t wave. I n t h e r e f l e c t i o n p r o c e s s , t h e i n c i d e n t
p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y us i s a r r e s t e d (us = 0 a t t h e r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e ) , and t h e
p r e s s u r e , d e n s i t y , and t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e r e f l e c t e d wave are a l l i n c r e a s e d
above t h e v a l u e s i n t h e i n c i d e n t wave. The o v e r p r e s s u r e a t t h e wall s u r f a c e
i s termed t h e normally r e f l e c t e d o v e r p r e s s u r e and i s d e s i g n a t e d P r .
Maxima f o r t h e i n i t i a l i n t e r n a l b l a s t l o a d s on a s t r u c t u r e c a n b e
e s t i m a t e d from s c a l e d b l a s t d a t a o r t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s e s of normal b l a s t wave
r e f l e c t i o n from a r i g i d w a l l ( d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4 . 3 ) .
Change 1 - 15 August 1 9 8 1 4-90

Following i n i t i a l shock wave r e f l e c t i o n from t h e w a l l s , t h e i n t e r n a l
b l a s t p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g can become q u i t e complex i n n a t u r e . F i g u r e 4.35 from
Gregory (Ref. 4.44) shows a s t a g e i n t h e l o a d i n g f o r a c y l i n d r i c a l , v e n t e d
s t r u c t u r e . A t t h e i n s t a n t shown, p o r t i o n s of t h e cap, b a s e and c y l i n d r i c a l
s u r f a c e are loaded by t h e r e f l e c t e d shock and t h e i n c i d e n t shock i s r e f l e c t i n g
o b l i q u e l y from a l l t h r e e i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e s . The o b l i q u e r e f l e c t i o n p r o c e s s
c a n g e n e r a t e Mach waves ( F i g u r e 4 . 9 ) , i f t h e a n g l e of t h e i n c i d e n c e i s g r e a t
enough, and p r e s s u r e s can b e g r e a t l y enhanced on e n t e r i n g c o r n e r s o r r e f l e c t i n g
n e a r t h e axis of a c y l i n d r i c a l s t r u c t u r e . I n box-shaped s t r u c t u r e s , t h e re-
f l e c t i o n p r o c e s s c a n b e even more complex.
Following t h e i n i t i a l i n t e r n a l b l a s t l o a d i n g , t h e shock waves re-

f l e c t e d inward w i l l u s u a l l y s t r e n g t h e n as t h e y implode toward t h e c e n t e r of
t h e s t r u c t u r e , and r e - r e f l e c t t o l o a d t h e s t r u c t u r e a g a i n . As noted earlier,
t h e second shocks w i l l u s u a l l y be somewhat a t t e n u a t e d , and a f t e r several such
r e f l e c t i o n s , t h e shock wave phase o f t h e l o a d i n g w i l l b e o v e r .
The shock wave l o a d i n g can b e measured w i t h s u i t a b l e b l a s t measuring

systems, o r i t c a n b e computed f o r systems p o s s e s s i n g some d e g r e e o f symmetry.
I n a s p h e r i c a l containment s t r u c t u r e , t h e l o a d i n g c a n b e r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y
p r e d i c t e d f o r e i t h e r c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d o r e c c e n t r i c b l a s t s o u r c e s [Baker (Ref.
4.45), Baker, e t a l . (Ref. 4 . 4 6 ) ] . In a c y l i n d r i c a l s t r u c t u r e , e x i s t i n g (but
complex) two-dimensional computer programs can b e used t o p r e d i c t a c t u a l
pressure-time l o a d s f o r b l a s t s o u r c e s on t h e c y l i n d e r axis [See F i g u r e 4.36
taken from Gregory (Ref. 4 . 4 4 ) ] . For geometries normally encountered i n a c t u a l
f a c i l i t i e s , p r e d i c t i o n of a c c u r a t e pressure-time l o a d s i s much more d i f f i c u l t ,
s o approximate s o l u t i o n s have been used o r measurements made. Kingery, e t a l .
(Ref. 4.47) and Schumacher, e t a l . (Ref. 4.48) c o n t a i n most of t h e i n t e r n a l
b l a s t measurements f o r uniformly vented s t r u c t u r e s , f o r c u b i c a l and c y l i n d r i -
c a l geometries, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
A s j u s t noted, t h e i n i t i a l and r e f l e c t e d a i r shock l o a d i n g s on t h e

i n t e r i o r surfaces of s t r u c t u r e s a r e q u i t e complex f o r a l l r e a l s t r u c t u r a l geo-
metries. But, s i m p l i f i e d l o a d i n g p r e d i c t i o n s can o f t e n b e made r a t h e r e a s i l y
from scaled b l a s t d a t a f o r r e f l e c t e d waves and several approximate e q u a t i o n s .
The f i r s t approximation w e w i l l u s e i s t o assume t h a t t h e i n c i d e n t and re-
f l e c t e d b l a s t p u l s e s are t r i a n g u l a r w i t h a b r u p t rises, i . e . ,
(4.37)
and
4-91
Axis of Symmetry
Exp Lo sFve - Shock

2 .25 x 5.0 In.
Charge S t e e 1 Bands
Pressure
10
-L d
r
II I
-
I Incident Shock , I-Beam
5.61 ft-
F i g u r e 4 . 3 5 Schematic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n Of Shock R e f l e c t i o n s
From I n t e r i o r Walls Of C y l i n d r i c a l Containment S t r u c t u r e
(Reference 4 . 4 4 )
4-92
I .
2 -5
2
- Predicted
--- Experimental
0
0 0 .8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4 .O 4.8
Time, ms
F i g u r e 4 . 3 6 Comparison O f P r e d i c t e d And Measured P r e s s u r e

P u l s e A t P o i n t On S i d e w a l l O f C y l i n d r i c a l Containment
S t r u c t u r e (Reference 4 . 4 4 )
4-9 3
= Pr (1 - t / T ) , 0 5 t LTr
Pr ( t> r
P r W = 0, t 1 Tr (4.38)
The d u r a t i o n s of t h e s e p u l s e s are n o t t h e same as t h e a c t u a l b l a s t wave dura-

t i o n s T, b u t i n s t e a d are a d j u s t e d t o p r e s e r v e t h e p r o p e r impulses, i . e . ,
is
Ts p (4.39)
S
2 i
T =- r (4.40)
r P
r
These two e q u a t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e o u r second s i m p l i f y i n g approximation.
A t h i r d s i m p l i f y i n g approximation i s t h a t t h e i n i t i a l i n t e r n a l b l a s t
l o a d i n g parameters a r e , i n most cases, t h e normally r e f l e c t e d p a r a m e t e r s , even
f o r o b l i q u e r e f l e c t i o n s from t h e s t r u c t u r e ' s w a l l s , provided t h e slant r a n g e
i s used as t h e d i s t a n c e R from t h e c h a r g e c e n t e r t o t h e l o c a t i o n on t h e w a l l .
For s t r o n g shock waves, t h i s i s almost e x a c t l y t r u e up t o t h e a n g l e f o r l i m i t
of r e g u l a r r e f l e c t i o n of s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r t h a n 39", and f o r weak waves t h e
l i m i t i s as g r e a t as-70" (See F i g u r e 4 . 1 1 ) . For a n g l e s beyond t h e l i m i t of
r e g u l a r r e f l e c t i o n , Ps = (P,/po) c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d as u s u a l f o r t h a t s t a n d o f f
and P, determined from Equation ( 4 . 2 7 ) . For s t r u c t u r e d e s i g n s which are box-
l i k e w i t h length-to-width r a t i o s n e a r one, shock r e f l e c t i o n s from t h e w a l l s
w i l l b e r e g u l a r a l m o s t everywhere and no Mach waves w i l l b e formed.
a. C e n t r a l l y Located D e t o n a t i o n . I n e n c l o s e d s t r u c t u r e s , shock waves

r e f l e c t and r e - r e f l e c t several t i m e s , as d i s c u s s e d earlier. I n c e r t a i n con-
f i g u r a t i o n s and o v e r l i m i t e d areas o f t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e , t h e r e f l e c t e d waves
can r e i n f o r c e , b u t g e n e r a l l y t h e y are a t t e n u a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l y b e f o r e a g a i n
s t r i k i n g t h e w a l l s , f l o o r o r c e i l i n g . For a c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d d e t o n a t i o n , i t
can b e assumed t h a t t h e second shock w a s h a l f t h e a m p l i t u d e and impulse o f t h e
i n i t i a l r e f l e c t e d shock, t h e t h i r d shock has h a l f t h e a m p l i t u d e of t h e second
shock, and t h a t 611 l a t e r r e f l e c t i o n s are i n s i g n i f i c a n t . The l a t e r two re-
f l e c t e d p u l s e s are o f t e n ignored i n e s t i m a t i n g t h e i n t e r n a l b l a s t l o a d i n g , be-
c a u s e t h e p r e s s u r e s and impulses are much lower t h a n i n t h e i n i t i a l p u l s e .
Because t h e combined l o a d s from all three p u l s e s are o n l y 1 . 7 5 times t h o s e
Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981 4-94

from t h e i n i t i a l p u l s e , a d e s i g n s i m p l i f i c a t i o n can be employed f o r s t r u c t u r e s
w i t h r e s p o n s e t i m e s much l o n g e r t h a n t h e l o n g e s t t i m e i n F i g u r e 4 . 3 8 . T h i s
s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i s simply t o combine a l l t h r e e p u l s e s , and m u l t i p l y t h e a m p l i -
t u d e (and e q u a l l y t h e impulse) by 1 . 7 5 . We s u g g e s t t h a t a n AE u s e t h i s pro-
cedure f o r c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e s . The procedure u s i n g t h e com-
b i n e d t r i p l e p u l s e i s documented and recommended f o r u s e i n S u p p r e s s i v e
S h i e l d s (Ref. 4 . 3 ) .
For e i t h e r vented o r unvented s t r u c t u r e s w i t h r e s p o n s e t i m e s much

s h o r t e r t h a n t h e i n i t i a l shock wave d u r a t i o n , a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n can b e made by
c o n s i d e r i n g only t h e i n i t i a l p u l s e and i g n o r i n g t h e l a t t e r two r e f l e c t e d
p u l s e s . For s t r u c t u r e s w i t h r e s p o n s e t i m e s i n t h e range o f t h e r e v e r b e r a t i o n
t i m e ( 2 t a ) , s t r u c t u r a l resonance may occur and no one s i m p l e approximation
can b e employed. The t r i p l e p u l s e problem h a s been s o l v e d o r a s i m p l e
e l a s t i c system i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e a method f o r d e f i n i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f
s t r u c t u r a l resonance. The results o f t h e s o l u t i o n f o l l o w .
Consider a s i m p l e e l a s t i c spring-mass s y s t e m l o a d e d by r e p e a t e d t r i -
angular b l a s t pressure p u l s e s , Figure 4 . 3 7 .
AREA, A
LOAD, p l t )
Figure 4.37 E l a s t i c Spring-Mass System
4-9 5
Here, p ( t ) is shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y as F i g u r e 4 . 3 8 .
2t 2t,+ Tr 4t 4ta+ T
ta Tr a a r
Figure 4.38 Schematic of Repeated B l a s t Loading
T h i s system c a n b e s o l v e d by c l a s s i c a l o r computer methods f o r

maximum s c a l e d r e s p o n s e
X = Xk/PA (4 -41)
max
as a f u n c t i o n o f s c a l e d t i m e
(4.42)
The s o l u t i o n is shown g r a p h i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 4.39.

* -
The s c a l e d maximum r e s p o n s e , Xmax, always l i e s between t h e r e s p o n s e
f o r t h e f i r s t p u l s e as a s i n g l e p u l s e , and a n o t h e r s i n g l e p u l s e c o n s i s t i n g of
t h e t h r e e r e p e a t e d p u l s e s combined i n a m p l i t u d e , i . e . , h a v i n g a n a m p l i t u d e of
1 . 7 5 P. These envelopes a r e shown i n F i g u r e 4.39. One s o l u t i o n i s shown
g r a p h i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 4.39. This f i g u r e reveals t h a t t h e t r u e t r i p l e p u l s e
c a n c a u s e maximum d e f l e c t i o n s i n r e s o n a n c e (peaks i n t h e s o l i d c u r v e ) as g r e a t
as t h e combined t r i p l e p u l s e (upper c u r v e ) . Hence, t h i s upper l i m i t should
b e used f o r a c o n s e r v a t i v e l i m i t . This resonance s o l u t i o n can a l s o b e used t o
4-96
Figure 4 . 3 9 Envelope of Solutions f o r Maximum Displacement
f o r Triple Pulse Blast Loading
4-97
d e t e r m i n e t h e t r a n s i t i o n from resonance t o t h e lower s i n g l e p u l s e c u r v e shown
i n F i g u r e 4.39 (See Example Problem 4 . 1 1 ) .
b . Off-Center Detonation. For e x p l o s i o n s n e a r a w a l l , f l o o r , o r

r o o f , t h e i n i t i a l r e f l e c t e d b l a s t loads can be predicted f o r s p h e r i c a l sources
u s i n g F i g u r e s 4.12 and 4 . 1 3 . But, t h e r e f l e c t i o n p r o c e s s e s w i t h i n a chamber
a r e as complex, o r more complex, t h a n t h e p r o c e s s e s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e previous
s e c t i o n on c e n t e r e d d e t o n a t i o n s . Methods a r e given i n TM 5-1300 f o r p r e d i c t -
i n g average impulse on w a l l s and r o o f s f o r v a r i o u s chamber s i z e s , r a t i o s of
l e n g t h t o h e i g h t , numbers of e n c l o s i n g w a l l s and r o o f , and s t a n d o f f from t h e
n e a r e s t r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e . I n TM 5-1300, a n impulse i s chosen from one of
180 graphs depending on t h e number of r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s ( w a l l s , f l o o r , and
r o o f ) , c h a r g e p o s i t i o n i n s t r u c t u r e , room s i z e , and s t a n d o f f . Each graph h a s
s i x i s o c l i n e s of s t a n d o f f (R/W1/3) between which i n t e r p o l a t i o n must b e made i f
t h e e x a c t s t a n d o f f i s n o t given. An example of t h e s e curves i s g i v e n i n Fig-
ure 4.40. The impulse v a l u e o b t a i n e d i s used i n c a s e s where t h e r a t i o o f t h e
t i m e s of maximum s t r u c t u r a l r e s p o n s e tm t o b l a s t d u r a t i o n to i s v e r y small.
I f t h e p r e s s u r e d u r a t i o n i s long compared t o t h e component response t i m e , t h e
b l a s t p r e s s u r e t i m e h i s t o r y i s assumed t r i a n g u l a r and a " f i c t i t i o u s " peak
pressure Pf i s solved for by:
p
= 2 x impulse/to
where t i s c a l c u l a t e d by methods g i v e n i n TM5-1300.

0
No mention o f s t r u c t u r a l resonance (when t o and t h e component re-

sponse t i m e a r e s i m i l a r ) i s made i n TM 5-1300. For i n i t i a l shock l o a d i n g o f a
nearby w a l l , F i g u r e s 4.12 and 4.13 can p r o v i d e an estimate of b o t h peak pres-
s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and r e f l e c t e d impulse d i s t r i b u t i o n . There are no v e r i f i e d
procedures f o r e s t i m a t i n g r e f l e c t e d shock p r e s s u r e s on o t h e r s u r f a c e s f o r o f f -
c e n t e r d e t o n a t i o n s , b u t t h e methods d e s c r i b e d i n TM 5-1300 (Ref. 4.2) do g i v e
procedures f o r p r e d i c t i n g a v e r a g e s p e c i f i c impulses, and should b e used by a n
AE. There a r e a l s o computer programs f o r c a l c u l a t i o n of average r e f l e c t e d i w
p u l s e s documented i n References 4.73 and 4 . 7 4 . A comparison of t h e methods
p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s manual and TM 5-1300 (Ref. 4 . 2 ) i s given i n Example Problem
4.18.
4.4.1.2 Quasi-Static P r e s s u r e s
When a n e x p l o s i o n from a h i g h e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e o c c u r s w i t h i n a s t r u c -
t u r e , t h e b l a s t wave r e f l e c t s from t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , i m -
plodes toward t h e c e n t e r , and r e - r e f l e c t s one o r more t i m e s . The amplitude
of t h e r e - r e f l e c t e d waves u s u a l l y decays w i t h each r e f l e c t i o n , and e v e n t u a l l y
t h e p r e s s u r e s e t t l e s t o a slowly decaying l e v e l , which i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e
4-98
h
rn
N
0
O
6 6
0
2 s
I
1
J 0
4-99
8
9
0
4-100
volume and v e n t area of t h e s t r u c t u r e and t h e n a t u r e and energy release of
t h e e x p l o s i o n . A t y p i c a l t i m e h i s t o r y of p r e s s u r e a t t h e w a l l of a v e n t e d
s t r u c t u r e i s shown i n F i g u r e 4.41. The p r o c e s s o f r e f l e c t i o n and p r e s s u r e
b u i l d u p i n e i t h e r unvented o r p o o r l y vented s t r u c t u r e s h a s b e e n recognized f o r
some t i m e , d a t i n g from World War I1 r e s e a r c h o n e f f e c t s of bombs and e x p l o s i v e s
d e t o n a t e d w i t h i n e n c l o s u r e s . More r e c e n t l y , s t u d y of t h e s e p r e s s u r e s h a s re-
v i v e d because of i n t e r e s t i n d e s i g n o f vented e x p l o s i o n chambers. Esparza, e t
61. (Ref. 4.49) i s t h e most r e c e n t work i n t h i s area.
Weibull (Ref. 4.50) r e p o r t s maximum p r e s s u r e s f o r vented chambers of

v a r i o u s shapes having s i n g l e v e n t s w i t h a r a n g e of v e n t areas o f (AV/V2I3)
-
< 0.0215. H e f i t t e d a s i n g l e s t r a i g h t l i n e t o h i s d a t a , b u t P r o c t o r and
F i l l e r (Ref. 4.51) l a t e r showed t h a t f i t t i n g a c u r v e t o t h e d a t a , w i t h asymp-
t o t e s t o l i n e s r e l a t e d t o h e a t of combustion f o r s m a l l (W/V) and t o h e a t of
d e t o n a t i o n w i t h no a f t e r b u r n i n g f o r l a r g e (W/V) , w a s more a p p r o p r i a t e . Addi-
t i o n a l d a t a on maximum q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s and on v e n t i n g t i m e s have b e e n
o b t a i n e d by Keenan and Tancreto (Ref. 4.52) and by Z i l l i a c u s , e t a l . (Ref.
4.53). Concurrent w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l work which preceded a p p l i c a t i o n s t o sup-
p r e s s i v e s t r u c t u r e s , P r o c t o r and F i l l e r (Ref. 4.51) developed a t h e o r y f o r
p r e d i c t i n g t i m e h i s t o r i e s of q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s i n v e n t e d s t r u c t u r e s .
Kinney and S e w e l l (Ref. 4.54) d i d l i k e w i s e , and a l s o o b t a i n e d a n approximate
formula f o r t h i s t i m e h i s t o r y . Converted t o s c a l e d p a r a m e t e r s , t h i s e q u a t i o n
is:
kn = Rn
1
- 2.130 (4.43)
Here, and F1 a r e s c a l e d a b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e s g i v e n by
(4.45)
and PQs i s t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e . The q u a n t i t y 7 i s a d i m e n s i o n l e s s time

f o r v e n t i n g given by
. .
(4.46)
4-101
500 I 1 I I I I 1 I I
REFLECTED SHOCKS
400
300
200 A P PROX I MATE QUA S I -STAT IC

A- PRESSURE
LOO
-100
I I I I I I I I I
-200
0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020
T i m e , sec
Figure 4.41 T y p i c a l T i m e H i s t o r y of I n t e r n a l P r e s s u r e a t I n n e r
S u r f a c e of a Suppressive S t r u c t u r e
(Reference 4 . 4 7 )
I n t h i s e q u a t i o n , ae i s a n e f f e c t i v e v e n t area r a t i o t o b e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , As
i s i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e area of t h e s t r u c t u r e , V i s i n t e r n a l volume of t h e s t r u c -
t u r e , t is t i m e , and a. i s sound v e l o c i t y of a i r i n t h e s t r u c t u r e . The r a t i o n -
a l e f o r u s e of t h e s e s c a l e d parameters i s developed by Baker acd Oldham (Ref.
4.55). Equation ( 4 . 4 3 ) g i v e s a v a l u e f o r s c a l e d v e n t i n g t i m e T o f
-
T = 0.4695 Rn TI (4.47)
The problem of blowdown from a vented chamber i s a l s o s o l v e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y by

Owczarek (Ref. 4 . 5 6 ) , given i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e chamber b u t assuming
i s e n t r o p i c expansion through t h e v e n t area.
I n t h e s u p p r e s s i v e s t r u c t u r e s program, s u f f i c i e n t d a t a have been re-

1 corded f o r t h i s class of s t r u c t u r e t o add s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e measurements
for o t h e r t y p e s o f v e n t e d o r unvented chambers [Kingery, e t a l . (Ref. 4 . 4 7 ) ,
Schumacher, e t a l . (Ref. 4 . 4 8 ) ] . I n comparing such d a t a w i t h e i t h e r p r e v i o u s
d a t a o r t h e o r y , t h e r e are s e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d by t h e g e n e r a l p h y s i c s of
t h e p r o c e s s and by t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n v e n t i n g through s i n g l e openings i n w a l l s .
R e f e r r i n g t o F i g u r e 4 . 4 1 , one c a n see t h a t t h e maximum q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
i s q u i t e d i f f i c u l t t o d e f i n e because i t i s obscured by t h e i n i t i a l shock and
f i r s t few r e f l e c t e d shocks. Obviously, s e v e r a l r e f l e c t i o n s must o c c u r b e f o r e
i r r e v e r s i b l e p r o c e s s e s a t t e n u a t e t h e shocks and c o n v e r t t h e i r energy t o quasi-
s t a t i c p r e s s u r e . I t , t h e r e f o r e , seems i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o c a l l p o i n t A i n F i g u r e
4 . 4 1 t h e peak q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , although t h i s i s t h e p o i n t used by Kin-
gery, e t a l . (Ref. 4 . 4 7 ) t o compare w i t h code p r e d i c t i o n s from P r o c t o r and
F i l l e r (Ref. 4.51) and t h e Kinney and Sewell e q u a t i o n (Ref. 4 . 5 4 ) . A better
approach i s t o allow some t i m e f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e maximum p r e s s u r e , such a s
p o i n t B i n Figure 4.41.
F i g u r e 4 . 4 1 a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s a n o t h e r problem i n h e r e n t i n r e d u c t i o n
of vented p r e s s u r e d a t a , i .e. , a c c u r a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of d u r a t i o n o f t h i s
p r e s s u r e . When t h e p r e s s u r e traces approach ambient, t h e shock r e f l e c t i o n s
have l a r g e l y decayed. But, they approach t h e b a s e l i n e n e a r l y a s y m p t o t i c a l l y ,
s o t h a t t h e d u r a t i o n i s q u i t e d i f f i c u l t t o determine a c c u r a t e l y . A p o s s i b l e
d u r a t i o n tmx is.shown i n t h e f i g u r e .
Based on a s c a l i n g l a w by Baker and Oldham (Ref. 4 . 5 5 ) and a t h e o r e t -

i-c a l a n a l y s i s o f chamber v e n t i n g by Owczarek (Ref. 4 . 5 6 ) , one can show t h a t
P = (P/po) i s a f u n c t i o n of r a t i o o f s p e c i f i c h e a t s y and t h e s c a l e d time Y
(See Equation ( 4 . 4 6 ) ) ,
(4.48)
4-103
-
The i n i t i a l p r e s s u r e P1 f o r s t r u c t u r e s w i t h no v e n t i n g o r small v e n t i n g can b e
shown t o b e r e l a t e d t o a n o t h e r s c a l i n g term,
(4.49)
where E i s a measure of t o t a l energy r e l e a s e d by t h e e x p l o s i o n . For t e s t s

w i t h e x p l o s i v e s o f t h e same t y p e and no change i n ambient c o n d i t i o n s , a d i -
mensional e q u i v a l e n t o f Equation (4.49) i s
P1 = f 4 (W/V) (4.50)
where W i s c h a r g e weight ( l b ) and V i s chamber volume ( f t 3 ) . The s c a l e d p r e s -

sure-time h i s t o r i e s d u r i n g t h e gas v e n t i n g p r o c e s s can b e i n t e g r a t e d t o g i v e
scaled g a s impulse z g . This parameter i s d e f i n e d a s
u A a
(4.51)
Equations (4.43) and (4.49) can b e shown t o g i v e
(4.51a)
For a si.ngle l a y e r s t r u c t u r e , t h e v e n t area r a t i o a is t h e v e n t area

d i v i d e d by the t o t a l area of t h e w a l l , and t h e p r o d u c t e
a A = A (4.52)
e s V
For a m u l t i - l a y e r w a l l , however, t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p i s used.
N
1
-=: J-1 (4.53)
U
e L ai
i = l
4-104
It r e a c h e s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l i m i t s f o r l a r g e and small number o f p l a t e s , and
p r o v i d e s a r e l a t i v e measure of v e n t i n g f o r a v a r i e t y of p a n e l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s .
D e f i n i t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l v a l u e s of a i f o r each l a y e r i n a m u l t i - l a y e r e d
v e n t e d p a n e l r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l s t u d y o f t h e p a n e l c o n f i g u r a t i o n and experimental
v e r i f i c a t i o n . S p e c i f i c formulas and methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g cie f o r v a r i o u s
s u p p r e s s i v e s t r u c t u r e p a n e l s are p r e s e n t e d by Esparza, e t a l . (Ref. 4.49).
I n s p i t e of c o m p l e x i t i e s i n t h e v e n t i n g p r o c e s s , gas v e n t i n g p r e s s u r e s
and t h e i r d u r a t i o n s c a n b e p r e d i c t e d w i t h r e a s o n a b l e accuracy, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f
one d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between t h e s e r e l a t i v e l y l o n g t e r m and low a m p l i t u d e pres-
s u r e s and t h e i n t e r n a l b l a s t p r e s s u r e s r e s u l t i n g from b l a s t wave impingement
and r e f l e c t i o n . F i g u r e 4.42 shows t h e s i m p l i f i e d form f o r t h e gas v e n t i n g
p r e s s u r e s which can b e assumed.
I n t h i s s i m p l i f i e d form, t h e gas v e n t i n g p r e s s u r e i s assumed t o f o l -

low t h e s o l i d curve and rise l i n e a r l y from zero t i m e u n t i l i t r e a c h e s i n t i m e
t l a c u r v e which i s decaying e x p o n e n t i a l l y from a n i n i t i a l m a x i m u m v a l u e of PI.
The decay then f o l l o w s t h e t i m e h i s t o r y
-ct
P(t) = P e (4.54)
1
u n t i l i t r e a c h e s ambient p r e s s u r e po a t t i m e t = tmx. The e x p o n e n t i a l decay

i s shown t o agree w e l l w i t h experiment [Kingery, e t a l . (Ref. 4.47), Schumach-
e r , e t a l . (Ref. 4 . 4 8 ) ] . The cross-hatched area under t h e o v e r p r e s s u r e curve
i s d e f i n e d as t h e gas impulse, ig,and i s given mathematically as
t
-ct
= f m a x (pl e - p 0) d t
'0
(4.55)
4-105
-ct
T P 1- = Ple
P
QS
1
t t
1 maX
Figure 4.42 Simplified Gas Venting Pressure
4-106
The t i m e tl we w i l l assume t o b e t h e end o f t h e i n t e r n a l b l a s t l o a d i n g phase.
t = 5 t + T (4.56)
1 a r
where Tr i s t h e d u r a t i o n of a t r i a n g u l a r p u l s e w i t h c o r r e c t Pr and ir. T h i s

i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h e end o f t h e t r i p l e - p u l s e l o a d i n g i n F i g u r e 4.38, w i t h t i m e
ta added f o r f i r s t shock a r r i v a l . *
The maximum v a l u e f o r t h e o v e r p r e s s u r e i n t h e g a s v e n t i n g phase o f

t h e l o a d i n g i s t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e which would o c c u r i n a n unvented en-
c l o s u r e b e f o r e h e a t t r a n s f e r e f f e c t s a t t e n u a t e i t , P Q ~ . From d a t a and analy-
ses i n s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s , t h e curve of F i g u r e 4.43 h a s b e e n shown t o y i e l d
good p r e d i c t i o n s o f PQS, i f t h e q u a n t i t y of e x p l o s i v e W and t h e i n t e r n a l vol-
ume of t h e s t r u c t u r e V a r e known.
Other g a s v e n t i n g parameters t h a n PQs, o r P 1 = PQS + po, c a n b e most

e a s i l y p r e d i c t e d u s i n g p l o t s o r e q u a t i o n s f o r some o f t h e s c a l e d parameters
d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r . The q u a n t i t y c i n Equation (4.54) is g i v e n w i t h r e a s o n a b l e
accuracy by
c = 2.130 ( a A a
e; O ) (4.57)
For a i r a t s t a n d a r d sea l e v e l c o n d i t i o n s , a, = 1117 f t / s e c , and
(4.58)
f o r A, i n f t 2 and V i n f t 3 . A s i n d i c a t e d , u n i t s o f c i n t h i s l a s t e q u a t i o n
are
- sec-1. F i g u r e s 4.44 and 4.45 g i v e s c a l e d d u r a t i o n s of g a s o v e r p r e s s u r e
hxand s c a l e d g a s impulse iga s f u n c t i o n s o f s c a l e d i n i t i a l p r e s s u r e =
PlIPo
*This rise-time a p p l i e s p r i m a r i l y f o r e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e s n e a r t h e chamber cen-

t e r . For o f f - c e n t e r c h a r g e s , i t s t i l l g i v e s a good estimate, provided t h e
c h a r g e i s simply assumed t o b e c e n t e r e d when e s t i m a t i n g t a
4-10 7
I-'
I
I-'
cn
rt
P
rD
W
I-'
c-
I
I-'
0
W
Figure 4 . 4 3 Peak Quasi-Static Pressure f o r TNT Explosion in Chambers

10
lo1
loo
0 0.5 1 .o 1.5 2 .o 2.5
Figure 4 . 4 4 S c a l e d Blowdown D u r a t i o n v e r s u s S c a l e d Maximum P r e s s u r e
4-109
n VI
0 5
a m
4-110
Equations f o r t h e s c a l e d parameters can b e i n v e r t e d t o g i v e t h e c o r r e -
sponding dimensional q u a n t i t i e s , as follow:
(4.59)
- v (4.60)
tmax = 'max (aeAsao)
S e l f - c o n s i s t e n t u n i t s must b e used when "unscaling" sing these equations.
The e f f e c t i v e v e n t area r a t i o + i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e w a l l s and

roof of t h e s t r u c t u r e . For s i n g l e l a y e r p a n e l s , t h e v e n t area r a t i o i s t h e
v e n t area d i v i d e d by t h e t o t a l area of t h e w a l l s and r o o f . For m u l t i - l a y e r
p a n e l s , use Equation ( 4 . 5 3 ) . I f t h e s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t s of p a n e l s made of
a n g l e s , z e e s , l o u v r e s , o r i n t e r l o c k e d I-beams, % i s determined by u s i n g t h e
information i n Figure 4.46. Panels o f n e s t e d a n g l e s which have approximately
one opening p e r p r o j e c t e d l e n g t h a r e about twice as e f f i c i e n t as a p e r f o r a t e d
p l a t e i n b r e a k i n g up t h e side-on peak p r e s s u r e as i t v e n t s (N = 2 ) . For
c l o s e r n e s t e d a n g l e s such t h a t t h e r e a r e about two openings p e r p r o j e c t e d
l e n g t h , t h e a n g l e s seem t o b e f o u r t i m e s a s e f f i c i e n t as a p e r f o r a t e d p l a t e
(N = 4 ) . More d e t a i l s on use of t h i s procedure are g i v e n i n S u p p r e s s i v e
S h i e l d s (Ref. 4 . 3 ) . I f more conventional open v e n t areas a r e used, t h e n t h e
q u a n t i t y aeAs i s r e p l a c e d by v e n t area A.
I n Reference 4 . 5 2 , t h e terms " p a r t i a l l y vented" and " f u l l vented"

a r e d e f i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o v a l u e s of t h e s c a l e d v e n t area r a t i o A/V2P3. If
t h i s parameter i s g r e a t e r than 0 . 6 0 , gas v e n t i n g t i m e s should b e less t h a n
i n i t i a l shock l o a d i n g d u r a t i o n s , and t h e chamber is f u l l y v e n t e d , i . e . , gas
p r e s s u r e parameters can b e i g n o r e d . But, i f i t i s less t h a n o r e q u a l t o 0.60,
t h e chamber i s p a r t i a l l y vented, and gas p r e s s u r e parameters must b e consid-
e r e d . F i g u r e s 4.43 through 4.45 should g i v e c o n s e r v a t i v e (upper l i m i t ) pre-
d i c t i o n s compared t o d a t a i n Reference 4 . 5 2 .
4-111
n
= aXgi/N = ECgi
Avent Avent
1 1
E = l e n g t h of e l e m e n t n = n u i n t e r of o p e n i n g s
p r o j e c t e d l e n g t h of a n g l e = LM
P = *wall
N = 2 or 1 ( s e e t e x t ) a = A /Aw
V
= LM
*wall
L = l e n g t h of wall
a = A
vent lAwa~l
(a) Nested Angles (b) Side-By-Side Angles O r Zees

+-M-l
T 1
-I La. 1
i
n n
Avent
= c a.12
1
1
a = o p e n a r e a of louvre
i
n
= LM A = 211 Ci
Awall v
4 1
a = AV / A w
(c) Louvres (d) I n t e r l o c k e d I-Beams
F i g u r e 4.46 D e f i n i t i o n Of E f f e c t i v e Area R a t i o For

Various S t r u c t u r a l Elements ( R e f e r e n c e 4 . 4 9 )
4-112
PROBLEM - C a l c u l a t e r e f l e c t e d shock and q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e a l o n g w i t h blow-

down t i m e and gas impulse i n a v e n t e d , c o n t a i n e d bay.
GIVEN: W = c h a r g e weight o f PBX 9404

V = room volume
A = a A = vent area
V e s
R = s t a n d o f f from nearest w a l l o r s u r f a c e
= atmospheric pressure
PO
a = speed o f sound i n a i r
0
- pr, ir, 'QS, tmaxY ig' combined p u l s e parameters REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. C a l c u l a t e TNT e q u i v a l e n t w e i g h t W Appendix A

2. C a l c u l a t e W/V r a t i o
3. O b t a i n v a l u e o f P F i g . 4.43
QS
4 . Calculate P /Po
QS
( '".)
5. Obtain v a l u e of s c a l e d blowdown t i m e :
7= ("e".) F i g . 4.44
$13 v2/3
6. S o l v e for- tmax:
tmax
-
aoaeAs
'
= blowdown t i m e
7. O b t a i n v a l u e of s c a l e d gas p r e s s u r e
impulse :
F i g . 4.45
8. Solve f o r gas p r e s s u r e impulse:
9. .Determine s c a l e d d i s t a n c e from s u r f a c e
i n q u e s t i o n ( w a l l , r o o f ,' etc.)
Z = R/W
113 Eq. (4.16)
10. Determine p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g o n s u r f a c e
(reflected). I f Z i s l a r g e and s u r -
f a c e i s small s u c h t h a t p r e s s u r e i s
f a i r l y c o n s t a n t a c r o s s s u r f a c e , u s e Pr
from F i g u r e 4.6 f o r e n t i r e s u r f a c e .
This would g i v e w o r s t case. I f Z is
small and s u r f a c e i s l a r g e , use F i g u r e F i g . 4.6 &
4.12 F i g . 4.12
4-113
11. Determine s p e c i f i c impulse t o s u r f a c e
(reflected). I f Z i s l a r g e and s u r -
face i s small such t h a t s p e c i f i c i m -
pulse i s f a i r l y constant across surface,
u s e ir from F i g u r e 4.13 t o o b t a i n i , and Fig. 4.6 &
calculate i = i F i g- . 4.13
2i Eq. (4.39) &
12. Calculate T = p Eq. (4.40)
CALCULATION - Using t h e HE t r e a t m e n t room and a w a l l s u r f a c e ( c o n s i d e r a w a l l

s u r f a c e w i t h i n t h e HE t r e a t m e n t room of t h e High E x p l o s i v e s De-
velopment Machining F a c i l i t y ) :
GIVEN: W = charge w e i g h t 423 l b of PBX 9404

3
V = 12,500 f t
- = 19.8 f t
2
from 2.83 f t X 7 f t door; no o t h e r vents
Av - 'eAs
R = 3 f t
po = 14.7 p s i
a = 1116 f t / s e c
0
-
FIND: .
Pry ir' PQS, tmax,ig' combined pulse parameters
SOLUTION: 1. W = ( c h a r g e weight)(TNT e q u i v a l e n t ) = (423) (1.107) = 468

3
2. W/V = 468 lb/12500 f t 3 = 0.0374 l b / f t
3. From F i g u r e 4.43, P = 150 p s i and P1 = P = 164.7
QS QS +- 0
'
4. P1/Po = 164.7/14.7 = 11.2
5.
-
T = (3)(-)
From F i g u r e 4.44
= 1.13
6. S o l v i n g for tmx:
-
- .rv - (1.13) (12500 f t 3
7.
tmax ao'eAs
From F i m r e 4.45:
(1116 f t / s e c ) (19.8 it 2
)
= 0.64 sec
8. Solving f o r i-:.
i
g
= -
i
g
( )
:o
P
e s o
= 32 p s i - s e c
1/3
9. Z = R/$l3 = 3 f t / ( 4 6 8 lb)1/3 = 0.386 f t / l b
4-114
10.For t h i s case, v a l u e s of X t o cover t h e w a l l a r e much
g r e a t e r t h a n R, and t h e l o a d i n g w i l l n o t b e c o n s t a n t
over t h e e n t i r e w a l l . The v a l u e s o f p r e s s u r e l i s t e d
i n Table 4.7 are o b t a i n e d from F i g u r e 4.12 f o r v a r i o u s
X/R. The v a l u e of Z i s n o t one o f t h e i s o c l i n e s on
F i g u r e 4.12, hence, i n t e r p o l a t i o p is n e c e s s a r y
11. As w i t h p r e s s u r e , t h e v a l u e s o f i (from F i g u r e 4.13)
and i ( s p e c i f i c impulse) are l i s t e d i n Table 4.7
12. T = 2 i / P i s c a l c u l a t e d and is l i s t e d i n Table 4.7
NOTE: One c a n use the d a t a i n Table 4;7 d i r e c t l y t o d e f i n e
nonconstant p r e s s u r e s and impulses o v e r a w a l l . One
can also i n t e g r a t e t h e impulse v a l u e s over t h e s u r f a c e
of t h e w a l l t o o b t a i n t o t a l impulse imparted t o t h e
w a l l . T h i s i s done i n Example Problem 4.18. Results
of t h i s Example Problem w i l l b e used i n Example Prob-
l e m 4.13 t o p r e d i c t s p a l l .
4-115
Table 4.7 Non-constant Loading over Plate
-
i
ps i-sec /
X P 1 T
-
X/ R -
ft psi 1df3 psi-sec -
sec
4
0 0 7 . 0 X 10 1.50 12.0 3.5 x
4
0.5 1.5 5.5 x 10 0.90 7 .O 2.5 x
4
1 .o 3 .O 2.0 x 10 0.50 3.9 3.9 x
3
1.5 4.5 8 . 0 X 10 0.22 1.7 4.3 x
2 .o 6 .O 4.0 x lo3 0.12 0.93 4.6 X
2.5 7.5 2.5 x lo3 0.065 0.51 4.1 x

3
3.0 9 .o 2.0 x 10 0.040 0.31 3.1 x
3
3.25 9.75 1 . 5 X 10 0.028 0.22 2.9 x
*Using methods in TM 5-1300 (Ref. 4 . 2 ) , average impulse over this

wall is calculated t o be ib = 3 . 3 9 2 psi-sec. See Example Problem
4.18 for determination of average wall impulse using methods in
this manual.
4-116
4.4.2 E f f e c t s Outside S t r u c t u r e s f o r D i r e c t i o n a l V e n t i n g
When an e x p l o s i o n o c c u r s i n a vented s t r u c t u r e , t h e b l a s t wave o u t s i d e

can b e a t t e n u a t e d . The way i n which t h e b l a s t wave is a f f e c t e d depends on t h e
v e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . This s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s t h e e f f e c t t h a t
d i r e c t i o n a l v e n t i n g h a s on b l a s t wave parameters o u t s i d e of a s t r u c t u r e w i t h
an i n t e r n a l explosion.
A d i r e c t i o n a l l y vented chamber i s one w i t h v e n t openings o r p a n e l s

which are n o t uniformly provided around a l l s i d e s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , such as
v e n t i n g on o n l y one o r two w a l l s , a r o o f , a w a l l and a r o o f , e t c . T h i s t y p e
' of v e n t i n g w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d by Keenan and T r a n c r e t o (Ref. 4.52), i n c l u d i n g
model tests and t h e formation of p r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s . This s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s
t h e i r work. Because t h e i r r e p o r t should b e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e t o an AE f i r m ,
w e i n c l u d e only a few of t h e i r curves t o show t h e manner o f d a t a p r e s e n t a t i o n .
S i x d i r e c t i o n a l l y vented chambers were t e s t e d w i t h v e n t i n g on v a r i o u s

f a c e s which i n c l u d e d r o o f s a l o n e , w a l l s and r o o f s , and w a l l s a l o n e . The v e n t s
were open areas which could b e t h e e n t i r e f a c e o r o n l y p a r t of t h e f a c e . The
tests included t h e d e t o n a t i o n of a s i n g l e HE c h a r g e i n s i d e a s t r u c t u r e and
b l a s t measurements made both i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e s t r u c t u r e f o r three d i f -
f e r e n t charge weights i n each s t r u c t u r e . Only e x t e r n a l b l a s t parameters s h a l l
be discussed i n t h i s s e c t i o n .
Keenan and Trancreto (Ref. 4.52) d i s t i n g u i s h between a " p a r t i a l l y

vented" and a " f u l l y vented" chamber. A f u l l y vented chamber has a v e n t area
l a r g e enough compared t o t h e chamber volume t h a t t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e shock
p u l s e (T) i s g r e a t e r than t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e gas p u l s e (blowdown d u r a t i o n ,
Tb, see S e c t i o n 4.4.1.2). A p a r t i a l l y vented chamber h a s a v e n t area such
t h a t Tb > T.
It i s expected t h a t a f u l l y vented chamber w i l l have l a r g e r e x t e r n a l

peak p r e s s u r e s and s p e c i f i c impulses f o r t h e s a m e s t a n d o f f s t h a n a p a r t i a l l y
vented chamber. This r e l a t i o n s h i p was shown by Keenan and T r a n c r e t o (Ref.
4.52) f o r roof-vented chambers. Thus, t h e e x t e r i o r b l a s t parameter p r e d i c t i o n
curves f o r a f u l l y vented chamber are c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r t h e d e s i g n of p a r t i a l l y
vented chambers.
When an e x p l o s i o n occurs w i t h i n a chamber w i t h one open s i d e , p a r t of

t h e i n i t i a l shock wave w i l l e s c a p e o u t s i d e through t h e v e n t . I n t e r n a l l y , as
t h e remaining shock wave r e f l e c t s back and f o r t h , secondary shock waves es-
cape through t h e v e n t and f o l l o w t h e i n i t i a l p u l s e . These t r a i l i n g shocks can
o v e r t a k e and merge w i t h t h e l e a d shock f o r t h e same r e a s o n s as t h e c o a l e s c i n g
o f shocks i n simultaneous and s e q u e n t i a l d e t o n a t i o n s ( e x p l a i n e d i n S e c t i o n
4 . 3 . 2 ) . Whether t r a i l i n g shocks c o a l e s c e w i t h l e a d i n g shocks depends on shock
s t r e n g t h and t h e s e p a r a t i o n of shocks. Coalescing of shocks w a s e v i d e n t f o r
both chambers being considered. For very l o n g rooms w i t h small e x p l o s i v e
4-117
w e i g h t s , c o a l e s c i n g may n o t o c c u r , due t o l a r g e s e p a r a t i o n of shocks and low
c h a r g e w e i g h t , and hence, use of p r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s would b e c o n s e r v a t i v e . For
ver3 narrow rooms w i t h l a r g e e x p l o s i v e weight, c o a l e s c e n c e could o c c u r more
q u i c k l y than measured f o r t h e two chambers and c a u s e h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s c l o s e i n
t h a n p r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s would i n d i c a t e . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t p r e d i c -
t i o n c u r v e s b e used o n l y f o r t h e r a n g e s of scaled d i s t a n c e s shown (Ref. 4.52).
The two test chambers used had open f a c e d v e n t s as opposed t o blowout

p a n e l s or d o o r s . For blowout p a n e l v e n t i n g , t h e i n i t i a l shock wave (and p o s s i -
b l y some f o l l o w i n g shocks depending upon r e s p o n s e t i m e ) does n o t e s c a p e b u t i s
r e f l e c t e d by t h e blowout panel. Hence, shocks t h a t do e s c a p e t h e chamber are
weaker r e f l e c t i o n s and t h e peak p r e s s u r e s o u t s i d e t h e chamber are n o t expected
t o b e as h i g h as t h a t from open vented chamber. It i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t e x t e r i o r
b l a s t p r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s can b e used as a c o n s e r v a t i v e upper l i m i t f o r chambers
w i t h blowout p a n e l type v e n t i n g (Ref. 4.52). F i g u r e s 4.47 and 4.48 are exam-
p l e s o f t h e many b l a s t parameter p r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s given i n Reference 4.52.
They i n c l u d e peak p o s i t i v e p r e s s u r e and s p e c i f i c p o s i t i v e impulse f o r f r o n t ,
back, and s i d e d i r e c t i o n s . Included on t h e graphs are W/V ( c h a r g e w e i g h t /
chamber volume) q u a n t i t i e s used f o r the experiments. These curves should not
b e used f o r W/V v a l u e s o u t s i d e t h e s e limits ( l a r g e chamber: 0.009 l b / f t 3 I
W/V I 0.055 l b / f t 3 ; small chambers: 0.063 l b / f t 3 I W/V I 0.250 l b / f t 3 ) . The
charge t y p e used w a s Composition B , which h a s a TNT energy e q u i v a l e n c y of
1.092- I n terms of TNT energy, t h e W/V limits w i l l b e 0.0099 l b / f t 3 5 W/V
0.060 l b / f t 3 f o r t h e l a r g e chamber and 0.069 l b / f t 3 W/V I 0.273 l b / f t 3 f o r
t h e small chamber. D u r a t i o n of the p o s i t i v e phase ( t d ) of t h e b l a s t wave c a n
b e approximated by c o n s i d e r i n g a t r i a n g u l a r - s h a p e d p u l s e . Keenan and T a n c r e t o
(Ref. 4.52) s u g g e s t t h i s as f o l l o w s
(4.61)
4.4.3 E f f e c t s of Vent C l o s u r e s
Many v e n t e d , e x p l o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t s t r u c t u r e s must have v e n t s covered by

c l o s u r e s t o m a i n t a i n p r o p e r i n t e r n a l atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s , o r f o r o t h e r rea-
sons. These c l o s u r e s are u s u a l l y i n t e n d e d t o b e f r a n g i b l e and r a p i d l y d i s -
p l a c e o r fragment under t h e e f f e c t s o f i n t e r n a l e x p l o s i o n s . I n t h i s s e c t i o n ,
w e d i s c u s s t h e probable e f f e c t s of c l o s u r e s o n t h e v e n t i n g p r o c e s s , and g i v e
some p r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s f o r t h e gas v e n t i n g phase of t h e i n t e r n a l e x p l o s i o n s ,
based on e x e r c i s e of a r e l a t i v e l y simple gasdynamic computer code.
Typical f r a n g i b l e covers f o r c e l l s i n an e x p l o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t b u i l d i n g
a t Pantex are made of l i g h t , commercially a v a i l a b l e p a n e l s mounted on l i g h t
metal s u p p o r t frames, w i t h weight p e r u n i t area of about 6 l b / f t 2 . They form
t h e o u t e r w a l l s of bays i n t h e b u i l d i n g , w i t h a l l o t h e r walls, r o o f , and f l o o r
4-118
i
2
I --- Unconfined surface burst (Fig. 21 1
0.5
2 5 1 20 100
Scaled Distance R/dI3, ft/lb

113
Figure 4.47 Peak P o s i t i v e Pressure Behind Sidewall Of

Small Three-Wall Cubicle with Roof (Reference 4 . 5 2 )
4-119
FI
I
h,
0
Figure 4.48 Scaled Peak P o s i t i v e Impulse Behhd Sidewall of Small Three-Wall Cubicle with Roof
(Reference 4.52)
b e i n g much h e a v i e r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e c o n s t r u c t i o n , w i t h w e i g h t s p e r u n i t
area of a t l e a s t 160 l b / f t 2 . When a n i n t e r n a l e x p l o s i o n o c c u r s , t h e f i r s t
r e f l e c t e d shock l o a d i n g on b o t h t h e b l a s t r e s i s t a n t p a r t s of t h e s t r u c t u r e and
t h e f r a n g i b l e v e n t w a l l are e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same as f o r a n unvented chamber of
t h e same geometry, i . e . , t h e maximum a p p l i e d p r e s s u r e i s Pr and t h e maximum
a p p l i e d s p e c i f i c impulse i s i r . But, t h e f r a n g i b l e v e n t w a l l f a i l s w i t h i n a
few m i l l i s e c o n d s and moves outward as f r e e body w i t h a v e l o c i t y uo approxi-
mated by t h e impulse-momentum theorem,
i A
u =- r (4.62)
O M
where A is loaded area o f t h e v e n t w a l l and M i s mass ( n o t weipht) of t h e en-

tire w a l l .
Even though t h e v e n t w a l l i s a c c e l e r a t e d and p r o p e l l e d outward by t h e

i n i t i a l r e f l e c t e d b l a s t wave, no v e n t i n g can o c c u r i n i t i a l l y , and t h e wave i s
r e f l e c t e d back i n t o t h e chamber w i t h v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n u a t i o n i n s t r e n g t h , be-
c a u s e of t h e f i n i t e i n e r t i a of t h e w a l l . I n some chambers a t Pantex, t h e v e n t
w a l l must move several f e e t b e f o r e i t c l e a r s t h e v e n t opening i n t h e c e l l , s o
no t r u e v e n t i n g can occur u n t i l t h e w a l l h a s moved t h a t f a r . By t h i s t i m e ,
several shock r e f l e c t i o n s w i l l have occurred w i t h i n t h e c e l l , and t h e i r
s t r e n g t h s a t t e n u a t e d by i r r e v e r s i b l e p r o c e s s e s s o t h a t t h e g a s v e n t i n g phase
d i s c u s s e d earlier w i l l s t a r t . The v e n t cover w i l l c o n t i n u e t o accelerate be-
cause of t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c g a s p r e s s u r e , b u t t h i s p r e s s u r e can now b e vented
around t h e open edges of t h e cover. E v e n t u a l l y , t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
w i t h i n t h e chamber decays t o atmospheric p r e s s u r e , and t h e gas v e n t i n g p r o c e s s
ends.
Even a v e r y l i g h t v e n t cover such as t h i n , c o r r u g a t e d f i b e r g l a s s s h e e t -

i n g used f o r p a t i o r o o f i n g , w i l l n o t a t t e n u a t e t h e i n i t i a l r e f l e c t e d shock
l o a d i n g . But, t h e l i g h t e r t h e cover ( t h e lower i t s M / A ) , t h e more r a p i d l y i t
opens under b o t h i n i t i a l shock and q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s , t h u s a t t e n u a t i n g
t h e gas v e n t i n g phase of t h e i n t e r n a l e x p l o s i o n p r o c e s s .
There have been e s s e n t i a l l y no measurements of i n t e r n a l e x p l o s i o n pres-

s u r e s f o r vented chambers w i t h covers, and v e r y few p a s t a n a l y s e s . But, a
r e l a t i v e l y simple computer code c a n b e used t o f o l l o w t h e v e n t i n g p r o c e s s f o r
c o v e r s of v a r i o u s masses p e r u n i t area (M/A), v a r i o u s chamber volumes, and
v a r i o u s i n t e r n a l e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e w e i g h t s ( o r e n e r g i e s ) . W e have used such a
code t o g e n e r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s o f g a s v e n t i n g p r e s s u r e s , and p r e s e n t them h e r e .
4-121
The computer code* which w e developed i s composed of t h r e e s e c t i o n s i n
o r d e r t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e t h r e e d i s t i n c t phases of v e n t i n g f o r t h e P a n t e x fa-
c i l i t y . The f i r s t phase r e p r e s e n t s t h e case where a v e n t cover travels a
f i n i t e d i s t a n c e , such as through a t u n n e l o r t h e t h i c k n e s s of a t h i c k w a l l ,
b e f o r e any v e n t i n g takes p l a c e . During t h i s phase of v e n t i n g , w e used t h e
t e c h n i q u e demonstrated by Kulesz, e t a l . (Ref. 4.57) f o r a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s
on board a Navy submarine t e n d e r . For t h i s a n a l y s i s , a n e q u a t i o n of motion i s
developed which d e s c r i b e s t h e e f f e c t of t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e on t h e velo-
c i t y of t h e v e n t p a n e l , and p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e s d u e t o s i m p l e a d i a b a t i c expan-
s i o n as t h e volume of t h e room changes. During t h e second phase o f v e n t i n g ,
t h e v e n t p a n e l h a s c l e a r e d t h e t u n n e l o r w a l l and t h e room b e g i n s t o v e n t i n t o
t h e atmosphere. The energy o f t h e g a s i s d i v i d e d among energy expended d u r i n g
ggs expansion, t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e vent p a n e l and energy l o s s e s due t o
t h e g a s flowing around t h e v e n t panel. To perform t h i s phase of t h e a n a l y s i s ,
o u r computer program u s e s a modified v e r s i o n o f t h e t e c h n i q u e developed by
Taylor and P r i c e (Ref. 4.58), Baker, e t a l . (Ref. 4.59) and Kulesz, e t a l .
(Ref. 4.57). The t h i r d phase of v e n t i n g o c c u r s a f t e r t h e v e n t p a n e l is s u f f i -
c i e n t l y f a r from t h e v e n t opening t h a t i t no l o n g e r i n t e r r u p t s t h e flow of t h e
e x i t i n g gas. During t h i s phase of v e n t i n g , we u s e a g a s v e n t i n g computer code
which c o n s i d e r s g a s v e n t i n g through an o r i f i c e based on t h e i d e a l gas l a w and
s o n i c o r s u b s o n i c gas flow, depending upon t h e r e l a t i v e p r e s s u r e s between t h e
room and t h e atmosphere. This p o r t i o n of t h e v e n t i n g p r o c e s s u s e s t h e methods
d e s c r i b e d by Owczarek (Ref. 4.56), Baker and Oldham (Ref. 4.55), and Esparza,
e t a l . (Ref. 4.49). The v e n t i n g computer program developed f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s
a l l o w s one t o v a r y t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , volume, v e n t area, v e n t h e i g h t ,
v e n t width, v e n t mass, i n i t i a l v e n t v e l o c i t y a c q u i r e d from b l a s t wave l o a d i n g ,
' t h e v e n t t u n n e l l e n g t h , ambient p r e s s u r e , ambient t e m p e r a t u r e , d i s c h a r g e coef-
f i c i e n t s , and t i m e increments d u r i n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s . The computer code a l s o
c o n s i d e r s cases where t h e v e n t p a n e l is a d j a c e n t t o the ground o r h i g h enough
above t h e ground t h a t g a s flow i s n o t a f f e c t e d by t h e ground s u r f a c e .
A model a n a l y s i s w a s performed t o determine t h e f u n c t i o n a l format of

t h e parameters involved i n t h e gas v e n t i n g p r o c e s s . The l i s t of p h y s i c a l
* p a r a m e t e r s i s p r e s e n t e d i n Table 4.8. The dimensionless terms are p r e s e n t e d
i n Table 4.9, w i t h V, po and used as " r e p e a t i n g " parameters. Observe t h a t
- - -
a l l r e s p o n s e terns, p ( t ) , u f , ig, and r can b e obtained i f F(t> , the scaled
p r e s s u r e h i s t o r y , i s known. Some d i m e n s i o n l e s s terms c a n b e e l i m i n a t e d t o
s i m p l i f y t h e a n a l y s i s . The r a t i o of s p e c i f i c h e a t s , y , can b e e l i m i n a t e d , as
i t s v a l u e i s c o n s t a n t . The - s c a l e d q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , PI, is a f u n c t i o n
of s c a l e d charge energy, E (See F i g u r e 4 . 4 3 ) . Hence, knowledge of t h e v a l u e
*The computer code which w e developed i s a combination of several codes pre-

v i o u s l y published by SwRI. It i s d e s c r i b e d i n more d e t a i l i n Ref. 4.72.
The code i s o n l y a v a i l a b l e from SwRI.
.
4-122
Table 4.8 P h y s i c a l Parameters A f f e c t i n g Venting
Symbol Descr i D t i o n Units
Energy FL
Volume L3
Vent area L2
Quasi-Static pressure (absolute) F/L2

p1
Y R a t i o of s p e c i f i c h e a t s
H Wall t h i c k n e s s L
Amb ien t p r e s s u r e F/L2
a Speed o f sound i n a i r L/ T
0
M Mass o f v e n t FT2/L
U I n i t i a l panel v e l o c i t y L/ T
0
t Time T
Press u r e h i s t o r y F/L2
(Pressure as a function of
time)
i Gas impulse FT/L2

g ( I n t e g r a l of p r e s s u r e h i s t o r y )
D u r a t i o n o f vent s t a g e of T
Td
i n t e r n a l explosion
U F i n a l panel v e l o c i t y
f
4-123
Table 4 . 9 Dimensionless Terms f o r Vented Chamber
-
E =(e)
-
A =($)
P
-
1
=(?)
4-124
of one of t h e s e d i m e n s i o n l e s s terms i m p l i e s knowledge o f t h e v a l u e o f t h e
o t h e r , and ? w a s e l i m i n a t e d . By a similar p r o c e s s , t h e term io, i n i t i a l scaled
p a n e l v e l o c i t y , can b e e l i m i n a t e d . The i n i t i a l panel v e l o c i t y , f o r a p a n e l of
g i v e n m a s s , w i l l b e determined by t h e i n i t i a l shock l o a d i n g ( r e f l e c t e d impulse)
imparted t o t h e panel (See F i g u r e 4 . 6 ) . The magnitude o f t h e impulse w i l l b e
determined by t h e charge energy (weight) and t h e geometry ( c h a r g e shape, o r i -
e n t a t i o n , and l o c a t i o n i n s i d e c u b i c l e ) . The charge energy i s i m p l i c i t l y ex-
p r e s s e d i n Ti, and t h e s c a l e d w a l l p a n e l mass i s M. The same geometry w a s
used i n a l l c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g s i m p l i f y i n g assumptions :
1. A b a r e s p h e r i c a l charge w a s l o c a t e d i n t h e g e o m e t r i c c e n t e r
of a cubicle.
2. No r e f l e c t i o n f a c t o r w a s added f o r i n t e r a c t i o n o f b l a s t waves
with the c u b i c l e f l o o r . (This is conservative because later
r e f l e c t e d shocks can f u r t h e r accelerate t h e vent p a n e l . )
3. The s t a n d o f f from t h e c h a r g e w a s assumed t o b e c o n s t a n t o v e r

t h e e n t i r e v e n t panel ( i n s t e a d of c a l c u l a t i n g a s l a n t r a n g e ) ;
hence, producing a s p e c i f i c impulse independent of l o c a t i o n
on v e n t p a n e l .
These s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s were made because t h e g a s v e n t i n g problem i s a l -

ready complicated w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n o f s e v e r a l more d i m e n s i o n l e s s terms t o
s p e c i f y geometry e f f e c t s . The problem i s o u t l i n e d i n Example Problem 4.12 a t
t h e end of t h i s s e c t i o n .
The f u n c t i o n a l format f o r t h e p r e s s u r e h i s t o r y becomes, a f t e r t h e above

simplifications,
(4.63)
- -
The g a s impulse, i i s t h e t i m e i n t e g r a l o f p ( t ) o v e r t h e d u r a t i o n , Td, o f
g,
t h e gas v e n t i n g :
(4.64)
4-125
or
(4.65)
-
S i m i l a r l y , Td, t h e s c a l e d d u r a t i o n of g a s v e n t i n g i s
- T a - -
T = = f2(A, P1, K, 2) (4.66)
d 3
The computer code w a s r u n s e p a r a t e l y for cases where t h e v e n t panel w a s

l o c a t e d on t h e ground and f o r cases where t h e p a n e l i s o f f t h e ground ( i . e . ,
where t h e gas flow i s n o t d i s t u r b e d by t h e ground). It w a s found t h a t f o r
cases where t h e v e n t panel is t h e whole w a l l , t h e r e is no difference i n t h e re-
s u l t s . I n t h e l i m i t of small vent p a n e l areas, however, %20%o f t h e w a l l area,
t h e r e s u l t s are u n c l e a r a t t h i s t i m e due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t numbers of computa-
t i o n a l r u n s . The parameter v a l u e s used i n t h e computations scanned s e v e r a l
o r d e r s of magnitude, a s f o l l o w s : '
Charge energy 1 - 1000 l b TNT

3
Cubicle volume 1000 - 30,000 f t
Vent area 20% - 100% o f area o f one w a l l
Wall t h i c kne s s 0 - 6 f t
Ambient p r e s s u r e 14.7 p s i
2
S p e c i f i c weight of v e n t 0 - 300 l b / f t
panel
Speed of sound 1116 f t / s e c
Discharge coe f i c i e n t 0 .6
Observe t h a t the r e s u l t s can be used a t a l t i t u d e s o t h e r than s e a l e v e l

simply by u s i n g t h e proper v a l u e s f o r ambient atmospheric p r e s s u r e and s o n i c
velocity i n calculating the scaled values.
4-126
The r e s u l t s o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s are p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e s 4.49 through
4.52. These c u r v e s f o r = 0 are similar t o t h o s e o b t a i n e d by Esparza, e t a l .
(Ref. 4.49). F i g u r e s 4.49 and 4.50 i n c o r p o r a t e t h e e f f e c t o f a real v e n t p a n e l
w i t h mass, b u t are f o r s c a l e d w a l l t h i c k n e s s of z e r o . F i g u r e s 4.51 and 4.52
i n c o r p o r a t e the e f f e c t of h a v i n g a w a l l t h i c k n e s s o r several w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s
f o r t h e v e n t p a n e l t o t r a v e r s e b e f o r e a c t u a l v e n t i n g can b e g i n . No a t t e m p t s
were made t o d e p i c t t h e f i n a l v e n t p a n e l v e l o c i t i e s g r a p h i c a l l y , a s t h e para-
meter i s n o t e s s e n t i a l f o r s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n , a l t h o u g h i t may b e d e s i r a b l e t o
know f o r fragment h a z a r d d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . A d d i t i o n a l work i s needed t o d e v e l o p
t h e c u r v e s p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e s 4.49 through 4.52 f u l l y , t o d e t e r m i n e f i n a l
v e l o c i t i e s of t h e v e n t p a n e l , and t o d e t e r m i n e e r r o r s induced by i g n o r i n g o r
s i m p l i f y i n g t h e geometry of t h e e x p l o s i o n . When u s i n g t h e s e f i g u r e s , o n e must
use a c o n s i s t e n t s e t of u n i t s so t h a t t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s terms a r e t r u l y dimen-
sionless.
4-127
F i g u r e 4.49 P l o t o f S c a l e d Pressure v e r s u s S c a l e d D u r a t i o n ,
Various S c a l e d Masses of Vent Covers (E), f o r = 0
4-128
30.00
25.00
20.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
loo 2 3 5 7 lo1 2 3 5 7 lo2
-
p1 = P1/P,
Figure 4.50 P l o t of S c a l e d Gas Impulse versus Scaled Pressure

Various M, f o r H = o
4-129
5
1
10
0
\
a
PI
rl 7
II
IPId 5
0
10
Figure 4 . 5 1 Plot of Scaled Pressure versus Scaled Duration,

Various M, for E = 0 . 6
4-130
12
11
10
0
loo 2 3 5 7 lo1 2 3 5 7 lo2
F i g u r e 4.52 P l o t of S c a l e d G a s Impulse v e r s u s S c a l e d P r e s s u r e ,
Various E, f o r E = 0.6
4-131
PROBLEM - Calculate the g a s impulse imparted t o t h e w a l l s of a c u b i c l e and t h e

d u r a t i o n of the v e n t i n g phase, u s i n g F i g u r e s 4.49 through 4.52.
-
GIVEN: Charge t y p e and weight
Area of vent p a n e l A
Mass of v e n t panel M
Volume o f c u b i c l e V
Ambient atmospheric p r e s s u r e po
Ambient s o n i c ' v e l o c i t y a,
Vent p a n e l w a l l t h i c k n e s s H
REFERENCE
-
FIND: P
QS'
i
g'
and Td
See T a b l e 6
SOLUTION : 1. E q u i v a l e n t TNT e x p l o s i v e w e i g h t of Appendix A
W = (W) (TNT F a c t o r ) f o r TNT
Equivalencies
2. C a l c u l a t e W/V
3. Determine q u a s i - s t a t i c o v e r p r e s s u r e s
P (psig) Fig. 4 . 4 3
QS
4. Calculate scaled quasi-static
p r e s sur e
- - pQs +
p1 - D
'0
5. C a l c u l a t e s c a l e d vent p a n e l mass
6. Calculate scaled w a l l thickness

-
H = H/V 1 1 3
7. Calculate s c a l e d v e n t area
-
A = A/V
2/3
8. - -
Determine s c a l e d g a s impulse F i g . 4.50 &
i A F i g . 4.52
g
9. Def_ermine s c a l e d v e n t d u r a t i o n F i g . 4.49 &
F i g . 4.51
TdA --
0. Descale i A
4-132
11. Descale rd
CALCULAT1ON
GIVEN: A b a r e c h a r g e of 135 l b of PBX 9404 is h a n d l e d i n a

b a y h a v i n g a volume o f 38,000 f t 3 and a v e n t i n g w a l l
w i t h area 861 f t 2 . The v e n t i n g w a l l i s 10 i n c h e s o f
c o n c r e t e w i t h a weight per u n i t area of 120 l b / f t 2 .
Ambient c o n d i t i o n s are s t a n d a r d sea level c o n a i t i o n s .
2
A = 861 f t
2 2 1 2 1
M = (120 l b / f t ) ( 8 6 1 f t )(=sec / f t ) ( s f t / i n )
2
= 267 l b sec /in,.
3
V = 38,000 f t
po = 14.7 p s i
a = 13,400 i n / s e c
0
H = 10 i n
FIND: Vented g a s p r e s s u r e p a r a m e t e r s , PQs, i and Td

g
SOLUTION: 1. W = (135) (1.108) = 150 l b
2. W/V = 150/38,000 = 3.95 l b / f t
3
3. From F i g u r e 4.43, P = 40 p s i
QS
- 40 + 1 4 . 7 = 3.7
4. P =
1 14.7
- 267 X 13,400
5. M = = 50
3
14.7 X 38,000 X 1 2
-
6. H = 10/[(38,000)1/3 X 121 = 0.025 : 0
-
7. A = 861/38,000 2 / 3 = 0.764
8. - -4.50 since
U s e F i g u r e s 4.49 and E :0
From F i g u r e 4.50, i A = 3.3
g
9. From F i g u r e 4.49, 73
= 2.0
10. i
g
= 3.3
(14.7 x
13,400
i = 1.192 p s i - s e c
x 12
38,000~~
4-133 Change 1 - 15 August 1981

11. T
d
= 2.0
(
38,0001'3
13,400
x 12)( 1
0.764
)
T = 0.079 'sec ,
d
The example p r e s e n t e d w a s a l s o run u s i n g t h e computer code. A s p e c i a l

case w a s s e l e c t e d i n which the c h a r g e w a s r e s t i n g o n t h e f l o o r . I n c a l c u l a t -
i n g t h e r e f l e c t e d impulse r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n a n i n i t i a l v e n t p a n e l v e l o c i t y ,
t h e c h a r g e weight w a s doubled t o account f o r r e f l e c t i o n o f f t h e f l o o r , and
s l a n t r a n g e w a s used t o d e t e r m i n e the a v e r a g e s p e c i f i c impulse imparted t o t h e
vent p a n e l . The v a l u e s o b t a i n e d f o r d u r a t i o n d i f f e r e d by a b o u t 20 p e r c e n t and
the v a l u e o b t a i n e d f o r impulse d i f f e r e d by about 3 p e r c e n t .
The procedure given h e r e h a s n o t y e t been v a l i d a t e d by experiment. It

h a s b e e n used t o p r e d i c t t h e e f f e c t of v a r y i n g t h e mass per u n i t area o f t h e .
v e n t p a n e l f o r one e x p l o s i v e s f a c i l i t y a t Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. We
f e e l t h a t t h e p r e d i c t i o n s g i v e c o n s e r v a t i v e (upper l i m i t ) v a l u e s f o r t h e g a s
p r e s s u r e p a r a m e t e r s , and can b e u s e d by an AE i n d e s i g n .
4-134
4.4.4 5
Containment and v e n t i n g i s i m p o r t a n t i n a l a r g e number of s t r u c t u r e s
e x i s t i n g o r planned a t Pantex.
Example problems f o r p r e d i c t i o n of i n i t i a l shock l o a d s and gas v e n t i n g

l o a d s a p p e a r throughout t h e c h a p t e r . Here, w e d e s c r i b e one o r more b u i l d i n g s
and g i v e b u i l d i n g s e c t i o n s f o r each o f s e v e r a l c a t e g o r i e s o f s t r u c t u r e .
4.4.4.1 Single Cubicles
These are s t r u c t u r e s s u f f i c i e n t l y i s o l a t e d o r s t r o n g enough t h a t i n -

t e r n a l b l a s t l o a d i n g should b e decoupled f o r each s t r u c t u r e . There a r e no
i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g passageways s t r o n g enough t o t r a n s m i t i n t e r n a l b l a s t from o r
i n t o t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s from e x p l o s i o n s i n t h e c e l l s o r i n nearby s t r u c t u r e s .
One such type of s t r u c t u r e is an assembly c e l l i n B u i l d i n g 12-44.

F i g u r e 4.63 g i v e s a p l a n view of one such c e l l , and Figure 4.53 a v e r t i c a l
s e c t i o n . Double equipment b l a s t doors, a r e v o l v i n g personnel door, and g r a v e l
pockets shown i n F i g u r e 4.63 should i s o l a t e o r slowly v e n t any i n t e r n a l b l a s t
coming from t h e donor assembly room so t h a t no nearby s t r u c t u r e f e e l s i n t e r n a l
b l a s t . The "roof" o f a n assembly room, shown i n F i g u r e 4.53, i s a t h i c k l a y e r
of g r a v e l on s t e e l c a b l e s u p p o r t s . A n i n t e r n a l e x p l o s i o n w i l l throw t h e g r a v e l
roof upward, e v e n t u a l l y v e n t i n g an i n t e r n a l e x p l o s i o n . But, t h e r e i s no in-,
t e r n a l b l a s t communicated t o an a d j a c e n t c e l l , s o a g a i n t h i s s t r u c t u r e can be
t r e a t e d as a s i n g l e c u b i c l e f o r p r e d i c t i o n of internal b l a s t l o a d i n g .
A second t y p e of s t r u c t u r e w i t h enough i s o l a t i o n between bays s o t h a t

each can be c o n s i d e r e d a s i n g l e c u b i c l e i s B u i l d i n g 12-65. F i g u r e s 4.54 and
4.55 show a p l a n v i e w and an e l e v a t i o n . Here, each bay i s an earth-covered,
c o r r u g a t e d s t e e l a r c h s t r u c t u r e . The e a r t h cover and s e p a r a t i o n between i n d i -
v i d u a l bays p r e v e n t s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n t e r n a l b l a s t communication between
bays, and t h e f r o n t w a l l s and doors ( i f c l o s e d ) of each bay are s t r o n g enough
t o c o n t a i n t h e b l a s t l o a d i n g down t h e c o r r i d o r i n t h e e v e n t of an e x p l o s i o n
i n an a d j a c e n t bay.
4.4.4.2 M u l t i p l e Bays
C o r r i d o r s and doors are l o c a t e d i n t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s so t h a t i n t e r n a l

b l a s t and vented gas p r e s s u r e s can communicate from one bay t o a n o t h e r .
A n example o f t h i s t y p e of s t r u c t u r e i s B u i l d i n g 11-20, shown i n p l a n

view i n F i g u r e 4.56. Here, a number of b a y s open i n t o a common c o r r i d o r , s o
t h a t b l a s t waves from an e x p l o s i o n i n one bay c a n r e f l e c t and d i f f r a c t around
c o r n e r s and i n t o a d j a c e n t bays. The p r e d i c t i o n of i n t e r n a l b l a s t and vented
gas p r e s s u r e s i s f u r t h e r complicated by f r a n g i b l e w a l l s i n each bay.
4-135
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F i g u r e 4.53 Vertical S e c t i o n of Assembly C e l l i n B u i l d i n g 12-44
4-136
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4-139
4.4.4.3 Tunnels Connected t o Chambers
Blast waves g e n e r a t e d i n a t u n n e l can communicate t o one o r more

chambers, o r vice versa, i n t h i s type of s t r u c t u r e .
B u i l d i n g 12-60 i s a n example of t h i s type of s t r u c t u r e . F i g u r e 4.57

shows a p l a n view of p a r t of t h i s b u i l d i n g . The main a c c e s s ramp i s a t u n n e l ,
which p r o v i d e s access v i a s h o r t s i d e t u n n e l s through b l a s t doors t o a number
of work b a y s and c o n t r o l b o o t h s . The e n t i r e b u i l d i n g i s e a r t h covered. If
p o s s i b l e , p r e d i c t i o n of i n i t i a l shock l o a d s i s even more complex i n t h i s con-
f i g u r a t i o n t h a n i n t h e m u l t i p l e bay s t r u c t u r e s of F i g u r e 4.56.
4.4.4.4 Blast Doors
These doors can b e e i t h e r p e r s o n n e l o r equipment a c c e s s d o o r s , and

can b e l o c a t e d i n bays o r c e l l s o r a t t h e ends of t u n n e l s . Blast doors a t
Pantex have been designed t o w i t h s t a n d e i t h e r i n t e r n a l l o a d s , o r e x t e r n a l
l o a d s , o r both.
Two examples are given. F i g u r e s 4 . 5 8 and 4.59 show i n s i d e and o u t -

s i d e views o f a n equipment b l a s t door i n a c e l l i n B u i l d i n g 12-44, w h i l e
F i g u r e 4.58 a l s o shows a r e v o l v i n g , b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t p e r s o n n e l door. The l o c a -
t i o n o f t h e s e doors i n a c e l l i s shown i n F i g u r e 4.63.
The second example of a 6 l a s t door i s a f l a t metal door i n a bay i n

B u i l d i n g 11-20. I t i s shown i n F i g u r e 4.60.
4.4.4.5 Planned New F a c i l i t i e s
Some of t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s may b e designed as complete containment

s t r u c t u r e s , w i t h no o r minimal v e n t i n g , inward opening b l a s t d o o r s , e t c . The
example we show i s t h e HE Development Machining F a c i l i t y shown i n F i g u r e s 2.6
and 2.11. I n d i v i d u a l l a b o r a t o r i e s and bays i n t h i s f a c i l i t y are designed
w i t h a i r l o c k s and double, inward-opening b l a s t doors t o p r e v e n t b l a s t from
e n t e r i n g c o r r i d o r s and t h e n i n t o o t h e r bays. L i g h t doors which are n o t b l a s t -
r e s i s t a n t c l o s e v e n t openings i n o u t e r w a l l s , and open i n t o a maze which a l -
lows p a r t i a l v e n t i n g , b u t i s designed t o arrest fragments. I n some cases,
s t e e l a c c e s s equipment p a n e l s are s e t i n t o o u t e r w a l l s . These are designed
t o b e b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t and a t l e a s t as s t r o n g as t h e w a l l s which s u p p o r t them.
4.5 METHODS OF PREDICTING BLAST LOADING
I n t h i s s e c t i o n , w e p r e s e n t methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g r e f l e c t e d shock l o a d s
and q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s , f o r several s t r u c t u r a l components of Pantex s t r u c -
tures.
4-140
-Steel Arch
Tunnel (Main Access Ramp) Control Booth

I
1
Concrete
Head Wall
R e i n f o r ce d *. ,..
Earth F i l l
Bay
b
S t e e l Arch
F i g u r e 4.57 Plan V i e w O f Buried Tunnels Connected To

Chambers, B u i l d i n g 12-60
4-141
Figure 4.58 Inside View of Equipment and Personnel Blast Doors in Gravel Gertie Cell
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F i g u r e 4.60 B l a s t Door In Bay 3 , B u i l d i n g 11-20
4-144
~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ... . . .- ...- .. . . . . . .. . - .. . . . .- . .... .. . . -- ... . . . ...-
.,?
4.5.1 F r a n g i b l e Panels*
The i n i t i a l r e f l e c t e d b l a s t p u l s e l o a d i n g f o r f r a n g i b l e p a n e l s i s essen-
t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h e l o a d i n g on s t r o n g e r and more massive b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t
p a n e l s . The methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e l o a d s on such p a n e l s are g i v e n i n Sec-
t i o n 4.4.1.1, and are n o t r e p e a t e d h e r e . But, t h e f r a n g i b l e p a n e l w i l l b e f r a g -
mented a n d / o r a c c e l e r a t e d t o s i g n i f i c a n t v e l o c i t y by t h e i n i t i a l r e f l e c t e d im-
p u l s e [See Equation ( 4 . 6 2 ) ] , and may a l s o have moved a s i g n i f i c a n t d i s t a n c e be-
f o r e b e i n g s t r u c k by r e p e a t e d r e f l e c t e d shocks w i t h i n t h e s t r u c t u r e . So, one
should only c o n s i d e r t h e f i r s t r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e p u l s e , and n o t t h e r e p e a t e d
r e f l e c t e d p u l s e s shown i n Figure 4.36 and i d e a l i z e d i n F i g u r e 4.38.
The methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s f o r f r a n g i b l e p a n e l s
are g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 4.4.3. Example Problem 4.12 f o r p r e d i c t i o n o f b l a s t load-
i n g of a f r a n g i b l e panel i s given i n t h a t s e c t i o n .
4.5.2 Blast-Resistant Panels
B l a s t - r e s i s t a n t p a n e l s are i n v a r i a b l y s t r o n g and massive, and can b e

t r e a t e d as r i g i d w a l l s under i n i t i a l and r e f l e c t e d shock l o a d i n g . The methods
o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n 4.4.1.1 can b e used d i r e c t l y f o r p r e d i c t i n g l o a d s on t h e s e
p a n e l s , i n c l u d i n g t h e 1.75 m u l t i p l i e r f o r ir t o account f o r e f f e c t s of i n t e r n a l
shock r e f l e c t i o n s , when e x p l o s i v e s are c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d , o r n e a r l y s o (See
Example Problem 4.18).
For b l a s t r e s i s t a n t p a n e l s i n e i t h e r vented o r unvented chambers, t h e

peak q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s , PQS, can b e e s t i m a t e d u s i n g t h e methods given i n
S e c t i o n 4.4.1.2, and i n p a r t i c u l a r , from F i g u r e 4.43. If the vents i n the
chamber are open (uncovered), t h e same s e c t i o n g i v e s p r e d i c t i o n methods and
c u r v e s f o r t i m e h i s t o r y of vented gas p r e s s u r e (Equation ( 4 . 6 3 ) ) , v e n t i n g t i m e ,
Lx,(Equation (4.47) and F i g u r e 4.44) , and gas impulse, ig ( E q u a t i o n (4.51a)
and F i g u r e 4.45). For v e n t s covered by f r a n g i b l e p a n e l s , t h e p r e d i c t i o n
c u r v e s i n S e c t i o n 4.4.3 s h o u l d b e used f o r t h e s e parameters.
Example Problem 4.11 f o r shock wave and q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g

on a t y p i c a l b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t w a l l p a n e l i s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 4.4.1.2.
4.5.3 C o r r i d o r Walls
There are a number of f a c i l i t i e s a t Pantex which have m u l t i p l e work

bays f o r h i g h e x p l o s i v e o p e r a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e same b u i l d i n g complex, w i t h t h e
b a y s opening i n t o c o n n e c t i n g c o r r i d o r s . Two such c o n f i g u r a t i o n s from a single
b u i l d i n g complex are shown i n F i g u r e s 4.61 and 4.62.
*These p a n e l s are f r a n g i b l e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n i n TM 5-1300 (Ref. 4.2)
4-145
60
-
15
I b
1 250/ 60
Underlined numbers are bay numbers
Other numbers are HE weight l i m i t s .

For example, 250/60 i n d i c a t e s 250 l b
staying HE limit and 60 l b operating
HE l i m i t .
If no HE o r plutonium are allowed i n

a bay, t h e word "inert" appears.
Figure 4 . 6 1 Portion Of Bay-Corridor Configuration

I n Building 12-24, Showing Bays 13 Through 19
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 4-146

4-147
Accidental explosions are p o s s i b l e e i t h e r w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l bays, o r
c e l l s d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s , o r i n c o r r i d o r s d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t from one o p e r a t i o n
t o a n o t h e r , o r t o and from s t o r a g e . P r e d i c t i o n s of l o a d s on f l o o r s , w a l l s ,
and r o o f s i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y o f such an e x p l o s i o n i s u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e
u s i n g t h e methods d i s c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y i n t h i s c h a p t e r . But, i n g e n e r a l , t h e
c u r r e n t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t f o r p r e d i c t i o n of e i t h e r i n i t i a l o r r e f l e c t e d shock
wave l o a d i n g i s q u i t e inadequate f o r g e n e r a l b l a s t l o a d i n g p r e d i c t i o n s i n c o r r i -
d o r s o f s t r u c t u r e s having such complex geometry. The suggested method of
approach, i f one must a c c u r a t e l y p r e d i c t b l a s t p r e s s u r e s a t some d i s t a n c e from
t h e e x p l o s i o n c e n t e r , i s t o t e s t on model scale, u s i n g s t r o n g l y b u i l t geometric
models c a r e f u l l y instrumented w i t h flush-mounted b l a s t p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r s .
The scale-model t e s t r e s u l t s can b e r e a d i l y s c a l e d t o t h e f u l l - s i z e s t r u c t u r e s .
The t e s t i n g could b e supported by l i m i t e d computer code p r e d i c t i o n s , b u t t h e s e
p r e d i c t i o n s are o n l y f e a s i b l e f o r t h e g a s phase p a r t o f t h e b l a s t l o a d i n g .
Because of t h e complexity of t h i s l o a d i n g p r e d i c t i o n problem, no exam-

p l e problem i s given. R e f e r r i n g t o F i g u r e 4 . 6 2 , w e can p r e d i c t t h e l o a d i n g
on a l l s u r f a c e s i n Bay 31, i f an e x p l o s i o n w e r e t o occur i n t h a t bay. W e
could n o t , however, make any r a t i o n a l estimates of t h e b l a s t l o a d s i n Bay 3 7 .
M u l t i p l e shock r e f l e c t i o n s and d i f f r a c t i o n s through openings and around cor-
ners would o c c u r b e f o r e t h e shock f r o n t a r r i v e d t h e r e , and t h e geometry i s
t o o complex t o p r e d i c t t h e s e p r o c e s s e s .
I n t h e p a s t , model-scale t e s t s have indeed been used t o o b t a i n d a t a on

t r a n s i e n t l o a d s i n complex geometry chambers. A s an example, a maze e n t r y t o
c e l l s i n t h e High Explosives A p p l i c a t i o n F a c i l i t y f o r Lawrence Livermore
L a b o r a t o r y h a s been t e s t e d i n small scale t o determine b l a s t l o a d s on s u r f a c e s
i n t h e maze (Ref. 4 . 7 5 ) . For such complex geometries, guidance w i l l b e pro-
vided a n AE by DOE, o r i n c l u d e d i n t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a .
4.5.4 Blast Doors
Blast doors used i n c e l l s i n t h e Pantex f a c i l i t i e s are of t h r e e g e n e r a l

t y p e s , t y p i f i e d by F i g u r e s 4 . 5 8 through 4 . 6 0 . These t y p e s are:
1. F l a t metal d o o r s opening inward o r outward i n t o t e s t c e l l s

o r bays. These doors p r o v i d e b o t h p e r s o n n e l and equipment
a c c e s s t o t h e c e l l . (Figure 4.60)
2. Large metal equipment doors t o Gravel Gertie c e l l s ( F i g u r e s

4 . 5 8 and 4 . 5 9 ) . These doors have main s t r e n g t h members of
curved s t e e l , i n t e n d e d t o w i t h s t a n d b l a s t by membrane ten-
s i o n when b l a s t - l o a d e d from t h e i n s i d e .
3. Small, r e v o l v i n g , p e r s o n n e l access doors used i n Gravel

Gertie c e l l s ( F i g u r e 4 . 5 8 ) . These doors a r e v e r y s t r o n g
and massive, and should p r e s e n t s i g n i f i c a n t b l a s t wave
v e n t i n g a t a l l t i m e s , even when,being used.
4-148
For doors of t h e f i r s t t y p e , t h e c l o s e d door i s loaded i n e x a c t l y t h e
same manner as any w a l l p a n e l i n t h e c e l l . The methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g l o a d s
on t h e s e doors i s no d i f f e r e n t from t h e methods d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 2 .
F i g u r e 4 . 6 3 shows a p l a n view o f a Gravel Gertie c e l l showing t h e l o c a -

t i o n s of t h e second two t y p e s of b l a s t doors. As w a s t r u e f o r o t h e r c e l l -
c o r r i d o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s ( F i g u r e s 4.56 and 4.61), t h e i n t e r n a l geometry of t h i s
c e l l and t h e c o r r i d o r s l e a d i n g t o t h e b l a s t doors i s s o complex t h a t r a t i o n a l
p r e d i c t i o n of i n i t i a l b l a s t l o a d s f o r e x p l o s i o n s o c c u r r i n g i n t h e c e l l i t s e l f
is not possible with the current state-of-the-art. Adequate p r e d i c t i o n of gas
phase p r e s s u r e s can probably b e made u s i n g a r e l a t i v e l y simple gasdynamic com-
p u t e r code (Refs. 4.49 and 4 . 5 1 ) , b u t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s would have t o b e made
f o r t h i s s p e c i f i c geometry t o account f o r gas flow p r o c e s s e s from t h e c e l l
i n t o t h e c o r r i d o r system p r o p e r l y . The motion of t h e Gravel Gertie roof
should b e accounted f o r i n t h e code c a l c u l a t i o n s .
I f a c c u r a t e d e f i n i t i o n of b l a s t l o a d s on doors i n s t r o n g containment
c e l l systems such as t h e Gravel Gerties i s needed, t h e recommended procedure
i s c a r e f u l s c a l e model t e s t i n g , supplemented by l i m i t e d computer code c a l c u l a -
t i o n s w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y simple gasdynamic code. The scale model t e s t i n g w i l l
d e f i n e t h e i n i t i a l and f i r s t s e v e r a l shock wave l o a d s , w h i l e t h e gas dynamic
code w i l l p r e d i c t t h e l o n g e r term q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s .
I n t h e p a s t , estimates of shock l o a d i n g have been made u s i n g p a t h

l e n g t h s from t h e e x p l o s i o n c e n t e r through t h e s t r u c t u r e t o given walls o r
o t h e r s u r f a c e s as a r a d i a l d i s t a n c e R, and f r e e - f i e l d b l a s t c h a r t s such a s
F i g u r e s 4 . 5 through 4.7 a r e then used t o p r e d i c t e i t h e r side-on o r r e f l e c t e d
o v e r p r e s s u r e s and s p e c i f i c impulses. The accuracy of t h i s procedure i s v e r y
d o u b t f u l , and u n f o r t u n a t e l y , may -n o t b e c o n s e r v a t i v e and p r e d i c t upper l i m i t s
t o a c t u a l l o a d s . So, w e r e i t e r a t e t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e model scale t e s t i n g i s
probably t h e b e s t a l t e r n a t i v e a v a i l a b l e t o a n AE f o r determining shock l o a d s
i n complex and i n t e r c o n n e c t e d chambers.
No example problems a r e given f o r l o a d i n g of b l a s t d o o r s , because t h e

f l a t doors i n box-shaped c e l l s a r e loaded i n e x a c t l y t h e same manner as b l a s t -
r e s i s t a n t w a l l p a n e l s , and t h e c o r r i d o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n Gravel Gertie c e l l s
i s t o o complex f o r r a t i o n a l p r e d i c t i o n of t h e shock phase o f b l a s t l o a d i n g .
4.5.5 A i r Blast S p a l l i n g of Concrete Walls
There e x i s t s l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n concerning a i r b l a s t s p a l l i n g of con-

c r e t e w a l l s , The work which h a s been done i n t h i s area i s a n a l y t i c i n n a t u r e .
The phenomena a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a i r b l a s t produced s p a l l and t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
s p a l l s i z e and v e l o c i t y are v e r y complex and s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i n a n a l y s i s i s
n e c e s s a r y . One s i m p l i f i c a t i o n used by a l l i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o d a t e i s t h a t a
compressive stress wave t r a v e l l i n g through a w a l l i s - not attenuated i n strength.
4-149
c;. . .I
Earth
Cover
Corridor
Earth
Cover
/Gravel Pocket
Equipmen
Blast
Doors ervic
Figure 4 . 6 3 Plan V i e w of Building 12-44, C e l l 1,

Showing Blast Doors and Corridor
4-150
6
S p a l l i n g is t h e d i r e c t consequence o f i n t e r f e r e n c e n e a r a f r e e s u r f a c e
between t h e t a i l of an oncoming i n c i d e n t compressive wave ( n o t y e t r e f l e c t e d )
and t h e r e f l e c t e d t e n s i l e wave. I f a compressive wave s t r i k e s a free s u r f a c e
normally, i t w i l l b e r e f l e c t e d as a t e n s i l e wave o f e q u a l s t r e n g t h . Oblique
r e f l e c t i o n s are much more complex; however, a t e n s i l e wave w i l l be generated
t h a t i s lesser i n magnitude. When p o r t i o n s of t h e i n c i d e n t compressive wave
and o t h e r p o r t i o n s of t h e r e f l e c t e d t e n s i l e wave i n t e r f e r e w i t h one a n o t h e r ,
a stress d i s t r i b u t i o n results which can b e conducive t o f r a c t u r e . An example
of wave s u p e r p o s i t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.64a, a t r i a n g u l a r p r e s s u r e
p u l s e of i n t e n s i t y P and d u r a t i o n T. I n t h i s f i g u r e , h a l f o f t h e wave has
been r e f l e c t e d . A s t h e wave c o n t i n u e s t o r e f l e c t and move inward, t h e re-
s u l t i n g t e n s i o n A B i n c r e a s e s . The maximum t e n s i l e stress t h a t can ever b e
a t t a i n e d e q u a l s P. T h i s stress w i l l b e reached i n t h i s example a t a d i s t a n c e
e q u a l t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n uT/2 from t h e f r e e s u r f a c e . Should t h e f r a c t u r e
stress of t h e material ( f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes, i t s u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h a,) b e
less t h a n P, f r a c t u r e w i l l o c c u r . I f P . j u s t e q u a l s t e n s i l e uu, f r a c t u r e w i l l
o c c u r a t a d i s t a n c e uT/2 from t h e f r e e s u r f a c e . For s t r o n g stress waves,
f r a c t u r e w i l l occur p r o g r e s s i v e l y c l o s e r t o t h e f r e e s u r f a c e . It w i l l occur
wherever t h e stress r e s u l t a n t f i r s t exceeds uu. M u l t i p l e s p a l l s c a n a l s o
o c c u r as new f r e e s u r f a c e s are produced by preceeding s p a l l s and as t h e i n -
c i d e n t wave c o n t i n u e s t o d i s s i p a t e . The maximum stress which can ever b e at-
t a i n e d by a t r i a n g u l a r wave as i n F i g u r e 4.64a a t each p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t i n a
material i s p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 4.64b. F i g u r e 4.64b i s a f u n c t i o n of p o s i t i o n
i n t h e material, wave l e n g t h and stress i n t e n s i t y f o r p o i n t s n e a r t h e f r e e
reflecting surface.
A s o l u t i o n f o r t h e t h r e s h o l d of spa11 c a n be determined by r e l a t i n g
b l a s t wave parameters ( p r e s s u r e , impulse and d u r a t i o n ) t o material p r o p e r t i e s
i n t h e c o n c r e t e (uu). S e v e r a l assumptions are made which i n c l u d e :
Uniform l o a d i n g of t h e w a l l w i t h peak r e f l e c t e d o v e r p r e s s u r e Pr
and r e f l e c t e d p o s i t i v e s p e c i f i c impulse ir.
0 The p r e s s u r e t i m e h i s t o r y of t h e wave i s assumed t o b e t r i a n g u l a r

i n shape and i t s d u r a t i o n s h a l l b e
2 i
T=- r
P
r
The p r e s s u r e wave transmits a stress p u l s e through t h e c o n c r e t e

which is n o t a t t e n u a t e d through t h e w a l l ( i . e . , t h e p r e s s u r e d i s -
t r i b u t i o n i s assumed t h e same i n magnitude a t t h e back f a c e o f
t h e w a l l as a t t h e f r o n t f a c e , o n l y d i s p l a c e d i n t i m e ) . i
\
4-151
Xnci den t
Compressive
Wave
r R e a r Face
Front
Face
b.
Reflected 1 +
Tens il e U
Wave
a.
Note: The wave a p p l i e d t o t h e f r o n t f a c e w i l l have

p r e s s u r e a m p l i t u d e P a n d d u r a t i o n T.
F i g u r e 4.64 a.) S u p e r p o s i t i o n of Stresses During

R e f l e c t i o n Process f o r a Triangular
P u l s e S t r i k i n g a Wall
b.) Maximum Stress v e r s u s P o s i t i o n f o r

a T r i a n g u l a r Wave Form
4-15 2
The stress wave w i l l t r a v e l through t h e w a l l a t v e l o c i t y
( E = Young's modulus, p = d e n s i t y ) . The t i m e f o r one complete

wave t r a n s i t (from f r o n t t o back f a c e t h e n r e t u r n t o f r o n t f a c e )
is
where H i s w a l l t h i c k n e s s .
Should Pr b e g r e a t e r t h a n a, of t h e , c o n c r e t e , t h e material w i l l f r a c -
ture. Thus
i s a c r i t e r i o n f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t h r e s h o l d of s p a l l . On t h e o t h e r hand, com-
p r e s s i v e p r e s s u r e s w i l l s t i l l b e a p p l i e d t o t h e f r o n t of a w a l l when t h e i n i -
t i a l wave f r o n t r e t u r n s i f T i s g r e a t e r t h a n P. Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , i f
(4.67)
t h e n s p a l l i s p r e d i c t e d t o occur. S u b s t i t u t i n g P, (1 - t/T) for p(t) (trian-

g u l a r p r e s s u r e pulse) gives:
Lt
u T -
> 1.0 (4.68)
U
F i n a l l y , s u b s t i t u t i n g 2 i r / P r f o r t h e b l a s t wave d u r a t i o n T and 2H/v f o r t h e

wave t r a n s i t t i m e T, g i v e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r s p a l l t h r e s h o l d f o r long dura-
t i o n a i r b l a s t waves.
4-153
P H Pr v i
r
-- r > 1.0
u v i
> 1.0 f o r
-
-
H P - (4.69)
U r r
The s p a l l t h r e s h o l d s d i s c u s s e d above are p r e s e n t e d g r a p h i c a l l y in F i g u r e 4 . 6 5 .
The above a n a l y s i s can b e used t o d e t e r m i n e i f c o n c r e t e s p a l l due t o

b l a s t l o a d i n g i s p r e d i c t e d t o occur; however, i t does n o t g i v e s p a l l s i z e o r
velocity. I n work done by Kot, e t a l . (Ref. 4 . 6 0 ) , s p a l l i n g of c o n c r e t e w a s
i n v e s t i g a t e d and a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s were d e r i v e d f o r p r e d i c t i n g c o n c r e t e
s p a 1 1 s i z e and v e l o c i t y . T h i s work w a s done f o r s a f e t y s t u d i e s concerning a i r
b l a s t e f f e c t s on power p l a n t s t r u c t u r e s . I n t h i s r e p o r t , l a r g e , t h i c k c o n c r e t e
s t r u c t u r e s (containment s t r u c t u r e s ) are b l a s t l o a d e d . The s i z e of t h e s t r u c -
t u r e , compared t o c h a r g e w e i g h t s l e d t o t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a non-uniform
b l a s t l o a d i n g , P, I, where P and I are f u n c t i o n s of wall p o s i t i o n a s shown i n
Figure 4.14. Blast wave parameters were o b t a i n e d from TM 5-1300 f o r use i n
t h i s r e p o r t . S p a l l i n g of c o n c r e t e a t normal and o b l i q u e i n c i d e n c e w a s con-
s i d e r e d , e x c e p t f o r i n c i d e n t a n g l e s g r e a t e r t h a n 45" where no s p a l l was ex-
F e c t e d t o o c c u r . A s e t o f s c a l e d curves i s given which i n c l u d e s v a r i a t i o n s
of s p a l l d e p t h and v e l o c i t y w i t h c h a r g e s t a n d o f f and number o f s p a l l s , v a r i a -
t i o n o f s p a l l d e p t h and v e l o c i t y w i t h s p a l l number a t v a r i o u s s t a n d o f f d i s -
t a n c e s , e f f e c t o f c o n c r e t e w a l l t h i c k n e s s on s p a l l depth and v e l o c i t y , and
t h e e f f e c t of a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e on s p a l l d e p t h and v e l o c i t y . Also c o n s i d e r e d
by Kot, e t a l . (Ref. 4 . 6 0 ) are w a l l d i s p l a c e m e n t s due t o i m p u l s i v e l o a d s . The
comparison between maximum s p a l l and w a l l d i s p l a c e m e n t v e l o c i t i e s i s made and
i t i s shown t h a t w a l l d i s p l a c e m e n t v e l o c i t i e s i n some c a s e s dominate s p a l l
v e l o c i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r heavy s p a l l d e b r i s (See F i g u r e 4 . 6 6 ) . It i s ,
t h e r e f o r e , s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e most s e v e r e c o n c r e t e s p a l l a t i o n from b l a s t l o a d s
may b e due t o a c o u p l i n g of s p a l l f o r m a t i o n t o g r o s s w a l l motion. Kot, e t a l .
(Ref. 4 . 6 0 ) s u g g e s t a s i m p l e method o f a " f i r s t cut'' estimate of s p a l l h a z a r d ,
which i s t o l i m i t s p a l l mass t o t h e t h i c k n e s s c o v e r i n g t h e e x t e r i o r l a y e r of
r e i n f o r c i n g and t o t h e 45" c u t - o f f mentioned e a r l i e r . The v e l o c i t y can b e
equated t o t h a t f o r w a l l motion produced by a n i m p u l s i v e l o a d ( v e l o c i t y =
t o t a l i m p u l s e / w a l l mass). A c u r v e o f w a l l v e l o c i t y due t o i m p u l s i v e l o a d i n g
v e r s u s s c a l e d s t a n d o f f i s provided i n t h e r e p o r t and i s reproduced h e r e ( s e e
Figure 4.67). T h i s graph i s i n t e n d e d f o r very l a r g e w a l l s and i s c o n s e r v a t i v e
f o r s m a l l w a l l s . For more d e t a i l s see Reference 4 . 6 0 .
4-154
lo3
lo2
lo1
3
2
loo
0 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0
Scaled Standoff Distance, f t / l b 1/3
Figure 4.67 Scaled Concrete Wall V e l o c i t i e s Due to Impulsive

Air Blast Loading (Kot, e t a l . , Reference 4 . 6 0 )
4-157
PROBLEM - Calculate c o n c r e t e s p a l l s i z e and v e l o c i t y f o r an e x p l o s i o n near a

w a l l . This c a l c u l a t i o n should i n d i c a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l d e b r i s h a z a r d
i n a n a d j a c e n t bay o r c o r r i d o r .
GIVEN: B l a s t l o a d i n g ( p r e s s u r e and impulse) on

s u r f a c e under c o n s i d e r a t i o n ..
Wall dimensions and r e i n f o r c i n g l o c a t i o n
u = t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of c o n c r e t e
U
E = Young's modulus o f c o n c r e t e
= d e n s i t y of concrete
pC
-
FIND: Concrete s p a l l s i z e and v e l o c i t y REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine i f c o n c r e t e w i l l s p a l l due

t o b l a s t l o a d i n g and s p a l l limits F i g . 4.65
2. If s p a l l i n g will o c c u r , d e t e r m i n e s p a l l
v e l o c i t y by u s i n g F i g u r e s 4.65 o r 4.66
and u s i n g the g r o s s w a l l v e l o c i t y c u r v e s F i g . 4.65 o r
which w i l l g i v e an upper v e l o c i t y Fig. 4.66
3. Determine s p a l l mass u s i n g 45" c u t o f f
and thickness frqm o u t s i d e w a l l t o r e b a r
l a y e r o r c u t o f f where end o f s p a l l o c c u r s
(< 45O)
CALCULATION - Use r e s u l t s of Example Problem 4.11, which g i v e s t h e b l a s t

l o a d i n g on a w a l l i n the HE treatment room o f the High Explo-
s i v e s Development Machining F a c i l i t y .
GIVEN: Blast l o a d i n g on w a l l f o r a 468 l b c h a r g e a t a 3 - f t s t a n d o f f as

shown i n Table 4.10
T a b l e 4.10 Blast Loading on Wall

X pr ir T
ft .P i psi-aec SBC
0 7.0 X LO4 12 3.5 x lo4

-4
1.5 , 5.5 x lo4 7.0 2 . 5 X 10
3 .o 2.0 x lo4 3.9 3.9 x lo4

4.5 8.0 x lo3 1.7 4.3 x
4 . 0 X 103
6 .O 0.93 6.6 X
7.5 2.5 x lo3 0.51 6.1 x 10-4

3
9 .O 2.0 x 10 0.31 3.1 x
9.75 1.5 x lo3 0.22 2.9 x
4-158
Wall dimensions 3 '6"
3/4" = 0.0625'
pC
= 2.3 x
Rebar l o c a t i o n 2 4
lb-sec / i n
o = 300 p s i t e n s i l e
U
(assumedp
6
E = 4 X 10 psi
(assumed)
FIND: Concrete s p a l l s i z e and v e l o c i t y
SOLUTION: 1. S p a l l i n g w i l l o c c u r due t o t h e f i r s t shock of

m u l t i p l e shocks i n a n enclosed s t r u c t u r e . Thus
f o r d e t e r m i n i n g i f s p a l l o c c u r s one needs Pr of
t h e f i r s t shock o n l y , which i s i n c o n t r a s t t o
summing r e p e a t e d shocks as one, w i t h 1.75 Pr
and 1 . 7 5 i, f o r s t r u c t u r a l response o r g r o s s
w a l l motion.
Using F i g u r e 4.65, i, and Pr rnax ( a t X = 0)
v =
J 4 x 1
: lb/ini2 5
= 1.32 X 10 in/sec
C 2.3 X 10- lb-sec / i n .
i v 5
- r- - 1 2 l b - s e c / i n . 2 1.32 X 1 0 i n . / s e c = o.54
-
4 2
'rH 7.0 X 1 0 l b / i n . (42 in.)
*This v a l u e was o b t a i n e d u s i n g a t y p i c a l v a l u e f o r compressive u l t i m a t e

s t r e n g t h , and d i v i d i n g by t e n . I t d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y from v a l u e s
assumed by Kot, e t a l . ( R e f . 4 . 6 0 ) . See Chapter 7 , Dynamic P r o p e r t i e s
o f Materials, f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s p o i n t .
4-159
From F i g u r e 4.65 s p a l l w i l l occur a t X = 0 .
The l a r g e s t X where s p a l l w i l l o c c u r c o r r e s p o n d s
t o 45' o f f normal o r X = 3 f t .
Here w e d e t e r m i n e i f s p a l l w i l l o c c u r . I f n o t ,
o n e m u s t go t o less than 45' t o f i n d e x t e n t of
s p a l l here:
5
3.9 (1.32
L= x 1 0 ) = 0.61
P H
r
From F i g u r e 4.65 s p a l l w i l l o c c u r a t X = 3 f t (45')
Thus, s i a l l l i m i t = 3 f t r a d i u s
2. Using F i g u r e 4.66
w a l l t h i c k n e s s - 3*5 = 0.45 -
ft
Scaled w a l l t h i c k n e s s =
W 113 468lI3 d I 3
ft
Scaled distance = = 0.386 -
468ll3 lbl'
I n t e r p o l a t i n g from F i g u r e 4.66 g i v e s s p d l
v e l o c i t y Z 150 f t l s e c
3. S p a l l volume i n v o l v e d ( t o f i r s t r e b a r l a y e r )
2 3
V = (IT 3 X .0625) f t 3 = 1.77 f t
0
2
lb-sec'
S p a l l mass = 1.77 f t 3 (4.8 6 ) = 8.5 or slugs
f t.
S p a l l w e i g h t = 270 l b
Using F i g u r e 4.67
S c a l e d d i s t a n c e = 0.386 f t l l b
113
From F i g u r e 4.67
Scaled w a l l v e l o c i t y = -
vm = 320
Wll3
2
m = p c o n c r e t e t i m e s w a l l t h i c k n e s s = 4.8 lb-sic
ft
X 3.5 f t =
lb-sec or s l u g s
16.8 3 2
ft f t
113
m - 320 X 7.76 l b 113
W
Hence, w a l l and s p a l l v e l o c i t y = 320 X - -
= 16.8 lb?3ec= 148 f t / s e c
ft
4-160
4.6 HAZARDS TO PERSONNEL FROM A I R BLAST
L i t e r a t u r e concerning t h e harmful e f f e c t s o f b l a s t on humans h a s been

published as e a r l y as 1768. However, knowledge of t h e mechanisms of b l a s t dam-
a g e t o humans was extremely incomplete u n t i l World War I , when t h e p h y s i c s of
e x p l o s i o n s were b e t t e r understood. Since t h a t t i m e , numerous a u t h o r s have
c o n t r i b u t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e and e f f o r t i n t h e s t u d y of b l a s t damage mechan-
. i s m s and b l a s t pathology. Each a c c i d e n t s i t u a t i o n h a s i t s own unique environ-
ment w i t h trees, b u i l d i n g s , h i l l s , and v a r i o u s o t h e r t o p o g r a p h i c a l c o n d i t i o n s
which may d i s s i p a t e t h e energy of t h e b l a s t wave o r r e f l e c t i t and amplify i t s
e f f e c t on a n i n d i v i d u a l . Because of t h e s e d i f f e r e n t v a r i a t i o n a l f a c t o r s i n -
volved i n a n explosion-human body receiver s i t u a t i o n , o n l y a s i m p l i f i e d and
l i m i t e d s e t of b l a s t damage c r i t e r i a w i l l b e i n c l u d e d h e r e . The human body
f I1
receiver" w i l l b e assumed t o b e s t a n d i n g i n t h e f r e e - f i e l d on f l a t and l e v e l
ground when c o n t a c t e d by t h e b l a s t wave. Excluding c e r t a i n r e f l e c t e d wave
s i t u a t i o n s , t h i s i s t h e most hazardous body exposure c o n d i t i o n . A i r b l a s t
e f f e c t s c a n be d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r c a t e g o r i e s : primary b l a s t e f f e c t s , t e r t i a r y
b l a s t e f f e c t s , ear damage, and b l a s t generated fragments (Ref. 4.61). Second-
a r y e f f e c t s i n v o l v i n g fragment impact by missiles from t h e exploding d e v i c e
i t s e l f o r from o b j e c t s l o c a t e d i n t h e nearby environment which are a c c e l e r a t e d
a f t e r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e b l a s t wave (appurtenances) s h a l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n
Chapter 6.
4.6.1 Primary Blast Damage
Primary b l a s t e f f e c t s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h changes i n environment pres-

s u r e due t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e of t h e a i r b l a s t . Mammals are s e n s i t i v e t o t h e i n -
c i d e n t , r e f l e c t e d and dynamic o v e r p r e s s u r e s , t h e r a t e of r i s e t o peak over-
p r e s s u r e a f t e r a r r i v a l of t h e b l a s t wave, and t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e b l a s t wave
(Ref. 4.61). S p e c i f i c impulse of t h e b l a s t wave a l s o p l a y s a major r o l e (Refs.
4.62 and 4.63). Other parameters which determine t h e e x t e n t o f b l a s t i n j u r y
' a r e t h e ambient atmospheric p r e s s u r e , t h e s i z e and t y p e of animal, and p o s s i b l y
age. P a r t s of t h e body where t h e r e a r e t h e greatest d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e n s i t y of
a d j a c e n t t i s s u e s a r e t h e most s u s c e p t i b l e t o primary b l a s t damage (Refs. 4.61,
4 . 6 4 , and 4.65). Thus, t h e a i r - c o n t a i n i n g t i s s u e s of t h e l u n g s are more sus-
c e p t i b l e t o primary b l a s t than any o t h e r v i t a l organ (Ref. 4.66).
I
Pulmonary i n j u r i e s d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y c a u s e many o f t h e pathophysi-
o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s 'of b l a s t i n j u r y (Ref. 4.67). I n j u r i e s i n c l u d e pulmonary
hemorrhage and edema (Refs. 4.61 and 4.67), r u p t u r e of t h e lungs (Ref. 4 . 6 1 ) ,
air-embolic i n s u l t t o t h e h e a r t and c e n t r a l nervous system (Ref. 4.61), loss
of r e s p i r a t o r y r e s e r v e (Ref. 4.61) and m u l t i p l e f i b r o t i c f o c i , o r f i n e scars,
of t h e l u n g s (Ref. 4.64). Other harmful e f f e c t s are r u p t u r e of t h e eardrums
( t o be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r ) and damage t o t h e middle ear, damage t o t h e l a r y n x ,
t r a c h e a , abdominal c a v i t y , s p i n a l meninges, and r a d i c l e s o f t h e s p i n a l n e r v e s
and v a r i o u s o t h e r p o r t i o n s of t h e body (Ref. 4.61).
4-161
c
Bowen, e t a l . (Ref. 4.65) and White, e t a l . (Ref. 4.62), have developed

p r e s s u r e v e r s u s d u r a t i o n l e t h a l i t y c u r v e s f o r humans which are e s p e c i a l l y
amenable t o t h i s document. Some of t h e major f a c t o r s which determine t h e ex-
tent of damage from t h e b l a s t wave are t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e b l a s t wave,
ambient a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , and t h e t y p e of animal t a r g e t , i n c l u d i n g i t s
mass and g e o m e t r i c o r i e n t a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e b l a s t wave and nearby o b j e c t s
( R e f . 4.62). Although Richmond, e t a l . (Ref. 4.63) and l a t e r White, e t a l .
(Ref. 4 . 6 2 ) , b o t h from t h e Lovelace Foundation, d i s c u s s t h e tendency of t h e
l e t h a l i t y c u r v e s t o approach i s o p r e s s u r e l i n e s f o r "long" d u r a t i o n b l a s t
waves, their l e t h a l i t y c u r v e s demonstrate dependence on p r e s s u r e and d u r a t i o n
alone. S i n c e s p e c i f i c impulse i s dependent on p r e s s u r e as w e l l as d u r a t i o n ,
pressure-impulse l e t h a l i t y o r s u r v i v a b i l i t y c u r v e s appear t o b e more appro-
p r i a t e . The tendency f o r pressure-impulse l e t h a l i t y c u r v e s t o approach asymp-
t o t i c l i m i t s is a l s o v e r y a e s t h e t i c a l l y a p p e a l i n g from a mathematical p o i n t
o f view. A l s o , s i n c e both p r e s s u r e and s p e c i f i c impulse a t a s p e c i f i e d d i s -
t a n c e from most e x p l o s i o n s c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d d i r e c t l y u s i n g methods d e s c r i b e d
i n t h i s document, i t i s e s p e c i a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t pressure-impulse l e t h a l i t y
( o r s u r v i v a b i l i t y ) c u r v e s b e developed. T h i s h a s been done and i s d e s c r i b e d
i n Reference 4.59. These c u r v e s and t h e i r u s e are reproduced h e r e as F i g u r e
4.68.
S i m p l i f y i n g L o v e l a c e ' s s c a l i n g l a w s i n such a manner t h a t o n l y t h e

human s p e c i e s o r l a r g e animals are c o n s i d e r e d , one is a b l e t o a r r i v e a t t h e
following r e l a t i o n s h i p s - o r s c a l i n g l a w s :
1. The a f f e c t of i n c i d e n t o v e r p r e s s u r e i s dependent on t h e ambient

atmospheric p r e s s u r e . That i s ,
- P
Ps = pS (4.70)
0
-
where Ps i s s c a l e d i n c i d e n t peak o v e r p r e s s u r e , Ps is peak i n c i -
d e n t o v e r p r e s s u r e , and po i s ambient atmospheric p r e s s u r e .
2, The e f f e c t of b l a s t wave p o s i t i v e d u r a t i o n i s dependent on ambi-

e n t atmospheric p r e s s u r e and t h e mass of t h e human t a r g e t . That
is,
(4.71)
where r
is s c a l e d p o s i t i v e d u r a t i o n , T is p o s i t i v e d u r a t i o n , and
m i s weight of human body.
4-162
lo2
5
0
\
a
(II 2
PI
I1
lo1
5
loo
TJ
a,
l-l 5
rd
V
rn f
2
-1
10
-
2 5 2 5 10-1 2 5 loo 2 5 lo1
Figure 4.68 Survival Curves f o r Lung Damage to Man
4-163
3. Impulse is can b e approximated by
P T
i =- S (4.72)
s 2
Equation (4.72) assumes a t r i a n g u l a r wave shape and i s c o n s e r v a t i v e ,

from a n i n j u r y s t a n d p o i n t , f o r "long" d u r a t i o n b l a s t waves which approach
s q u a r e wave s h a p e s b e c a u s e i t u n d e r e s t i m a t e s t h e s p e c i f i c impulse r e q u i r e d f o r
a c e r t a i n p e r c e n t l e t h a l i t y . It i s a l s o a c l o s e approximation f o r "short" dur-
a t i o n b l a s t waves which c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y have a s h o r t r i s e time t o peak over-
p r e s s u r e and a n e x p o n e n t i a l decay t o ambient p r e s s u r e , t h e t o t a l wave shape
b e i n g n e a r l y t r i a n g u l a r . Applying t h e b l a s t s c a l i n g developed a t t h e Lovelace
Foundation f o r peak o v e r p r e s s u r e and p o s i t i v e d u r a t i o n t o t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e
estimate f o r s p e c i f i c impulse determined by Equation (4.72) above, one can
a r r i v e a t a s c a l i n g l a w f o r s p e c i f i c ' impulse:
-
is -
1--
- -2 PsT (4.73)
-
where is i s s c a l e d s p e c i f i c impulse. From Equations (4.71), ( 4 . 7 2 ) , and ( 4 . 7 3 )
- 1
P T
S
is = 5 112 1 1 3
(4.74)
m
PO
o r from Equation ( 4 . 7 2 ) 8
- i
S
i = (4.75)
s 112 1 / 3
m
PO
Thus, as i n d i c a t e d by Equation (4.75), s c a l e d s p e c i f i c impulse i s dependent

on ambient a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e and t h e mass of t h e human t a r g e t .
R e c o n s t r u c t e d c u r v e s from Reference 4.59 are shown i n F i g u r e 4.68. It

should b e n o t e d t h a t t h e s e c u r v e s r e p r e s e n t p e r c e n t s u r v i v a b i l i t y , and h i g h e r
s c a l e d p r e s s u r e and s c a l e d impulse combinations a l l o w fewer s u r v i v o r s . Pre-
s e n t i n g t h e c u r v e s i n t h i s f a s h i o n i s advantageous s i n c e they a p p l y t o a l l
4-164
a l t i t u d e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t atmospheric p r e s s u r e s and a l l masses ( o r s i z e s ) of
human b o d i e s . Once one d e t e r m i n e s t h e i n c i d e n t o v e r p r e s s u r e and s p e c i f i c h-
p u l s e f o r a n e x p l o s i o n , t h e y can be s c a l e d u s i n g Equations (4.70) and (4.75).
0 The p r o p e r ambient atmospheric p r e s s u r e t o u s e f o r t h e s c a l i n g can b e a c q u i r e d
from F i g u r e 4.69, which shows how atmospheric p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s -
i n g a l t i t u d e above sea l e v e l (Ref. 4 . 1 9 ) . The v a l u e f o r body weight used i n
I
t h e s c a l i n g i s determined by t h e demographic composition of t h e p a r t i c u l a r
area under i n v e s t i g a t i o n . It i s recommended t h a t 11 l b b e used f o r b a b i e s ,
55 l b f o r small c h i l d r e n , 1 2 1 l b f o r a d u l t women, and 154 l b f o r a d u l t males.
It should b e n o t i c e d t h a t t h e smallest b o d i e s i n t h i s case are the most sus-
ceptible t o injury.
4-165
15
14
-4
rn
a 13
0
a
a,
&! 12
2
rn
al
&! 11
PI
L1
10
F i g u r e 4.69 Atmospheric P r e s s u r e as a F u n c t i o n of
A l t i t u d e Above Sea Level
4-166
PROBLEM - Assess l u n g damage t o humans a t a n a p p r o p r i a t e d i s t a n c e from a g i v e n

explosive source.
GIVEN: W = explosive charge weight

R = d i s t a n c e from c e n t e r of e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e
A l t i t u d e (no symbol)
m = w e i g h t o f body o f human s u b j e c t
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of s u r v i v a l
SOLUTION: 1. Determine peak i n c i d e n t o v e r p r e s s u r e REFERENCE

Ps and s p e c i f i c i m p u l s e is f o r g i v e n
c h a r g e w e i g h t W and d i s t a n c e R F i g . 4.5
2 . Determine ambient a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s -
s u r e from a l t i t u d e F i g . 4.69
3. C a l c u l a t e s c a l e d i n c i d e n t o v e r p r e s -
s u r e Fs Eq. (4.70)
4 . Choose w e i g h t o f t h e l i g h t e s t human
exposed a t d i s t a n c e R
5 . C a l c u l a t e s c a l e d s p e c i f i c impulse is
6 . P l o t Fs and is and d e t e r m i n e proba-
b i l i t y of s u r v i v a l
CALCULATION
GIVEN: W = 100 l b
R = 100 f t
A l t i t u d e = 4000 f t
m = 130 l b
FIND: Percent survival
1/3
SOLUTION: 1. R/W1l3 = 100/1001/3 = 21.5 f t / l b
E n t e r F i g u r e 4.5 and r e a d P = 1.8 p s i
S
-3 1/3
and i /W1/3 = 2.55 X 10 psi-sec/lb
S
'Vnscale" t o d e t e r m i n e i
S
i
2 % - W1/3 = 2.55 X X 101'3 = 5.49 X psi-sec
W
2. From F i g u r e 4.69 f o r 4000 f t a l t i t u d e ,
po = 12.6 p s i
4-167
3. -
From Equation ( 4 * 7 0 ) ,
P = 1.8112.5 = 0.144
S
4. Given m = 130 l b
5. From E q u a t i o n ( 4 . 7 5 ) ,
- i 1 1 2 sec
i = S - 5.49 x = 1.08 X 10-3 p s i
S 1 1 2m 1 1 3 12.6 ' I 2 X 130113 d I 3
Po
6.
-
Fs
From F i g u r e 4 . 6 8 , e n t e r w i t h = 0.144 and
i = 1.08 X The p o i n t l i e s w e l l below
S
the t h r e s h o l d f o r l u n g damage. So, t h e r e i s
no i n j u r y and s u r v i v a l i s 100%
4-168
..?
4.6.2 T e r t i a r y Blast I n j u r y
During whole-body displacement, b l a s t o v e r p r e s s u r e s and impulses i n t e r -

a c t w i t h t h e body i n such a manner t h a t i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y picked up and t r a n s -
l a t e d . T e r t i a r y b l a s t damage i n v o l v e s t h i s whole-body displacement and subse-
quent d e c e l e r a t i v e impact (Ref. 4.61). Bodily damage can o c c u r d u r i n g t h e
a c c e l e r a t i n g phase o r d u r i n g d e c e l e r a t i v e impact (Ref. 4.68). The e x t e n t of
i n j u r y due t o d e c e l e r a t i v e impact i s t h e more s i g n i f i c a n t (Ref. 4.69), however,
and i s determined by t h e v e l o c i t y change a t impact, t h e t i m e and d i s t a n c e over
which d e c e l e r a t i o n o c c u r s , t h e type o f s u r f a c e impacted, and t h e area of t h e
body involved (Ref. 4 . 6 1 ) .
Although t h e head i s t h e most v u l n e r a b l e p o r t i o n o f t h e body t o mechani-

c a l i n j u r y d u r i n g d e c e l e r a t i v e impact, i t i s a l s o t h e b e s t p r o t e c t e d (Ref.
4.67). Because o f t h e d e l i c a t e n a t u r e of t h e head, many may f e e l t h a t t r a n s -
l a t i o n damage c r i t e r i a should be based on s k u l l f r a c t u r e o r concussion. How-
ever, s i n c e body impact p o s i t i o n i s l i k e l y t o b e randomly o r i e n t e d a f t e r
t r a n s l a t i o n , o t h e r s may f e e l t h a t t h i s f a c t o r should b e t a k e n i n t o account i n
d e t e r m i n i n g expected amounts of impact damage. I n a n e f f o r t t o s a t i s f y pro-
ponents of each p o i n t o f view, b o t h t y p e s of impact, e s s e n t i a l l y head foremost
and random body impact o r i e n t a t i o n , w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d .
a
Because of t h e many parameters involved i n d e c e l e r a t i v e impact, a few.
assumptions w i l l b e made. F i r s t of a l l , t r a n s l a t i o n damage w i l l b e assumed t o
occur d u r i n g d e c e l e r a t i v e impact w i t h a hard s u r f a c e , t h e most damaging case
(Ref. 4.69). Another assumption i s t h a t , s i n c e impact o n t o o n l y h a r d s u r f a c e s
i s b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , t r a n s l a t i o n damage w i l l depend o n l y on impact v e l o c i t y .
T h i s i s , impacting o n l y one t y p e of s u r f a c e p r e c l u d e s t h e need f o r c o n s i d e r i n g
change i n v e l o c i t y of t h e body d u r i n g impact. This assumption, however, i s
n o t e n t i r e l y v a l i d when one c o n s i d e r s t h a t t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of v a r i o u s por-
t i o n s of t h e body can v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y .
White (Refs. 4 . 6 1 and 4.62) and Clemedson, e t a l . (Ref. 4.69), agree

t h a t t h e t e n t a t i v e c r i t e r i a f o r t e r t i a r y damage ( d e c e l e r a t i v e i m p a c t ) t o the
head s h o u l d b e t h o s e p r e s e n t e d i n Table 4.11. White's (Ref. 4.62) r e c e n t l y
r e v i s e d c r i t e r i a f o r t e r t i a r y damage due t o t o t a l body impact a r e summarized
i n Table 4.12. It i s b e n e f i c i a l t o n o t e t h a t t h e mostly "safe" v e l o c i t y
c r i t e r i a f o r each t y p e of impact c o n d i t i o n a r e i d e n t i c a l .
Baker, e t a l . (Ref. 4.59) have developed a method f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e

b l a s t i n c i d e n t o v e r p r e s s u r e and s p e c i f i c impulse combinations which w i l l trans-
l a t e human b o d i e s and p r o p e l them a t t h e c r i t i c a l v e l o c i t i e s p r e s e n t e d i n
Tables 4.11 and 4.12. T h i s method and a s s o c i a t e d p r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s are repro-
duced h e r e .
F i g u r e 4.70 c o n t a i n s t h e p r e s s u r e - s c a l e d impulse combinations r e q u i r e d

t o produce t h e v e l o c i t i e s f o r v a r i o u s expected p e r c e n t a g e s of s k u l l f r a c t u r e
(See Table 4.11) a t sea l e v e l , w h i l e F i g u r e 4 . 7 1 c o n t a i n s t h e p r e s s u r e - s c a l e d
4-169
Table 4 . 1 1 C r i t e r i a For T e r t i a r y Damage
( D e c e l e r a t i v e Impact) To The Head
(References 4.61, 4.62, and 4.69)
R e l a t e d Impact V e l o c i t y
Skull F r a c t u r e Tolerance f tl s e c
~ 0 t lsy "safe" 10
Threshold 13
50 p e r c e n t 18
Near 100 p e r c e n t 23
T a b l e 4.12 C r i t e r i a For T e r t i a r y Damage

I n v o l v i n g T o t a l Body Impact
(Reference 4.62)
R e l a t e d Impact V e l o c i t y
T o t a l Body Impact T o l e r a n c e f tl sec
Mostly "safe" 10
L e t h a l i t y threshold 21
L e t h a l i t y 50 p e r c e n t 54
L e t h a l i t y near 100 p e r c e n t 138
4-170
r
l
0
d
m
hl
N
0
l-i
v)
N
I
d 4
. .
0 v1
l-i p.
Vl
hl
0
In f-
0 14
0 V
rl
rl
N
4
I
0
rl
rl
N
N
I
0
- 4 4 rl N O v) N
,-I
I rl N
.-
N
I
d
0 0 0 0
4 d 4 rl
4-171
- 4 4 ul N O ul N I N I
0 0 0
0 4
I4 rl rl
4-172
impulse combinations r e q u i r e d t o produce t h e v e l o c i t i e s f o r v a r i o u s e x p e c t e d
p e r c e n t a g e s of l e t h a l i t y from whole body impact (See Table 4 . 1 2 ) a t sea l e v e l .
Curves f o r o t h e r a l t i t u d e s d i f f e r o n l y s l i g h t l y from t h e sea l e v e l c u r v e s .
4-1.7 3
PROBLEM -' P r e d i c t
p o s s i b l e t e r t i a r y b l a s t damage t o humans a t a s p e c i f i e d d i s -
t a n c e from a g i v e n e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e .
GIVEN: W = e x p l o s i v e weight
R = d i s t a n c e from c e n t e r o f e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e
m = weight of body of human s u b j e c t
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of i n j u r y REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine peak i n c i d e n t o v e r p r e s s u r e

Ps and s p e c i f i c impulse i s f o r g i v e n
c h a r g e weight W and d i s t a n c e R F i g . 4.5
2. Determine t h e l i g h t e s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
weight of an exposed human, and calcu-
1/3
late is/m
3. Locate PS and is/m1/3 on g r a p h s f o r
s k u l l fracture and l e t h a l i t y f o r w h o l e
body t r a n s l a t i o n , and r e a d impact v e l o - F i g . 4.70 &
cities F i g . 4.71
4. Determine d e g r e e of i n j u r y f o r appro-
p r i a t e impact v e l o c i t i e s Table 4.11
CALCULATION
GIVEN: W = 100 l b
R = 100 f t
m = 130 l b
FIND: T e r t i a r y b l a s t i n j u r y , b a s e d on s k u l l f r a c t u r e
and whole body t r a n s l a t i o n
1/3
SOLUTION: 1. R / d / 3 = 100/1001/3 = 21.5 f t / l b
E n t e r F i g u r e 4.9 and r e a d P S = 1.8 p s i and
-3 1/3
i
S
/w1l3 = 2.55 x 10 psi-sec/lb
"Unscale" t o d e t e r m i n e i
S
-+i
w1l3 = 2.55 x x 1001/3 = 1.18 10-2 paitsec
2. Given m = 130 l b . Calculate
i
S
/m1l3 = 1.18 X 10-2/1301/3 = 2.33 X psi-sec/lb 1/3
4-174
Change 1 - 15 August 1981
'C
3. E n t e r F i g u r e 4.70 w i t h P = 1.8 and
S
is/m1l3 = 2.33 X This i s o f f t h e l e f t s i d e

of t h e F i g u r e , b u t w e l l below t h e l o w e s t c u r v e s
f o r s k u l l f r a c t u r e . So, V << 1 0 f p s . E n t e r Fig-
4 . 7 1 w i t h t h e same numbers. Again, V << 1 0 f p s
4. R e f e r r i n g t o Table 4.11 f o r c o r r e l a t i o n of velo-
cities with injury, we find t h a t f o r e i t h e r the
s k u l l f r a c t u r e o r whole body impact c r i t e r i a , t h e
impact v e l o c i t i e s are w e l l below t h e mostly "safe"
v e l o c i t i e s . So, no i n j u r y would occur.
NOTE: Had t h e v z e s f o r o r d i n a t e and a b s c i s s a i n
F i g u r e s 4.70 and 4.71 been P = 1 psi, is/m 1/3 -
S
1 p~i-sec/lb"~, the velocities for skull fracture

v e l o c i t y would have been V = 1 5 f p s , and f o r whole
body t r a n s l a t i o n V = 13 f p s . S k u l l f r a c t u r e i n j u r y
p r o b a b i l i t y would l i e between t h r e s h o l d and 50%,
w h i l e l e t h a l i t y due t o whole body t r a n s l a t i o n would
l i e between m o s t l y "safe" and t h e t h r e s h o l d f o r
l e t h a l i t y . So, t h e human would have a r e l a t i v e l y
h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y of s k u l l f r a c t u r e , b u t a low pro-
b a b i l i t y o f d e a t h . Whether t h i s l e v e l of i n j u r y
would o r would n o t b e a c c e p t a b l e could o n l y b e ad-
dressed i n s e p a r a t e s a f e t y criteria.
..
4-175 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

4.6.3 E a r Damage Due To A i r Blast Exposure
The ear, a s e n s i t i v e organ system which c o n v e r t s sound waves i n t o n e r v e

impulses, responds t o a band of f r e q u e n c i e s r a n g i n g from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
This remarkable o r g a n c a n respond t o energy l e v e l s which c a u s e t h e eardrum t o
d e f l e c t less t h a n t h e d i a m e t e r of a s i n g l e hydrogen molecule (Ref. 4.70). Not
b e i n g a b l e t o respond f a i t h f u l l y t o p u l s e s h a v i n g p e r i o d s l e s s t h a n 0 . 3 m i l l i -
second, i t a t t e m p t s t o do s o by making a s i n g l e l a r g e e x c u r s i o n (Ref. 4 . 7 0 ) .
It i s t h i s motion which c a n c a u s e i n j u r y t o t h e ear.
The human ear i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h e e x t e r n a l , middle, and i n n e r ear.

The external ear a m p l i f i e s t h e o v e r p r e s s u r e of t h e sound wave by approximately
20 p e r c e n t and d e t e c t s t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e s o u r c e of sound (Ref. 4.70). Rup-
t u r e of t h e eardrum i s a good measure of s e r i o u s ear damage. U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
t h e s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t f o r p r e d i c t i n g eardrum r u p t u r e i s n o t as w e l l developed
as t h a t f o r p r e d i c t i n g l u n g damage from b l a s t waves. A d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
however, h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d between t h e p e r c e n t a g e of r u p t u r e d eardrums and
maximum o v e r p r e s s u r e . H i r s c h (Ref. 4.67) c o n s t r u c t e d a graph s i m i l a r t o t h a t
shown i n F i g u r e 4.72 and concluded t h a t 50 p e r c e n t of exposed eardrums r u p t u r e
a t an o v e r p r e s s u r e of 1 5 p s i . White ( R e f . 4 . 6 1 ) s u p p o r t s t h i s c o n c l u s i o n for
" f a s t " r i s i n g o v e r p r e s s u r e s w i t h d u r a t i o n s of 0.003 second t o 0 . 4 second .
o c c u r r i n g a t ambient a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e of 14.7 p s i . H i r s c h (Ref. 4.67),
a l s o concluded t h a t t h r e s h o l d eardrum r u p t u r e f o r " f a s t " r i s i n g o v e r p r e s s u r e s
o c c u r s a t 5 p s i , which i s a l s o s u p p o r t e d by White (Ref. 4.61) f o r t h e r a n g e
of d u r a t i o n and a t t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e mentioned above.
A t lower o v e r p r e s s u r e s t h a n t h o s e r e q u i r e d t o r u p t u r e eardrums, a t e m -
p o r a r y l o s s of h e a r i n g can o c c u r . Ross, e t a l . ( R e f . 4.701, have produced a
graph o f peak o v e r p r e s s u r e v e r s u s d u r a t i o n t o r temporary t h r e s h o l d s h i f t (TTS).
Below t h e limits of t h e graphs, a m a j o r i t y (75 p e r c e n t a t least) o f t h o s e ex-
posed a r e n o t l i k e l y t o s u f f e r excessive h e a r i n g l o s s . According t o ROSS,
e t a l . (Ref. 4 . 7 0 ) , t h e i r c u r v e s s h o u l d b e lowered 1 0 dB t o p r o t e c t 90 per-
c e n t of t h o s e exposed, lowered 5 dB t o a l l o w f o r a normal a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e
of t h e b l a s t wave, and i n c r e a s e d 1 0 dB t o a l l o w f o r o c c a s i o n a l i m p u l s e s . I n
sum, t o a s s u r e p r o t e c t i o n t o 90 p e r c e n t o f t h o s e exposed and t o a l l o w f o r nor-
m a l i n c i d e n c e t o t h e ear ( t h e w o r s t exposure case) of a n o c c a s i o n a l a i r b l a s t ,
t h e i r c u r v e s should b e lowered 5 dB.
L i m i t s f o r eardrum r u p t u r e and temporary t h r e s h o l d s h i f t , as p r e s e n t e d

above, are dependent on peak i n c i d e n t o v e r p r e s s u r e and d u r a t i o n . S i n c e s p e c i -
f i c impulse i s dependent upon t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e b l a s t wave and s i n c e b o t h
peak i n c i d e n t o v e r p r e s s u r e and s p e c i f i c impulse a t a s p e c i f i e d d i s t a n c e from
a n e x p l o s i o n can b e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g methods i n t h i s document, i t i s e s p e c i a l l y
a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t pressure-impulse ear damage c u r v e s b e developed from t h e p r e s -
s u r e - d u r a t i o n c u r v e s . Assuming a t r i a n g u l a r shape f o r t h e b l a s t wave a l l o w s
f o r s i m p l e c a l c u l a t i o n s which are c o n s e r v a t i v e from a n i n j u r y s t a n d p o i n t .
Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981 4-176

98 i 1 ' 1 I I I I 1 1 I I 1
95 -
90
. .
a 60
01
M
1I
+ 50
a
7
pr: 40
w
0
LI
30
E
u 20
M
01
P.l
10
2 -
I I I 1 1 1 1 I I 1 I 1 I '
1
3 4 6 lo1 2 4 6 8
Peak Overpressure P
S
, psi
Figure 4 . 7 2 Percent Eardrum Rupture as a

Function of Overpressure
4-17 7
The ear damage c r i t e r i a p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 4 . 7 3 w e r e developed from
t h e c r i t e r i a f o r eardrum r u p t u r e developed by H i r s c h (Ref. 4 . 6 8 ) and White
(Ref. 4.61) and from t h e c r i t e r i a f o r temporary t h r e s h o l d s h i f t developed by
Ross, e t a l . (Ref. 4 . 7 0 ) . Equation ( 4 . 7 2 ) w a s used t o c a l c u l a t e s p e c i f i c i m -
p u l s e , and temporary t h r e s h o l d s h i f t r e p r e s e n t s t h e case where 90 p r e c e n t of
t h o s e exposed t o a b l a s t wave advancing a t normal a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e t o t h e
ear a r e n o t l i k e l y t o s u f f e r a n e x c e s s i v e d e g r e e of h e a r i n g l o s s . The t h r e s -
h o l d f o r eardrum r u p t u r e c u r v e i s t h e l o c a t i o n below which no r u p t u r e d ears
are e x p e c t e d t o occur and t h e 50 p e r c e n t of eardrum r u p t u r e curve i s t h e
l o c a t i o n a t which 50 p e r c e n t o f ears exposed a r e expected t o r u p t u r e .
1.
4-178
lo2
5
3
4 2
VI
a L
F4
co lo1
a
k
3
10
5
v)
a 3
k
a
k 2
d loo
4J.
c
aJ
Q
.ti
0
5.
c
H
3
2
10-1
2 3 5 2 3 5 2 3 5 10-1 2 3 5 loo
S p e c i f i c Impulse is, p s i - s e c
Figure 4 . 7 3 Human Ear Damage f o r B l a s t Waves A r r i v i n g a t Normal

Angle o f I n c i d e n c e
PROBLEM - Find t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of ear i n j u r y a t a g i v e n d i s t a n c e from a s p e c i -

f i e d e x p l o s i v e source.
GIVEN: W = e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e weight
R = d i s t a n c e from c e n t e r o f e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of ear i n j u r y REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine peak i n c i d e n t o v e r p r e s s u r e

Ps and s p e c i f i c impulse is f o r g i v e n
charge w e i g h t W and d i s t a n c e R F i g . 4.5
2. Determine d e g r e e of i n j u r y b y p l o t t i n g
Ps and is o n human ear damage c u r v e F i g . 4.73
CALCULATION
GIVEN: W = 100 lb (free air)

R = 100 ft
FIND: Level of ear i n j u r y
SOLUTION: 1. R/dl3 = 100/1001/3 = 21.5 f t / l b

1/3
E n t e r F i g u r e 4.5 and read Y = 1.8 p s i
S
1/3
and iS /W1j3 = 2.55 X psi-sec/lb
"Unscale" t o o b t a i n i
S
-.i
d'3 = 2.55 X X = 1.18 X 10-2 p s i - s e c
2. Plotting P and i on F i g u r e 4.73, one

S S
f i n d s t h a t t h e p o i n t l i e s w e l l above t h e
c u r v e f o r TTS, b u t below t h e c u r v e f o r
t h r e s h o l d of eardrum r u p t u r e . So, humans
would s u f f e r temporary h e a r i n g l o s s , b u t
no s e r i o u s ear i n j u r y .
NOTE: When comparing ear i n j u r y , primary
b l a s t damage, and t e r t i a r y b l a s t damage
f o r t h e same s o u r c e , as h a s b e e n done i n
Example Problems 4.14, 4.15, and 4.16, one
i n v a r i a b l y f i n d s t h a t ear i n j u r y occurs a t
a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e t h a n t h e o t h e r , more
s e r i o u s , t y p e s of b l a s t i n j u r y . So, i f
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 4-180

s a f e t y c r i t e r i a i n c l u d e an ear damage l i m i t ,
one can b e a s s u r e d t h a t no more s e r i o u s
b l a s t i n j u r y w i l l occur a t t h e d i s t a n c e s
corresponding t o t h e ear damage l i m i t .
4-181
4.7 RECOMMEXDED TESTS OR ANALYSES
W e have found a number of areas i n a i r b l a s t technology which are d e f i -

c i e n t when a p p l i e d t o d e f i n i t i o n o f l o a d i n g of s t r u c t u r e s t y p i c a l of t h e Pantex
P l a n t . A l i s t i n g of t h e more important such areas f o l l o w s :
0 D e f i n i t i o n of a i r shock l o a d i n g of i n t e r i o r s of complex geometry

c e l l s , c o r r i d o r s , and c e l l - c o r r i d o r combinations. A number of
t y p i c a l Pantex c o n f i g u r a t i o n s should b e t e s t e d , i n s m a l l model
scale.
0 D e f i n i t i o n of b l a s t l o a d s from n o n - s p h e r i c a l s o u r c e s . I n p a r t i c u -
l a r , b o t h side-on and r e f l e c t e d s p e c i f i c impulses are poorly de-
f i n e d o r completely undefined.
0 A i r b l a s t from b u l k (uncompressed) HE. No d a t a a t a l l e x i s t f o r

such s o u r c e s .
8 Mechanism of f a i l u r e and v e n t i n g of l i g h t , f r a n g i b l e v e n t c o v e r s .
P a s t s t u d i e s o m i t t e d v e n t c o v e r s a l t o g e t h e r . Experimental d a t a
are b a d l y needed, f o r comparison w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l curves given
i n t h i s chapter.
Determination of b l a s t wave p r o p e r t i e s f o r t h o s e e x p l o s i v e s f o r
which t h e s e measurements have n o t been made. C u r r e n t l y , w e as-
sume TNT e q u i v a l e n c e based on c a l c u l a t e d comparative h e a t s of deto-
n a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n on comparison of a i r b l a s t d a t a .
0 S y s t e m a t i c measurements o f heats of d e t o n a t i o n and combustion

of e x p l o s i v e s of i n t e r e s t a t Pantex. These form t h e b a s i s f o r
d e t e r m i n i n g TNT e q u i v a l e n c e f o r shock l o a d s and vented gas pres-
s u r e loads.
0 Measurement and code c a l c u l a t i o n o f p r e s s u r e s and impulses f o r

shock waves of i n t e r m e d i a t e s t r e n g t h from s p h e r i c a l s o u r c e s
l o c a t e d n e a r f l a t s u r f a c e s . These should supplement d a t a i n
F i g u r e s 4 . 1 1 , 4 . 1 2 , and 4 . 1 3 .
0 Tests of c h a r g e s of o t h e r g e o m e t r i e s t h a n s p h e r i c a l i n c o n t a c t o r
n e a r l y i n c o n t a c t w i t h r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s . Only one set of d a t a
e x i s t s f o r c y l i n d r i c a l c h a r g e s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e ground.
0 Tests t o d e t e r m i n e t h r e s h o l d s of s p a l l i n g f o r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
walls. Methods i n t h i s manual are probably q u i t e c o n s e r v a t i v e , b u t
s p a l l i n g c a n c a u s e s i g n i f i c a n t h a z a r d s t o p e r s o n n e l i n bays a d j a c e n t
t o t h o s e i n which a n e x p l o s i o n o c c u r s .
4-182
4.8 COMPREHENSIVE ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
PROBLEM - iletermine a l l side-on and normally r e f l e c t e d b l a s t parameters f o r a

b a r e s p h e r i c a l HE e x p l o s i o n . This problem i l l u s t r a t e s use of t h e
g r a p h s i n F i g u r e s 4.5 through 4.7 and a l t i t u d e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s .
GIVEN: R = d i s t a n c e from c e n t e r of e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e
(standoff [ f t ] )
W = w e i g h t and t y p e of HE ( l b )
H = a l t i t u d e where e x p l o s i o n o c c u r s ( f t )
FIND: A l l p o s s i b l e b l a s t parameters REFERENCE

See T a b l e 6
SOLUTION: i. E q u i v a l e n t TNT e x p l o s i v e w e i g h t i n Appendix A
W = (weight of e x p l o s i v e ) (TNT F a c t o r ) f o r TNT
Equivalencies
z = R / W 113 Eq. (4.19)
3. C a l c u l a t e c o r r e c t e d Z* f o r a l t i t u d e H
113
z* = z (PIPo) Eq. (4.20)
where P i s t h e ambient p r e s s u r e a t H
p = 14.6965 r L288.15 -
288.15
1.9812 X lo-= H J
Psi
4. Determine t h e r e q u i r e d b l a s t parameters F i g . 4.5 -

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e Z* v a l u e Fig'. 4.7
5. C a l c u l a t e sound speed a t a l t i t u d e H
112
a = 65.77 [ 288.15 - 1.9812 X HI ft/sec Eq. (4.18)
6. Correct blast parameters f o r altitude H Table 4 . 3
CALCULATION
GIVEN: R = 20 f t
Charge w e i g h t i s 58.6 l b o f Composition B
H = 3500 f t
FIND: A l l p o s s i b l e b l a s t parameters
4-183 Change 1 - 15 August 1981

1
-5.25588
288.15
3. a). p = 14.6955 psi
288.15 -
1.9812 X X 3500
p = 1 2 . 9 3 p s i (rounded t o f o u r s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s )
1/3 1/3
b). Z* = 5 = 4.791 f t / l b
4. a). E n t e r F i g u r e 4.5 f o r Z* = R/W1l3 = 4.79 and r e a d :

P* = 26.0 p s i
S
-
1/3
i*/W = 1.05 X psi-sec/lb
S
1/3
= 1.35 X sec/lb
t
a
/d/3= 1 . 4 0 X 1 0-3 s e c / l b 1 / 3
For t i m e s and impulses, m u l t i p l y s c a l e d v a l u e s by W ,1/ 3

i
S
= 1.05 X X 4 = 4.2 X lo-* psi-sec
-3
td = 1.35 x 10 x 4 = 5.4 x sec
t = 1.40 X X 4 = 5.6 X sec

a
b). Enter F i g u r e 4.6 f o r Z* = 4.79 and r e a d :
P* = 1 1 2 p s i
r
i*/W1l3 = 3.30 X p s i - s e c / l b 1/3
r
1/3
For i m p u l s e , m u l t i p l y s c a l e d impulse by W
i* = 3.30 X
r
X 4 = 1.32 X lo-' psi-sec.
c). Enter F i g u r e 4.7 f o r Z* = 4.79 and r e a d :
Q* = 13.0 p s i
-
U* = 1.57 (Mach No.)
-
:U = 7.6 X lo-' (Mach No .)
b* ,= 1 . 8 5
5. a = 65.77 [288.15 - 1.9812 X X 3500]1/2 f t / s e c

a = 1102.9 f t / s e c
6. Enter T a b l e 4.3 and d e t e r m i n e v a l u e s of c o r r e c t i o n
f a c t o r s . The c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s w i l l be:
Pressures
p/po = 12.93/14.70 = 0.880
Impulse
( a o / a > (PIP,) 2 / 3 = (1116.4/1102.9) (12.93/14.70)2/3 = 0.93
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 4 -184

. .. .... ....... .-..
'r ;mes
__
(ao/a) ( p0 /p)1/3 = (1116.4/1102.9) (14.70/1293)1/3 = 1.06
The values of t h e b l a s t p a r a m e t e r s w i l l be:

P = P* X 0.88 = 26.0 X 0.88
S S
P = 22.9 p s i
S
-2
i = i* X 0 . 9 3 = 1.05 X 10 X 0.93
S S
-1
i = 3.91 X 10 psi-sec
S
t = t* X 1.06 = 5 . 4 X X 1.06 s e c
d d
-3
t = 5.7 X 1 0 sec
d
t = t* X 1.06 = 5.6 X X 1.06 sec
a a
t = 5.9 x sec
a
P = P* X 0.88 = 1 1 2 X 0 . 8 8 p s i
r r
P = 98.6 p s i
r
-1
i = i* X 0 . 9 3 = 1 . 3 2 X 10 X 0.93 psi-sec
r r
-1
i = 1.23 X 10 psi-sec
r
Q = Q* X 0.88 = 13.0 X 0.88 p s i
Q = 11.4 p s i
-
U = 1.57
-
u
S
= 7.6 X lo-'
b = 1.85
This i s simply a d e m o n s t r a t i o n problem f o r u s e
o f scaled curves f o r blast wave parameters. Very
seldom w i l l a n AE need t o d e t e r m i n e - a l l of t h e
p a r a m e t e r s from a l l t h r e e of t h e sets of p r e d i c -
t i o n c u r v e s i n F i g u r e s 4..5 through 4.7. The most
commonly needed o n e s a r e Ps, is, t d , Pr, and i
r
.
4-185 Change 1 - 15 August 1981

The p r o c e d u r e s f o r p r e d i c t i n g i n i t i a l and r e f l e c t e d b l a s t p r e s s u r e s and

impulses and q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s on t h e w a l l s of a c o n v e n t i o n a l r e c t a n g u l a r
p a r a l l e l e p i p e d room o r bay, f o r a n i n t e r n a l HE e x p l o s i o n , are d i f f e r e n t i n
t h i s manual and i n TM 5-1300 (Ref. 4 . 2 ) . This example problem p r o v i d e s a
comparison of t h e methods and p r e d i c t e d l o a d s u s i n g t h e two d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s .
When t h e r e a r e s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r e s u l t s , recommendations a r e
g i v e n f o r c h o i c e o f t h e p r e f e r r e d method.
PROBLEM - Determine t h e b l a s t l o a d i n g p a r a m e t e r s on w a l l s and roof of a rec-

t a n g u l a r p a r e l l o p i p e d s t r u c t u r e w i t h a n i n t e r n a l e x p l o s i o n of a
specified explosive source a t a specified location within the struc-
t u r e . One e n t i r e w a l l i s a blowout w a l l i n t e n d e d t o v e n t t h e
e x p l o s i o n . Room dimensions and e x p l o s i v e charge l o c a t i o n are shown
i n F i g u r e 4.74.
GIVEN: W = e x p l o s i v e charge w e i g h t
Room interior dimensions
Charge l o c a t i o n
w = areal d e n s i t y of blowout w a l l
FIND: B l a s t l o a d s on w a l l s and r o o f . REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine r e f l e c t e d b l a s t wave p r e s s u r e s

and impulses a p p l i e d t o rear w a l l , s i d e
w a l l s and roof f o r c h a r g e weight W i n geo-
metry i n F i g u r e 4.74.
a ) . Using methods i n t h i s manual Fig. 4.12 &
Fig. 4.13
b). Using methods i n TM 5-1300 Sect ons 4-9
4-10 i n Ref.
4.2
2. Determine q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e l o a d s
f o r g i v e n c h a r g e w e i g h t W, room vol-
ume V, and blowout w a l l w i t h area A
and areal d e n s i t y w
a ) . Using methods i n t h i s manual F i g s . 4.43,
4.44 & 4.45
b). Using methods i n TM 5-1300 F i g . 4-65 i n
Ref. 4.2
CALCULATION
GIVEN: W = 150 l b
Room and c h a r g e l o c a t i o n i n F i g u r e 4.74.
2
w = 120 l b / f t f o r b l o w o u t w a l l
4-186
Rear Wall 36'
I
I
I
24 '
F i g u r e 4.74 S k e t c h Of Room Loaded By Internal Blast
4-187
FIND: B l a s t l o a d s on w a l l s and r o o f .
SOLUTION: 1. a). R e f l e c t e d p a r a m e t e r s f o r w a l l s and

r o o f u s i n g methods i n t h i s manual.
Determine e f f e c t i v e c h a r g e w e i g h t
r e l a t i v e t o each w a l l and r o o f
W' = w x 2.0
W' = 150 X 2.0 = 300 l b TNT f o r
a l l surfaces
Due t o p r o x i m i t y of c h a r g e t o
f l o o r , c h a r g e weight i s doubled.
It i s important t o note t h a t t h e
c h a r g e w e i g h t i s n o t always
doubled, b u t o n l y o c c u r r e d i n
t h i s problem due t o c h a r g e l o c a -
tion. * E q . (4.15)
Determine normal (minimum) c h a r g e
standoff f o r a l l surfaces (R).
F o r rear and s i d e w a l l s and r o o f .
m i n i m u m c h a r g e s t a n d o f f i s 18 f t .
For "blowout" p a n e l , t h e minimum
c h a r g e s t a n d o f f i s 26 f t . F i g . 4.74
Determine s c a l e d minimum c h a r g e
s tando f f
Z' = R/W ,1/3 E q . (4.9)
For 18 f t ,
Z' = 2.7 f t / l b 1 1 3
For 25 f t ,
Z' = 3.88 f t / l b 1/3
If 0 . 3 f t / l k ~ l /I ~ Z' 5 3.0 f t / l b 113
u s e F i g u r e 4.13 t o d e t e r m i n e
s p e c i f i c r e f l e c t e d impulse along
t h e w a l l , and F i g u r e 4.12 t o de-
termine peak r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e
a l o n g w a l l . Thus F i g u r e s 4.13
and 4.12 were used f o r a l l s u r -
f a c e s e x c e p t t h e "blowout paneL,"
where
Z' = 3.88 f t / l b 113
I n s p e c t i o n of F i g u r e s 4.12 and
4.13 i n d i c a t e s t h a t f o r
*The charge i s much c l o s e r t o t h e f l o o r t h a n o t h e r r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s ,

w i t h t h e n e a r e s t o t h e r s u r f a c e b e i n g t h r e e t i m e s as f a r away. Mach waves
form v e r y q u i c k l y , s o most o f t h e w a l l s and t h e r o o f "feel1' impact o f t h e
c o a l e s c e d Mach waves. W e assume c o n s e r v a t i v e l y t h a t t h e Mach waves l o a d
a l l of these surfaces.
4-188
Z' = 2.7 ft/lb1'3, interpolation Table 4.13
i s r e q u i r e d . A t a b l e and graph F i g . 4.75
were g e n e r a t e d f o r t h e case of F i g . 4.76
R = 18 f t and W' = 300 l b . T h i s
allowed s p e c i f i c r e f l e c t e d i m -
p u l s e and s c a l e d p o s i t i o n t o b e F i g . 4.12 &
"descaled. F i g . 4.13
Because o f i n t e r n a l r e f l e c t i o n s
o f shocks i n s i d e t h e c u b i c l e , a
" r e f l e c t i n g " f a c t o r of 1.75 i s
a p p l i e d t o r e f l e c t e d impulse, and
i s termed "applied impulse. Peak
reflected pressure, reflected im-
p u l s e , and " a p p l i e d impulse" are
tabulated f o r various values of F i g . 4.14,
w a l l p o s i t i o n X. These q u a n t i - F i g . 4.75,
t i e s are a l s o p l o t t e d as a func- Fig. 4.76,
t i o n of w a l l position X, Figures F i g . 4.77 &
4.75 through 4.78. F i g . 4.78
To o b t a i n a n "average" v a l u e of
s p e c i f i c impulse, v a r i o u s methods
can be used; t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n
depending upon t h e degree of
a c c u r a c y r e q u i r e d . It w a s observed t h a t a
s t r a i g h t l i n e represented r e f l e c t e d im-
p u l s e as a f u n c t i o n o f w a l l p o s i t i o n
q u i t e w e l l . An e q u a t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g
t h e l i n e of b e s t "eyeball" f i t through F i g . 4.75
t h e d a t a w a s determined (See F i g u r e
4.75). It was of t h e form:
i ( X ) = mX + b
where
i(X) = a p p l i e d s p e c i f i c impulse
m = s l o p e of l i n e
b = Y intercept
The a v e r a g e s p e c i f i c impulse i s t h e n :
(See F i g u r e 4.79)
Area
i =// i ( X ) dA (4.76)
av A
o r expressed i n polar coordinates
0,@I*
*This c o o r d i n a t e system c o n v e n t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.14 as ( X , a).
4-189
I I G 1 I I
0
-4
U
?
x)
N
9
U
N
9
0
hl
0
\o
rl
aJ aJ
U u
0 U
aJ
hl
rl
9
m
m
I-
U
9
U
9
0
m U m hl rl
I- \o
0 0 0 0 0
O 0
4-190
4
m
N
c:
e
N
0
0
N
9
ic
I4
a
N
I4
u
m
-4
r:
c1 a,
a
C
CT)
4
e
I I I I I I I I I 9
C
m
0
4
4-191
1
I)
m
4
m
a
1
n
.5 7
.3
c
J
I
.1
Figure 4.77 Applied Reflected Specific Impulse Along Wall
4-192
200
I I I I I I I
180
M
.4
a.
9 160
9)
3
n
n
c)
a
160
0
J
Y
J
4
'U
J 120
LT
.%i
a
Y
k 100
a
80
U' = 300 lb TNI
Xormal Distance = 26 ft
60
0 ' 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Distance A h n g Wall X , Ft
Figure 4.78 Peak Reflected Pressure Along Wall
4-193
Erc tan (Y/u) U/COSO
iav = - (A)[
L.
I
0
+ b) XdXdO
-
+
where
1' Tin@
arc t a n (Y/U) o
(mX + b) XdXdO
-
(4.77)
Y and U are d e f i n e d i n F i g u r e 4.79.

The i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e above expres-
s i o n g i v e s the f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n f o r
t h e a v e r a g e impulse over a w a l l o r
roo f s u r f ace
- m~3
where
- -my3
3
cos
s i n 2 cp
@ = a r c t a n (Y/U)
3
(log t a n @/2) + 2bYU
1 (4.78)
(4.79)
The a v e r a g e ' v a l u e s o f r e f l e c t e d s p e c i f i c
impulse t h u s c a l c u l a t e d are l i s t e d a t t h e
bottom of each d a t a t a b l e .
113
I f Z' > 3.0 f t / l b , u s e s l a n t r a n g e and
F i g u r e 4.11 t o c a l c u l a t e r e f l e c t e d
impulse and p r e s s u r e a l o n g t h e w a l l
o r r o o f ( i g n o r e a n g l e of o b l i q u i t y ) .
T h i s procedure w a s used t o c a l c u l a t e
t h e b l a s t l o a d on t h e "blowout p a n e l . "
The s l a n t r a n g e i s d e f i n e d i n t h e
same manner as i n TM 5-1300, i . e . ,
R' =A57
The s c a l e d s l a n t r a n g e f o r u s e i n
(4.80)
F i g u r e 4.11 i s
zJt = R p / w 0 1 / 3 ft/lb1/3
These c a l c u l a t i o n s are t a b u l a t e d i n
T a b l e s 4 . 1 3 and 4.14 and a r e a l s o
graphed as a p p l i e d r e f l e c t e d impulse
and peak r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e versus
w a l l d i s t a n c e X . Again, a s t r a i g h t
l i n e w a s f i t t e d through t h e p l o t of
4-194
txpandad vlav o f ana qwdranr
of w a l l aa poitlonrd rbova
U
Wccor t u s a Tor
s y m a e r y h a eo
C.lcuLtlon ?to-
eadura Uaad
The geometry o f Equations (4.76) t h r o u g h (4.79) is i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4.79.

F o r t u n a t e l y , f o r t h e Example Problem, t h e r e WAB some geometric symmetry because
of c h a r g e l o c a t i o n . The rear and f r o n t w a l l s r e q u i r e d o n l y one c a l c u l a t i o n of
a v e r a g e s p e c i f i c i m p u l s e , and t h e roof and s i d e e r e q u i r e d two c a l c u l a t i o n e .
For t h e g e n e r a l , c a s e , however, f o u r c a l c u l a t i o n s may be r e q u i r e d , one f o r each
q u a d r a n t . The o v e r a l l average impulse on t h e w a l l is t h e n
i l a v A1 i2av 2' '3nv A3 i4av

i =
+ + A3 + A4
+ + +
av ' A A2
1
Figure 4.79 Geometry of Procedure t o C a l c u l a t e Average

S p e c i f i c R e f l e c t e d Impulse
4-195
Table 4.13
For Minimum Standoff - 18 f t , W -
B l a s t Loads A s A Function O f Wall Position X,
300 l b
Pr = 1.75i*
X i iappl i e d
X/R ft Psi p s i - sec pai-sec--
0 0.57 0.0 1000. 0.38 0.67
0.25 0.52 4.5 880. 0.35 0.61
0.5 0.41 9 .o 530. 0.27 0.47
0.75 0.31 13.5 310. 0.21 0.37
1.0 0.24 18 .O 210. 0.16 0.28
1.25 0.19 22.5 150. 0.13 0.23
1.5 0.155 27 .O 115. 0.10 0.18

- 1 1 -
-
_.-
I-
-
~
*Average Impulse Over D i f f e r e n t Wall Elements
Rear Wall
i = 0.556 psi-sec [Equation A used. See Figure 4.751

av
S i d e Walls
i = 0.548 p s i - s e c [Equation B u s c d . See Figure 4.751

av
Roof
i = 0.540 psi-sec [Equation R used. Sec Figure 4.751

av
4-196
Table 4.14 "Blowout Panel" Blast Loads
'Iant Range
Z* , 7 / R 2 + X2
+ R V W1 1 3 ir Pr ir a p p l i e d *
X
ft f t2 psi-sec psi psi-sec
0. 26 .O 3.88 0.268 19 0 0.469
4.5 26.4 3.94 0.265 185 0.462
9. 27.5 4.11 0.254 1 65 0.444
13.5 29.3 4.38 0.241 145 0.422
18. 31.6 4.72 0.224 120 0.392
22.5 34.4 5.14 0.204 95 0.357
27. 37.5 5.60 0.184 85 0.322
"Average Impulse Over Blowout Panel
i = 0.448 p s i - s e c [Equation C used. See F i g u r e 4.771

av
4-197
i v e r s u s X , and a n average s p e c i f i c
impulse w a s t h u s o b t a i n e d (See Fig-
u r e s 4.77 and 4.78).
No a t t e m p t s w e r e made t o compute an
a v e r a g e peak r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e over
t h e w a l l s u r f a c e . This w a s because
t h e f i c t i t i o u s number developed would
have l i t t l e meaning i n c o n t r a s t t o
a v e r a g e s p e c i f i c impulse. However,
i f an "average" peak r e f l e c t e d over-
pressure value is required, i t is
suggested t h a t one u s e t h e proced-
u r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n TM 5-1300 ( a l s o
See 1 . b . o f t h i s Example Problem).
b). It i s assumed t h a t t h e r e a d e r h a s
access t o and h a s r e a d t h e TM 5-1300
manual. The d e t a i l s o f t h e proced-
u r e s used i n TM 5-1300 w i l l n o t b e re-
p e a t e d i n t h i s manual. From t h e
d a t a g i v e n , t h e f o l l o w i n g parameters
are determined.*
N = 4
W = 150 lb
H = 44 f t
L = 36 f t
h = 18 f t
R = 18 f t
R = 18 f t
A
h/H = 0.409
R/L = 0 . 5
L / R ~= 2.0
L/H = .818
W* = W X 1.20 = 180 l b
= 3.2 f t / l b 1/3
zA
It c a n b e s e e n t h a t t o determine Tb,
t h e a v e r a g e s c a l e d s p e c i f i c impulse,
i n t e r p o l a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d i n h/H and
L/H, and e x t r a p o l a t i o n i n ZA u s i n g
F i g u r e s 4.59 and 4.62 o f t h e TM 5-1300
manual*. The average r e f l e c t e d im-
p u l s e v a l u- e s t h u s o b t a i n e d are:
Rear w a l l \ = 0.79 p s i - s e c
*The nomenclature used h e r e i s t h a t o f TM 5-1300. Some terms have d i f f e r e n t

meanings from similar symbols i n t h i s manual.
4-198
Side w a l l s
b
i 0.63 p s i - s e c
-
Roof i,, = 0.74 p s i - s e c
The "average" peak r e f l e c t e d pres-
s u r e on t h e w a l l s w a s a l s o calcu-
l a t e d (See page 4-12 of TM 5-1300
Manual). The v a l u e s o b t a i n e d were:
Rear w a l l : P = 145 p s i g
r
S i d e w a l l s : P = 57 p s i g
r
Roof: Pr = 67 p s i g
Observe t h a t TM 5-1300 does n o t y i e l d
t h e e f f e c t s of a b l a s t l o a d f o r a f r a n -
gible wall.
2. a). Calculate quasi-static pressure load.
T h i s problem h a s a l r e a d y been worked
i n Example Problem 4.11. The v a l u e s
obtained w i l l b e r e s t a t e d below.
P = 40 p s i g
QS
i = 1.192 p s i - s e c
g
Td = 0.079 s e c
b). The q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n s i d e t h e
room i s c a l c u l a t e d i n TM 5-1300 t o b e
5 1 p s i g (See page 4-60 of TM 5-1300
Manual). No blowdown t i m e T ( t i m e
d
f o r p r e s s u r e t o r e t u r n t o ambient) o r
gas impulse i can b e o b t a i n e d from
g
TM 5-1300. The procedure developed
above (1.a. and 2.a.) assumes t h a t t h e
o n l y t o o l s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e u s e r are
paper, p e n c i l , and a s i m p l e , non-
programmable c a l c u l a t o r . To a l a r g e
e x t e n t , one must work t h e above prob-
l e m i n "reverse." F i r s t , one must
d e c i d e what t y p e of s t r u c t u r a l analy-
s i s procedure w i l l b e used. Then,
depending upon t h e d e g r e e of s o p h i s -
t i c a t i o n of t h e s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s
procedure, a " f o r c i n g " f u n c t i o n o r
'blast" l o a d o f corresponding sophis-
t i c a t i o n i s developed. The methods
developed i n S e c t i o n s 1.a. and 2.a.
allow one t o t a i l o r t h e " b l a s t load"
o r " f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n " t o h i s own
needs. I n c o n t r a s t , t h e methods of
4- 199
-7
TM 5-1300 allow less f l e x i b i l i t y and

s u p p l y less i n f o r m a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y
about q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e loads.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , b o t h methods are l i m -
i t e d by l a c k of d a t a i n some r e g i o n s .
The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by TM 5-1300
were more c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r t h i s par-
t i c u l a r example, a l t h o u g h t h e answers
i n g e n e r a l were n u m e r i c a l l y q u i t e
close.
4-200
4.9 L I S T OF SYMBOLS
A l o a d e d area
s u r f a c e a r e a of a n i m p u l s i v e l y loaded p l a t e
Aplate
A i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e a r e a of a chamber
s
vent area
a sound v e l o c i t y
a ambient f l u i d sound v e l o c i t y
0
b decay c o n s t a n t f o r a i r b l a s t wave
a n e x p o n e n t i a l decay c o n s t a n t f o r g a s p r e s s u r e
d i a m e t e r of a c y l i n d r i c a l e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e
t o t a l e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e energy
energy f l u x d e n s i t y i n a i r b l a s t wave
Ef
H w a l l thickness
i s p e c i f i c impulse
i dynamic p r e s s u r e s p e c i f i c impulse
d
i gas phase p o s i t i v e s p e c i f i c impulse

g
i p o s i t i v e phase s p e c i f i c impulse i n r e f l e c t e d a i r
r
b l a s t wave
i i
+ p o s i t i v e phase s p e c i f i c impulse i n side-on b l a s t
s s
wave
-
i n e g a t i v e phase s p e c i f i c impulse i n side-on b l a s t
s
wave
k s p r i n g c o n s t a n t f o r s i m p l e mechanical system
L l e n g t h of a c y l i n d r i c a l e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e
M mass of s i m p l e mechanical system
4-201
mass o f a i r engulfed behind a shock f r o n t
mass of e x p l o s i v e
t o t a l mass of e x p l o s i v e and a i r engulfed behind

a s t r o n g shock f r o n t
m weight of human s u b j e c t e d t o a i r b l a s t
- - - -
P , i , R, S , e t c . b a r r e d q u a n t i t i e s a r e nondimensional forms of
various physical q u a n t i t i e s
maximum a b s o l u t e gas p r e s s u r e
p1
P maximum gage g a s p r e s s u r e
QS
peak r e f l e c t e d o v e r p r e s s u r e
+ side-on peak a i r blast overpressure

ps' ps
-
P side-on peak a i r b l a s t volume
S
P absolute pressure
ambient atmospheric p r e s s u r e
PO
peak a b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e i n shock wave

PS
peak dynamic p r e s s u r e i n a i r b l a s t wave
dynamic p r e s s u r e i n a i r b l a s t wave
d i s t a n c e from c e n t e r of e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e
r r a d i u s of a s p h e r i c a l e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e
Ratio r a t i o of e q u i v a l e n t s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e mass t o
c y l i n d r i c a l c h a r g e mass
S s p a c i n g of double o r m u l t i p l e c h a r g e s
d u r a t i o n of g a s v e n t i n g o v e r p r e s s u r e
d'
4-202
T duration of equivalent t r i a n g u l a r pulse,
r
reflected blast
T d u r a t i o n of e q u i v a l e n t t r i a n g u l a r p u l s e ,
S
s ide-on b l a s t
t time
t shock wave a r r i v a l t i m e
a
t d u r a t i o n o f p o s i t i v e phase of a i r b l a s t wave
td d
d u r a t i o n of n e g a t i v e phase of a i r b l a s t wave
t i m e d e l a y between s e q u e n t i a l l y d e t o n a t e d
tdelay
exp l o s i v e s
t end of i n t e r n a l b l a s t l o a d i n g phase
1
t i m e f o r maximum s t r u c t u r a l r e s p o n s e
tm
t venting t i m e
tmax9 b
b l a s t d u r a t i o n f o r i n t e r n a l b l a s t s from TM5-1300
U shock f r o n t v e l o c i t y of a i r b l a s t wave
U v e l o c i t y of r e f l e c t e d wave f r o n t
r
U p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y i n a i r b l a s t wave
U peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y i n a i r b l a s t wave
S
V volume of chamber
a v e r a g e fragment v e l o c i t y
vf
V stress wave v e l o c i t y f o r s p a l l i n g
W t o t a l explosive weight
W e f f e c t i v e charge weight
W weight of c h a r g e c a s i n g
C
4-203
X c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimension of uniformly vented
chamber; h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e o f f normal f o r
r e f l e c t e d b l a s t waves
x9 Y parameters i n c y l i n d r i c a l charge d a t a f i t s
Z dimensional s c a l e d d i s t a n c e
Z' s c a l e d d i s t a n c e modified f o r c a s i n g e f f e c t
Z* scaled distance corrected f o r a l t i t u d e
a e f f e c t i v e v e n t area r a t i o
e
a a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e f o r o b l i q u e shock r e f l e c t i o n
I
a a n g l e o f r e f l e c t i o n f o r o b l i q u e shock r e f l e c t i o n
R
Y r a t i o of s p e c i f i c h e a t s f o r a gas
AH s p e c i f i c h e a t of d e t o n a t i o n of an e x p l o s i v e
0 a m b i e n t . a i r temperature
0
peak t e m p e r a t u r e behind r e f l e c t e d shock wave

Or
peak t e m p e r a t u r e behind i n c i d e n t shock wave

OS
x a general scaling factor; scaling factor f o r

geometry; parameter i n c y l i n d r i c a l charge d a t a
fit
i n v e r s e of shock s t r e n g t h
d e n s i t y i n a i r b l a s t wave
ambient f l u i d d e n s i t y
peak d e n s i t y behind r e f l e c t e d shock wave
peak d e n s i t y i n shock f r o n t
wave-induced stress
4-204
u l ti m ate t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h
scaled venting t i m e
circular frequency for simple mechanical system
4-205
4.10 REFERENCES
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19 73.
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t h e Army T e c h n i c a l Manual TM 5-1300, Department o f t h e Navy P u b l i c a t i o n
NAVFAC P-397, Department o f the A i r F o r c e Manual AFM 88-22, Department
of t h e Army, t h e N a v y , and t h e Air Force, J u n e 1969.
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Corps o f E n g i n e e r s , H u n t s v i l l e D i v i s i o n , "DM-1110-1-2, November 1977.
4.4 Swisdak, M. M., Jr., "Explosion E f f e c t s and P r o p e r t i e s : P a r t I - Explo-

sion E f f e c t s i n A i r , " NSWC/WOL/TR 75-116, Naval S u r f a c e Weapons C e n t e r ,
White Oak, S i l v e r S p r i n g , MD, October 1975.
4.5 Goodman, H. J . , "Compiled F r e e A i r Blast Data o n Bare S p h e r i c a l Pento-

l i t e , " BRL R e p o r t 1092, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, 1960.
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A c c i d e n t a l E x p l o s i o n s , " P r o g r e s s i n Energy and Combustion Science, 2, 1,
pp. 27-60, 1976.
4.7 G l a s s t o n e , Samuel and Dolan,' P h i l i p J . , "The E f f e c t s of Nuclear Weapons,"

United S t a t e s Department of Defense and U . S . Department of Energy, 1977.
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t i o n s O f f i c e , "Report o f I n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e Explosion w i t h F a t a l In-
j u r i e s i n Bldg. ll-14A on March 30, 1977, a t t h e Pantex Plant-Amarillo,
Texas," J u n e 1977.
4.9 U. S . Army Material Command, "Engineering Design Handbook, E x p l o s i v e

S e r i e s P r o p e r t i e s o f E x p l o s i v e s of M i l i t a r y I n t e r e s t , " AMCP 706-177,
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4.10 D o b r a t z , B r i g i t t a M . , " P r o p e r t i e s of Chemical E x p l o s i o n s and E x p l o s i v e

.
S i m u l a n t s , " UCRL-51319 Rev. 1, U S. Atmoic Energy Commission C o n t r a c t
No. W-7405-Eng-48, Lawrence Livermore L a b o r a t o r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i -
f o r n i a , Livermore, C a l i f o r n i a , J u l y 1974.
4.11 Johansson, C . H. and P e r s s o n , P . A.. D e t o n i c s o f- High E x p l o s i v e s , Aca-

demit P r e s s , London and New York, 1970.
4.12 E n g i n e e r i n g Design Handbook, P r i n c i p l e s o f Explogive Behavior, AMCP 706-

180, H e a d q u a r t e r s , U. S. Army M a t e r i a l Command, Washington, D . C . , 1972.
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4-206
4.14 Cranz, C . , Lehrbuch d e r B a l l i s t i k , Springer-Verlag, B e r l i n , 1926.
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t u r e , " BRL Report 466, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, 1944.
4.16 Kennedy, W . D., "Explosions and E x p l o s i v e s i n A i r , " i n E f f e c t s o f Impact

and E x p l o s i o n , M. T . White ( e d . ) , Summary T e c h n i c a l Report o f Div. 2,
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4.18 Goodman, H. J. and Giglio-Tos, L . , "Equivalent Weight F a c t o r s f o r Four

P l a s t i c Bonded Explosives: PBX-108, PB-109, AFX-103 and AFX-702," Techni-
c a l Report ARBRL-TR-02057, U . S . Army B a l l i s t i c Research L a b o r a t o r y ,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, A p r i l 1978.
4.19 N a t i o n a l Oceanic and Atmospheric A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , U . S . Standard Atmosphere,

1 9 7 6 , - NOM-S/T 76-1562, U . S . Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , October 1976.
4.20 J a c k , W. H. Jr. and Armendt, B . F. J r . , "Measurements of Normally R e -

f l e c t e d Shock Parameters under Simulated High A l t i t u d e C o n d i t i o n s , " BRL
Report No. 1280, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, AD 469014, A p r i l 1965.
4.21 Dewey, J . M . , Johnson, 0. T . and P a t t e r s o n , J. D . , 11, "Mechanical Im-

p u l s e Measurements Close t o Explosive Charges," BRL R e p o r t No. 1182,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, November 1962.
4.22 Johnson, 0 . T., P a t t e r s o n , J . D., 11, and Olson, W . C . , "A Simple Mechani-
cal Method f o r Measuring t h e R e f l e c t e d Impulse of A i r B l a s t Waves," BRL
Report No. 1099, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, J u l y 1957.
4 . 2 3 Jack, W . H., Jr., "Measurements o f Normally R e f l e c t e d Shock Waves f r o m

E x p l o s i v e Charges," BRL Memorandum Report No. 1499, Aberdeen Proving
Ground, MD, AD 422886, J u l y 1963.
4.24 Wenzel, A . B. and Esparza, E . D . , "Measurements o f P r e s s u r e s and Impulses

a t C l o s e Distances from E x p l o s i v e Charges Buried and i n A i r , " F i n a l Re-
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VA, 1972.
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B l a s t Waves," I n t . J o u r . Mech. S c i . , 9 , pp. 45-51, 1967.
4.26 Doering, W. and Burkhardt, G. , - . " C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e Theory of Detona-

t i o n , " T r a n s l a t i o n from t h e German a s Tech. Report No. F-TS-1227-IA
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Ohio, May 1949.
4-207
4.27 Brode, H. L . , "Quick Estimates of Peak Overpressure from Two Simultaneous
Blast Waves," Defense Nuclear Agency Report N o . DNA4503T, C o n t r a c t No.
DNAOOl-78-C-0009, R&D A s s o c i a t e s , RDA-TR-107006-008, Marina D e l Rey,
C a l i f o r n i a , December 1977.
4.28 Harlow, F. H. and Amsden, A . A., "Fluid Dynamics---An Introductory

Text," LA 4100, Los Alamos S c i e n t i f i c L a b o r a t o r y , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ,
Los Alamos, New Mexico, February 1970.
4.29 " I n t e r n a l Blast Damage Mechanisms Computer Program,'' JTCG/ME-73-3,

F08635-71-C-0199, A p r i l 1973.
4.30 Dewey, J . M., Johnson, 0 . T. and P a t t e r s o n , J. D., 11, "Some E f f e c t s o f

L i g h t Surrounds and Casings on t h e Blast From E x p l o s i v e s , " BRL Report No.
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from C y l i n d r i c a l High E x p l o s i v e Charges, It U n i v e r s i t y of Denver, Denver
Research I n s t i t u t e , November 1965.
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4.34 Makino, R. C . and Goodman, H. J . , " A i r Blast Data on Bare E x p l o s i v e of

D i f f e r e n t Shapes and Compositions," BRL R e p o r t No. 1015, 1956.
4.35 Reisler, R . C . , "Explosive Y i e l d C r i t e r i a , " Minutes of 1 4 t h E x p l o s i v e s

S a f e t y Seminar, New O r l e a n s , 8-10 November 1972, Department of Defense
E x p l o s i v e s S a f e t y Board, pp. 271-288.
4.36 Adams, Channing L . , Sarmousakis, James N. and S p e r r a z z a , Joseph, ''Corn-

p a r i s o n o f t h e B l a s t from E x p l o s i v e Charges of D i f f e r e n t Shapes,"
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on B l a s t Environment," Minutes o f t h e 1 6 t h E x p l o s i v e s S a f e t v ,S-
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4-208
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b u r s t A i r B l a s t Phenomena (Simultaneous and Non-Simultaneous D e t o n a t i o n s ) ,
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4.40 Armendt, B . R . , H i p p e n s t e e l , R . G . , Hoffman, A . J . , Kingery, C . N . , "The

A i r B l a s t From Simultaneously Detonated E x p l o s i v e S p h e r e s , " B a l l i s t i c Re-
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j e c t White T r i b e : A i r B l a s t From Simultaneously Detonated Large S c a l e
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4.42 Armendt, B . F . , H i p p e n s t e e l , R . G . , Hoffman, A . J . , S c h l u e t e r , S . D . ,

11
The A i r B l a s t From Simultaneously Detonated E x p l o s i v e Spheres: P a r t I1 -
O p t i m i z a t i o n , " Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, B a l l i s t i c Research
L a b o r a t o r i e s , Department of t h e Army P r o j e c t N o . 503-04-002, BRL Memoran-
dum Report No. 1384, January 1962.
4.43 Hokanson, J . C . , Esparza, E. D . and Wenzel, A . B . , " R e f l e c t e d Blast Mea-

surements Around M u l t i p l e D e t o n a t i n g Charges," Minutes o f t h e E i g h t e e n t h
E x p l o s i v e s S a f e t y Seminar, Vol. I, pp. 447-471, September 1978.
4.44 Gregory, F. H . , 1 1A n a l y s i s of t h e Loading and Response of a S u p p r e s s i v e

S h i e l d When S u b j e c t e d t o a n I n t e r n a l Explosion," Minutes of t h e 1 7 t h
E x p l o s i v e S a f e t y Seminar, Denver, Colorado, September 1976.
4.45 Baker, W . E . , "The E l a s t i c - P l a s t i c Response o f Thin S p h e r i c a l S h e l l s t o

I n t e r n a l B l a s t Loading," J o u r . o f Appl, Mech., 27, S e r i e s E , 1, pp. 139-
1 4 4 , March 1960.
4.46 Baker, W . E . , Hu, W . C . L . and Jackson, T. R., " E l a s t i c Response of Thin '
S p h e r i c a l S h e l l s to Axisymmetric B l a s t Loading," J o u r . of Appl. Mech., 3 3 ,

S e r i e s E, 4 , pp. 800-806, December 1966.
4.47 Kingery, C . N . , Schumacher, R. N . and Ewing, W. O . , J r . , " I n t e r n a l Pres-

s u r e s from Explosions i n S u p p r e s s i v e S t r u c t u r e s , " BRL I n t e r i m Memorandum
R e p o r t No. 603, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, June 1975.
4.48 Schumacher, R . N . , Kingery, C . N . , Ewing, W . O . , J r . , " A i r B l a s t and

S t r u c t u r a l Response T e s t i n g of a 114 S c a l e Categ0r.y I S u p p r e s s i v e S h i e l d , "
BRL Memorandum Report No. 2623, May 1976.
4.49 E s p a r z a , E. D . , Baker, W. E . and Oldham, G. A . , "Blast P r e s s u r e s I n s i d e

and O u t s i d e S u p p r e s s i v e S t r u c t u r e s , " Edgewood A r s e n a l C o n t r a c t o r Report
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-
152, A r t . 1, pp. 256-361, October 1968.
4.51 P r o c t o r , J . F. and F i l l e r , W. S . , "A Computerized Technique f o r Blast

Loads from Confined E x p l o s i o n s , Minutes of t h e 1 4 t h Annual E x p l o s i v e s
S a f e t y Seminar, New O r l e a n s , L o u i s i a n a , pp. 99-124, 8-10 November 1972.
4.52 Keenan, W. A. and T r a n c r e t o , J . E . , Tech. Report TR-828, Army MIPR 51-027,

"Blast Environment from F u l l y and P a r t i a l l y Vented Explosions i n C u b i c l e s , ' I
C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y , Naval C o n s t r u c t i o n B a t t a l i o n C e n t e r , P o r t
Hueneme, CA, November 1975.
4.53 Z i l l i a c u s , S., P h y i l l a i e r , W. E . and Shorrow, P. I., Naval Ship R&D Cen-

t e r R e p o r t 3987, "The Response of Clamped C i r c u l a r P l a t e s t o Confined Ex-
p l o s i v e Loadings," NSRDC, Bethesda, MD, February 1974.
4.54 Kinney, G. F. and Sewell, R. G.. S., NWC T e c h n i c a l Memorandum 2448, "Vent-
i n g o f E x p l o s i o n s , " Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, CA, J u l y 1974.
4.55 B a k e r , W . E. and Oldham, G . A., "Estimates o f Blowdown o f Q u a s i - s t a t i c

P r e s s u r e s i n Vented Chambers,'' Edgewood A r s e n a l C o n t r a c t o r Report EM-CR-
76029, R e p o r t No. 2, November 1975. s
4.56 Owczarek, J. A., Fundamental6 of Gas Dynamics, I n t . Textbook Co., S c r a n t o n ,
PA, 1964.
4.57 K u l e s z , J. J., Moseley, P. K. and Baker, W. E., "Fragment and B l a s t Hazards

From E x p l o s i o n s i n a Tender Torpedo Workshop," Vol. 1, F i n a l Report Pre-
p a r e d f o r t h e David T a y l o r S h i p Research and Development C e n t e r , C o n t r a c t
No. N00014-77-C-0658, November 1978.
4.58 T a y l o r , D. B . and P r i c e , C . F . , " V e l o c i t i e s of Fragments from B u r s t i n g

Gas R e s e r v o i r s , I 1 ASIIE T r a n s a c t i o n s , J o u r n a l o f E n g i n e e r i n g f o r I n d u s t r y ,
November 1971.
4.59 Baker, W. E., K u l e s z , J . J . , R i c k e r , R . E., Bessey, R . L . , Westine, P. S . ,

P a r r , V . B . and Oldham, G . A . , "Workbook f o r P r e d i c t i n g P r e s s u r e Wave and
Fragment E f f e c t s of Exploding P r o p e l l a n t Tanks and Gas S t o r a g e Vessels,"
NASA CR-134906, November 1975.
4.60 Kot, C . A., V a l e n t i n , R . A . , McLennan, D . A . , T u r u l a , P., " E f f e c t s o f A i r

B l a s t on Power P l a n t S t r u c t u r e s and Components, I ' Argonne N a t i o n a l Labora-
t o r y R e p o r t No. ANL-CT-78-41, Argonne N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y , 9700 South Cass
Avenue, Argonne, I l l i n o i s , 60439, P r e p a r e d f o r D i v i s i o n of E n g i n e e r i n g
S t a n d a r d s , O f f i c e of S t a n d a r d s Development, U. S . Nuclear R e g u l a t o r y Com-
m i s s i o n , October 1978.
4-210
4.61 White, C . S., "The Scope of Blast and Shock Biology and Problem Areas i n
R e l a t i n g P h y s i c a l a n d B i o l o g i c a l Parameters," Annals o f t h e N e w York
Bi Academy of S c i e n c e s , Vol. 152, A r t . 1, pp. 89-102, October 1968.
4.62 White, C . W., J o n e s , R. K., Damon, E. G . , F l e t c h e r , E . R. and Richmond,

D . R., "The Biodynamics o f A i r Blast," Technical Report t o Defense Nu-
clear Agency, DNA 2738T, Lovelace Foundation f o r Medical Education and
Research, AD 734-208, J u l y 1971.
4.63 Richmond, D. R . , Damon, E. G., F l e t c h e r , E. R., Bowen, I . G . and White, C .

S . , "The R e l a t i o n s h i p Between S e l e c t e d Blast Wave Parameters and t h e Re-
s p o n s e o f Mammals Exposed t o A i r Blast," Annals of t h e New York Academy
of S c i e n c e s , Vol. 152, A r t . 1, pp. 103-121, October 1968.
4.64 Damon, E . G., Y e l v e r t o n , J. T . , L u f t , U . C . and J o n e s , R . K . , "Recovery

o f the R e s p i r a t o r y System Following Blast I n j u r y , " Technical P r o g r e s s Re-
p o r t t o Defense Atomic Support Agency, DASA 2580, Lovelace Foundation f o r
Medical E d u c a t i o n and Research, AD 618369, October 1970.
4.65 Bowen, I. G . , F l e t c h e r , E. R . , Richmond, D . R . , "Estimate o f Man's Toler-

a n c e t o t h e Direct E f f e c t s of A i r Blast," T e c h n i c a l Report t o Defense
Atomic Support Agency, DASA 2113, Lovelace Foundation f o r Medical Educa-
t i o n and Research, AD 693105, October 1968.
4.66 Damn, E . G., Richmond, D. R:, F l e t c h e r , E. R. and J o n e s , R . K . , "The

T o l e r a n c e o f B i r d s t o A i r B l a s t , " F i n a l Report t o Defense Nuclear Agency,
DNA 3314F, Lovelace Foundation f o r Medical Education and Research, AD
785259, J u l y 1974.
4.67 von Gierke, H. E. , "Biodynamic Models and T h e i r A p p l i c a t i o n s , " Aerospace

Medical Research L a b o r a t o r y , Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, AD 736-985, 1971.
4.68 H i r s c h , A. E . , "The T o l e r a n c e of Man t o Impact," Annals o f t h e N e w York

Academy of S c i e n c e s , V o l . 152, A r t . 1, p p . 168-171, October 1 9 6 8 .
4.69 Clemedson, C . J . , H e l l s t r o m , G. and Lingren, S . , "The Relative T o l e r a n c e

of t h e Head, Thorax, and Abdomen t o B l u n t Trauma," Annals of t h e New York
Academy o f S c i e n c e s , Vol. 152, A r t . 1, pp. 187+, October 1968.
4.70 Ross, R., e t a l . , "Criteria f o r A s s e s s i n g Hearing Damage Risk from Impulse-

Noise Exposure," Human E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y , Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD,
AD 666-206, August 1967.
4 . 7 1 Reed, J . W . , Pape, B. J., Minor, J. C . and DeHart, R . C . , " E v a l u a t i o n of

Window Pane Damage I n t e n s i t y i n San Antonio R e s u l t i n g from Medina F a c i l i t y
E x p l o s i o n on November 13, 1963," Annals o f t h e New York Academy o f S c i e n c - es,
Vol. 152, A r t . 1, pp. 565-584, October 1968.
4-211
lf
4.72 Kulesz, J . J. and Friesenhahn, G. J., "Explosion Venting i n B u i l d i n g s , "

Minutes of t h e 1 9 t h Explosives S a f e t y Seminar, ( t o b e p u b l i s h e d ) .
4.73 Levy, S., "An Improved Computer Program t o C a l c u l a t e t h e Average Blast

Impulse Loads Acting on a Wall o f a Cubicle," PA-TR-4070, May 1970.
4.74 F e r r i t t o , J. M., "Optimum D y n a m i c Design of Reinforced Concrete S l a b s

Under Blast Loading, 'I CEL TN No. N-1494 , Naval F a c i l i t i e s Engineering
Center, P o r t Hueneme , CAY J u l y 19 77.
I
4.75 B a c i g a l u p i , C. M., "Design of a Maze S t r u c t u r e t o A t t e n u a t e B l a s t Waves,"

UCRL-52921 , Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, Livermore, CAY March 1980.
4-212
CHAPTER 5
CRATERING AND GROUND SHOCK
5.1 INTRODUCTION
If an a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n o c c u r s , many d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of ground
shock problems can a r i s e . The ground shock i s c a p a b l e of causing s o i l
c r a t e r s t o be formed; w a l l s , f l o o r s , and r o o f s of a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e s t o
f a i l ; e x p l o s i v e s , equipment, and p e r s o n n e l i n s i d e a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e s t o
b e v i b r a t e d ; and o f f - s i t e n e i g h b o r s t o be d i s t u r b e d because of cracked
w a l l s and p h y s i c a l l y f e l t tremors. A l l of t h e s e problems a r e caused by
ground shock and any subsequent c r a t e r i n g . A t i n t e r l i n e s t a n d o f f
d i s t a n c e s , b u i l d i n g s are u s u a l l y s a f e from ground shock r e l a t e d
damage, b u t t h i s should b e checked. A t t h e Pantex P l a n t , a t least t h r e e
d i f f e r e n t ground shock r e l a t e d a c c i d e n t s c e n a r i o s can b e e n v i s i o n e d . The
f i r s t problem c a n b e d e s c r i b e d as an e x p l o s i o n i n an earth-covered s t o r a g e
i g l o o . I f e x p l o s i v e s f i l l most of t h e i g l o o , t h i s problem can b e i d e a l i z e d
as a b u r i e d d e t o n a t i o n w i t h o u t a gap between t h e e x p l o s i v e and t h e s o i l .
A c r a t e r w i l l b e formed a s e j e c t a are f l u n g i n t o t h e a i r and a s t r o n g ground
shock w i l l be propagated away from t h e scene of t h e a c c i d e n t a s t h e coupling
between t h e e x p l o s i v e and t h e s o i l w i l l b e extremely s t r o n g .
The second t y p e of a c c i d e n t can b e d e s c r i b e d a s an e x p l o s i o n caused

by impact when a c h a r g e a c c i d e n t a l l y f a l l s on a f l o o r o r walkway, t h u s
c a u s i n g a c o n t a c t e x p l o s i o n on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground. Only minor
c r a t e r i n g w i l l occur n e a r t h e p o i n t of c o n t a c t from a c o n t a c t e x p l o s i o n ,
b u t a shock wave w i l l b e propagated through t h e s o i l . Deep i n t h e ground ,
d i r e c t l y b e n e a t h t h e e x p l o s i o n , t h e ground shock w i l l b e small, b u t n e a r
t h e s u r f a c e , Rayleigh-type shock waves can r e s u l t i n ground motion of
s i g n i f i c a n t amplitude.
The t h i r d a c c i d e n t s c e n a r i o can b e envisioned a s an a c c i d e n t a l explo-

s i o n i n a b u i l d i n g such as B u i l d i n g 1 2 - 4 4 , a Gravel-Gertie type bay.
Such an a c c i d e n t i s a b u r i e d d e t o n a t i o n ; however, a l a r g e a i r gap o r v o i d
now e x i s t s between t h e e x p l o s i v e charge and t h e s o i l behind t h e w a l l s of
t h e bay. The ground shock t r a n s m i t t e d i n t o t h e s o i l w i l l be g r e a t l y
reduced because *a l a r g e a i r gap r e s u l t s i n decoupling t h e e x p l o s i v e charge
from t h e ground, t h e r e b y having an e f f e c t i v e energy release which i s
much smaller t h a n t h e a c t u a l energy release. Another subproblem which
e x i s t s i n t h i s t h i r d a c c i d e n t s c e n a r i o i s breeching of t h e r o o f .
All of t h e s e p o s s i b l e a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v e d i r e c t - i n d u c e d ground shock

which s u b s e q u e n t l y r e s u l t i n s t r u c t u r a l damage o r i n j u r e d p e r s o n n e l . The
major d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s e s o l u t i o n s i n v o l v e s t h e c o u p l i n g o f . t h e b l a s t s o u r c e
w i t h t h e s o i l . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d i r e c t l y induced ground shock, a i r -
5-1
induced ground motions a r e p o s s i b l e ; e s p e c i a l l y f o r extremely l a r g e detona-
t i o n s such as t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n u c l e a r weapons o r t h e e q u i v a l e n t
energy releases. For t h e d e s i g n of Pantex-type b u i l d i n g s , an A-E f i r m
does n o t have t o c o n s i d e r a i r - i n d u c e d ground shock because t h e p o s s i b l e
energy releases are t o o s m a l l t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l chemical
explosives.
I
T h i s r e p o r t w a s w r i t t e n t o a i d A-E f i r m s i n t h e d e s i g n of ammunition
p l a n t s . I f an a c c i d e n t a l explosion occurs, t o t a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f t e n occurs
i n t h e n e a r f i e l d . T h e r e f o r e , emphasis i s p l a c e d on ground shock e f f e c t s
i n t h e f a r f i e l d r a t h e r t h a n c l o s e t o t h e donor.
I n S e c t i o n 5 . 2 , a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n of what makes s o i l d i f f e r e n t
from o t h e r c o n t i n u a i s p r e s e n t e d . T h i s d i s c u s s i o n i n c l u d e s how sands d i f f e r
from c l a y s , what i s e f f e c t i v e stress, and why continuum s o l u t i o n s a r e used
even though p o r e a i r and p o r e water p r e s s u r e s i n f l u e n c e r e s u l t s . W e d i s c u s s
how s o i l p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y i s r e l a t e d t o shock f r o n t p r e s s u r e P and how
maximum s o i l displacement X i s r e l a t e d t o t h e impulse i n a shoca wave is.
I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s what s o i l s should be expected a t t h e
Pantex p l a n t s i t e , and r e f e r e n c e s a r e p o r t f o r o b t a i n i n g a d d i t i o n a l on-
site s o i l details.
S e c t i o n 5 . 3 i s a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n of ground shock. S u b j e c t s d i s c u s s e d
i n t h i s s e c t i o n i n c l u d e : 1) wave p r o p a g a t i o n through a homogeneous, i s o -
t r o p i c , s e m i - i n f i n i t e e l a s t i c medium, 2 ) a s k e t c h of t y p i c a l ground motion-
t i m e h i s t o r y , 3 ) t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between P-waves, S-waves, and R-waves, 4 )
i n s i g h t i n t o t h e e f f e c t s of l a y e r i n g on wave p r o p a g a t i o n , 5 ) i n s i g h t i n t o
how waves are damped, and 6) r e f e r e n c e s on t r e n c h e s and o t h e r s c r e e n i n g
devices. F i n a l l y , a n approximate g r a p h i c a l s o l u t i o n i s g i v e n f o r p r e d i c t i n g
t h e r a d i a l s o i l displacement X and t h e maximum s o i l p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y U
from tamped b u r i e d e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e d e t o n a t i o n s .
S e c t i o n 5.4 p r e s e n t s a c o u p l i n g s o l u t i o n f o r modifying t h e b u r i e d
d e t o n a t i o n ground motion a n a l y s i s s o d e t o n a t i o n s i n t h e middle of a c a v i t y
can b e analyzed. T h i s c o u p l i n g s o l u t i o n y i e l d s an e f f e c t i v e energy
release Weff which can t h e n b e s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o ground motion s o l u t i o n s t o
o b t a i n s o i l p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y and r a d i a l d i s p l a c e m e n t .
S e c t i o n 5.5 g i v e s e x p l o s i v e c r a t e r i n g r e s u l t s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g : 1) i f
a camouflet o r crater i s formed, 2 ) t h e s i z e and volume of a p p a r e n t c r a t e r s ,
t r u e craters, c a m o u f l e t s , and 3) t h e maximum r a n g e of e j e c t a from a b u r i e d
d e t o n a t i o n . A l l of t h e s e s o l u t i o n s a r e e m p i r i c a l curve f i t s t o t e s t d a t a .
I n S e c t i o n 5.6, t h e e f f e c t s of ground motion on b u i l d i n g s , equipment,

and p e o p l e are d i s c u s s e d . T h i s i s accomplished by d e r i v i n g shock s p e c t r a
c r i t e r i a w i t h a q u a l i t a t i v e model and t h e n p r e s e n t i n g v a r i o u s c r i t e r i a
which h i s t o r i c a l l y have been used t o l i m i t t h e a m p l i t u d e of ground motions.
Other approximate s o l u t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g stresses due t o
b u r i e d e x p l o s i o n s f o r : 1) b u r i e d p i p e , 2 ) beam-like s t r i p s o u t of b u r i e d
b u n k e r s , and 3) b u r i e d c y l i n d e r s o r s p h e r e s .
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 5- 2

S e c t i o n 5.7 i d e n t i f i e s some s p e c i a l problems which need f u r t h e r develop-
ment. Among t h e problems i n need of a d d i t i o n a l d a t a and t h e development of
b e t t e r a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e s a r e s c r e e n i n g of ground shock, P-wave p r e d i c t i o n ,
maximum e j e c t a r a d i u s , and shock p r o p a g a t i o n through w a l l s and s o i l i n t o
a d j a c e n t bays.
I n o r d e r t o make t h i s manual more u s e f u l t o d e s i g n p e r s o n n e l , d i f f e r e n t

example problems are p r e s e n t e d throughout t h e t e x t . A f l o w diagram f o r
g u i d i n g d e s i g n e r s t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s e c t i o n s and i l l u s t r a t i v e examples
on ground shock and c r a t e r i n g i s p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n 5.8. A l i s t of
symbols i n S e c t i o n 5 . 9 and a l i s t of r e f e r e n c e s i n S e c t i o n 5.10 complete
t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e d e s i g n g u i d e .
5.2 SOIL MECHANICS OVERVIEW
5.2.1 General D i s c u s s i o n
To s t u d y t h e s t a t e of stress i n t h e v a r i o u s c o n s t i t u e n t s of s o i l ,
c o n s i d e r a c r o s s s e c t i o n through two s o i l g r a i n s as i n F i g u r e 5.1. The
t o t a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area s u b j e c t t o l o a d P i s t h e t o t a l area A. The
two g r a i n s are o n l y i n a c t u a l p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t o v e r a v e r y s m a l l area of
s o l i d c o n t a c t As. I n addition t o t h e s o i l grains, t h e voids o r pores i n
t h e medium can b e f i l l e d w i t h a combination of water and a i r . I f t h e s o i l
i s n o t s a t u r a t e d so t h a t water d o e s n o t f i l l a l l of t h e v o i d , t h e water
g e n e r a l l y forms a meniscus i n t h e narrow c r a c k s n e a r t h e g r a i n b o u n d a r i e s .
T h i s means t h a t one can speak of t h e a r e a of f l u i d - s o l i d c o n t a c t A and
W
t h e area of g a s - s o l i d c o n t a c t A
g'
Stresses o r p r e s s u r e s i n t h e t h r e e p h a s e s a r e p i n s o l i d , 95
S
i n t h e w a t e r , and p i n t h e g a s . A l l of t h e s e are o v e r p r e s s u r e s which a r e
8
above a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . R e q u i r i n g t h a t t h e sum of f o r c e s b e i n
equilibrium gives:
P = a A = p A + p A + p A (5.1)
s s w w g g
I n equation ( 2 . 1 ) , a i s t h e t o t a l stress averaged o v e r t h e t o t a l a r e a .
A
AS W
If we define t h e r a t i o - t o b e a and t h e r a t i o - t o be x , t h e n t h e t o t a l
A A
stress a can b e w r i t t e n as:
* ci = a pS + xpw + (1 - a - x ) pg (5.2)
The q u a n t i t y a i s v e r y small as t h e g r a n u l a r c o n t a c t s g e n e r a l l y o c c u r a t
a p o i n t . T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n means t h a t a i s much less t h a n b o t h 1 and x .
The q u a n t i t y aps i s n o t i n s i g n i f i c a n t , however, because ps can be v e r y
l a r g e . The q u a n t i t y aps i s t h e e f f e c t i v e stress 5 i n s o i l mechanics.
A s can b e s e e n i n e q u a t i o n (5.2), e f f e c t i v e stress i s r e l a t e d t o i n t e r -
g r a n u l a r p r e s s u r e , b u t i t i s n o t e q u a l t o i n t e r g r a n u l a r p r e s s u r e because
5-3
Soil
T o t a l Area A -
To t a l
Load /*:
1.:1
-.-.
.. P
- . e
I I Contact
Grain
T
F.lu i d- S o 1i d
Contact
A
g
Area o f Gas-Solid
Contact
Figure 5.1 I n t e r g r a n u l a r S t r e s s on Area
5-4
of t h e c o n t a c t area r a t i o a. A s f a r as s o i l f a i l u r e i s concerned,
e f f e c t i v e stress a ( o r ap,) i s important and n o t t h e t o t a l stress u ,
because movement w i l l occur when t h e g r a i n s move o r d i s p l a c e r e l a t i v e t o
one a n o t h e r . I n s t e a d of u s i n g a t o t a l stress v e r s u s s t r a i n c o n s t i t u t i v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p , s o i l mechanics c l a s s i c a l l y r e q u i r e s an e f f e c t i v e stress
versus s t r a i n constitutive relationship.
I f w e make t h e approximations which have j u s t been d e s c r i b e d ,

e q u a t i o n (5.2) can b e w r i t t e n as:
a = a + x pW + ( 1 - x > pg (5.3)
When a s o i l i s 100 p e r c e n t s a t u r a t e d , x e q u a l s 1 and e q u a t i o n (5.3) becomes
-
u = u + pw (100% s a t u r a t e d ) (5.3a)
Equation (5.3a) i s t h e c l a s s i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p which i s g e n e r a l l y t a u g h t i n

a l l i n t r o d u c t o r y s o i l mechanics c o u r s e s . A s should b e emphasized, e q u a t i o n
(5.3a) i s based on 100 p e r c e n t s a t u r a t i o n . The o t h e r extreme i s 0.0 p e r c e n t
s a t u r a t i o n , which would g i v e :
u = a + pg (0.0% s a t u r a t i o n ) (5.3b)
Both extremes show t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e stress i s t h e t o t a l stress minus t h e

p o r e p r e s s u r e s . The c o n c l u s i o n drawn i s t h a t t h e p o r e s can be f i l l e d w i t h
a r e l a t i v e l y i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l u i d such a s water, o r w i t h a v e r y compressible
f l u i d such as a i r . I n e i t h e r case, t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s s t a t e of e f f e c t i v e
stress depends upon t h e p o r e p r e s s u r e s which w i l l a l s o be i n c r e a s e d when
a s o i l sample i s loaded.
S t a t i c a l l y , e q u a t i o n s (5.3) and t h e s e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s cause

no problems: however, dynamically, experimenters have n o t been v e r y
s u c c e s s f u l i n s e p a r a t i n g o u t pore p r e s s u r e and e f f e c t i v e stress. Whereas,
s t a t i c pitot t u b e s c a n b e used t o measure p o r e p r e s s u r e s , dynamic i n s t r u -
m e n t a t i o n which might b e i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e s e extremely small p o r e s , e i t h e r
f a i l t o have proper response t i m e o r g i v e a poor impedance match. The
p o i n t of t h i s d i s c u s s i o n i s t h a t pore p r e s s u r e s a r e i m p o r t a n t , b u t dynamic-
a l l y w e do n o t understand them. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s i s o n l y t h e f i r s t
problem i n any a t t e m p t t o understand s o i l b e h a v i o r .
The second major problem i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o i l s i s t h a t even i n

t h e absence of p o r e p r e s s u r e s , s o i l s i n c l u d e many t y p e s of medium. A t
oneextreme a r e t h e c o a r s e , l a r g e - g r a i n e d materials which i n c l u d e sands
and g r a v e l s . These materials are composed of p a r t i c l e s so l a r g e t h a t no
s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r p a r t i c l e f o r c e s e x i s t . I n t h e absence of i n t e r p a r t i c l e
f o r c e s , t h e s e g r a n u l a r materials develop t h e i r s t r e n g t h from g r a v i t a t i o n a l
e f f e c t s , o r from t h e overburden. To p e n e t r a t e a g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l o r
s h e a r i t , t h e o t h e r p a r t i c l e s have t o be shoved a s i d e . A penetrometer
pushed i n t o a d r y sand has a l i n e a r l y i n c r e a s i n g t o t a l stress v e r s u s d e p t h
5-5
r e l a t i o n s h i p because more and more overburden i s b e i n g mustered as g r e a t e r
d e p t h s are o b t a i n e d . Another i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h i s same behavior i s walking
on a sandy beach. Up i n t h e dunes one s i n k s i n above t h e a n k l e s u n t i l
enough overburden i s o b t a i n e d t o resist p e n e t r a t i o n . Down a t sea l e v e l
where t h e s a n d i s s a t u r a t e d , a walker s i n k s o n l y a few m i l l i m e t e r s because
t h e p o r e water p r e s s u r e s are c a r r y i n g t h e p e r s o n ' s weight. I f t h e walker
s t a n d s s t i l l a t t h e w a t e r ' s edge, t h e p o r e p r e s s u r e s flow away from t h e
l o a d e d area and t h e person b e g i n s t o s i n k as t h e e f f e c t i v e stresses must
c a r r y more and more of t h e l o a d w i t h t i m e . E v e n t u a l l y t h e s t a n d i n g person
w i l l s i n k t o a f i n i t e d e p t h when t h e overburden of sand and w a t e r are
a d e q u a t e t o s u p p o r t him. T h i s b e h a v i o r i l l u s t r a t e s b o t h t h e behavior of
a g r a v i t a t i o n a l medium and t h e r o l e p o r e p r e s s u r e s p l a y , e s p e c i a l l y i f
a s o i l is saturated.
The o t h e r extreme i n s o i l b e h a v i o r i s w i t h c l a y s . These materials

a r e e f f e c t i v e l y c o l l o i d s ( o f t e n w i t h a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i z e of m i c r o n s ) .
I n t h e s e m a t e r i a l s , i n t e r p a r t i c l e f o r c e s dominate and g r a v i t a t i o n a l e f f e c t s
are i n s i g n i f i c a n t . A penetrometer pushed i n t o a h e a v i l y o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d
c l a y w i l l show no change i n s t r e n g t h w i t h depth. Such a material h a s
i n h e r e n t c o n s t i t u t i v e s t r e n g t h i n t h e c l a s s i c a l sense, provided one speaks
of an effective stress versus s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p .
O f c o u r s e , few s o i l s are a p u r e c l a y o r a p u r e sand. S i l t s are

an in-between medium e x h i b i t i n g b o t h b e h a v i o r s , and sandy c l a y s , c l a y e y
s i l t s , and all t y p e s of m i x t u r e s can exist. I n a d d i t i o n , a s o i l s i t e can
b e l a y e r e d from t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t g e o l o g i c a l eras.
I n t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e d e s i g n g u i d e , t h e r e a d e r w i l l f i n d s o i l s
t r e a t e d as c o n t i n u a and a s s i n g l e phase media. T h i s treatment i s n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y c o r r e c t ; i t i s what everyone d o e s o u t of i g n o r a n c e c o n c e r n i n g
b e t t e r ways of t r e a t m e n t . So a l t h o u g h s o i l i s n o t a continuum, t o t a l
stress s o l u t i o n s are used. The r e s u l t s are o f t e n s u b j e c t t o judgments
based on i n s i g h t provided by t h i s background i n f o r m a t i o n .
5.2.2 S o i l s a t Pantex F a c i l i t y
A s p a r t of a seismic h a z a r d e v a l u a t i o n , URS and John Blume and

A s s o c i a t e s (Ref. 5.1) made a g e o l o g i c a l e v a l u a t i o n of t h e area around
t h e P a n t e x f a c i l i t y . While most of t h i s e v a l u a t i o n i n v o l v e s s t r a t a f a r
d e e p e r t h a n t h e s t r a t a of i n t e r e s t i n a c c i d e n t e v a l u a t i o n s , t h e f o l l o w i n g
i n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e used f o r approximate i n i t i a l e v a l u a t i o n s . Any c a r e f u l
i n - d e p t h s t u d y s h o u l d u s e b o r e l o g i n f o r m a t i o n o r more o n - s i t e e v a l u a t i o n s
of l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s .
The uppermost l a y e r a t P a n t e x varies from 7 t o 1 2 f t i n t h i c k n e s s

and h a s a compressive P-wave v e l o c i t y c 'of from 950 t o 1300 f t / s e c .
G e n e r a l l y , t h i s medium is t o p s o i l . The n e x t l a y e r down i s a m o i s t c l a y
w i t h l e n s e s o f c a l i c h e from 10 t o 20 f t i n t h i c k n e s s . The P-wave v e l o c i t y
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 5-6

i n t h i s l a y e r r a n g e s from 1500 t o 1900 f t / s e c w i t h l e n s e s as f a s t as 2100
t o 2700 f t / s e c . The t h i r d zone b e g i n s a t a d e p t h of a b o u t 30 f t and
e x h i b i t s v e l o c i t i e s of from 3400 t o 5000 f t / s e c . T h i s t h i r d zone can be
some 20 f t t h i c k and i s a v e r y s t i f f t o h a r d c l a y w i t h some c a l i c h e c o n t e n t .
I n a l l c a s e s , t h e ground w a t e r t a b l e i s n o t a f a c t o r a s 300 f t d e p t h s and
g r e a t e r are t y p i c a l l y experienced. I f a v e r a g e v a l u e s a r e used f o r P-wave
v e l o c i t i e s , t h e s e should b e towards t h e slower l i m i t s , p e r h a p s , 950 f t / s e c
i n t h e t o p s o i l , 1550 f t / s e c i n t h e second zone, and 3800 f t / s e c i n t h e
t h i r d zone.
All of t h e f o l l o w i n g computations w i l l u s e wave v e l o c i t y a d s o i l

d e n s i t y as i n p u t p a r a m e t e r s d e f i n i n g s o i l p r o p e r t i e s . Although t h e U F S /
John Blume r e p o r t does n o t r e p o r t s o i l d e n s i t i e s , 1 1 4 l b / f t 3 i s an assumed
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e weight d e n s i t y f o r a l l t h r e e l a y e r s , probably a c c u r a t e t o
within - + 15 percent.
5.2.3 R e l a t i o n s h i p Between Ground Motion and Loads
O f t e n i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o go from ground motion such as s o i l d i s -

placement X and p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y U t o t h e maximum p r e s s u r e Ps and impulse
i i n a ground shock. T h i s conversion can be done u s i n g t h e Rankine-
S
Hugoniot r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r c o n s e r v a t i o n of mass and momentum. For a
s t a t i o n a r y c o o r d i n a t e system w i t h a shock f r o n t moving a t v e l o c i t y V ,
t h e Rankine-Hugoniot e q u a t i o n s are:
-P S v = pa (u - V) (5.4a)
(5.4b)
where p a i s t h e d e n s i t y behind t h e shock f r o n t , P, i s t h e m a s s d e n s i t y of

u n d i s t u r b e d s o i l , and Ps i s t h e peak side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e . M u l t i p l y i n g b o t h
s i d e s of e q u a t i o n (5.4a) by (U-V) and t h e n s u b t r a c t i n g t h e two e q u a t i o n s g i v e s :
Equation (5.5) s t a t e s t h a t peak o v e r p r e s s u r e i s t h e product of s o i l

d e n s i t y , shock f r o n t v e l o c i t y , and peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y . I n a f a i r l y
i n c o m p r e s s i b l e medium such as s o i l w i t h i t s massive p a r t i c l e s , t h e shock
f r o n t p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y V v e r y r a p i d l y decays t o t h e compressive P-wave
s e i s m i c v e l o c i t y cp. T h i s f i n a l s u b s t i t u t i o n o f c D f o r V g i v e s a r e l a t i o n s h i p
which w i l l be used many t i m e s t o approximately r e l a t e P S and U .
Ps = p c u (5.6)
S P
To r e l a t e side-on impulse i and t h e maximum r a d i a l s o i l d i s p l a c e -
S
ment X, one c a n t r e a t p and c p a s c o n s t a n t s and i n t e g r a t e e q u a t i o n ( 5 . 6 ) .
S
Because t h e t i m e i n t e g r a l of p r e s s u r e i s impulse and t h e t i m e i n t e g r a l of
5-7
v e l o c i t y i s displacement, t n t e g r a t i n g e q u a t i o n (5.6) g i v e s :
i = p c x (5.7)
S S P
Equations (5.6) and (5.7) w i l l b e used r e p e a t e d l y t o r e l a t e ground
motions t o l o a d s from ground shock. I n developing any s o l u t i o n f o r l o a d s
on any a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e , t h e ground motions U and X w i l l be p r e d i c t e d
f i r s t (see S e c t i o n 5.3.2) and t h e n r e l a t e d t o t h e l o a d s Ps and is by u s i n g
these r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
5- 8
EXAMPLE PROBLUI 5 . 1
PROBLEM - A s s u m e t h a t o t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 5.3.2 g i v e
t h e maximum r a d i a l s o i l v e l o c i t y and maximum r a d i a l s o i l d i s -
placement. What w i l l be t h e side-on p r e s s u r e Ps and side-on
impulse i i m p a r t e d t o a s l a b on g r a d e i n t h e P a n t e x t o p s o i l
S
where t h e P-wave v e l o c i t y cp and the soil's mass d e n s i t y are
g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 5.2.2?
GIVEN: cp = p-wave v e l o c i t y ( i n . $ s e c )
p s = Mass d e n s i t y ( l b - s e c / i n . 4 )
U = S o i l p a r t i c l e velocity (in./sec)
X = S o i l displacement ( i n . )
FIND: Side-on p r e s s u r e and impulse REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Side-on p r e s s u r e ( p s i )
P s = p c U Eq. (5.6)
S ?
2. Side-on impulse ( p s i - s e c )
i = p c X Eq. (5.7)
S S P
CALCULATION
GIVE,": c = 11,400 i n . / s e c
p:
2
= 1 . 7 1 x 10-4 l b - s e c / i n .
4
U = 2.0 i n . / s e c
X = 0.1 in.
FIND: Side-on p r e s s u r e and impulse
SOLUTION: 1. P = p c U
s S P
P = (1.71 x (11,400) ( 2 . 0 )
S
P = 3.90 p s i
S
2. i = p c X
S S P
i = (1.71 x (11,400) (0.1)
S
i = 0.195 Dsi-sec
5-9 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

5.2.4 Determination of Wave Length
Another calculation which will be required when the depth of

Rayleigh-type R-waves (see page 5-12) and the effects of layering are dis-
cussed, is the determination of wave length L. If one knows the maximum
displacement X and the peak particle velocity U (see Section 5.3.2), as
well as the seismic compression P-wave propagation velocity cp, an approxi-
mate wave length is known for the P-wave. Similarly, if the propagation
velocity, particle velocities and displacements are associated with either
a shear or Rayleigh wave, then the wave length is known for the wave being
described. By assuming undamped harmonic motion, the maximum velocity U
is related to the period T and the displacement X through the equation:
u = -2n
T
x (5.8)
The wave length L then relates to the period T and propagation velocity c
through the equation
L = cT (5.9)
Eliminating T from equations (5.8) and (5.9) and solving for L gives:
C
L = 2 n u X (5.10)
No subscripts are placed on c, U, X and L because these apply for any of

three types of waves (P-wave, S-wave and R-wave) which will be described
in Section 5.3.1. Equation (5.10) gives the wave length as a function of
c, X and U. For most accidents, this wave length is fairly long, typically
on the order of hundreds of feet. The importance of this long wave length
will become apparent in subsequent discussions.
To relate frequency to period, one uses equation (5.11) as would
be given by many texts on simple harmonic motion.
(5.11)
5-10
E W . i P L E PROBLEY 5.2
PROBLEM - Assume t h a t o t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 5.3.2 g i v e t h e

m a x i m u m r a d i a l s o i l v e l o c i t y and maximum r a d i a l s o i l d i s p l a c e -
ment. What w i l l b e t h e wave l e n g t h , p e r i o d , and frequency of
R a y l e i g h waves f o r a Rayleigh wave v e l o c i t y determined i n
S e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 1 f o r t h e Pantex t o p s o i l given i n S e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 2 ?
GIVEN: U = Peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y ( i n . / s e c ) (assume t h i s i s caused

by R-wave)
X = Maximum s o i l d i s p l a c e m e n t ( i n . ) (assume t h i s i s caused by
R-wave)
cR = R-wave p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y ( i n . / s e c )
FIND: Wave l e n g t h , p e r i o d and frequency REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine t h e wave l e n g t h ( i n . )

C
R
L=2n-X
U
2. Determine t h e p e r i o d ( s e c ) and frequency
f (sec-1)
T = L/cR Eq. ( 5 . 9 )
f = 1/T Eq. (5.11)
CALCULATION
GIVEN: U = 2.0 i n . / s e c
X = 0.1 i n .
c = 7,600 i n . / s e c
R
FIND: Wave l e n g t h , p e r i o d and frequency
CR
SOLUTION: 1. L = 2n -
U X
L = 2n (7,600) (0.1)/2.0
L = 2,388 i n .
2. T = L/cR
T = 2,38817,600
T = 0.3142 s e c
f = 1/T
f = 3.183 Hz
5-11 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

5.3 EFFECTS OF GROUND SHOCK
5.3.1 T h e o r e t i c a l Wave P r o p a g a t i o n Through S o i l
To s o l v e wave p r o p a g a t i o n problems i n s o i l s , one u s e s models which

are b u t approximations of r e a l i t y . U s u a l l y , t h e s i m p l e s t case i s a p p l i e d
w i t h t h e s o i l t r e a t e d as a homogeneous, i s o t r o p i c s e m i - i n f i n i t e e l a s t i c
s o l i d . I n r e a l i t y , s o i l s are multi-phased, n o n i s o t r o p i c , and l a y e r e d
media. E l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s depend upon t h e s t a t e of stress i n t h e ground,
and d e f o r m a t i o n s may i n t u r n a f f e c t t h e i n i t i a l i n t e r n a l stresses which
always e x i s t . F o r t u n a t e l y , f o r t h e purposes of d e s i g n , a p r e c i s e t h e o r y
o f wave p r o p a g a t i o n i s n o t r e q u i r e d .
A d i s t u r b a n c e n e a r t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground w i l l e m i t compression
P-waves, s h e a r S-waves, and Rayleigh s u r f a c e R-waves i n a s e m i - i n f i n i t e
e l a s t i c medium. Deeply b u r i e d d i s t u r b a n c e s w i l l e m i t o n l y P-waves and S-
waves, b u t i n t h e f a r f i e l d , i n t e r f a c e e f f e c t s w i l l r e s u l t i n R-waves
b e i n g produced. For a l l of t h e s e wave t y p e s , t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l between
wave f r o n t arrivals becomes g r e a t e r and t h e amplitude of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s
becomes smaller w i t h i n c r e a s i n g s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e from t h e s o u r c e . F i g u r e
5.2 (Ref. 5.2) p r e s e n t s (a) radial displacement and (b) v e r t i c a l d i s p l a c e -
ment time h i s t o r i e s a t a s u r f a c e l o c a t i o n i n an e l a s t i c h a l f space.
F i g u r e 5.2 shows that t h e . f i r s t wave t o a r r i v e i s t h e P-wave, t h e

second t h e S-wave, and t h e t h i r d t h e R-wave. Lamb (Ref. 5.3) r e f e r s t o
t h e P-wave and S-wave as minor t r e m o r s , as t h e s e waves are followed by
a much larger o s c i l l a t i o n when t h e R-wave arrives. The R-wave i s t h e major
t r e m o r b e c a u s e : 1) t w o - t h i r d s of t h e t o t a l e n e r g y a t t h e s o u r c e goes i n t o
t h e R-wave, and 2) t h e R-wave d i s s i p a t e s much less r a p i d l y w i t h d i s t a n c e
t h a n e i t h e r t h e l e s s e n e r g e t i c P-wave or S-wave. P-waves and S-waves
d i s s i p a t e w i t h d i s t a n c e r t o a power of t o r-*. A t the s u r f a c e , P-
waves and S-waves d i s s i p a t e w i t h d i s t a n c e as r2, w h i l e R-waves d i s s i p a t e
w i t h d i s t a n c e as r-0*5. The g r e a t e r e n e r g i e s b e i n g t r a n s m i t t e d by R-
waves and t h e s l o w e r g e o m e t r i c d i s s i p a t i o n of t h i s energy c a u s e s R-waves
t o b e t h e major tremor, t h e d i s t u r b a n c e of primary importance f o r a l l
d i s t u r b a n c e s on t h e s u r f a c e . F i g u r e 5.3 is a s c h e m a t i c drawing of t h e
wave motions p r o p a g a t e d from a b u r i e d d e t o n a t i o n . The Love wave motion
shown i n F i g u r e 5 . 3 d o e s n o t o c c u r i n u n l a y e r e d media, b u t i t w i l l b e d i s -
cussed later i n t h i s s e c t i o n .
The l o c u s of s u r f a c e p a r t i c l e motion f o r an R-wave d e s c r i b e s a

r e t r o g r a d e e l l i p s e i n t h e p l a n e of t h e r a d i a l from t h e s o u r c e as shown
i n F i g u r e 5.3. The motion b e g i n s by r a i s i n g t h e s u r f a c e s l i g h t l y and moving
towards t h e s o u r c e . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e s u r f a c e moves away and down. I n
t h e absence of l a y e r i n g , t h e r e i s no t r a n s v e r s e motion i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l
p l a n e ; hence, no t h i r d axis i s shown i n F i g u r e 5.2. All R-waves t r a v e l
e x t e n s i v e l y n e a r t h e s u r f a c e as t h e y d i s s i p a t e r a p i d l y w i t h depth. F i g u r e
5.4 (Ref. 5.2) p r e s e n t s s c a l e d p l o t s of t h e r a d i a l and v e r t i c a l R-wave
a m p l i t u d e s as f u n c t i o n s of s c a l e d depth. A s can be observed, t h e v e r t i c a l
5-12
(a) radial displacement h i s tory (+ away)
P-Wave
1 S -Wave
R-Wave
X
R Tire
xV
c
I
Minor Tremo
I
F Tine
(b) vertical displacensnt history (+ down
Figure 5.2 Radial Displacement History (a) and Vertical Displacement History
(b) from P o i n t Source at Surface of Elastic Medium (Reference 5.2)
5-13 Change 1 - 15 A u g u s t 1981

I 'I
Figure 5 . 3 . Schematic I l l u s t r a t i o n of the Waves

Propagated from an Energy Source
5-14
displacement component i s a maximum a t a d e p t h of approximately 0 . 1 6 wave-
l e n g t h s . A t d e p t h s up t o approximately 0 . 4 wavelengths, t h e v e r t i c a l compo-
n e n t of t h e R-wave changes r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e . A t d e p t h s g r e a t e r t h a n 0 . 5
wavelengths, t h e v e r t i c a l displacement decays r a p i d l y (almost e x p o n e n t i a l l y )
w i t h added d e p t h . The r a d i a l R-wave displacement component b e g i n s t o decay
immediately w i t h i n c r e a s e d d e p t h from t h e s u r f a c e . A t d e p t h s g r e a t e r than
0.2 wavelengths, t h e p a r t i c l e motion a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e R-waves changes
from d e s c r i b i n g a r e t r o g r a d e e l l i p s e t o d e s c r i b i n g p r o g r a d e motion, motion
which b e g i n s by r a i s i n g t h e p a r t i c l e and moving away from t h e s o u r c e and
f i n a l l y moves towards t h e s o u r c e and down. The n e g a t i v e s i g n s i n F i g u r e 5 . 4
mean t h a t motion h a s changed from r e t r o g r a d e t o prograde motion.
F i g u r e 5 . 5 p r e s e n t s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between P-wave, S-wave, and

R-wave v e l o c i t i e s of p r o p a g a t i o n i n a p l o t of wave v e l o c i t y d i v i d e d by t h e
S-wave v e l o c i t y as a f u n c t i o n of P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o . All of t h e s e wave
v e l o c i t i e s a r e f u n c t i o n s of (where G i s s h e a r modulus and p i s d e n s i t y )
and are a f u n c t i o n of P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o v. A s i s a l s o a p p a r e n t i n F i g u r e
5.2, t h e P-wave t r a v e l s much f a s t e r t h a n o t h e r waves, t h e R-wave t r a v e l s
t h e s l o w e s t , b u t it t r a v e l s a t j u s t under t h e S-wave v e l o c i t y of propaga-
t i o n . The s h e a r wave v e l o c i t y of p r o p a g a t i o n c i s r e l a t e d t o t h e s h e a r
S
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y G and t h e MSS d e n s i t y ps by e q u a t i o n (5.12).
c
S
= JGIPS
(5.12)
V i b r a t i o n measurements around s o u r c e s show t h a t t h e d i s t u r b a n c e

i s n o t c o n f i n e d t o t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e through t h e r a d i a l l i n e from t h e
s o u r c e . Waves t r a n s v e r s e t o t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e g e n e r a l l y arise from l a y e r -
i n g o r v a r i o u s s t r a t a i n a s o i l . The appearance of a n o t h e r s o i l l a y e r
c a u s e s a t l e a s t two d i f f e r e n t phenomena. The f i r s t phenomenon i s t h e
appearance of a n o t h e r t y p e of s u r f a c e wave c a l l e d t h e Love wave o r L-wave.
The L-wave c a u s e s t r a n s v e r s e h o r i z o n t a l o s c i l l a t i o n s t o o c c u r as s e e n i n
F i g u r e 5.3, and is s u s t a i n e d by repeated m u l t i p l e r e f l e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e
s u r f a c e and u n d e r l y i n g l a y e r . For a n L-wave t o a r i s e , t h e s h e a r modulus
of u n d e r l y i n g l a y e r must b e g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s h e a r modulus of t h e o v e r l a y i n g
l a y e r . The L-wave w i l l n o t occur i f t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r i s s t i f f e r . The
v e l o c i t y of an L-wave i s between t h e s h e a r wave v e l o c i t i e s of t h e c o v e r i n g
and t h e u n d e r l y i n g l a y e r s . Barkan (Ref. 5 . 4 ) h a s an e x c e l l e n t d i s c u s s i o n
of t h e L-wave phenomenon.
The second phenomenon t h a t o c c u r s i n a l a y e r e d system i s a d i s t o r t i o n

i n R-wave p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y and i n t h e e l l i p t i c a l t r a j e c t o r i e s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h p a r t i c l e motion. F i g u r e 5 . 6 from Reference 5 . 4 i s a p l o t of t h e
s c a l e d i n c r e a s e i n p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y ca/c as a f u n c t i o n of t h e s h e a r
modulus G = E / 2 ( l i - v ) (G1 i n t h e t o p l a y e r and G i n t h e bottom l a y e r ) and
t h e s c a l e d l a y e r t h i c k n e s s i n wavelengths H/L. I f H/L i s l a r g e r t h a n
0.5, t h e i n f l u e n c e of a second u n d e r l y i n g l a y e r i s minimal i n F i g u r e 5.6.
On t h e o t h e r hand, when H/L i s less t h a n 0.5, an i n t e n s e i n c r e a s e o c c u r s
5-15 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

Amplitude at Depth L
Amplitude at Surface
Figure 5.4 Dimensionless Displacement versus Depth

Ratios for R-Wave (Ref. 5.2)
poissoIl's Ratio. v
Figure 5.5 Velocity of Wave Front

Propagation (Ref. 5.2)
5-16
i n wave p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y w i t h t h i s change almost p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e
wavelength. The c o e f f i c i e n t of p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y depends upon t h e s h e a r
modulus r a t i o ; i t i n c r e a s e s as t h e u n d e r l y i n g l a y e r grows s t i f f e r than t h e
overlying layer.
2.20
2.00
1.80
< (D
1.60
u
1.40
1.20
1.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
H/L
Figure 5 . 6 E f f e c t of Layering on I n c r e a s i n g Wave
Propagation V e l o c i t y (Ref. 5 . 4 )
F i g u r e 5.7 shows t h e change i n t h e r a t i o of r a d i a l t o v e r t i c a l

d i s p l a c e m e n t s on t h e s u r f a c e of an upper l a y e r when a s t i f f u n d e r l y i n g
l a y e r i s p r e s e n t . For s h o r t waves w i t h L/H < 2.0, t h e r a t i o of r a d i a l
and v e r t i c a l displacement components change v e r y l i t t l e . For wavelengths
i n l a y e r t h i c k n e s s e s between around 2 . 0 and 4 . 0 , t h e e l l i p s e of p a r t i c l e
motions becomes e l o n g a t e d i n t h e v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n , and when t h e wave-
l e n g t h s grow l a r g e r t h a n 4 . 0 , t h e s e e l l i p s e s are e l o n g a t e d i n t h e r a d i a l
d i r e c t i o n . Larger d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s h e a r moduli G cause enhanced changes
i n t h e r a t i o of r a d i a l t o v e r t i c a l displacement.
5-17
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Fi
5-18
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5.3
PROBLEM - Borings show that a soil 14 ft deep overlies a very deep sub-
layer. Measured P-wave propagation velocity in the top layer
is 950 ft/sec and in the bottom layer is 1645 ft/sec. What will
be: 1) the R-wave velocities in each medium, 2) the effective
R-wave propagation velocity in the top layer, and 3) the maximum
vertical particle displacement, if calculations in Section 5.3.2
show that the radial maximum soil displacement equals 0.001 ft?
Assume that the wavelength of the disturbance is 199 ft, and
Poisson's ratio equals 0 . 3 .
GIVEN: H = depth of top layer of soil (ft)

L = wavelength (ft)
= radial soil displacement (ft)
c = P-wave velocity in top layer (fps)
P1
c = P-wave velocity in underlying layer (fps)
p2
v = Poisson's ratio
FIND: R-wave velocities in each layer, effective R-wave velocity

in top layer because of layering, and vertical soil particle
displacement.
REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Obtain the ratios
C C
R P
-
C
and -
C
Fig. 5.5
S S
2. Obtain cR for both layers
3. Determine the ratio of the thickness of the

top layer to the wavelength
H/L
4. Calculate c and c
s1 s2
5. Calculate the shear ;moduliratio
G
G1
= (2)
9.,
L
Eq. (5.12)
5-19
REFERENCE
6. Determine t h e e f f e c t i v e wave p r o p a g a t i o n
v e l o c i t y r e l a t i v e t o actual propagation v e l o c i t y
C
a
- F i g . 5.6
C
7. C a l c u l a t e ca
R-wave
C
a
R-wave
8. Determine t h e r a t i o of t h e wavelength t o
t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e t o p l a y e r
L/H
9. Determine t h e r a t i o of r a d i a l t o v e r t i c a l
maximum p a r t i c l e d i s p l a c e m e n t s
%
- F i g . 5.7
+J
10. Calculate %
CALCULATION
GIVEN: H = 14 f t
L = 199 f t
'k = 0.001 f t
v = 0.3
c = 950 f p s
P1
c = 1645 f p s
*2
-
FIND: R-wave v e l o c i t i e s i f u n l a y e r e d , R-wave v e l o c i t y i n t o p l a y e r
because of l a y e r i n g , and maximum v e r t i c a l p a r t i c l e d i s p l a c e m e n t .
SOLUTION: 1. -C=R 0.94

C
S
C
9
C
= 1.86
S
2. = (0.94)(950)/(1.86) = 480 f p s
c = (0.94)(1645)/(1.86) = 831 f p s
R2
3. H/L = 14/199 = 0.070
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 5- 20

4. c = (950)/(1.86) = 511 fps
SI
5. E
G1
=(E) L
= 3.0
C
a
6. - - - 1.65
C
7. c = (1.65)(480) = 792 fps
a
R-wave
8. L/H = 199/14 = 14.2
I
%
9* 'G = O S g 3
10. %= 0.001/0.93 = 0.001075 f t

5.3.2 Approximate Buried E x p l o s i v e Ground Motion R e l a t i o n s h i p s
To p r e d i c t t h e e x t e n t of damage from underground d e t o n a t i o n s ,

one needs t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r a d i a l ground motions - r a d i a l maximum s o i l
d i s p l a c e m e n t X and r a d i a l maximum p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y U. The b a s i s f o r
p r e d i c t i o n of t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t X and v e l o c i t y U a r e e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s f o r b u r i e d HE c h a r g e s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s o i l . These e m p i r i c a l
e q u a t i o n s p r e d i c t t h e ground motion maximums c r e a t e d by c o n t r i b u t i o n s
from a l l of the wave forms. A s h a s been d i s c u s s e d , t h e R-wave i s p r o b a b l y
the major s o u r c e of e x c i t a t i o n ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , i n u s i n g t h e s e and o t h e r
e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i n v e s t i g a t o r s do n o t c o n s i d e r which wave might
b e most i m p o r t a n t . The wave speed used t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e s t r e n g t h of
the s o i l i s t h e P-wave p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y . Although R-wave p r o p a g a t i o n
v e l o c i t i e s would more l o g i c a l l y b e used w i t h R-wave ground motions, t h e
P-wave v e l o c i t y can be used because t h e two v e l o c i t i e s o n l y d i f f e r by a
constant i f Poisson's r a t i o v i s constant (see Figure 5.5).
A t l o c a t i o n s v e r y deep i n t h e ground o r d i r e c t l y under t h e e x p l o s i v e

s o u r c e where R-waves c a n n o t form, t h i s e m p i r i c a l s o l u t i o n and o t h e r s are n o t
v a l i d . This r e s t r i c t i o n i s n o t t h a t s e r i o u s f o r most Pantex-type o p e r a t i o n s
because the wavelengths a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o s t of these waves are long. For
example, a 600-lb e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e might r e s u l t i n a wave which i s from
200 t o 600 f t l o n g . I f one r e f e r s back t o F i g u r e 5 . 4 , he w i l l see t h a t
v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t R-waves e x i s t a t d e p t h s of 0.8 of a wavelength. Thus, f o r
d e p t h of i n t e r e s t i n t h e area of 160 t o 480 f t o r l e s s , t h e R-wave i s t h e
major d i s t u r b a n c e . Most Pantex-type o p e r a t i o n s are a t s h a l l o w d e p t h s r e l a t i v e
t o t h e s e . Even a 60-lb c h a r g e can have a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l a r g e wavelength
of from 100 t o 300 f t . The R-wave and i t s p r o p a g a t i o n are t h e major ground
shock i n t e r e s t i n any p o t e n t i a l P a n t e x a c c i d e n t s . T h i s R-wave s o l u t i o n i s
s u b s e q u e n t l y extended t o a c c o u n t f o r c o u p l i n g when a c h a r g e and t h e s o i l
have an a i r gap between them.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p s which w e w i l l u s e f o r R-waves from b u r i e d

d e t o n a t i o n s (Ref. 5.5) a r e g i v e n by e q u a t i o n ( 5 . 1 3 ) , r a d i a l d i s p l a c e -
ment, and e q u a t i o n ( 5 . 1 4 ) . r a d i a l p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y .
X
0.04143 ( PSC
R
3) '"05
t a n h l a 5 ,8.24( 0.2367 (5.13)
P C R 3) ]
? ) 0'8521
U
C
112
-
6.169 x
t a n h ,6.03(
( .)
pSc
P C R
R
0*30]
(5.14)
Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981 5-22

. . . -. . .. . . .. .. -- . .. .. -.
. .- . -. .. . . . .. . . . -
where X = maximum r a d i a l s o i l displacement

U = peak r a d i a l s o i l p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y
R = standoff distance
W = e x p l o s i v e energy release
= mass d e n s i t y of t h e s o i l o r r o c k
pS
c = s e i s m i c P-wave v e l o c i t y i n t h e s o i l o r r o c k
pp = a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e .
0
Any s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t s e t of u n i t s may b e u s e d i n a p p l y i n g t h e s e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r a l l terms; X/R (po/p c ~ ) ~ U/c , (po/p c 1/2, and

S P P S P
W/psc2R3 are nondimensional. T e s t d a t a on e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e s r a n g i n g from
0.03 Pb t o 19.2 k i l o t o n s ( n u c l e a r b l a s t e q u i v a l e n c y ) w i l l b e used i n
subsequent d i s c u s s i o n t o demonstrate t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
The d a t a used t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e s e r e s u l t s cover n i n e o r d e r s of n a g n i t u d e
from W/psc$R3 of 4.4 x t o 4.4 x i n s c a l e d e x p l o s i v e energy
release.
F i g u r e s 5.8 and 5.9 r e s p e c t i v e l y , are p l o t s of nondimensionalized

d i s p l a c e m e n t and nondimensionalized v e l o c i t y as g i v e n by e q u a t i o n s (5.13)
a n d ( 5 . 1 4 ) . Because t h e d a t a a p p e a r t o c o l l a p s e i n t o a unique f u n c t i o n , t h e s e
r e s u l t s g i v e a g r a p h i c a l s o l u t i o n . S c a t t e r e x i s t s ; however, no experiments
o r test s i t e appears t o y i e l d systematic e r r o r s .
The c o n t i n u o u s l i n e s p l a c e d through t h e d a t a i n F i g u r e s 5.8 and 5.9

w e r e p r e s e n t e d as e q u a t i o n s (5.13) and ( 5 . 1 4 ) . Both are t h e r e s u l t of
a n approximate r a t h e r t h a n l e a s t - s q u a r e s c u r v e f i t t o t e s t d a t a . For
t h e d a t a i n F i g u r e s 5.8 and 5.9, t h e observed v a l u e s of s c a l e d d i s p l a c e -
ment and p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y w e r e d i v i d e d by t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p r e d i c t i v e
v a l u e s t o o b t a i n a l a r g e sample of d a t a around a mean v a l u e of 1.0. In
b o t h f i g u r e s , one s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n computed from t h i s e n l a r g e d d a t a
base is + 0.50. Although s t r a i g h t l i n e s c a n b e f i t t e d t o segments of t h e
r e s u l t s i n F i g u r e s 5.8 and 5.9, the r a t e of change for e i t h e r X o r J w i t h
r e s p e c t t o e i t h e r W o r R varies, depending upon t h e s c a l e d c h a r g e weight
W/pscp2R3. These v a r i a t i o n s are r e a s o n a b l y c l o s e t o . t h o s e g i v e n by o t h e r s
and w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d . T h i s d i s c u s s i o n i s n o t p r e s e n t e d because w e a d v o c a t e
t h e u s e of any of t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s ; i t i s p r e s e n t e d s o t h a t t h o s e w i t h
backgrounds i n t h i s f i e l d w i l l u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e procedure which has
been advocated i s a n i n c l u s i v e a n a l y s i s procedure.
A t f i r s t g l a n c e , e q u a t i o n s (5.13) and (5.14) may appear t o b e

d i f f e r e n t from some of t h e o t h e r e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e ;
however, t h e s e two e q u a t i o n s are more g e n e r a l and c a n b e shown t o encompass
most o t h e r r e s u l t s . E q u a t i o n s (5.13) and (5.14) are n o t l o g l i n e a r as
are many o t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e t e s t d a a b a s e c o v e r s many o r d e r s of
magnitude, and a c o u p l i n g term ( p o / p S P c2)lj2 i s m u l t i p l i e d by t h e s c a l e d
d i s p l a c e m e n t and v e l o c i t y . The p r e s e n c e of atmospheric p r e s s u r e i n t h e
p r e d i c t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s does not mean a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i s a p h y s i c a l
phenomenon i n f l u e n c i n g t h e r e s u l t s . The q u a n t i t y psc2 i s a measure of t h e
c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of t h e shock p r o p a g a t i o n media. Hencg, t h e q u a n t i t y p 0

P
I
P
ul
UI
I
N
c
F i g u r e 5.8 R a d i a l Maximum Displacement v e r s u s Scaled

Energy Release i n Rock,and S o i l (Reference 5.5)
IN a
ul
I
h,
Ln
F i g u r e 5.9 R a d i a l P a r t i c l e V e l o c i t y v e r s u s S c a l e d Energy
Release i n Rock and S o i l ( R e f e r e n c e 5.5)
rt
P
\o
m
P
i s a s t a n d a r d ( c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of a i r ) and i n t r o d u c e s e m p i r i c a l l y r e l a t i v e
c o m p r e s s i b i l i t i e s f o r d i f f e r e n t media such as s o i l and rock.
Two d i f f e r e n t groups of ground shock p r o p a g a t i o n procedures have

been used i n t h e p a s t and are i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e f o r e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s
i n t e r r e l a t i n g c h a r g e weight, s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e , and ground motion. A
s t a t i s t i c a l approach g e n e r a l l y used i s a p r o p a g a t i o n l a w of t h e form
NW NR
A=KW R (5.15)
where A = t h e peak amplitude f o r e i t h e r v e l o c i t y o r displacement

N ' s = c o n s t a n t exponents
K = a constant.
T h i s format i s popular because t h e l o g a r i t h m can b e t a k e n of b o t h s i d e s

t o obtain:
[%nA] = [LnK] + N,[LnW] + NR[RnR] (5.16)
Because t h i s e q u a t i o n i s l i n e a r , a least s q u a r e s c u r v e f i t could b e made

t o o b t a i n t h e t h r e e c o e f f i c i e n t s R n K , NW, and NR. The weakness of t h i s
approach i s that t h i s format i s assumed r e g a r d l e s s of what happens
p h y s i c a l l y . The r e s u l t i n g e q u a t i o n s are d i m e n s i o n a l l y i l l o g i c a l . A
s e r i o u s problem i s t h e u s e of an incomplete e x p r e s s i o n . Other parameters
e n t e r t h e ground shock p r o p a g a t i o n problem, e s p e c i a l l y s o i l p r o p e r t i e s ,
which are i g n o r e d . Because t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s are i g n o r e d , t h e d e f i n i t i o n
of t h e problem i s incomplete, and t h e r e s u l t s do n o t r e p r e s e n t a g e n e r a l
solution.
By u s i n g e q u a t i o n (5.16), v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t o r s o b t a i n d i f f e r e n t
E r e s u l t s depending upon t h e amount and r a n g e of t h e i r d a t a . T y p i c a l
v a l u e s found i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e (Refs. 5.6 through 5.15) have a r a n g e f o r
N from 0.4 t o 1 . 0 and f o r NR from -1 t o -2 w i t h A as p a r t i c l e d i s p l a c e -
W
ment o r v e l o c i t y . T h i s s i t u a t i o n arises because i n v e s t i g a t o r s u s e d a t a
from d i f f e r e n t segments of t h e c u r v e as given by e q u a t i o n s (5.13) and
(5.14).
The second group .of i n v e s t i g a t o r s , u s u a l l y t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

t h e o l d Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) o r newly named Department of
Energy (DOE), p r e s e n t t h e i r r e s u l t s i n t h e format:
(5.17)
(5.18)
5-26
T h i s approach i s a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e Hopkinson-Cranz s c a l i n g law f o r a i r
b l a s t waves, and i s a dimensional v e r s i o n of a model a n a l y s i s . I f s o i l
p r o p e r t i e s such as p a n d c are t r e a t e d a s c o n s t a n t s and atmospheric p r e s s u r e
does n o t v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t & , t h e n e q u a t i o n s (5.13) and (5.14) i n f u n c t i o n a l
format can b e w r i t t e n as e q u a t i o n s (5.15) and (5.16). An example (Ref.
5.16) of c u r v e f i t s f o r displacement and v e l o c i t y t o e q u a t i o n s (5.17) and
(5.18) i s :
65
UR1.
= constant (5.19)
wo. 55
.
nn.J5.
constant (5.20)
wo. 833 =
All of t h e d a t a i n e q u a t i o n s ( 5 . 1 9 ) and (5.20) weze taken f o r chemical
e x p l o s i v e d e t o n a t i o n s i n Halite ( s a l t domes), and cover s c a l e d charge
weight W/pscgR3 over t h r e e o r d e r s of magnitude. The g e n e r a l format
g i v e n by e q u a t i o n s (5.17) and (5.15) does n o t have t o be d i r e c t l y propor-
t i o n a l o v e r a l l r e g i o n s as shown.
By u s i n g e q u a t i o n s (5.13) and (5.14) w e are encompassing domains

f o r most of t h e p r e v i o u s e m p i r i c a l e q u a t i o n s . Those i n t e r e s t e d i n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c o u p l i n g term (po/psc;) b e t t e r , should r e a d Westine
(Ref. 5 . 5 ) . T h i s s o l u t i o n should n o t b e used f o r p r e d i c t i n g ground
motions from P-waves o r S-waves. N o need e x i s t s t o p r e d i c t t h e s e waves
e x c e p t when a p o i n t of i n t e r e s t i s e i t h e r d i r e c t l y over o r d i r e c t l y under
t h e e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e . This s i t u a t i o n i s n o t a c r i t i c a l Pantex one s o i t
w i l l n o t be pursued f u r t h e r . A f t e r r a d i a l ground motion has been determined,
v e r t i c a l ground motion, t h e e f f e c t s of t r e n c h i n g , and t h e i n f l u e n c e s of
l a y e r i n g c a n a l l b e approximated by u s i n g some of t h e o t h e r q u a l i t a t i v e
d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n of t h i s manual.
5-27
PROBLEM - Assume that t h e s o i l ' s d e n s i t y and P-wave p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y

have been measured. For a known b u r i e d energy release, determine
t h e maximum r a d i a l s o i l displacement and maximum r a d i a l p a r t i c l e
velocity.
2 4
GIVEN : p = s o i l mass d e n s i t y ( l b s e c / f t )
cp = P-wave propagation v e l o c i t y ( f t / s e c )
R = s t a n d o f f from c h a r g e ( f t )
2
= atmospheric p r e s s u r e ( l b / f t )
PO
W = e x p l o s i v e y i e l d ( f t - l b ) [ f o r TNT e q u a l s 1 . 7 x ft-Ib/
l b t i m e s weight of t h e charge]"
-
FIND: The maximum r a d i a l s o i l displacement and m a x i m u m
radial particle velocity
REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g nondimensional q u a n t i t i e s
P W
2. C a l c u l a t e t h e s c a l e d displacement.
-X (Fo)112 --- 0.04143 (G)1.105

Eq. (5.13)
R t a n h l e 5[ 18.24 (c)S. 2367 1 or
Fig. 5.8
3. Calculate the scaled velocity.
U 1/2 = 6.169 x (G) 0.8521

- (Po) 0.301 Eq. (5.14)
C t a n h [26.03(@ or
P Fig. 5.9
CALCULATION
= 3,54 l b - s e c 2 / f t 4
GIVEN: P,
c = 950 f t / s e c
P
R~ = 40 f t
6
W = 20 lb s ( 1 . 7 x 1 0 f t - l b / l b ) = 3.4 x 107 f t - l b
Po = 14.7 p s i = 2,117 l b / f t 2
*In Table 2 , Appendix A, t h e v a l u e of h e a t of d e t o n a t i o n f o r TNT i s 1.97 x

106 f t - l b / l b . T h i s is a c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e . The e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e i s as
g i v e n i n this problem.
5-28
FIND: Maximum radial soil displacement and velocity
- P
0
SOLUTION: 1. P = -
0 2
P C
S P
P
- = 29117 = 6.63 x
0
3.54 (950)
- W
w = 2 3
PsCpR
7
w = 3.4 x 10 = 1.66 10-4
3.54(950)2 403
(w)1.105
2. :(+) Y p
1/2
= tanh' *
0.04143
[ 18.24(w)0.2367 3
-4 1.105
X (6.63 x 10-4)1/2
- - 0.04143 (1.66 x 10 )
R tanh1'5 [18.24(1.66 x 10-4) 0.23671
X
-
R = 1.10
X = 4.4 x 10-3ft = 0.0528 i n .

I
Figure 5.8 can also be used to solve this equation
graphically.
1/2 - 6.169 x 0.8521 (w)
C tanh [26.03(i&0.3]
P
6.169 x 10-3(1.66 x 10-4) 0.8521
E (6.63 1 0 - ~ ) ~ =/ ~
C tanh [26.03(1.66 x 10-4 0.30 ]
P
_ -- 1.51 IO-~
C
P
U = 0.143 ft/s.ec = 1.72 in./sec
Figure 5.9 can also be used to solve this equation graphically.
I
5.3.3 Screening of Propagated S u r f a c e Waves
I n o r d e r t o d e c r e a s e v i b r a t i o n s i n s t r u c t u r e s from ground shocks

o r v i b r a t i o n s which are moderately t o o i n t e n s e , one can erect e i t h e r
t r e n c h e s o r b a r r i c a d e s . Some s u c c e s s and i n o t h e r cases a t o t a l l a c k
of s u c c e s s , h a s been encountered when e i t h e r s h e e t p i l i n g o r t r e n c h
b a r r i e r s h a s been placed between t h e v i b r a t i o n s o u r c e and t h e receiver.
Two t y p e s of b a r r i e r s have been used, active b a r r i e r s which are p l a c e d
c l o s e t o t h e s o u r c e , and p a s s i v e b a r r i e r s which are p l a c e d c l o s e t o t h e
receiver. Off hand, f o r e i t h e r type of b a r r i e r , one would expect a
v o i d t o b e more e f f e c t i v e t h a n a s o l i d o r f l u i d b a r r i e r . T h i s may o r may
n o t be t h e case because a t r e n c h cannot always b e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h o u t
t h r e a t of c o l l a p s e o r f i l l i n g w i t h r a i n water. Ground motion r e d u c t i o n
f a c t o r s ( s o i l displacement d i v i d e d by s o i l displacement w i t h o u t a b a r r i e r )
have been observed t o b e a f a c t o r of 1/8; however, g e n e r a l l y t h e r e d u c t i o n
i s less.
Two major problems e x i s t b e s i d e s expense i n u s i n g b a r r i e r s t o

s h i e l d ground shocks from e x p l o s i v e d e t o n a t i o n s . Both of t h e s e r e a s o n s
are associated w i t h t h e r e f l e c t i o n and d i f f r a c t i o n p r o c e s s of wave f r o n t s
s t r i k i n g b a r r i e r s . Although t h e i n t e n s i t y may b e reduced i n s o m e
r e g i o n s , i n o t h e r r e g i o n s wave f r o n t s can b e focused and shock l e v e l s
i n c r e a s e d . I n t h e case of a c c i d e n t s , one cannot always be s u r e of where
t h e d e t o n a t i o n w i l l occur. T h i s f a c t o r means t h a t t h e d e s i g n e r must t r y
t o s h i e l d a r e g i o n (some s t r u c t u r e ) from shock waves t h a t can t r a v e l from
anywhere i n a n o t h e r r e g i o n (anywhere t h e a c c i d e n t can o c c u r ) . To
accomplish t h i s o b j e c t i v e w i t h o u t having i n c r e a s e s i n shock s t r e n g t h a t
a n u n d e s i r a b l e l o c a t i o n is v e r y d i f f i c u l t under some sets of circum-
stances.
The second problem w i t h b a r r i e r s i s t h a t t h e y must b e v e r y deep;

a t least 0 . 5 wavelengths i n w i d t h and d e p t h , i f n o t l a r g e r . The l e n g t h
of waves a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a c c i d e n t a l b u r i e d d e t o n a t i o n s t y p i c a l l y are
hundreds of f e e t i n l e n g t h . T h i s means t h a t v e r y l a r g e b a r r i e r s are
needed.
Most of t h e work t h a t h a s been done t o d a t e on b a r r i e r s i s e m p i r i c a l .

No good g e n e r a l i z e d s o l u t i o n e x i s t s y e t . Because t h e u s e of b a r r i e r s i s
p r o b a b l y u n a t t r a c t i v e f o r Pantex o p e r a t i o n s , w e w i l l n o t pursue t h i s
s u b j e c t t o any g r e a t e r e x t e n t . Those i n t e r e s t e d i n s t u d y i n g t h i s s u b j e c t
f u r t h e r should r e a d Barkan (Ref. 5 . 4 ) , who h a s done more t h a n anyone
else i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of all t y p e s of b a r r i e r s . R. D.
Woods (Ref. 5 . 1 7 ) i n t h e USA, has g e n e r a t e d some e x p e r i m e n t a l test r e s u l t s
on t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t r e n c h e s .
5.4 COUPLING BETWEEN EXPLOSIVE AND SOIL
I f a n e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e i s p l a c e d i n a c a v i t y , s o t h a t a n a i r gap
e x i s t s between t h e c h a r g e and t h e w a l l s of t h e c a v i t y , t h e r a d i a l s o i l
5-30
p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y and displacement may be much l e s s t h a n f o r a b u r i e d
tamped c h a r g e . T h i s l a r g e r e d u c t i o n i s caused by i n e f f i c i e n t coupling
between t h e e x p l o s i v e and t h e s o i l when a c a v i t y i s p r e s e n t . To account
f o r t h e reduced c o u p l i n g whenever c h a r g e s are d e t o n a t e d i n a b u r i e d
c a v i t y , an e f f e c t i v e energy r e l e a s e W can be determined which t h e n
eff
can b e used t o c a l c u l a t e r a d i a l maximum s o i l p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y and r a d i a l
maximum displacement u s i n g t h e tamped b u r i e d e x p l o s i v e ground motion
s o l u t i o n s , F i g u r e s 5 . 8 and 5 . 9 . F i g u r e 5.10 i s a g r a p h i c a l s o l u t i o n f o r
d e t e r m i n i n g t h i s e f f e c t i v e energy release W
eff'
The lower i n s e r t t o F i g u r e 5.10 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e a c t u a l problem.
An e x p l o s i v e charge w i t h energy W i s c e n t e r e d i n t h e middle of an under-
ground c a v i t y of r a d i u s R and a t atmospheric p r e s s u r e p . The ground
s u r r o u n d i n g t h i s c a v i t y i g a homogeneous i s o t r o p i c medium of mass d e n s i t y
0
PS
and seismic P-wave v e l o c i t y c p . F i r s t , t h e s c a l e d a b s c i s s a W/poRo3 i s
c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g any s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t s e t of u n i t s , r e s u l t i n g i n a non-
d i m e n s i o n a l q u a n t i t y . By e n t e r i n g F i g u r e 5.10 f o r any given a b s c i s s a , t h e
s c a l e d o r d i n a t e [ (Weff/W) ( p s c p 2 / P o ) o - 7 6 ] i s r e a d . The e x t r a t e r m
pscg/p0 r e p r e s e n t s a coupling term between t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of s o i l and
t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of a i r i n t h e c a v i t y . F i n a l l y , t h e r a t i o (Weff/W) i s
o b t a i n e d by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e s c a l e d o r d i n a t e by [ ( p o / ~ s c $ > o * 7 6 ] .T h i s
e f f e c t i v e energy release can b e used t o c a l c u l a t e e i t h e r s o i l p a r t i c l e
v e l o c i t y o r displacement o r t h e a s s o c i a t e d s o i l shock f r o n t p r e s s u r e s and
impulses a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e corresponding ground motions.
F i g u r e 5.10 comes from a c u r v e f i t t o only one segment of t h e peak

r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e v e r s u s energy release curve. For t h i s r e a s o n i t i s only
v a l i d f o r v a l u e s of W/poRZ between 1 and 1000 as g i v e n i n F i g u r e 5.10.
The r a t i o W e f f / W i s o f t e n n e a r u n i t y i n s o f t s o i l s , b u t t h i s r a t i o can
be a small number l i k e 1/100 i n hard rock. I f a number s l i g h t l y l a r g e r
than 1.0 is calculated f o r Weff/W, t h i s i s a mathematical q u i r k a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h the approximations b e i n g used. A maximum v a l u e of 1.00 should be used
f o r Weff/W. F i g u r e 5.10 h a s o n l y been developed f o r a d e t o n a t i o n i n a
c a v i t y ; i t should n o t b e used t o estimate shock t r a n s m i s s i o n from s o i l i n t o
a i r . We have no d a t a on shock t r a n s m i s s i o n from s o i l i n t o a i r , and F i g u r e
5.10 i s n o t i n t e n d e d f o r such u s e .
To demonstrate t h e v a l i d i t y of t h i s s o l u t i o n , t e s t d a t a (Ref. 5.16)

o b t a i n e d by d e t o n a t i n g v a r i o u s s i z e e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s i n c a v i t i e s of
6 f t o r 1 5 f t r a d i u s , are p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e s 5 . 1 1 and 5.12. F i g u r e 5 . 1 1
1/3
i s a p l o t of observed d i v i d e d by p r e d i c t e d p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y v e r s u s R/Weff ,
and F i g u r e 5.12 i s a p l o t of observed d i v i d e d by p r e d i c t e d maximum s o i l
d i s p l a c e m e n t v e r s u s R/We,f1/3. I d e a l l y , both s o l u t i o n s would c o l l a p s e
i n t o s i n g l e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s a t a v a l u e of 1 . 0 . Because t h e shape of
symbol d e n o t e s amount of energy r e l e a s e , , a n d t h e shaded o r unshaded
symbols d e n o t e s i z e of c a v i t y , v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e energy release, c a v i t y
s i z e , and s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e have a l l been i n c l u d e d i n t h e s e f i g u r e s .
The c o n c l u s i o n t o b e drawn from F i g u r e s 5.11 and 5.12 i s t h a t F i g u r e 5.10
works, b u t t h e a c c u r a c y i s o n l y p l u s and minus a f a c t o r of about 2 . 0 .
5-31
0
0
I-
0
*
0
0
0
N
0
0
d
0
I-
*
O
5
0
N
0
d
I-
U
N
rl
09L ' 0
($e)@%)
5-32
A c t u a l l y , t h i s much s c a t t e r i s t o b e expected because t h e s o l u t i o n s f o r
a c o n t i n u o u s medium g i v e n by F i g u r e s 5.8 and 5.9 have e s s e n t i a l l y t h e
same d e g r e e of a c c u r a c y as t h e s e coupled ground motions. These observa-
t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g s c a t t e r mean t h a t an a p p r o p r i a t e f a c t o r of s a f e t y should
b e used whenever t h e s e r e s u l t s are a p p l i e d .
The c u r v e i n F i g u r e 5.10 i s a c a l c u l a t e d one. W e should d i s c u s s t h e

p r i n c i p l e s behind t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s s o t h e procedure could b e used i f
o f f - c e n t e r c h a r g e s w e r e t o be d e t o n a t e d i n a c a v i t y . B a s i c a l l y , o f f -
c e n t e r c h a r g e s could b e e v a l u a t e d by making R t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e
0
c h a r g e and t h e w a l l . F i g u r e 5.10 i s based upon c o u p l i n g a shock wave
i n t h e a i r t o t h e wave which would be t r a n s m i t t e d i n t o t h e ground. F i r s t ,
t h e q u a n t i t y R0/W1/3 w a s determined f o r t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t e r of
t h e c h a r g e t o t h e i n t e r f a c e between t h e c a v i t y and t h e s o i l . Then F i g u r e
4.6 i n Chapter 4 w a s used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e peak r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e P .
T h i s r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e would b e t h e one t r a n s m i t t e d t o an i n f i n i t e 1 5
r i g i d s h e l l of i n n e r r a d i u s R . I n p r a c t i c e , t h e s o i l i s not an i n f i n i t e l y
r i g i d s h e l l because t h e s o i l :articles a r e u n r e s t r a i n e d and t h e c a v i t y
grows. T h i s means t h a t t h e shock wave t r a n s m i t t e d i n t o t h e s o i l w i l l have
a shock f r o n t p r e s s u r e P which i s l e s s t h a n P . r Based upon t h e e m p i r i c a l
r e s u l t s shown i n F i g u r e s 5.11 and 5.12, w e have assumed t h a t t h e shock
f r o n t p r e s s u r e t r a n s m i t t e d i n t o t h e s o i l e q u a l s P r / 2 . Another method
of s t a t i n g t h i s assumption i s t h a t a gauge i n a s h e l l which cannot move
w i l l have t w i c e t h e p r e s s u r e of a gauge a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e c a v i t y which
i s f r e e t o move w i t h t h e s o i l p a r t i c l e s . Next, by u s i n g t h e formula Ps =
p s c P U , t h e maximum r a d i a l s o i l p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y U can be c a l c u l a t e d .
Then F i g u r e 5.9 i s used by forming t h e s c a l e d q u a n t i t y (U/c) ( p o / p s c p 2 ) l / 2 .
Reading W / p s c 2R03 from t h e graph i n F i g u r e 5.9 o r computing i t from
e q u a t i o n (5.14P a l l o w s W e f f t o be c a l c u l a t e d a f t e r m u l t i p l y i n g by pScp2Ro 3 .
The q u a n t i t y Weff r e p r e s e n t s an e q u i v a l e n t c h a r g e s i z e d e t o n a t e d i n a
c o n t i n u o u s medium. Had r e f l e c t e d impulse and r a d i a l and s o i l displacement
as i n F i g u r e 5.8 been u s e d r a t h e r than r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e and s o i l p a r t i c l e
v e l o c i t y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t i v e e q u i v a l e n t energy release r a t i o W e f f / W ,
e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s would have been o b t a i n e d . F i g u r e 5.12
s u b s t a n t i a t e s t h i s conclusion.
A word of c a u t i o n i s i n o r d e r i n u s i n g o t h e r p r o c e d u r e s from t h e
l i t e r a t u r e f o r s o i l c o u p l i n g p r o c e d u r e s . One approach d e t e r m i n e s t h e
R .
e n e r g y i n a q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p w i t h a c a v i t y of volume ( 4 / 3 ) 71
W e do not recommend u s i n g t h i s p r o c e d u r e , because t h e ground motions
age caused by shock waves and n o t t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p .
Another procedure u s e s t h e a c o u s t i c t r a n s m i s s i o n f a c t o r s f o r d i f f e r e n t
d e n s i t y media such as:
P, 2
- I- - (5.21a)
PICI
1+-
T ~ T
5-33
w Ro
0 2or) l b 15 ft
A 500 i b 15 f t
i
0 1000 lb 15 ft
Q 20 l b 6 fC
100 l b 6 ft
4.0 6 ft
1000 l b
v 1903 l b 6 ft
2.0 v V
Y
9
0
A
0 BB A%
0 0
A
0
0.5
0 $Q
0
+
0.04
I I I I I I I
0.2 0.4
I I I I l l 1 1
1.0
I
2.0
0.1
R ft
' I 3 ' (ft-lb) 113
'eff
F i g u r e 5.11 Observed v e r s u s P r e d i c t e d P a r t i c l e V e l o c i t y
f o r Coupled Buried D e t o n a t i o n s
5-34
W R
0
0 200 lb L 5 I:
10.0 - A 500 l b 15 f t
0 1000 lb 15 t t
1000 l b 6 ft
- v 1003 l b 6 ft
4.0
t f
a 0
1.0 - PI 8 u A-
0
0.5
0 -
0.04 I I I I l l I I I I I I I l l
0.1 0.2 0.4 1.0 2.0
Figure 5.12 Observed versus Predicted RaL,al S o i l D-splacement

. for Coupled Buried Detonations
5-35
For impedance matches where a i r i s t h e i n c i d e n t medium and s o i l s o r r o c k
i s t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g medium, t h e r a t i o p I c I / p ~ c T << 1 . 0 , and e q u a t i o n (5.21a)-
b e comes
-T' - - 2 (5.21b)
PI
The impedance match p r e d i c t s t h a t t h e shock p r e s s u r e i n t h e s o i l t r a n s m i t t i n g

medium w i l l b e o n l y t w i c e t h e shock p r e s s u r e i n t h e i n c i d e n t a i r medium.
The approach used i n t h i s handbook does n o t g i v e t h i s same c o n c l u s i o n .
Another c o u p l i n g f a c t o r which needed t o be developed, b u t f o r which

much less d a t a e x i s t , i s f o r c a l c u l a t i n g U and X f o r a charge l y i n g
on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground. Experimental t e s t r e s u l t s from P r o j e c t
Essex (Ref. 5.18) and from t h e N a v y C i v i l Engineering Laboratory (Ref. 5.19)
w e r e p l o t t e d and compared t o t h e r a d i a l R-wave v e l o c i t y and displacement
r e s u l t s i n F i g u r e s 5.8 and 5.9. T h i s comparison e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t w i t h i n
t h e s c a t t e r i n F i g u r e s 5.8 and 5.9, no d i s t i n c t i o n can b e made i n R-wave
v e l o c i t y and displacement between b u r i e d and s u r f a c e d e t o n a t i o n s . T h i s
o b s e r v a t i o n means t h a t A-E's can assume t h a t t h e c o u p l i n g f a c t o r f o r R-wave
p r o p a g a t i o n from a s u r f a c e d e t o n a t i o n e q u a l s 1 . 0 , and can u s e F i g u r e s
5.8 and 5.9 d i r e c t l y f o r s u r f a c e as w e l l as b u r i e d d e t o n a t i o n s .
None of t h i s d i s c u s s i o n h a s c o n s i d e r e d P-wave p r o p a g a t i o n . For problems

such a s bomb d e t o n a t i o n s on t h e roof of a b u r i e d s h e l t e r , where no R-wave
p r o p a g a t i o n o c c u r s , t h e r e s u l t s given i n F i g u r e s 5 . 8 and 5.9 should = b e
used. For Pantex-type f a c i l i t y a c c i d e n t s , P-waves should n o t b e a s e r i o u s
c o n s i d e r a t i o n . I f f o r some u n f o r e s e e n r e a s o n , a s u r f a c e d e t o n a t i o n o c c u r s
d i r e c t l y o v e r t h e roof of a b u r i e d s t r u c t u r e , P-waves w i l l dominate, and u s e
of t h e s e R-waves r e s u l t s i s i n c o r r e c t .
I f a P-wave should happen t o b e inovolved i n a completely b u r i e d

c i r c u m s t a n c e , w e would u s e t h e e n t i r e energy i n t h e e l o s i v e , and t h e
9
r e s u l t s i n F i g u r e s 5.8 and 5.9 o n l y f o r v a l u e s of W/pc R3 g r e a t e r t h a n
lo-''. The change i n s l o p e i n F i g u r e s 5.8 and 5.9 i s probably caused by
changing from a r e g i o n where P-waves dominate i n c l o s e t o where R-waves
dominate a t l a r g e s t a n d o f f s . Should a c h a r g e happen t o b e t a n g e n t t o t h e
s u r f a c e and P-waves dominate, w e would u s e W / 1 1 f o r t h e energy r e l e a s e ,
and t h e approximate P-wave r e s u l t s , provided W/pc2R3 w a s g r e a t e r t h a n
as h a s a l r e a d y been s t a t e d . For l a r g e r s t a n d o f f s where W/pc 2R 3
might b e less t h a n 10-4, w e have provided no r e s u l t s , b u t i n t h i s r e g i o n
t h e shock l o a d i n g s are n o t v e r y severe.
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 5- 36

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5.5
PROBLEM - Assume t h a t one w i s h e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e maximum r a d i a l s o i l

d i s p l a c e m e n t X and t h e peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y U a t some
s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e R r e s u l t i n g from d e t o n a t i o n of a b u r i e d
c h a r g e w i t h i n a s p h e r i c a l c a v i t y . The c a v i t y i s of r a d i u s R
0
and t h e s o i l h a s a mass d e n s i t y of p and a P-wave p r o p a g a t i o n
v e l o c i t y of cp. I n t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n ?he s o i l can b e assumed t o
be u n l a y e r e d .
GIVEN: R = standoff (ft)

W = explosive yield (ft-lb)
= atmospheric p r e s s u r e ( l b / f t 2 )
PO
= mass d e n s i t y ( l b - s e c 2 / f t 4 )
ps
c p = propagation velocity ( f t / s e c )
R = r a d i u s of c a v i t y ( f t )
0
FIND: E q u i v a l e n t e n e r g y releases and maximum r a d i a l s o i l REFERENCE

d i s p l a c e m e n t and v e l o c i t y
SOLUTION: 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g nondimensional q u a n t i t i e s
p- = - Po w- = - W
2 3
P c
PoRo
(*)(p)
S P
2. O b t a i n t h e q u a n t i t y from F i g u r e 5.10
2 0.76
Fig. 5.10
3. -
M u l t i p l y r e s u l t s t e p 2 by (P) 0 * 7 6 t o o b t a i n
'eff/W
4. M u l t i p l y r e s u l t of s t e p 3 by W t o o b t a i n W
eff
5. Continue a t s t e p 2 o f Example Problem 5.4
i n S e c t i o n 5.3.2 t o f i n d X and U
ALTERNATE
SOLUTION: la. Compute Ro/W1I3 ( f t / l b 1/3)
2a. Read Pr o f f of graph F i g . 4.6
3a. Half P t o o b t a i n Ps
r
4a. Compute U from Ps by r e a r r a n g i n g E q u a t i o n (5.6) Eq. (5.6)
5a. Make up the q u a n t i t y
5-37 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

REFERENCE
F i g . 5.9
6a. Compute Weff
1%cp R' 0 from f i g u r e 5.9
7a. M u l t i p l y by p ScP 2RO3 t o o b t a i n Weff
8a. Divide by energy e q u i v a l e n c y t o o b t a i n W L f f
9a. Continue a t s t e p 2 of Example Problem 5.4 i n
S e c t i o n 5.3.2 t o f i n d X and U
CALCULATION
GIVEN: R = 40 f t
W = 3.4 x Et-lb ( t h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o 20 l b of TNT)
= 2117 l b / f t 2
= 3.54 l b - s e c 2 / f t 4
pS
c = 950 f t / s e c
P
R = 20 f t
0
FIND: E q u i v a l e n t energy release and maximum r a d i a l soil

d i m l a c e m e n t and v e l o c i t y
- 2117
SOLUTION: 1. P = --
- = 6.63
p S cP (3.54)(950)2
3. - - - ( 2 3 9 ) ( 6 . 6 3 x 1 0-4 0.76 = 0.918

Weff
W
ALTERNATE
SOLUTION: la. -
RO -- 2o = 7.37
W1 / 3 (20)1/3
2a. Pr = 34.5 p s i
'r 2
3a. Ps = - = 1 7 - 2 5 p s i = 2484 I b / f t
2484
4a. U = - - ps - = 0.739 f t / s e c
p c (3.54) (950)
S P
Change 1 - 1 5 August 1 9 8 1 5-38

5a. C
yjl2
pscp
-
0*739 ( 6 . 6 3
9 50
1 0 - ~ ) ~= /2.00
~
6a. 'eff = 1.20 10-3

2R
pscp 0
'eff = (1.20 x 10-3)(3.54) (9502)(203) = 3.06 x ft-lb
- 3*06
= 18.0 1 b TNT
+6
8a' Weff 1 . 7 x 1 0
5 C a l c u l a t e U and X by u s i n g F i g u r e s 5.8 and 5.9
or U = 0.132 f t / s e c = 1 . 5 8 i n . / s e c a t R = 40 f t
X = 3.96 x f t = 0.0475 i n . a t R = 40 f t
5-39 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

5.5 EXPLOSIVE CRATERING
Whenever a b u r i e d e x p l o s i v e charge i s d e t o n a t e d , a c a v i t y o r v o i d
i s formed w i t h i n t h e s o i l . I f t h e energy release i s r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e
t o t h e s u r f a c e , t h e c a v i t y o r v o i d v e n t s t o t h e atmosphere and a crater
i s formed. Large amounts of e j e c t a a r e f l u n g i'pwards and outwards i f
t h e c a v i t y v e n t s t o t h e atmosphere. Some of t h i s ejecta f a l l s back i n t o
t h e c a v i t y , whereas o t h e r amounts of i t s e t t l e on t h e l i p of t h e crater.
Because l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of e j e c t a s e t t l e i n t o t h e c a v i t y , two d i f f e r e n t
c r a t e r s can be d i s c u s s e d : t h e a p p a r e n t crater formed by t h e s u r f a c e of
t h e e j e c t a and t h e t r u e c r a t e r formed by t h e crater boundaries w i t h o u t
r e g a r d t o t h e e j e c t a . I l l u s t r a t i o n s , shown g r a p h i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 5.13,
d e p i c t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t r u e and a p p a r e n t craters. Although F i g u r e 5.13
and some i n v e s t i g a t o r s (Ref. 5.21) t r e a t craters v e n t i n g t o t h e atmosphere
as two s e p a r a t e and d i s t i n c t modes of r e s p o n s e dependent upon whether t h e
c r a t e r s are somewhat h e m i s p h e r i c a l o r c y l i n d r i c a l i n shape, we w i l l make
no such d i s t i n c t i o n . Any v o i d v e n t i n g t o t h e atmosphere w i l l b e t r e a t e d
as responding i n t h e c r a t e r i n g mode.
I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e energy release i s deep w i t h i n t h e ground,

t h e c a v i t y o r v o i d i s c r e a t e d w i t h o u t any a p p r e c i a b l e v e a t i n g t o t h e
atmosphere. T h i s mode of r e s p o n s e , as shown i n F i g u r e 5.13, i s termed t h e
camouflet mode. A l a r g e s p h e r i c a l v o i d ( o r camouflet) i s formed beneath
t h e s u r f a c e of t h e s o i l . Because d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l phenomena can be
i m p o r t a n t dependent upon whether: 1) c r a t e r s o r c a m o u f l e t s , o r 2) t r u e
o r a p p a r e n t c r a t e r c o n t o u r s are of i n t e r e s t , any e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p
must be a p p l i e d o n l y t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e mode of r e s p o n s e .
For e n g i n e e r i n g a n a l y s i s , s o i l p r o p e r t i e s such as t h e d e n s i t y
of s o i l ps and seismic P-wave p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y c are of secondary
importance i n d e t e r m i n i n g e i t h e r t r u e o r a p p a r e n t crater s i z e . A l l of
t h e approximate e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s which w e w i l l p r e s e n t are f o r
s a n d , c l a y s , o r r o c k b o t h w e t and d r y . None of t h e s e c u r v e s f i t s based
on e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t r e s u l t s w i l l have s o i l p r o p e r t i e s , b u t t h o s e w i t h
a n i n t e r e s t should r e a d Reference 5.22.
E s s e n t i a l l y , a l l c r a t e r i n g p r e d i c t i o n f o r m u l i can b e w r i t t e n i n
t h e format
w1/3 w1/4
Response i s a f u n c t i o n of -
d
and -
d
(5.22)
where W i s t h e e x p l o s i v e weight i n pounds and d i s t h e charge b u r i a l i n

f e e t . The r e s p o n s e i n Equation (5.22) can b e t h e s c a l e d r a d i u s R/d, t h e
s c a l e d d e p t h D/d, t h e s c a l e d volume V1/3/d i n a p p a r e n t craters o r t r u e
craters i n t h e camouflet o r c r a t e r i n g mode. I n f a c t , t h e term r e s p o n s e
can a l s o mean mode of r e s p o n s e , camouflet o r crater. N a t u r a l l y , t h e
f u n c t i o n a l format w i l l v a r y dependent upon r e s p o n s e t o b e p r e d i c t e d . A n
e q u a t i o n such as Equation (5.22) i s a three-parameter s p a c e which i n t e r -
relates t h e r e s p o n s e t o t h e r a t i o o f : 1) energy release r e l a t i v e t o t h e
5-40
driginal Surface
d& R T T
Apsarent C r a t a r
I \True Cra:er
E True C r a t e r
I
G
CF-XTEXIXG UODES
Ori;<i:;aL S u r f a c e
Apparent Crater
Ejecta
'
E
L T r u e Crater
CiUlOUFLET >IODE
Figure 5.13 Modes of Response and Nomenclature
5-41
s o i l ' s c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s W1/3/d, and 2) t h e energy release r e l a t i v e
t o g r a v i t a t i o n a l e f f e c t s W1l4/d. Remember t h a t t h e s o i l p r o p e r t i e s p s
and cp are c o n s i d e r e d t o b e c o n s t a n t s as i n t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i t y
g . I f W1f3/d w a s cubed and transformed i n t o t h e nondimensional r a t i o W/
P c2d3, t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e energy release i s r e l a t e d t o s o i l compressi-
b i l i t y e f f e c t s becomes a p p a r e n t . S i m i l a r l y , t h e term W1/4/d can b e trans-
formed i n t o t h e r a t i o W/psgd4 which emphasizes t h a t t h e energy release i s
being r e l a t e d t o g r a v i t a t i o n a l e f f e c t s .
Various f o r m u l i and g r a p h s s t a t e t h a t a r e s p o n s e i s r e l a t e d t o o n l y
Wl/3/d o r o n l y t o W1l4/d. Whenever t h e o b s e r v a t i o n i s made t h a t o n l y
W1l3/d matters, t h e r e s u l t s i n f e r t h a t g r a v i t a t i o n a l e f f e c t s a r e of secondary
importance. S i m i l a r l y , i f o n l y & I 4 /d m a t t e r s , t h e s o i l ' s c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y
e f f e c t s a r e o f secondary importance. F i n a l l y , some r e l a t i o n s h i p s s t a t e
t h a t W7/24/d i s i m p o r t a n t , which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o s a y i n g a l l e f f e c t s
matter and t h a t W1/3/d and W1/4/d e m p i r i c a l l y combine a s m u l t i p l e s t o
g i v e W7/12/d2 ( t h i s q u a n t i t y e q u a l s W7/24/d when t h e s q u a r e r o o t i s t a k e n ) .
Now t h a t t h i s background d i s c u s s i o n h a s been p r e s e n t e d , w e a r e r e a d y t o
discuss various empirical relationships.
The f i r s t t h i n g i s t o d e t e r m i n e whether a g i v e n c h a r g e and s o i l

overburden combination r e s u l t s i n a c r a t e r o r c a m o u f l e t b e i n g formed.
T h i s c a l c u l a t i o n comes f i r s t because t h e mode must b e known b e f o r e t h e
damage can be d e s c r i b e d by u s i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c r a t e r i n g o r camouflet
f ormul i .
The c u r v e f i t f o r mode of r e s p o n s e come; from a c o m p i l a t i o n of test
d a t a (Ref. 5.23) w i t h e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e w e i g h t s r a n g i n g from 5 . 0 grams
of C-4 t o 750-lb bombs. Two q u a n t i t i e s X and Y must b e c a l c u l a t e d :
X = 4.605 + Rn -
w1'4 (5.23)
d
+ 1.398 Rn -
w113]
d
tanh5 [2.00 + 0.4343 Rn (5.24)
where W i s t h e e x p l o s i v e weight i n pounds and

d i s t h e d e p t h of b u r i a l i n f e e t .
I f t h e q u a n t i t y X i s g r e a t e r t h a n Y , a c a m o u f l e t w i l l b e formed. I f t h e
q u a n t i t y X i s l e s s t h a n Y , t h e r e s p o n s e w i l l b e i n t h e c r a t e r i n g mode.
I n m a t h e m a t i c a l format t h i s s t a t e m e n t means
X > Y c a m o u f l e t mode (5.25a)

X < Y c r a t e r i n g mode (5.25b)
The r e s u l t X e q u a l t o Y means t h a t t h e r e s p o n s e i s a t t h e t h r e s h o l d of
s h i f t i n g from one mode t o t h e o t h e r mode. The energy release W i s a c t u a l l y
supposed t o b e i n e q u i v a l e n t pounds of C-4; however, r e l a t i v e t o t h e
s c a t t e r , d i f f e r e n c e s i n y i e l d s f o r chemical e x p l o s i v e s do n o t v a r y
5-4 2
enough t o matter, e s p e c i a l l y when such weak exponents as 113 and 1 / 4 a r e
t a k e n . For Pantex s a f e t y s t u d i e s , t h e energy release does n o t have t o
b e converted t o a s t a n d a r d e x p l o s i v e .
The same experimental d a t a b a s e used f o r determining mode of response

(Ref. 5.23) w a s employed i n curve f i t s of t r u e c r a t e r dimensions. The
f o r m u l i are g i v e n by:
{True Crater
Radius } (5.26a)
d (5.26b)
0.
1/3
--d - 2.046(\)
{True Crater
Volume } (5.26~)
One s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n c a l c u l a t e d from experiments e q u a l s e s s e n t i a l l y

12 p e r c e n t f o r a l l normalized dependent v a r i a b l e s i n Equation 5.26 w i t h
t h e e x c e p t i o n of RT/d which h a s a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of approximately
20 p e r c e n t . T h i s scatter is v e r y r e a s o n a b l e e s p e c i a l l y when secondary
e f f e c t s such as s o i l con i t i o n s are n o t included. Observe a l s o t h a t a
7
t r u e crater f o l l o w s a W1 3/d l a w which i n f e r s t h a t g r a v i t a t i o n a l e f f e c t s
are i n s i g n i f i c a n t as w a s d i s c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y . T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i s n o t
t r u e f o r a p p a r e n t craters.
I n t h e camouflet mode, Equations (5.26) f o r t r u e crater must b e

r e p l a c e d w i t h Equations (5.27) f o r t r u e camouflet s i z e .
' (y)
_-
d
1.053
0.865
Radius
(5.27a)
(w7y4)0.*32
-DT
d-- 2.244
Depth
(5.27b)
(5.27~)
Volume
5-43
One s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n f o r a l l of t h e s e s c a l e d t r u e camouflet d m e n s i o n s
a l s o e q u a l s e s s e n t i a l l y 1 2 p e r c e n t . N o t i c e now t h a t g r a v i t a t i o n a l e f f e c t s
and c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s b o t h matter, so a W7j24/d l a w i s followed.
Apparent c r a t e r dimensions a l s o f o l l o w a W7/24/d l a w . Because

a p p a r e n t c r a t e r s can b e e i t h e r c y l i n d r i c a l l y shaped o r h e m i s p h e r i c a l l y
shaped, t h e p r e d i c t i o n e q u a t i o n s are n o t l o g - l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
F i g u r e s 5 . 1 4 , 5.15, and 5.16 show g r a p h i c a l l y o b t a i n e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s
f o r R / d , VA1/3/d, and DA/d as f u n c t i o n s of W7/24/d. The test d a t a
cornpifation used i n t h e s e f i g u r e s came from Reference 5.24. The g r e a t e r
d e p t h of b u r i a l c r a t e r s w i t h W7/24/d less t h a n 0.4 i n t h e s e f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t
c y l i n d r i c a l as opposed t o h e m i s p h e r i c a l c r a t e r s . Although i t i s n o t
shown i n t h i s c o m p i l a t i o n w i t h d i f f e r e n t q u a n t i t i e s of e x p l o s i v e i n one
s o i l ( a d e s e r t a l l u v i u m ) , o t h e r s o i l s i n c l u d i n g sand, c l a y s , and r o c k a l s o
s c a t t e r randomly about t h e p r e d i c t i o n l i n e s g i v e n i n Figilres 5.14 through
5.16.
We p r e s e n t no p r e d i c t i o n procedure f o r d e t e r m i n i n g a p p a r e n t camouflet
size. T h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t r u e and a p p a r e n t c r a t e r s a r e much m o r e d i f f i c u l t
t o d e t e r m i n e i n a camouflet as e s s e n t i a l l y a l l t h e s o i l i n a camouflet is
compressed r a t h e r t h a n f l u n g i n t o t h e a i r a s e j e c t a . True c r a t e r dimensions
are a r e a s o n a b l e a c c u r a t e measure of t h e e x t e n t of ground damage i n a.
camouf l e t .
H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e e a r l y work i n t h e 1 9 4 0 ' s and 1 9 5 0 ' s advocated b o t h

$'4/d and W1/3/d s c a l i n g l a w s f o r a p p a r e n t crater. Another e a r l y
i n v e s t i g a t o r , A l b e r t Chabai (Ref. 5 . 2 4 ) , s u g g e s t e d a W1/3*4/d s c a l i n g
l a w , b u t f o r p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , W7/24/d e q u a l s W1/3*4/d. I f o n l y s m a l l
v a r i a t i o n s i n c h a r g e weight were i n v o l v e d , u s i n g e i t h e r t h e 113 o r 1 / 4
exponent w a s s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e t o 1 / 3 . 4 f o r no a p p a r e n t e r r o r t o arise.
Only i n t h e mid-1960's a f t e r some n u c l e a r c r a t e r i n g d a t a became a v a i l a b l e
t o extend t h e r a n g e o v e r which W had been v a r i e d , d i d t h e 1 / 3 . 4 o r 7/24
exponent on energy release become u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t e d .
A f i n a l c r a t e r e j e c t a problem of i n t e r e s t i s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e
maximum d i s t a n c e t h a t e j e c t a w i l l b e f l u n g . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s o b t a i n e d
by s c a l i n g t e s t r e s u l t s from R e f e r e n c e s 5.18 and 5.25. Only a l i m i t e d
amount of d a t a e x i s t , b u t F i g u r e 5.17 i s f o r t h e maximum e j e c t a r a d i u s
s o t h a t less t h a n one m i s s i l e p e r s q u a r e f o o t exists beyond t h e r a d i u s
g i v e n i n F i g u r e 5.17. For p u r p o s e s of d e f i n i t i o n , a m i s s i l e i s d e f i n e d
as a s o i l chunk g r e a t e r t h a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2.0 i n . i n d l a m e t e r . N o t i c e t h a t
F i g u r e 5.17 f o l l o w s a W7/24/d r u l e as b o t h g r a v i t a t i o n a l and c o n s t i t u t i v e
e f f e c t s are i m p o r t a n t . Although some e j e c t a are f l u n g beyond t h e d i s t a n c e
g i v e n by F i g u r e 5.17, w e are f o r c e d t o u s e t h e s e r e s u l t s a s ' a n approximation
t o t h e end of t h e e j e c t a f i e l d . Any a b s o l u t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e end of
any e j e c t a f i e l d i s i m p o s s i b l e and would b e a s u b j e c t i v e o p i n i o n w i t h d i f f e r -
ent investigators.

0.L
w7 / 2 4 7/24
Id , l b Ift
F i g u r e 5.14 Apparent Crater Radius RA/d v e r s u s IJ 7 / 2 4 ~ di n Alluvium
5-45
F i g u r e 5.15 Apparent C r a t e r Volume Vi3/d v e r s u s W 7 / 2 4 ~ din Alluvium
5-46
4.0
2.0
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.1 0.?e 0.4 0.6 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0

W7/24/d, 1 b 7 / 2 4 / f t
F i g u r e 5.16 Apparent Crater Depth D /d v e r s u s W 7 / 2 4 / d i n Alluvium

A
4-
5-4 7
100
70
50
20
2
0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0
7. 124
7/24 l/3g118d
ps p
Figure 5.17 Maximum Ejecta Radii for Large Soil Chunks
5-48
Although w e have n o t d i s c u s s e d t h e s u b j e c t of c r a t e r i n g from s u r f a c e
b u r s t s o r c r a t e r i n g from a i r b u r s t s , some e m p i r i c a l r e s u l t s can b e found
i n R e f e r e n c e 5.26. For s m a l l c o n v e n t i o n a l h i g h e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s d e t o n a t e d
above ground, c r a t e r i n g i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t . G e n e r a l l y , n u c l e a r energy
releases are needed f o r above-ground c r a t e r i n g t o become s i g n i f i c a n t .
To t h e best of our knowledge, no d a t a o r p r e d i c t i o n procedure e x i s t s

f o r e s t i m a t i n g c r a t e r s i z e o r e j e c t a p a t t e r n s when c h a r g e s a r e d e t o n a t e d
i n s i d e c a v i t i e s w i t h i n t h e e a r t h . F u r t h e r work i s r e q u i r e d i n t h i s a r e a
i f a p r e d i c t i o n p r o c e d u r e i s t o b e developed.
5-49
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5.6
PROBLEM - Assume t h a t one wishes t o determine whether a c r a t e r o r a camouflet

i s formed when a b u r i e d charge i s d e t o n a t e d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e
t r u e c r a t e r / c a m o u f l e t and a p p a r e n t c r a t e r / c a m o u f l e t dimensions
should b e c a l c u l a t e d .
GIVEN: W = charge weight ( l b )

d = d e p t h of b u r i a l ( f t )
FIND: C r a t e r / c a m o u f l e t modes and dimensions REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Calculate X 1/4

X = 4.605 + Rn - Eq. (5.23)
d
2. Calculate Y
Y =
1 6.438 + .
I
1.398 R n (1 5/ 3)
\ -
I t a n h5
Eq. (5.24)
3.
[2.00 + 0.434
Determine i f a cr'ateli Er camouflet i s formed.
a . I f X i s less t h a n Y a c r a t e r i s formed. Eq. (5.25b)
Continue a t S t e p 4 .
b. I f X i s g r e a t e r t h a n Y a camouflet i s Eq. (5.25a)
formed. Continue a t S t e p 5 .
4. Calculate the t r u e ,rater dimcsions.
n 1 1 3 0.865
-
'?' - (!!)
r~)
a. 2.155 (scaled radius) Eq. (5.26a)
d
113 0.683
( s c a l e d depth) Eq. (5.25b)
b. -DT- - 2.312
d
Eq. (5.26~)
5 . . C a l c u l a t e t h e t r u e camouflet dimensions.
a. '
-
d
- 1.053 (>) 7 / 2 4 0.865
7 / 2 4 0.432
(scaled radius) Eq. (5.27a)
-DT- - 2.244 (>) ( s c a l e d depth)
(
b. Eq. (5.27b)
d
1/3 \ 51124)0865
vT -
c. -- 1.718
d
( s c a l e d volume) Eq. (5.27~)
6. Obtain a p p a r e n t c r a t e r dimensions. Figs. 5.14,

5.15, 5.16
5- 50
.. . .... . . . .. . .. .... . .... . . .. .
CALCULATION
GIVEN: W = 500 l b
d = 15 f t
FIND: C r a t e r / c a m o u f l e t mode and dimensions
SOLUTION: 1. X = 4.605 + Rn = 3.45
Y = 4.03
+ 15
1.398 R n(iD01/?)]tanh5 p. 0 + 0.4343 1n(54$/3]

3. X < Y , t h e r e f o r e crater i s formed.
4. -15- -
%=
2.155
5001/3 0.865
18.6 f t
(r )
DT
15
= 2.312
D = 22.45 f t
)
1 / 3 0.683
T
113 0.785
f500 1
-=
V,
15
= 6,456 f t
3
\ 15 )
6. Apparent crater dimensions:
R = 17.25 f t
A
DA = 7.8 f t
3
VA = 3,375 f t
PROBLEM - Assume t h a t one a l s o wishes t o d e t e r m i n e t h e maximum r a d i u s

where s i g n i f i c a n t amounts of e j e c t a w i l l f a l l . The same c h a r g e
and d e p t h of b u r i a l can be used a s i n Example Problem 5.6.
GIVEN: W = charge y i e l d (ft-lb)

c = propagation v e l o c i t y I f t l s e c )
= mass d e n s i t y (lb-sec / f & )
pS
2
g = gravity (ft/sec )
d = d e p t h of b u r i a l ( f t )
5-51 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

FIND: Maximum r a d i u s f o r c r a t e r e j e c t a REFERENCE
soLUTIoN: 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e a b s c i s s a f o r F i g u r e 5.17.
w7/24
7/24 .1/3 g1/8
pS P
2. Find t h e v a l u e of t h e o r d i n a t e and d e t e r m i n e t h e F i g . 5.17
maximum r a n g e .
CALCULATION
8
GIVEN: W = 8.5 x 10 f t - l b (500 l b of e x p l o s i v e )
cp= 950 f t / s e c
4
= 3.54 l b - s e c / f t
ps
2
g = 32.2 f t / s e c
d = 15 f t
FIND: Maximum r a d i u s f o r crater e j e c t a

,,7/24
W
SOLUTION: 1. = 1.22
7/24 1 1 3 1 / 8
C g
PS P
2. --- 15.5; R = 465 f t
2d

5.6 EFFECTS OF GROUND MOTION ON B U I L D I N G S , EQUIPMENT AND PERSONNEL
5.6.1 Shock S p e c t r a
Much work h a s been done on d e c i d i n g when ground shocks are

annoying t o i n d i v i d u a l s and damage s t r u c t u r e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no o v e r a l l
c o n c i s e c r i t e r i a have a r i s e n . Each i n v e s t i g a t o r i n t h e p a s t h a s been
concerned w i t h i n narrow bounds t h a t p e r t a i n t o h i s p a r t i c u l a r problem.
On o c c a s i o n , t h e r e s u l t s from v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t o r s c o n f l i c t w i t h one
a n o t h e r . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e h a s been a tendency t o mix s i n u s o i d a l o r
c y c l i c o s c i l l a t i o n s from machinery, t r a f f i c and r a i l w a y s w i t h impulsive
s i n g l e - p u l s e s o u r c e s such as e x p l o s i o n s . I n s p i t e of t h e s e problems,
some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e v a r i o u s c r i t e r i a can be obtained by s t u d y i n g a
single-degree-of-freedom, l i n e a r l y e l a s t i c o s c i l l a t o r . The o s c i l l a t o r
system s e e n i n F i g u r e 5.18 can be used t o r e p r e s e n t t h e e f f e c t s of s u r f a c e
waves on a s t r u c t u r e o r person.
F i g u r e 5.18 Q u a l i t a t i v e Ground O s c i l l a t i o n Model
Usually one wishes t o l i m i t t h e maximum f o r c e imparted t o t h e m a s s

i n t h i s o s c i l l a t o r t o v a l u e s less t h a n some s p e c i f i c t h r e s h o l d f o r c e , i f
b u i l d i n g s are n o t t o b e damaged and people are n o t t o b e annoyed. Because
t h e maximum f o r c e i n t h i s o s c i l l a t i o n e q u a l s k(x-y)ma,, a maximum d i f f e r e n c e
i n displacement c r i t e r i o n can a l s o be used as b e i n g e q u i v a l e n t t o a l i m i t i n g
f o r c e , provided t h a t l i m i t i n g v a l u e i s s p e c i f i e d f o r each type of a c c i d e n t .
Hence, we w i l l proceed by l i m i t i n g ( X - Y ) t~o ~c~e r t a i n magnitudes s o explo-
sives w i l l n o t be j a r r e d o f f of t a b l e s , p l a s t e r i n b u i l d i n g s w i l l n o t c r a c k ,
o r p e o p l e w i l l n o t b e annoyed. The e q u a t i o n of motion f o r t h i s o s c i l l a t o r
is:
2
m-
2
+ k x = k yo s i n w t (5.28)
dt
I f a t time t = 0, x and d x / d t = 0 , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n d i s p l a c e m e n t s w i l l
be g i v e n by: 2
(x-y) =
YOw
sinwt -
yo IE
- s i n Et (5.29)
m m
5-53
Equation (5.29) has two p a r t s t o t h e s o l u t i o n : t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n i n
which t h e n a t u r a l frequency Jklm
of t h e o s c i l l a t o r predominates and t h e
complementary s o l u t i o n where t h e frequency of t h e e x c i t a t i o n w predominates.
Which s i n e t e r m i s most important depends upon two t h i n g s : 1) damping,
which w e have n o t included i n t h i s s o l u t i o n , and 2) t h e n a t u r e of t h e
e x c i t a t i o n , whether i t i s a p u l s e o r harmonic o s c i l l a t i o n . I f t h e system
were t o i n c l u d e damping and be h e a v i l y damped s o t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r
s o l u t i o n i s unimportant, o r e x c i t e d harmonically w i t h i n s i g n i f i c a n t
s t a r t - u p t r a n s i e n t s , t h e complementaty s o l u t i o n dominates and Equation
(5.29) becomes:
2
comp 1ement a r y
s o l u t i o n only )
(5.30)
For low frequency e x c i t a t i o n s w i t h w / G << 1 . 0 , t h e maximum v a l u e f o r

(x-y) becomes:
w
2
= 1.0
complementary
)
s o l u t i o n only (5.31)
(YOU 1
On t h e o t h e r hand, i f t h e amount of damping i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t o r t h e

e x c i t a t i o n i s a s h o r t p u l s e s o t h a t s t a r t - u p t r a n s i e n t s are i m p o r t a n t ,
t h e n t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n dominates and Equation (5.29) becomes:
particular
s o l u t i o n only ) (5.32)
Which when w / d & << 1 . 0 h a s a maximum a b s o l u t e v a l u e f o r (x-y) of:
(E) (x-y)max
= -1.0 for E
w
particular
)
<< 1.0 ( s o l u t i o n o n l y
(5.33)
(yo>
Equation ( 5 . 3 3 ) , when t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n dominates, i s a

maximum p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y c r i t e r i o n , whereas Equation ( 5 . 3 1 ) , when t h e
complementary s o l u t i o n dominates, i s a maximum a c c e l e r a t i o n c r i t e r i o n .
Because b o t h c r i t e r i a r e l a t e t o t h e maximum f o r c e imparted t o t h e m a s s ,
one can see t h a t , dependent upon t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e e x c i t a t i o n and amount
of damping, e i t h e r v e l o c i t y o r a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e ground can b e t h e
p r o p e r c r i t e r i o n f o r d e c i d i n g when ground shock damages s t r u c t u r e s o r
d i s t u r b s people.
5-54
If w / m > > 1.0, t h e complementary s o l u t i o n given by Equation
( 5 . 3 0 ) dominates and t h e maximum v a l u e of (x-y) i s g i v e n by:
(x-y) max w
= 1.0 >> 1.0 (5.34)
YO
Equation ( 5 . 3 4 ) shows t h a t f o r high f r e q u e n c i e s t h e c r i t e r i o n can become

a displacement c r i t e r i a . For o s c i l l a t i o n s , t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s seldom
encountered as e n g i n e e r s u s u a l l y d e s i g n s t r u c t u r e s w i t h w l m < 1 . 0
s o no resonance w i l l be experienced should h i g h e r harmonics b e e x c i t e d .
N a t u r a l l y , when a c c i d e n t s o c c u r , u / m can be u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y g r e a t e r
t h a n 1 . 0 , and a displacement c r i t e r i o n might a r i s e . Those i n t e r e s t e d i n
l e a r n i n g more about shock s p e c t r a and t h e i r d e r i v a t i o n should r e a d
Reference 5.27.
These computations f o r t h e r e s p o n s e of a l i n e a r - e l a s t i c o s c i l l a t o r
can b e shown g r a p h i c a l l y u s i n g shock s p e c t r a as c r i t e r i a f o r damaging
s t r u c t u r e s o r annoying people because of ground shock. All of t h e s e
shock s p e c t r a p r e s e n t a l i m i t i n g v e l o c i t y , a c c e l e r a t i o n , o r displacement
f o r some band of e x c i t a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s . Some of t h e e a r l i e s t of t h e s e
were c r i t e r i a f o r annoying people.
Various i n v e s t i g a t o r s have i n f e r r e d t h a t p e o p l e begin t o p e r c e i v e

v i b r a t i o n , c l e a r l y p e r c e i v e v i b r a t i o n s , o r are annoyed based on a ground
v e l o c i t y of v i b r a t i o n c r i t e r i a . P l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 5.19 a r e v i b r a t i o n
d a t a summarized by S t e f f e n s (Ref. 5 . 2 8 ) f o r v i b r a t i o n s from t r a f f i c ,
r a i l w a y s , p i l e d r i v i n g , and machinery. A s can be s e e n , S t e f f e n s would con-
c l u d e t h a t ground v e l o c i t i e s between 0.01 t o 0.03 i n . / s e c are j u s t per-
c e p t i b l e , 0.03 i n . / s e c and 0.10 i n . / s e c are c l e a r l y p e r c e p t i b l e , and over
0.10 i n . / s e c a r e annoying. The f r e q u e n c i e s are f a i r l y l o w i n F i g u r e 5.19
(less t h a n 8 0 Hz) and would i n d i c a t e t h a t o u r q u a l i t a t i v e l y d e r i v e d v e l o c i t y
c r i t e r i o n f o r c o n s t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n displacement of t h e ground and c . g .
of t h e responding system are c o r r e c t , Because o u r system i s a l i n e a r -
e l a s t i c o s c i l l a t o r , t h e c r i t e r i o n of a c o n s t a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n d i s p l a c e m e n t s
i s a l s o a s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e peak f o r c e imparted t o t h e mass i s a c o n s t a n t ,
and t h a t t h e peak a c c e l e r a t i o n experienced by t h e m a s s i s a l s o c o n s t a n t .
Reiher and Meister (Ref. 5 . 2 9 ) would concur w i t h t h e r e s u l t s

g i v e n i n F i g u r e 5.19. A c t u a l l y , S t e f f e n s followed Reiher and Meister and
decided t h a t t h e i r c o n c l u s i o n s covered r e a s o n a b l y w e l l a l l v a l u e s
given by o t h e r s . Reiher and Meister i n d i c a t e t h a t a peak ground v e l o c i t y
of 0.01 i n . / s e c i s t h e t h r e s h o l d of b e i n g b a r e l y n o t i c e a b l e ; whereas,
0.10 i n . / s e c i s t h e t h r e s h o l d of b e i n g troublesome.
5-55
1.or I I I
it
1
4 PAINFUL
0 u ANNOYING
0 CLEARLY PERCEPT1 6LE
TO ANNOYING
0.6 v CLEARLY PERCEPT1BLE
3- Q JUST PERCEPT1 BLE
o-2
I ANNOYING
0.1
c v V
CLEARLY
u
0)
v)
\
tv
0.061 PERCEPT1 BLE
d
.d
e
8 0
0.02 8 JUST
0 PERCEPT1 BLE
8
0.01 I I I I I
f , Hz
Figure 5.19 Human Thresholds for Ground Vibrations (Reference 5.28)
5-56
I n 1943 Rausch (Ref. 5.30) p r e s e n t e d s t e a d y - s t a t e v i b r a t i o n
c r i t e r i a f o r s a f e o p e r a t i o n of machinery. A t v e r y low f r e q u e n c i e s below
33 Hz Rausch's c r i t e r i o n i s a peak v e l o c i t y one of 1 . 0 i n . / s e c (Equation
5.33, p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n ) ; however, a t s l i g h t l y h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s
o v e r 33 Hz, he u s e s a peak s o i l a c c e l e r a t i o n c r i t e r i o n of 0.5 g (Equation
5.31, complementary s o l u t i o n ) . Because machinery i n v o l v e s s t e a d y - s t a t e
v i b r a t i o n s i n which t h e complementary s o l u t i o n d e f i n i t e l y becomes i m p o r t a n t ,
a n a c c e l e r a . t i o n c r i t e r i o n makes s e n s e .
A c o n v e n i e n t method of p r e s e n t i n g v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t o r s ' v i b r a t i o n
d a t a on annoying p e o p l e i s a shock s p e c t r a diagram a s s e e n i n F i g u r e 5.20.
T h i s diagram s i m u l t a n e o u s l y shows l i m i t i n g d i s p l a c e m e n t , v e l o c i t y , and
a c c e l e r a t i o n v a l u e s and t h e a s s o c i a t e d f r e q u e n c i e s . P o i n t s f a l l i n g above
l i m i t i n g v a l u e s v i o l a t e " f a i l u r e " c r i t e r i o n , w h i l e p o i n t s f a l l i n g below
r e p r e s e n t s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n d i t i o n s . F i g u r e 5.20 g i v e s t h e l i m i t i n g
c o n d i t i o n s o f : 1 ) R e i h e r and Meister f o r shocks being b a r e l y n o t i c e a b l e
t o p e o p l e and f o r b e i n g troublesome t o p e o p l e , 2) Rausch f o r v i b r a t i n g
machines and machinery f o u n d a t i o n s , and 3) t h e U . S . Bureau of Mines f o r
b l a s t i n g , even though t h e i r l i m i t s were g e n e r a t e d u s i n g v i b r a t o r s . The
e x i s t e n c e of v e r y low frequency v e l o c i t y r e s p o n s e c r i t e r i a and h i g h e r
f r e q u e n c y a c c e l e r a t i o n c r i t e r i a a r e a p p a r e n t i n F i g u r e 5.20.
B e s i d e s annoying p e o p l e , t h e damaging of b u i l d i n g s can b e a n i m -

p o r t a n t , and f o r some s c e n a r i o s more i m p o r t a n t , a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n
c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Numerous i n v e s t i g a t o r s have conducted experiments and
proposed c r i t e r i a f o r p r o t e c t i n g s t r u c t u r e s . T h i s work w i l l b e reviewed
s o t h a t t h e s e e f f o r t s can be brought i n t o p e r s p e c t i v e .
The Bureau of Mines (Ref. 5.14) conducted experiments i n 1942

b e c a u s e of damage and l i t i g a t i o n a r i s i n g from t h e d e t o n a t i o n of b u r i e d
e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s . Because t h e Bureau had d i f f i c u l t y l o c a t i n g s t r u c t u r e s
which could b e b l a s t loaded t o damage, 1 3 t e s t s w e r e conducted u s i n g a
mechanical v i b r a t o r w i t h an unbalanced r o t o r . Force and frequency were
a d j u s t e d w i t h upper limits of 1000 pounds and 40 Hz, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The
Bureau r e p o r t based upon t h e s e r e s u l t s recommended a n a c c e l e r a t i o n c r i t e r i o n
w i t h no damage a t less t h a n 0 . 1 g ' s , minor damage between 0,l and 1.Q
g ' s , and major damage a t g r e a t e r t h a n 1 . 0 g's: These Bureau of Mines
r e s u l t s were l a t e r t o become a s u b j e c t of c o n t r o v e r s y as Duvall and Fogelson
(Ref. 5.31) used t h e s e same d a t a t o show s t a t i s t i c a i l y t h a t major damage
correlated w i t h acceleration.
I n t h e Boston S o c i e t y of C i v i l E n g i n e e r s (Kef, 5 . 3 2 ) , C r a n d e l l
proposed a c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y c r i t e r i o n f o r p r o t e c t i n g s t r u c t u r e s from
b l a s t i n g . H i s lower l i m i t f o r c a u t i o n t o s t r u c t u r e s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a
peak ground v e l o c i t y of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 . 0 i n . / s e c , C r a n d e l l used t e s t
5-57
,
Figure 5.20 Shock Spectra Diagram
5-58
r e s u l t s t o r e l a t e t h i s v e l o c i t y (he c a l l s i t an energy r a t i o ) t o s t a n d o f f
d i s t a n c e , charge w e i g h t , and a ground t r a n s m i s s i o n c o n s t a n t . Many s t a t e
codes are based upon t h i s work.
I n t h e S t a t e of Texas, i n t e r i m b l a s t i n g s t a n d a r d s promulgated by
t h e U. S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r and p u b l i s h e d i n t h e F e d e r a l R e g i s t e r
on December 1 3 , 1977, were t e n t a t i v e l y adopted by t h e Texas R a i l r o a d
Commission i n February of 1978. The U. S. Department of t h e I n t e r i o r
made t h e i n t e r i m b l a s t i n g s t a n d a r d f i n a l i n t h e F e d e r a l R e g i s t e r of March
1 3 , 1979. F i n a l a d o p t i o n by t h e Texas R a i l r o a d Commission w a s made i n
November 1979 i n Coal Mining Regulations f o r t h e S u r f a c e Mining D i v i s i o n .
Both t h e i n t e r i m and f i n a l b l a s t i n g s t a n d a r d s l i m i t maximum peak p a r t i c l e
v e l o c i t y of t h e ground motion i n any d i r e c t i o n t o one i n . / s e c a t t h e
l o c a t i o n of any u s a b l e b u i l d i n g . Arguments a t t h e pre-adoption h e a r i n g
f o r a two i n . / s e c " l i m i t i n g " v e l o c i t y were p r e s e n t e d , b u t were r e j e c t e d .
Both t h e i n t e r i m and t h e f i n a l permanent r e g u l a t i o n s u s e a form of Morris'
e q u a t i o n (Ref. 5.11) t o r e l a t e t h e charge weight (W i n pounds of e x p l o s i v e )
and t h e s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e (D i n f e e t ) .
w =(q (5.35)
T h i s e q u a t i o n need n o t be used where a seismograph has been i n s t a l l e d t o

monitor p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y , which s t i l l should n o t exceed one i n . / s e c .
I n s i d e t h e grounds owned o r l e a s e d by t h e p a r t y doing t h e b l a s t i n g ,
t h a t person does n o t have t o a d h e r e t o t h e maximum peak p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y
l i m i t a t i o n . T h i s r e g u l a t i o n i s t o p r o t e c t neighboring p a r t i e s and n o t t h e
b l a s t e r himself from t h e consequences of ground shock.
I n Sweden (Ref. 5.33) a l a r g e d a t a b a s e w a s accumulated d u r i n g a

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t r e q u i r i n g b l a s t i n g n e a r b u i l d i n g s . Because l a r g e
b l a s t s were d e s i r e d f o r economy of o p e r a t i o n , a p o l i c y w a s adopted whereby
minor damage, which could be r e p l a c e d a t moderate c o s t , w a s a c c e p t a b l e .
Thus, these i n v e s t i g a t o r s w e r e able to record and a n a l y z e a l a r g e amount
of d a t a on a c t u a l damage t o b u i l d i n g s from more than 100 b l a s t i n g tests.
By and l a r g e , t h e s e S w e d i s h ' f r e q u e n c i e s were h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e

r e c o r d e d elsewhere, 50 t o 500 Hz. Once a g a i n , p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y became
t h e b e s t damage c r i t e r i o n f o r f a i l u r e of p l a s t e r . V e l o c i t i e s of 2 . 8 i n . /
sec r e s u l t e d i n no n o t i c e a b l e damage, 4.3 i n . / s e c i n f i n e c r a c k i n g and
f a l l of p l a s t e r , 6.3 i n . / s e c i n c r a c k i n g , and 9 . 1 i n . / s e c i n s e r i o u s
cracking.
Edwards and Northwood (Ref. 5.34) conducted c o n t r o l l e d b l a s t i n g

tests on s i x r e s i d e n c e s s l a t e d f o r removal f o r t h e S t . Lawrence River Power
P r o j e c t . A c c e l e r a t i o n , p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y , and displacement w e r e a l l
measured f o r c h a r g e s r a n g i n g from 47 t o 750 l b b u r i e d a t d e p t h s of 1 5 t o
30 f t a t v a r i o u s d i s t a n c e s from t h e i r b u i l d i n g s . Frequencies ranged
5-59
from 3 t o 30 Hz. They concluded t h a t damage w a s more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o
v e l o c i t y t h a n displacement o r a c c e l e r a t i o n , and t h a t 4 t o 5 i n . / s e c
w a s l i k e l y t o cause damage. A s a f e v i b r a t i o n l i m i t of 2 . 0 i n . / s e c w a s
recommended based on t h i s s t u d y .
I n Czechoslovakia (Ref. 5 . 3 5 ) , Dvorak p u b l i s h e d r e s u l t s f o r b u r i e d

e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s of 2 t o 40 l b p l a c e d 1 6 t o 100 f t from one t o two-story
b r i c k b u i l d i n g s . H i s f r e q u e n c i e s were i n t h e r a n g e of 1.5 t o 1 5 Hz.
Dovak concluded t h a t t h r e s h o l d damage o c c u r r e d a t p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t i e s
between 0.4 t o 1 . 2 i n . / s e c , minor damage a t 1.2 t o 2.4 i n . / s e c and major
damage above 2 . 4 i n . / s e c .
Now t h a t a l l t h e s e b u i l d i n g damage t h r e s h o l d c r i t e r i a have been

d i s c u s s e d , t h e q u e s t i o n arises as t o which are b e s t . For ground
shock from b l a s t s o r i m p a c t s , a v e l o c i t y c r i t e r i o n i s most a p p r o p r i a t e
i n t h e low frequency domain. Of t h e c r i t e r i a d i s c u s s e d , o n l y Rausch
(Ref. 5.30) and Bureau of Mines (Ref. 5.14) have a n a c c e l e r a t i o n domain.
Both of t h e s e groups of experiments were l a r g e l y based upon v i b r a t i o n s ,
e i t h e r from machinery o r from v i b r a t o r s . The p o i n t which we would make
i s t h a t s t e a d y - s t a t e v i b r a t i o n s can r e s u l t i n t h e complementary s o l u t i o n .
b e i n g dominant. W e have shown t h a t t h e complementary s o l u t i o n i n Equation
(5.29) can l e a d t o a n a c c e l e r a t i o n c r i t e r i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, s i n g l e
p u l s e s s h o u l d have a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n . A p a r t i c u l a r s . o l u t i o n
l e a d s t o a v e l o c i t y c r i t e r i o n i n t h e low frequency domain. All of t h e
o t h e r d a t a b a s e s w i t h e x p l o s i o n s as a s o u r c e f o r test r e s u l t s have v e l o c i t y
c r i t e r i a . T h i s r e s u l t seems c o r r e c t , and one should n o t b e d i s t u r b e d
by d i f f e r e n t v e l o c i t y c r i t e r i a having been o b t a i n e d by d i f f e r e n t i n v e s t i -
g a t o r s . E q u a t i o n ( 5 b 3 3 ) shows t h a t (x-y),= i s n o t a f u n c t i o n of o n l y
v e l o c i t y (y w ) , b u t r a t h e r i t i s a f u n c t i o n of ( y o w ) / m . N a t u r a l l y ,
0
d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s and s t r u c t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s can have a v a r i e t y
of n a t u r a l s t r u c t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e sJklm.
One of t h e b e s t summaries of low f r e q u e n c y b l a s t i n g c r i t e r i a w a s
p u t t o g e t h e r by N i c h o l l s e t a l . (Ref. 5.36). B a s i c a l l y , Nichollq took
t h e t h r e e b e s t d a t a sources--Thoenen and Windes (Ref. 5 . 1 4 ) . Langefors
e t a l . (Ref. 5.33). and Edwards and Northwood (Ref. 5.34)--to show a
composite p l o t of displacement a m p l i t u d e v e r s u s frequency d a t a . Three
d e g r e e s of s t r u c t u r a l damage s e v e r i t y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d : no damage, minor
damage such as new c r a c k f o r m a t i o n o r opening of o l d c r a c k s , and major
damage such as s e r i o u s c r a c k i n g and f a l l of p l a s t e r . These d a t a cover
a wide r a n g e i n f r e q u e n c i e s from a low of 2 . 5 t o 28 Hz f o r t h e Edwards
and Northwood S t . Lawrence P r o j e c t t o a h i g h o f 46 t o 450 Hz f o r t h e
Langefors e t a l . Swedish d a t a . The Thoenen and Windes Bureau of Mines
d a t a f a l l i n between a t 7 t o 40 Hz. F i g u r e 5 . 2 1 shows t h i s displacement
v e r s u s frequency p l o t of N i c h o l l s . N o t i c e t h a t a f t e r conducting a
r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s , t h e s l o p e of t h e l i n e s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s of
damage a r e a l l c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y c u r v e s . The magnitude of t h e p a r t i c l e
Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981 5-60

:g.,
1.
\ 1 I I I 1 I 1 1 I
-8
6
\ \
Safe blasting criterion--

v.2.0 in/sec
01
.008
--
.006 -
-009 - Q
0
Bureau of Mines
Longefors Major damage data
A Edwards ond Northwood
Bureou of Mines
.02-
Langefors Minor damage dota
A Edwards and Northwood
1 2 4 6 10 20 40 60 100 20G 400
FREQUENCY, Hz
Figi1.re 5.21 Displacement versus Frequency, Combined Data

with Recommended Safe Blasting Criterion
(Ref. 5.35)
5-61
v e l o c i t y f o r major damage i s 7.6 i n . / s e c . The minor s t r u c t u r a l damage
t h r e s h o l d v e l o c i t y of 5.4 i n . / s e c i s based almost e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e
Swedish,data (Ref. 5.33) as t h e r e s u l t s of o t h e r s were found t o be s t a t i s -
t i c a l l y ' i n c o n c l u s i v e . Both major and minor damage r e s u l t s i n F i g u r e 5 . 2 1
would r e j e c t a displacement s l o p e of 0 o r a c c e l e r a t i o n s l o p e of -2.
I n F i g u r e 5.21, t h e o u t e r l i m i t f o r s a f e b l a s t i n g could n o t b e oDtained
s t a t i s t i c a l l y , b u t t h e s a f e zone p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y of 2.0 i n . / s e c
recommended by Duvall and Fogelson (Ref. 5.31) i s shown and seems
reasonable.
The r e s u l t s shown i n F i g u r e 5 . 2 1 are recornended f o r u s e i n

Pantex s a f e t y s t u d i e s as t h e y are based upon an e v a l u a t i o n of t h e l a r g e s t
d a t a b a s e and t h e r e s u l t s r e a c h t h e c o r r e c t t h e o r e t i c a l l i m i t f o r low
f r e q u e n c y ground shock from b l a s t i n g . I n u s i n g t h e r e s u l t s i n F i g u r e
5 . 2 1 remember t h a t t h e c r i t e r i o n a c t u a l l y i n v o l v e s b o t h t h e v e l o c i t y
(you) and t h e n a t u r a l frequency of t h e s t r u c t u r e (m). I n Figure
5 . 2 1 , t h e upper frequency bound i s 450 Hz; however, t h i s bound i s based
upon b u i l d i n g s i n Sweden a s t e s t e d by Langefors (Ref. 5.33). I f the
b u i l d i n g s of i n t e r e s t have o t h e r n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s , t h e upper frequency
could b e e i t h e r g r e a t e r o r less t h a n 450 Hz i n o t h e r b u i l d i n g s .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l t h r e s h o l d s p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 5.21,
w e would add t h e t h r e s h o l d s f o r annoying people o r f o r being p e r c e p t i b l e
g i v e n i n F i g u r e 5.19. The t h r e s h o l d s g i v e n i n F i g u r e 5.19 are n o t dangerous
ones; however, c i r c u m s t a n c e s can a r i s e where, i n t h e i n t e r e s t of p u b l i c
r e l a t i o n s , t h e t h r e a t of b o t h e r i n g neighbors should be avoided.
For p e r s o n n e l exposed t o a i r b l a s t , ground shock i s n o t a c r i t i c a l

injury-producing mechanism. Even f o r t h o s e w i t h i n s h e l t e r s , ground shock
should n o t b e c r i t i c a l as b o t h minor and major damage w i l l be imparted
t o s t r u c t u r e s b e f o r e d i r e c t i n j u r y i s imparted t o i n d i v i d u a l s . Even though
t h e a v e r a g e human b e i n g i s a v e r y s t r o n g s t r u c t u r e f o r r e s i s t i n g b l a s t ,
b o t h t h e i n d i r e c t and the d i r e c t i n j u r y s c e n a r i o s must b e t h e concern of
designers.
One shock spectrum mechanism which h a s n o t been d i s c u s s e d i s t h e

e f f e c t of ground shock on mechanical o r e l e c t r i c a l equipment w i t h i n s t r u c -
t u r e s . Equipment w i t h i n a s t r u c t u r e f a i l s because of i t s own p r o p e r t i e s
and t h e l o a d s which a r e t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e s t r u c t u r e t o t h e c a s i n g
of t h e equipment i t s e l f . T h i s problem i s f u r t h e r complicated by t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e equipment can be shock mounted o r i s o l a t e d through t h e p r o p e r
d e s i g n of mounts. We w i l l n o t s o l v e t h i s complicated problem i n t h i s
manual. One v e r y approximate procedure does e x i s t whereby f r e e - f i e l d
shock spectrum a r e used r a t h e r t h a n t h e shock s p e c t r a f o r i n d i v i d u a l
equipment i t e m s . T h i s approach h a s t h e advantage of being s i m p l e ,
b u t accuracy w i l l s u f f e r a c c o r d i n g l y .
5-62
Odello and P r i c e (Ref. 5.37) p r e s e n t an elementary f r e e - f i e l d
r e s p o n s e spectrum diagram f o r damaging i n t e r n a l equipment when shocks are
t r a n s m i t t e d through a f o u n d a t i o n . F i g u r e 5.22 p r e s e n t s t h i s shock spec-
trum which d e s c r i b e s t h e c a p a b i l i t y of t h e b a s e e x c i t a t i o n t o e x c i t e
systems of v a r i o u s n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s . A l l t h r e e domains ( a c c e l e r a t i o n ,
v e l o c i t y , and d i s p l a c e m e n t ) can be found i n F i g u r e 5.22. Odello and
P r i c e c a l l t h e e x c i t a t i o n s pseudo-velocity, pseudo-displacement and
p s e u d o - a c c e l e r a t i o n t o emphasize t h a t t h e s e bounds are approximate spec-
t r a l bounds r a t h e r t h a n t r u e motions. To e v a l u a t e t h e r e s p o n s e spectrum
bounds f o r equipment v u l n e r a b i l i t y i n blast-hardened s t r u c t u r e s , t h e
a u t h o r s recommend t h a t : 1) t h e displacement boundary be i n c r e a s e d by a
f a c t o r of 1 . 6 , 2) t h e v e l o c i t y boundary be i n c r e a s e d by a f a c t o r of 1 . 8 ,
and 3) the a c c e l e r a t i o n boundary be i n c r e a s e d by a f a c t o r of 2.0 when-
ever F i g u r e 5.22 i s used. Both t h e s o f t s t r u c t u r e and hardened s t r u c t u r e
b o u n d a r i e s are shown i n F i g u r e 5.22.
Whenever d a t a are a v a i l a b l e on t h e r e s p o n s e s p e c t r a of s p e c i f i c
equipment of concern, t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n should b e used r a t h e r t h a n F i g u r e
5.22 as t h e s e d a t a should b e more a c c u r a t e . The i n f o r m a t i o n contained
i n F i g u r e 5.22 i s f o r equipment w i t h s p e c i f i c n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s .
Equipment can b e designed w i t h s p r i n g s t h a t change t h e frequency o r
energy a b s o r b i n g materials t o dampen t h e response. Another s i m p l i f y i n g
assumption a s s o c i a t e d w i t h F i g u r e 5.22 i s t h a t s t r u c t u r e s tend t o move
w i t h and e x p e r i e n c e t h e same shock l e v e l s a s t h e ground. The n a t u r e of
a b u i l d i n g ' s f o u n d a t i o n could s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r t h e s o i l - s t r u c t u r e
i n t e r a c t i o n and make t h i s assumption i n v a l i d . F i g u r e 5.22 should o n l y
be used as an approximate g u i d e o r i n d i c a t o r t h a t equipment damage might
b e p o s s i b l e . The shock wave forms are t o o complex and t h e s t r u c t u r e w i t h
i n t e r n a l equipment i s t o o complicated t o s o l v e t h i s problem i n t h i s
manual by u s i n g o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s .
Very l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e on shock s p e c t r a f o r h i g h
f r e q u e n c y e x c i t a t i o n . G e n e r a l l y , s t r u c t u r e s found on t h e s u r f a c e of
t h e e a r t h are i n a low frequency domain; however, b u r i e d bunkers,
b u r i e d a r c h e s , and b u r i e d p i p e c a n respond t o displacement ( a h i g h frequency
c r i t e r i o n ) because a l a r g e m a s s of e a r t h combines w i t h t h e mass of t h e
s t r u c t u r e t o give a large value f o r (m 0). Although n o t cast i n t h e
f o r m a t of shock s p e c t r a , some r e s u l t s f o r t h e s e b u r i e d s t r u c t u r e s w i l l be
p r e s e n t e d i n subsequent s e c t i o n s .
Those i n t e r e s t e d i n f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of shock s p e c t r a should

r e a d Eubanks and J u s k i e (Ref. 5.35). I n addition t o a generalized
d i s c u s s i o n , t h i s r e f e r e n c e c o n t a i n s shock t e s t i n f o r m a t i o n f o r v a r i o u s
equipment i t e m s such as f a s t e n e r s , compressors, f a n s , h e a t exchangers,
motors, pumps,valves, b a t t e r i e s , c i r c u i t b r e a k e r s , fuseboxes, r e l a y s ,
r e c t i f i e r s , switchboards, o s c i l l o s c o p e s , e t c . I t a l s o c o n t a i n s a d i s -
c u s s i o n on two-degree-of-freedom systems as'would e x i s t when a n i s o l a t o r
5-63
10,000
1,000
u
al
v1
\
d
.rl
G
a100
a
1
u
*I+
I-!
4h
J
4
u
0
$0
3
0.1
-
Frequency, Hz
Figure 5 . 2 2 . Shock Spectra f o r Damage Within

a Structure (Ref. 5 . 3 7 )
5-64
I.- -.
i s i n s e r t e d i n series w i t h t h e equipment a n d ' t h e source. A number of

Corps o f , E n g j n e e r s studieqh(Refs, , 5 . 3 9 , 5 . 4 0 , 5 - 4 4 and 5 - 4 2 ) have a l s o
u c t e d t o .determine , t h e e f f e c t s - of ground .shock on equipment i
i $ o s f o r - t h e Safeguard Program., .The r e p o r t s from t h e s e s t u d i e s
l u a b l e i f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y e x i s t s t h a t i n t e r n a l equipment can be
damaged. F u r t h e r d e t a i l s on shock i s o l a t i o n d e s i g n are n o t p r e s e n t e d a s
t h e y a r e beyond t h e $cope o f , t h i s manual;, 2
,.. . ...
.. -.
i . . .
,
.. I I. . . .. . .,
... . T.'. . . . ~ . .-, .-..

~,
,~
.?-. ?,
!,,
;. ., .., .. ,- . , ,,. , -
. - . .... . . . .- .
I
.',.'. . .
'
4 , 1.
5-65
EXAMPLE PROBLEN 5.8
PROBLEM - Assume that one wishes to determine whether: 1) structural

damage, 2) disturbance of personnel, and 3) equipment damage
inside hardened structures can occur due to a buried explosive
detonation.
GIVEN: Uv = peak vertical particle velocity (in./sec)

X = maximum vertical displacement (in.)
V
'NOTE: These values may be determined as described in Sections
5.3.1 and 5.3.2.
FIND: Effects of ground shock REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Calculate the period by rearranging

Equation (5.8).
Eq. (5.8)
2. Calculate the frequency.
f = 1/T Eq. (5.11)
3. Determine whether structural damage will occur. Fig. 5.21
4 . Determine whether personnel will be disturbed Fig. 5.19
by the shock.
5. Determine whether damage will occur within the Fig. 5.22
structure.
CALCULATION
GIVEN: Uv 1.978 in./sec

=
Xv = 0.0607 in.
-
FIND: Effects of ground shock
2n
SOLUTION : 1. .T = Xv = 0.193 sec
2. f = 1/T = 5.19 Hz
3. No damage will occur, but Figure 5.21 indicates that we
are extremely close to the threshold for blasting safety.
4 . Figure 5.19 shows that the shock exceeds the threshold for
annoying people.
5. This case is marked on Figure 5.22 as a circled point at
U = 1.98 in./sec and f = 5.2 Hz, which falls below the
5-66
t h r e s h o l d f o r b o t h weak unhardened s t r u c t u r e s and hardened
s t r u c t u r e s . T h i s means t h a t no damage would be expected
f o r equipment i n e i t h e r unhardened o r hardened s t r u c t u r e s .
T h i s s o l u t i o n i s a v e r y approximate one; t h e r e f o r e , a c t u a l
a c c i d e n t s might y i e l d o t h e r r e s u l t s .
5-6 7
5.6.2 S t r u c t u r a l Loading from Ground Shock
Before stresses i n a b u r i e d w a l l , p i p e o r s h e l t e r can b e e s t i m a t e d

by u s i n g s t r u c t u r a l r e s p o n s e p r o c e d u r e s as d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 8, t h e l o a d s
imparted t o a b u r i e d s t r u c t u r e have t o b e e s t i m a t e d . Although t h e l o a d s
and t h e r e s u l t i n g s t r u c t u r a l r e s p o n s e are n o t decoupled problems, i n t h i s
s e c t i o n we w i l l t r e a t them as decoupled by assuming t h a t t h e b u r i e d o b j e c t
being loaded i s r i g i d .
I n S e c t i o n 5.6.3, some approximate stress c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s

w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d which bypass t h i s p r o c e d u r e of e s t i m a t i n g l o a d s . Only
approximate o r d e r of magnitude answers w i l l be o b t a i n e d u s i n g t h e r e s u l t s
i n S e c t i o n 5.6.3. These p r o c e d u r e s f o r e s t i m a t i n g l o a d s are needed as an
i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p when more s o p h i s t i c a t e d p r o c e d u r e s are used t o d e t e r m i n e
stresses i n buried s t r u c t u r e s .
5.6.2.1 Load on Buried Wall
Earlier d i s c u s s i o n s showed how t o e s t i m a t e s o i l p a r t i c l e

v e l o c i t y U and s o i l d i s p l a c e m e n t X i n t h e f r e e f i e l d . Once t h e ground
motion U a n d X a r e known, t h e f r e e - f i e l d p r e s s u r e PS and is a r e a l s o
known u s i n g E q u a t i o n s (5.6) and ( 5 . 7 ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y . A s t r u c t u r e b u r i e d
i n t h e ground d o e s n o t f e e l t h e f r e e - f i e l d p r e s s u r e s and impulses: i t
f e e l s t h e r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e s and i m p u l s e s . T h i s p r o c e s s i s d i r e c t l y
a n a l o g o u s t o a s t r u c t u r e i n a i r f e e l i n g r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e s and impulses
r a t h e r t h a n side-on o r f r e e - f i e l d o n e s . The major d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t
o v e r a much l a r g e r r a n g e , t h e n o r m a l l y r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e s and impulses
imparted t o a b u r i e d o b j e c t i n s o i l w i l l b e much c l o s e r t o t h e lower
a c o u s t i c l i m i t o f 2 . 0 t i m e s f r e e - f i e l d o n e s . T h i s e f f e c t i s caused by
s o i l p a r t i c l e s b e i n g much d e n s e r t h a n a i r . For a l l p r a c t i c a l b u r i e d
s t r u c t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n s , a f a c t o r of 2 . 0 w i l l b e used a u t o m a t i c a l l y SO
no n o n l i n e a r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s need t o b e developed.
The o t h e r major d i f f e r e n c e i n s t u d y i n g s t r u c t u r a l r e s p o n s e i n
b u r i e d s t r u c t u r e s i s t h a t a l a r g e mass o f e a r t h w i l l move a l o n g w i t h t h e
w a l l s of a shock-loaded b u r i e d s t r u c t u r e . G e n e r a l l y , t h i s mass of e a r t h
f a r exceeds any m a s s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f . A s a r u l e o f thumb, t h e
mass of e a r t h moving w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r e can be approximated as t h a t mass
o f e a r t h between t h e c h a r g e and t h e s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f . T h i s r u l e of thumb
a p p l i e s f o r d e t o n a t i o n s b o t h overhead and o f f t o t h e s i d e .
P r o b a b l y t h e b e s t way of i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e l o a d imparted t o a
b u r i e d s t r u c t u r e i s t o u s e a n example. T h i s w i l l b e done by e s t i m a t i n g
t h e l o a d imparted t o a beam-like s t r i p o u t of a w a l l loaded w i t h a
b u r i e d d e t o n a t i o n as i n F i g u r e 5.23. The l o a d imparted t o t h e s t r i p w i l l
n o t be uniform a s t h e s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e s d i f f e r and o n l y a t mid-span i s
t h e loading noma1 t o t h e beam. Assuming that t h e s o i l s p a r t i c l e n o t i o n
i s a r r e s t e d by t h e beam, t h e peak r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e f o r a t a r g e t normal
t o a r a d i a l l i n e from t h e c h a r g e i s g i v e n by:
P = 2 p c u
r S P
5-68
-t
4
Figure 5.23 Example of a Load Imparted to a
Strip from a Buried Wall
5-69
and because U i s given by :
6.169 x ( 3)
0.852
U
-
C
P (3) tanh p.
0 9(&3)
v p r
0.30
]
(5.37)
The r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e f o r a normally o r i e n t e d target i s :

112 0.852
[,.( (;'!) (
1.234 x
-'r- -
PSC
w2r 3 )
pscp2 tanh w2 3) 0'30] (5.38)
pscpr
But t a r g e t s are t y p i c a l l y n o t normally o r i e n t e d . A t any p o i n t x , t h e normal

component of t h e l o a d t o t h e beam i s approximated by u s i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n c o s i n e .
T h i s assumption i s n o t s t r i c t l y v a l i d e s p e c i a l l y when t h e
a n g l e e q u a l s 90 d e g r e e s ; however, i n a n r a c t i c a l problem t h i s c o n d i t i o n
w i l l n o t o c c u r . A f t e r s u b s t i t u t i n g R +x f o r r , t h e peak p r e s s u r e P(x)
imparted t o t h e beam a t any p o i n t x i s g i v e n by:
2 1/2 0.852
W
-
P (-X ) -
2
1.234 x
( y) ($) W
R +x ( P Sc2 P (R 2+x2
312
(5.39)
SCP
I n a s i m i l a r manner, t h e impulse d i s t r i b u t i o n can a l s o be

determined. The major d i f f e r e n c e would b e t h a t
i = 2 p c X (5.40)
r S ?
and
0.04143 ( sw2 3 )
p c r
1.105
tanhlm5 k 8 . 2 4 ( psr:r3) ]
0.237 (5.41)
5-70
A t any p o i n t x t h e impulse i ( x ) imparted t o t h e beam i s g i v e n by:
0.08286 (F)(
2 112
2
W
2 2 312
PsCp (R +x
1.105
-i=(XI
PsCpR t a n h l o 5F 8 . 2 4 ( pScP (R +x
W
3/2)
0.237
]
(5.42)
The o n l y o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n any s t r u c t u r a l response compu-

t a t i o n i s t h e a d d i t i o n of a n added m a s s f o r s o i l . I n t h i s example, t h i s
e x t r a m a s s p e r u n i t l e n g t h of s t r i p would e q u a l :
rAdded mass 7
1 s o i l per
u n i t length
= psbR (5.43)
where b i s t h e loaded width of s t r i p . Because psbR i s o f t e n much l a r g e r

t h a n P b e a A , t h e added mass of e a r t h i s t h e important mass t o t h e r e s p o n s e
of a b u r i e d s t r u c t u r e . Both frequency and amplitude of response w i l l be
e s t i m a t e d much more a c c u r a t e l y when t h i s l a r g e e f f e c t i v e mass i s used.
Should t h e l o a d sweep over t h e roof of t h e b u r i e d s t r u c t u r e ,

side-on o r i n c i d e n t p r e s s u r e s and impulses should be used j u s t as one
would c o n s i d e r o r i e n t a t i o n f o r a i r b l a s t l o a d i n g s . The most d i f f i c u l t
problems i n v o l v e s h i e l d i n g of a p o r t i o n o r segment of a b u r i e d s h e l t e r .
When s h i e l d e d s o complex wave p a t t e r n s are formed, w e do n o t know t h e
a c t u a l l o a d i n g and should t h e circumstances arise, tests have t o b e p e r -
formed. F u l l - s c a l e expensive tests do n o t have t o b e performed; s m a l l
s u b s c a l e r e p l i c a model t e s t s should work e x c e l l e n t l y and can give ground
shock l o a d s w i t h a d e q u a t e accuracy f o r d e s i g n purposes.
5-71
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5.9
PROBLEM - A s s u m e t h a t one wishes t o determine t h e peak r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e s

and impulses a t mid-span where a b u r i e d s t r i p i s normally loaded
and a t a n a r b i t r a r y p o i n t on a beam s t r i p . The geometry of
where a b u r i e d c h a r g e i s l o c a t e d relative t o a s t r i p from an
o u t e r w a l l of a b u r i e d bunker i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 5.23.
GIVEN: W = explosive yield (ft-lb)

R = standoff ( f t )
x = d i s t a n c e from p o i n t of normal l o a d i n g t o p o i n t of i n t e r e s t
(ft)
c = propagation v e l o c i t y ( f t / s e c )
P 2 4
P, = mass d e n s i t y of s o i l (lb-sec / f t )
2
P = atmospheric p r e s s u r e ( l b / f t )
0
FIND: Loading on a b u r i e d beam REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. CalculaGe t h e f o l l o w i n g q u a n t i t i e s .
2. C a l c u l a t e t h e peak r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e a t t h e
c e n t e r of t h e s t r i p .
P
-=r 1.234 x (p) 1 / 2 (E) 0.852 Eq. (5.38)
2 0.30
P C t a n h [26.03(E) ]
S P
3. C a l c u l a t e t h e peak r e f l e c t e d impulse a t t h e
c e n t e r of t h e s t r i p .
ir 0.08286(P) 1/2(ij)1.105
-= Eq. (5.42)
p c R tanh1O5[l8.24(w) 0.237
SP
1
4. C a l c u l a t e t h e peak p r e s s u r e a t a n a r b i t r a r y
p o i n t (x).
P ( x ) = 1.234 x 1 0
Eq. (5.39)
pscp
2
t a n h [ 26.03 (w,) 0.301
5. C a l c u l a t e t h e peak impulse a t an a r b i t r a r y
point (x).
i(x) 0.08286 (F)1/2 (W,) 1.105

-- - I
Eq. (5.42)
p cR tanh1'5 [ l 8 . 24(i$) 0.237 1
SP
5-72
CALCULATION
7
GIVEN: W = 6.84 x 10 f t - l b
R = 50 f t
x = 10 f t
= 3.54 l b - s e c
2/ f t 4
pS
cp = 950 f t / s e c
P = 2,117 l b / f t
0
FIND: Loading on b u r i e d beam
SOLIJ"ION: 1. = p c
2 /Po = 1 , 5 0 9
S P
w- = W/p c2R3 = 1 . 7 1 x
S P
W1 = W/p c2(R2+x2)3/2 = 1 . 6 1 x lov4
S P
P
r - -1.234 x (1509)1/2 (1.71 x 1 0-4) 0.852
2.
-4 0.30
3.54 (950)2 t a n h [26.03 ( 1 . 7 1 x 10 >' 3
= 986 l b / f t 2 = 6.85 p s i
r'
i -4 1.105
3.
r - 0.8286(1509)1/2 ( 1 . 7 1 x 10 )
-4 0.237
(3.54) (950) (50) t a n h l B 5 [18.24(1.71 x 1 0 ) 1
2
i = 38.3 l b - s e c / f t = 0.266 p s i - s e c
r
4. P(x = 10 f t ) = 921 l b / f t
5. i ( x = 10 f t ) = 35.9
5-73 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

5.6.2.2 Load on Buried P i p e
Many p i p e s are b u r i e d i n ground and can b e deformed o r f r a c t u r e d

from b u r i e d a c c i d e n t a l d e t o n a t i o n s . A c t u a l l y , p i p e s are g e n e r a l l y v e r y
tough s t r u c t u r e s ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , t o a n a l y z e them, a l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n i s
needed. F i g u r e 5.24 from Reference 5.43 shows an assumed impulse d i s t r i -
b u t i o n imparted t o b u r i e d p i p e . A t t h e f r o n t of t h e p i p e , t h e impulse
and p r e s s u r e w i l l b e normally r e f l e c t e d ones e q u a l t o 2 is o r 2 Ps.
A t t h e t o p and bottom of t h e p i p e , t h e s e l o a d s w i l l b e i n c i d e n t o r s i d e -
on ones. Although t h e exact d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t known between t h e f r o n t
and t o p of t h e p i p e , a convenient mathematical e x p r e s s i o n which can
approximate t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n and which goes t o t h e c o r r e c t l i m i t s i s
g i v e n by:
2e
i =i
S
(l+-)
71
for 0 < e < ~ / 2 (5.44)
2e
P = P
S
(l+?) for 0 < e < IT/^ (5.45)
The back s i d e of t h e p i p e w i l l a l s o b e loaded by t h e shock wave

d i f f r a c t i n g around t h e p i p e . A t 8 = -n/2 on t h e v e r y rear s u r f a c e of
t h e p i p e , t h e impulse exceeds is, b u t i s probably less t h a n 2 is. I n
Reference 5 . 4 3 , t h i s w a s s o l v e d by assuming t h e a p p l i e d impulse equaled
+
(1 m) is where m w a s some number between 0 and 1 which was t o b e o b t a i n e d
l a t e r from e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t r e s u l t s . The t e s t d a t a i n t h i s r e f e r e n c e i n d i -
+
c a t e t h a t t h e b e s t v a l u e f o r (1 m) i s 1.78. T h i s same r e f l e c t i o n f a c t o r
can b e used f o r p r e s s u r e s as w e l l as f o r impulse. I f a s i m i l a r assumed d i s -
t r i b u t i o n i s used over t h e back of t h e p i p e , t h e impulse and p r e s s u r e rela-
t i o n s h i p s can be e s t i m a t e d by f
is6e
i = i (1
S
-- 7T
1 f o r 0 > 8 > -1~12 (5.U)
1.568
P = Ps (1 -7 1 for 0 > e > -n/2 (5.47 1
The n e g a t i v e s i g n a p p e a r s i n Equation ( 5 . 4 6 ) and ( 5 . 4 7 ) because t h e a n g l e

8 i s measured i n a n e g a t i v e d i r e c t i o n . Although t h i s s o l u t i o n w a s developed
f o r p i p e s , i t can a l s o b e used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n on
buried arches.
5-74
i=i, (I++-) for o< e < -
n
2
. .
I = $ [ l +1.568 for 0 > e > - -rl
2
Figure 5.24 Assumed Distribution of Impulse Imparted to a Pipe
5-75
PROBLEM - Assume t h a t one w i s h e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e m a x i m u m p r e s s u r e a t

v a r i o u s p o i n t s around a b u r i e d p i p e s u b j e c t e d t o ground shock.
GIVEN: U = peak r a d i a l p a r t i c l e 2 v e l g c i t y ( f t / s e c )
= mass d e n s i t y ( l b - s e c / f t )
pS
c p = propagation velocity ( f t / s e c )
0 = a n g l e t o p o i n t of i n t e r e s t as d e f i n e d i n F i g u r e 5.24
FIND: Ground shock p r e s s u r e on b u r i e d p i p e REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. C a l c u l a t e side-on p r e s s u r e .
PS = PSCDU Eq. (5.6)
2. C a l c u l a t e t h e p r e s s u r e a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s around
the pipe.
20
a. P = Ps(l +7) for 0 5 8 n/2 Eq. (5.46)
1.560
b. P = Ps(l - - 1 Eq. ( 5 . 4 7 )
71
CALCULATION
GIVEN: U = 0.125 f t / s e s
4
= 3.54 l b - s e c / f t
PS
c = 950 f t / s e c
fp= +goo, +45", 0 " . -45", -90"
-
FIND: Ground shock p r e s s u r e on b u r i e d p i p e
SOLUTION: 1. P S- = (3.54)(950)(0.125) = 420 l b / f t 2 = 2.92 p s i

2. P(B=n/2) = 5.84 p s i
P ( n / 4 ) = 4.38 p s i
P ( O ) = 2.29 p s i
P(-n/4) = 4.06 p s i
- r I.2- ), = 5.20 p s i
P-( ,

5.6.3 Approximate Buried S t r u c t u r a l S o l u t i o n s
Now t h a t t h e l o a d i n g can be approximated, s t r u c t u r a l c a l c u l a t i o n s

c a n b e made on any b u r i e d s t r u c t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n . The t y p e of s t r u c t u r a l
e n g i n e e r i n g a n a l y s i s which i s r e q u i r e d can depend upon what accuracy i s
needed and how w e l l t h e s o u r c e i s d e f i n e d . The most s o p h i s t i c a t e d and
expensive a n a l y s i s would be a f i n i t e element o r f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e m u l t i -
degree-of-freedom computer program. The l e a s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d s o l u t i o n s ,
b u t y e t s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e f o r some a p p l i c a t i o n s , i n v o l v e e i t h e r one-
degree-of-freedom e q u i v a l e n t o s c i l l a t o r s ( c a l l e d Bigg's Method) o r energy
s o l u t i o n s . We w i l l n o t d e s c r i b e any of t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s i n d e t a i l as
t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s found i n Chapter 8 ; however, some approximate
g r a p h i c a l s o l u t i o n s w i l l be given which can p r o v i d e f i r s t - o r d e r e n g i n e e r i n g
estimates.
The f i r s t of t h e s e s o l u t i o n s i s shown i n F i g u r e 5.25 f o r d e t o n a t i n g

a b u r i e d c h a r g e a t some s t a n d o f f n e a r a b u r i e d beam-like member. F i r s t
t h e R / R r a t i o i s computed s o t h a t t h e v a l u e of Y can b e g r a p h i c a l l y
determined. Then t h i s v a l u e of Y i s set e q u a l t o one of s c a l e d - s t r e s s
o r s t r a i n q u a n t i t i e s g i v e n i n t h e i n s e r t t o F i g u r e 5.25. The p r o p e r Y
q u a n t i t y depends upon whether: 1) an e l a s t i c - b e n d i n g s o l u t i o n , 2 ) a
r i g i d p l a s t i c bending s o l u t i o n , o r 3) an e l a s t i c e x t e n s i o n a l s o l u t i o n
i s b e i n g e v a l u a t e d . Provided a s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t set of u n i t s i s used, any
system i s a c c e p t a b l e because t h e . s c a l e d - s t r e s s and s t r a i n q u a n t i t y Y i s non-
dimensional. To u s e t h i s s o l u t i o n , be s u r e t o c o n v e r t t h e energy release
over t o energy u n i t s . I f a c a v i t y e x i s t s around t h e charge, be s u r e t o con-
v e r t t h e energy release t o Weff b e f o r e s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o t h i s s o l u t i o n . The
i n s e r t t o F i g u r e 5.25 g r a p h i c a l l y shows t h e problem b e i n g solved i f
u n c e r t a i n t y exists from t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n . T h i s s o l u t i o n h a s n o t been
d e r i v e d i n any p u b l i c a t i o n s ; however, t h e d e t a i l s of a similar s o l u t i o n
f o r a s u r f a c e b u r s t are p r e s e n t e d i n t h e appendix t o Baker, Garza, and
Westine ( R e f . 5.20).
The American Gas A s s o c i a t i o n i s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e stresses i n

b u r i e d p i p e s from underground b l a s t i n g . Some c u r v e f i t s t o e x p e r i m e n t a l
t e s t d a t a g i v e n i n Reference 5.43 can b e used t o estimate maximum e l a s t i c
l o n g i t u d i n a l and c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l stresses caused by b u r i e d d e t o n a t i o n s .
The s o l u t i o n s are conducted by f i r s t computing a q u a n t i t y c a l l e d a.
-a =
46.53 fi (W) (5.48)
R205
where R is standoff ( f t )
W is c h a r g e weight ( l b )
E is e l a s t i c modulus of p i p e ( p s i )
h is pipe thickness (in.)
5-77
Y
TABLE FOR Y
Type Response Quantity
2 1.52 R2.2a
759 amax 19. c 2 (P, Kb + p b A)
Elastic Bending 0.24 d . 7 6 ,,2 b2
E ps
1.52 R2.28
596 omaxQ Z 9. cp (2, Rb + p b A)
Plastic Bending 0 . 2 b $.76 ,,2
PS
Elastic Extension
F i g u r e 5.25 Normal S t r e s s e s i n Beam-Like Members
Change 1 - 1 5 August 1 9 8 1 5-78

.... .
. . ...... ~ . ..
Then f o r a< 2675, t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l stresses i n p s i

are g i v e n by:
'cir
= 1.0 z (5.49a)
for < 2675
U = 0.253 u
- 1.304 - 0- (5.49b)
long
For a> 2675, t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l stresses i n p s i are
given Fy:
(5.50a)
(5.50b)
T h i s s o l u t i o n g i v e s o n l y t h e e l a s t i c stress c o n t r i b u t i o n from a
b u r i e d d e t o n a t i o n . I f t h e p i p e i s p r e s s u r i z e d o r loaded through o t h e r
mechanisms, t h e s e stresses would have t o b e superimposed on t h e b l a s t i n g
ones b e f o r e t h e t o t a l s t a t e of maximum stresses could b e determined i n
a p i p e . These c u r v e f i t s could a l s o be used f o r d e t o n a t i o n s i n a b u r i e d
c a v i t y o r f o r a s u r f a c e d e t o n a t i o n ; however, t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o u p l i n g
- a c t o r s would have t o be determined s o t h a t t h e e q u i v a l e n t b u r i e d charge
f
could be determined.
The approximate s o l u t i o n s ' f o r determining stresses and s t r a i n s i n

b u r i e d s t r u c t u r e s are o n l y f o r s i m p l e rudjmentary c o n f i g u r a t i o n s such as
beams and p i p e s . T h i s is n a t u r a l l y s o a s o t h e r more complicated configura-
t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d with doors, connections, i r r e g u l a r s t r u c t u r a l configurations,
and i n t e r n a l equipment do n o t l e n d themselves t o i d e a l i z e d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s .
The l o a d i n g p r i n c i p l e s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n can s t i l l b e used t o under-
s t a n d t h e l o a d i n g of t h e s e more complicated s h a p e s , b u t more complex computa-
t i o n a l methods u s i n g multi-degree-of-freedom computer programs w i l l be
needed t o d e t e r m i n e stresses and s t r a i n s adequate under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s .
5-79
PROBLEM - Assume t h a t one w i s h e s t o compute t h e e l a s t i c bending stress

i n a beam-like s t r i p t a k e n from a b u r i e d w a l l which r e s u l t s when
a buried charge i s detonated.
GIVEN: R standoff (in.)

=
W explosive yield (ft-lb)
=
I moment of i n e r t i a of area
=
b beam w i d t h ( i n . )
=
h = beam t h i c k n e s s ( i n . )
cp = s o i l propagation v e l o c i t y ( i n . / s e c )
2
= s o i l mass d e n s i t y (lb-sec / i n . 4 )
ps
R = l e n g t h of beam ( i n . )
E = modulus of e l a s t i c i t y ( p s i )
2
= mass d e n s i t y of beam ( l b - s e c / i n . 4 >
'b 2
A = c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of beam ( i n . )
FIND: E l a s t i c bending stress i n beam from ground shock REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e a b s c i s s a f o r F i g u r e 5.25.
-
R
2R
2. Find Y. F i g . 5.25
3. Solve f o r omax.
1.52 R2.28
U
U X
I R c (PsRb + PbA)
Y = 0.24 w1.76 h2 b2 F i g . 5.25
759 E p
S
CALCULATION
6 8
GIVEN: W = 40 l b (1.7 x 1 0 f t - l b / l b ) x 1 2 i n . / f t = 8.16 x 10 i n . - l b
R = 840 i n . ,
4
I = 5832 i n .
b = 12 in.
h = 18 i n .
c - 11,400 i n . / s c 2 4
'-= 1.707 'x
PS
lb-sec / i n .
R = 300 i n .
E = 5 x 106 p s i 2 4
= 7.33 x lb-sec / i n .
'b
2
A = 216 i n .
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 5- 80

FIND: E l a s t i c bending stress i n beam from ground shock
SOLU"JTON: 1. !2/2R = 0.178

2. Y = 5.6
U = 5396 p s i
max
EXAEE'LE PROBLEM 5.12
PROBLEM - Assume t h a t one wishes t o estimate t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l and

l o n g i t u d i n a l stresses i n a b u r i e d p i p e s u b j e c t e d t o b l a s t
l o a d i n g from a b u r i e d e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e .
GIVEN: R = standoff ( f t )
W = c h a r g e weight ( l b )
E = e l a s t i c modulus of p i p e ( p s i )
h = pipe thickness ( i n . )
FIND: S t r e s s e s i n b u r i e d p i p e from ground shock REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Calculate a. E q . 5.48

-u =
46.53 fi (w)
R2*5
2. a
I f - -< 2675, c o n t i n u e a t S t e p 3. Eq. 5.49a
If u - > 2675. c o n t i n u e a t SteD 4 . E q . 5.49b
3. u = 1.0 0 Eq. 5.50a
cir
U = 0.253 U
- 1.304 - u-
long
4. U = 21.7 ;0.740 -
47.55 0
- 0.584 Eq. 5.50b
cir
U
- 0.584
= 47.55 u
long
CALCULATION
GIVEN: R = 70 f t
W = 40 l b
E = 30 x 1 0 psi
h = 0.344 in.
-
FIND: S t r e s s e s i n b u r i e d p i p e from ground shock
5-81 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

- 46.53 ( 3 0 x 1 0 6 ) 1 / 2 ( 4 0 )
SOLUTION: 1. u =
- ( 0 . 344)'12 (70) 2 .
u = 424
2. 424 < 2675, c o n t i n u e a t S t e p 3.
3. 'cir
= 1.0 ii
0 = 424 p s i
cir
U = 0.253
1.304
- u-
long
U = 251 p s i
long

5-82
5.7 FUTURE NEEDS
From t h e material c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e manual, w e can

see s i x problem areas which could be improved. The importance of each
area d i f f e r s dependent upon t h e a p p l i c a t i o n ; hence, t h e o r d e r i n which
t h e s e recommendations are p r e s e n t e d i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t .
Screening of Shock Waves
T h i s problem can be c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g l a r g e computer programs;

however, t h e AE may n o t have such a computer program. The informa-
t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s t e x t i s l i m i t e d i n scope. T e s t i n g w a s f o r
a s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n w i t h o u t t h e corresponding e f f o r t t o g e n e r a l i z e
test r e s u l t s s o t h e y could b e more u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i e d . A need
e x i s t s f o r f u r t h e r work i n t h i s area i f s c r e e n i n g i s t o be used,
b u t i t is not considered t o be e f f e c t i v e a t t h i s t i m e .
P-Wave Propagation
The s o l u t i o n which h a s been p r e s e n t e d f o r R-waves i s very

i n c l u s i v e and e a s y t o u s e . A corresponding s o l u t i o n f o r P-waves
should be p o s s i b l e and c a p a b l e of development along s i m i l a r
l i n e s . For P a n t e x , t h e development of such a s o l u t i o n i s of
less importance t h a n i t . w o u l d be f o r s o i l mechanics i n g e n e r a l .
However, i f d e t o n a t i o n s e v e r occur d i r e c t l y over a roof o r
d i r e c t l y under a s t r u c t u r e , t h i s P-wave s o l u t i o n would be
essential.
Ejecta Radius
The d a t a i n F i g u r e 5.17 are v e r y l i m i t e d i n scope. The v a r i a t i o n

i n e x p l o s i v e charge weight i s n o t even one o r d e r o f magnitude.
Some extremely small scale tests ( u s i n g gram c h a r g e s ) were per-
formed a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Dayton, b u t t h e method of e s t a b l i s h -
i n g t h e maximum crater r a d i u s was n o t t h e same. On a n extremely
s m a l l scale, e j e c t a can a l s o become confused w i t h d u s t on t h e
f l o o r . A thorough s t u d y might e s t a b l i s h t h a t 25 p e r c e n t , 50
p e r c e n t , 75 p e r c e n t , 95 p e r c e n t , e t c . of t h e e j e c t a w a s w i t h i n
a s c a l e d r a d i u s of some s p e c i f i c number. To t h e b e s t of o u r
knowledge, t h i s d e t a i l e d mapping h a s n o t been performed. The
7 / 2 4 s c a l i n g r u l e used on t h e c u r r e n t maximum e j e c t a r a d i u s i n
F i g u r e 5.17 i s based upon what t h e w r i t e r t h e o r e t i c a l l y b e l i e v e s
t o be c o r r e c t r a t h e r t h a n a c a r e f u l t e s t i n g over a wide range i n
c h a r g e weight.
Cratering i n atcavity
A problem area which o c c u r s a t Pantex i s c r a t e r i n g when t h e charge

i s w i t h i n a c a v i t y . The r e a d e r should n o t i c e t h a t a l l c r a t e r i n g
s o l u t i o n s w e r e f o r charges i n c o n t a c t with t h e surrounding e a r t h .
Model tests might b e p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e r e q u i r e d d a t a less
5-83
e x p e n s i v e l y , b u t t h e development of a n a n a l y s i s I;rocedure should
accompany any test program.
5) Explosive Coupling
The s o l u t i o n which w a s p r e s e n t e d f o r c o u p l i n g a p p e a r s t o work

w e l l ; however, o t h e r viewpoints have been i n e x i s t e n c e . Un-
f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s manual could n o t become a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t t o
e v a l u a t e a l l approaches and d e c i d e which i s b e s t . We have
advocated one approach t h a t l o o k s r e a s o n a b l e . The s o l u t i o n
which w a s p r e s e n t e d as F i g u r e 5.10 could a l s o be made more
a c c u r a t e . A l o g l i n e a r approximation t o t h e a i r b l a s t r e f l e c t e d
p r e s s u r e v e r s u s s c a l e d s t a n d o f f R/W1/3 curve w a s made i n t h e
r e g i o n f o r t h e d a t a i n F i g u r e s 5 . 1 1 and 5.12 T h i s approach
l e a d s t o a s i m p l e s o l u t i o n which i s v a l i d i n t h e c o r r e c t domain,
b u t t h e u s e r can misuse t h e s o l u t i o n by a p p l y i n g i t o u t s i d e
t h e domain i n which i t i s v a l i d . The u s e of a more complicated
f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r r e l a t i n g PR t o R/W1l3 would l e a d t o
a p l o t s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n F i g u r e 5.10, but t h e f u n c t i o n could b e
made more accurate.
6) Shock Passage i n t o Adjacent Bays
The a c t u a l problem of an a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n i n an underground

bay i s a complex one. An a i r b l a s t w i l l l o a d a c o n c r e t e w a l l
which i n t u r n w i l l t r a n s m i t a shock on i n t o s o i l t h a t e v e n t u a l l y
w i l l l o a d a n o t h e r c o n c r e t e M a l l , and f i n a l l y w i l l t r a n s m i t a shock
i n t o t h e a d j a c e n t a i r - f i l l e d room. The r e s u l t i n g e f f e c t s of t h i s
shock on equipment, p a r t s , e x p l o s i v e , and p e r s o n n e l a r e t h e f i n a l
answer t o a complex series of phenomena. Although t h i s s c e n a r i o
can r e p r e s e n t a n a c t u a l a c c i d e n t , i t is n o t e x p l i c i t l y answered
u s i n g computations. A t b e s t , w e c r u d e l y i g n o r e t h e p r e s e n c e
of c o n c r e t e w a l l s and u s e shock s p e c t r a as a n e s t i m a t i o n of
i n t e r n a l a d j a c e n t bay c o n d i t i o n s . I f e n g i n e e r i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s
are t o b e made more a c c u r a t e l y , model t e s t i n g and a s s o c i a t e d
work on a n a l y t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s w i l l be r e q u i r e d t o s t u d y shock
t r a n s m i s s i o n i n t o a d j a c e n t bays.
5.8 FLOW D I A G M M
Many d i f f e r e n t ground shock and c r a t e r i n g subproblems have been

p r e s e n t e d and i l l u s t r a t i v e examples s o l v e d throughout t h i s c h a p t e r . To
a i d t h e a n a l y s t i n g a t h e r i n g t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o a l o g i c a l sequence,
F i g u r e 5.26 i s p r e s e n t e d . F i g u r e 5.26 i s a flow diagram which b e g i n s
a t t h e t o p w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a Pantex ground shock problem and
l e a d s throughout a series of yes-no q u e s t i o n s and a n a l y s i s b l o c k s . Each
a n a l y s i s b l o c k r e f e r s t o some s u b s e c t i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e manual
where an a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e and an example problem can b e found. I f
t h e arrows are followed i n t o and o u t of each box i n F i g u r e 5.26, t h e
subsequent a n a l y s i s should l e a d t o an a c c e p t a b l e e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n .
5-84
PANTEX GROUND
SHOCK PROBLEFiS
S O I L PROPERTIES
"ES SECTION 5.4

EQUIVALENT
ENERGY RELEASE
I 4'
NO SECTION 5.3.1
YES L EFFECTS OF
LAYERING ON WAVES
A
SECTION 5.3.2
EST1:IATE U AND
X AT LOCATIONS e
OF INTEREST
SECTION 5.6.3
YES
b USE APPROXIMATE
WAVE LENGTH ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
SECTION 5.3.1
SECTION 5 . 6 . 1
OBTAIN VERTICAL
m T I O N FROM * USE SHOCK
RADIAL MOTION SPECTRA
SECTION 5.3.3
SEE REFERENCES
ON SCREENING
SECTION 5.2.3 6
SECTION 5.6.2
PREDICT LOADS
+
P S I
CHAPTER 8
USE DESIGN MANUALS
OR APPROPRIATE
PROCEDURES
A
Y 6 T
Figure 5.26 Flow Diagram o f P a n t e x Ground Shock Problem

5-85
5.9 LIST OF SYMBOLS
A peak amplitude f o r v e l o c i t y o r d i s p l a c e m e n t ; t o t a l area
A area of g a s - s o l i d c o n t a c t
g
A s m a l l area s o l i d c o n t a c t
S
A area of f l u i d - s o l i d c o n t a c t
W
a c o n t a c t area; r a t i o of ASIA
b l o a d e d beam w i d t h
C propagation velocity
C P-wave p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y
P
C R-wave p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y ; Rayleigh wave
R
E
C S-wave p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y ; Shear wave
s
ca/c e f f e c t i v e wave v e l o c i t y d i v i d e d by s i m p l e l a y e r wave v e l o c i t y

because of a l a y e r e d media
DA/ d s c a l e d a p p a r e n t crater d e p t h
DT/d s c a l e d t r u e crater d e p t h
d d e p t h of b u r i a l i n s o i l
E modulus of e l a s t i c i t y
f f r e q u e n c y (Hz)
G s h e a r modulus
g gravity
H /L t h i c k n e s s of t o p s o i l d i v i d e d by wavelength
h thickness
I s e c o n d moment of area
5-86
impulse in a shock wave
constant
spring constant
natural frequency
wavelength
wavelength divided by thickness of top soil
length of beam
M mass
N constant exponent
P load
peak reflected pressure
pS
shock front pressure, peak side-on overpressure
P stress or pressure in gas

g
P atmospheric pressure
0
stress or pressure in water

pW
R standoff distance
RA/ d scaled apparent crater
%Id scaled true crater radius
R radius of cavity
0
r distance
T time period
t time
5-87
t thickness of gravel
g
U maximum radial soil particle velocity
peak vertical particle velocity

uV
v shock front velocity
vA
j3/d scaled apparent crater volume
VT13/d scaled true crater volume
W explosive energy release; charge yield; explosive weight
ef f effective energy release; effective explosive weight
W ratio Aw/A
X maximum radial soil displacement
maximum radial soil displacement, used when radial motion must

XR be separated from vertical motion
maximum vertical displacement

5J
X position on beam in Figure 5.23
maximum displacement
Y nondimensional stress as defined in the table associated with

Figure 5.25
Greek Svmbols
a constant
8 angle
V Poissons ratio
P mass density
mass density behind the shock front

a
5-88
pS
mass density of the soil
-
0 effective stress
w circular frequency (rad/sec)
5- 89
5.10 REFERENCES
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Structure Behavior at the Pantex Facility," April 1976.
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Soils and Foundations, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New
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Elastic Solid," Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society London,
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Explosives," Journal of Terramechanics, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 69-79,
1978.
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Due to Explosions," J. Boston SOC. Civil Engineering, 47, 152-168,
1960.
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Seismic and Amplitude and Charge of Explosive Fired in Routine
Blasting Operations," Geophysics, 17, 116-128, Jan., 1952.
5.9 Hudson, D. E., Alford, J. L., and Iwan, W. D., "Ground Accelerations
Caused by Large Quarry Blasts," Bull. Seismic SOC., A, 51,
191-202, 1961.
5.10 Ichiro, I., "On the Relationship Between Seismic Ground Amplitude
and the Quantity of Explosives in Blasting," Reprint from
Memoirs of the Faculty of Engineering, Kyoto University, 15, 579-
587, 1953:
5.11 Morris, G., "The Reduction of Ground Vibrations from Blasting

Operations," Engineering, pp. 460-465, April 1957.
5.12 Ricker, N., "The Form and Nature of Seismic Waves and the Structure
of Seismograms," Geophysics 5, 348-366, 1940.
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Vibratior.s," Engineering, pp. 460-465, April 1957.
5-9 0
5.14 Thoenen, J . R., and Windes, S. L., "Seismic E f f e c t s of Quarry
B l a s t i n g , " Bureau of Mines B u l l e t i n , 442, 83, 1942.
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ment of Seismic Waves Generated by Explosive Blasts," B u l l e t i n
Seismic S a f e t y of America, 50, 455-459, 1960.
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J o u r n a l of Geophysical Research, Vol. 66, No. 3 , March 1961, pp.
947-958.
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of S o i l Mechanics and Foundations D i v i s i o n , American S o c i e t y of
C i v i l E n g i n e e r s , Vol. 94, No. SMS, pp. 951-979, J u l y 1968.
5.18 Harvey, W i l l i a m , Dishan, John 111, and Thomas , T a m i , "Near-Surface

C r a t e r i n g Experiments, F o r t P o l k , LOuisiana," U . S . Army Waterways
Experiment S t a t i o n , Livermore, CAY AFWL-TR-351, November 1975.
5.19 J.
F e r r i t t o , J. J. and F o r r e s t , B. , "Ground Motion from P a c i f i c
C r a t e r i n g Experiments 1,000-Pound Explosive Shots: Data Supple-
ment," U. s. Navy Civil Engineering Laboratory Technical Report
R 8085, January 1975.
5.20 Baker, E . J., Garza, L. R..and Westine, P. S., "Development o f a

Design o f a R e l o c a t a b l e Command and C o n t r o l Bunker," Waterways
Experiment S t a t i o n C o n t r a c t o r Report N-77-1, March 1977.
5.21 Kvammen, Asbjorn Jr., Pichumani, Raman and Dick, James L. Jr.,
"Pavement C r a c e r i n g S t u d i e s , " Univ. o f New Mexico, E r i c H. Wang
Research F a c i l i t y Report f o r A i r Force Weapons L a b o r a t o r y , 1973.
5.22 Westine, P e t e r S . , "Explosive C r a t e r i n g , " J o u r n a l of Terramechanics,

V I I , 2 , pp. 9-19, 1970.
5.23 Westine, P e t e r S. , "Bomb Crater Damage t o Runways," Southwest

Research I n s t i t u t e C o n t r a c t F29601-72-C-0053 f o r A i r Force Weapons
Laboratory, February 1973.
5.24 Chabai, A l b e r t J., "Crater S c a l i n g Lbws f o r Desert Alluvium," SC-

4391, Sandia C o r p o r a t i o n , Albuquerque, New Mexico, December 1965.
5.25 .
h o k e , Allen D. Jr ,* "Essex-Diamond O r e Research Program, Apparent
Crater Measurements f o r Simulated, Low Y i e l d Nuclear Explosions
P r o j e c t E s s e x I, Phases 1 and 2," Waterways Experiment S t a t i o n ,
WES MP N-78-3, March 1978.
5.26 Anon, " E f f e c t s o f Air Blast, C r a t e r i n g , Ground Shock, and R a d i a t i o n

on Hardened S t r u c t u r e s , " A i r Force Systems Command Manual, AFSCM
500-8, January 19 76.
5-9 1
5.27 Thomson, W. T., Mechanical V i b r a t i o n s , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , New York,
NY, 1948.
5.28 S t e f f e n s , R. J . , "The Assessment of V i b r a t i o n I n t e n s i t y and Its

A p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e Study of B u i l d i n g V i b r a t i o n s , " N a t i o n a l B u i l d i n g
S t u d i e s S p e c i a l Report No. 1 9 , Department of S c i e n t i f i c and I n d u s t r i -
a l Research, B u i l d i n g Research S t a t i o n , London, England, 1952.
5.29 R e i h e r , H. and Meister, F. J . , " D i e Empfindlichkeit d e r Menschen

gegen Erschutterungen," Forsch. G e b i e t e I n g e n i e u r wesen, Vol. 2,
NO. 11, pp. 381-386, 1931.
5.30 Rausch, E . , Maschinenfundamente Und Andere Dynamische Bauaufgaben,

V e r t r i e b VDE Verlag G.M.B.H. ( B e r l i n ) , 1943.
5.31 D u v a l l , Wilbur I. and Fogelson, D . E . , "Review of Criteria f o r

E s t i m a t i n g Damage t o Residences from B l a s t i n g V i b r a t i o n s ,I1 Bureau
of Mines Report of I n v e s t i g a t i o n 5968, 1962.
5.32 C r a n d e l l , F. J . , "Ground V i b r a t i o n s Due t o B l a s t i n g and Its

Effect Upon Structures," Journal Boston S O C . , C i v i l Engineers.
Vol. 36, p. 245, 1949.
5.33 Langefors, U l f , K i h l s t r o n , B. and Westerberg, H . , "Ground

V i b r a t i o n s i n B l a s t i n g , " Water Power, pp. 335-338, 390-395,
421-424, Feb. 1958.
5.34 Edwards, A. T. and Northwood, T . D . , "Experimental S t u d i e s of

t h e E f f e c t s of B l a s t i n g on S t r u c t u r e s , " The Engineer, V. 210,
pp. 538-546, September 30, 1960.
5.35 Dvorak, A . , "Seismic E f f e c t s of B l a s t i n g on Brick Houses,"

P r o c e Geofyrikeniha Ustance Ceskoslavenski Akademie, Vol. No.
169, G e o f y s i k a l n i Sbornik, pp. 189-202, 1962.
5.36 N i c h o l l s , R. W., Johnson, C. F. and Duvall, W. I . , "Blast

V i b r a t i o n s and t h e i r E f f e c t s on S t r u c t u r e s , " Bureau of Mines
B u l l e t i n 656, p . 105, 1971.
5.37 Odello, R. and P r i c e , P., "Ground Shock E f f e c t s from A c c i d e n t a l

Explosions," P i c a t i n n y Arsenal Technical Report 4995, November
1976.
5.38 Eubanks, R. A. and J u s k i e , B. R., "Shock Hardening of Equipment,"

Shock and V i b r a t i o n s B u l l e t i n , No. 32, P a r t 111, December 1963.
5.39 B a t c h e l d e r , F. E. , e t a l . , "Hardness Program -

Non-EMP, Hardness
Program P l a n f o r Safeguard Ground F a c i l i t i e s , " Vol. 1, Management
and T e c h n i c a l P l a n , U. S . Army Corps of Engineers, H u n t s v i l l e
D i v i s i o n , HNDDSP-73-153-ED-RY 1 6 August 1974.
5-9 2
5.40 Meireis, E . C. and Wright, A. R., "Hardness Program - Non-EMP,
Hardness Program P l a n f o r Safeguard Ground F a c i l i t i e s , " Vol. 2 ,
Safeguard S t r u c t u r e s and TSE D e s c r i p t i o n , U . S. Army Corps of
E n g i n e e r s , H u n t s v i l l e D i v i s i o n , HNDDSP-73-153-ED-R, November
1973.
5.41 Anon., "Hardness Program Non-EMP, Subsystem Hardness Assurance

Report f o r Safeguard Ground F a c i l i t i e s ,I1 Vol. 1, E x e c u t i v e Sum-
mary, U. s. Army Corps o f E n g i n e e r s , H u n t s v i l l e D i v i s i o n , HNDDSP-
72-156-ED-R, 30 June 1975.
5.42 Anon., "Hardness Program Non-EMP, Subsystem Hardness Assurance

R e p o r t f o r Safeguard Ground F a c i l i t i e s , " Vol. 2, F i n a l R e p o r t ,
U. S. Army Corps o f E n g i n e e r s , H u n t s v i l l e D i v i s i o n , HNDDSP-72-
156-ED-R, 30 June 1975.
5.43 Westine, P. S . , E s p a r z a , E . D., and Wenzel, A. B . , "Analysis and

T e s t i n g o f P i p e Response t o Buried Explosive D e t o n a t i o n s ," SwRI
F i n a l R e p o r t f o r American Gas A s s o c i a t i o n , J u l y 1978.
5-9 3
CHAPTER 6
FRAGPIEXJTATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Most d i s c u s s i o n s , t e s t i n g , a c c i d e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , and e x p l o s i v e
a c c i d e n t p r e d i c t i o n s i n v o l v e s t u d i e s of b l a s t waves and t h e i r e f f e c t s .
But o f t e n , s i g n i f i c a n t damage i n a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s i s caused by t h e
impact of fragments o r o b j e c t s which w e r e . g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g t h e e x p l o s i o n s
and h u r l e d a g a i n s t t a r g e t s ( o r " r e c e i v e r s " ) a t h i g h speed.
Fragments from equipment o r machinery i n c o n t a c t w i t h o r v e r y n e a r

a d e t o n a t i n g e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e can b e a c c e l e r a t e d t o v e r y h i g h v e l o c i t i e s
and pose a t h r e a t t o nearby p e r s o n n e l and equipment. Fragments can impact
a nearby h i g h e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e w i t h s u f f i c i e n t v e l o c i t y t o c a u s e i t t o
d e t o n a t e and c a u s e f u r t h e r damage and d e s t r u c t i o n . I f t h e d e t o n a t i n g
e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e i s of s u f f i c i e n t s i z e t o dismember t h e surrounding bay
area o r b u i l d i n g , l a r g e numbers of fragments of v a r i o u s s i z e s can be
h u r l e d i n t o nearby work areas and b u i l d i n g s and cause c o n s i d e r a b l e d e s t r u c -
t i o n and p o s s i b l e p e r s o n n e l f a t a l i t i e s .
I n t h i s c h a p t e r , w e f i r s t d e f i n e some of t h e terms used i n s t u d y i n g

missile g e n e r a t i o n and impact e f f e c t s . We d i s c u s s t h e g e n e r a t i o n of
fra,gments from o b j e c t s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e d e t o n a t i n g h i g h e x p l o s i v e ,
t h e i r v e l o c i t i e s , mass d i s t r i b u t i o n s , and s i z e and shape d i s t r i b u t i o n s .
W e t h e n d i s c u s s t h e development of fragments from o b j e c t s which are n o t
i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e d e t o n a t i n g e x p l o s i v e charge such as nearby
machinery, b o t h u n c o n s t r a i n e d and c o n s t r a i n e d , o r p o r t i o n s of t h e surround-
i n g b u i l d i n g . We t h e n i n c l u d e methods f o r c a l c u l a t i n g fragment t r a j e c t o r i e s
and impact c o n d i t i o n s . Next appear t e c h n i q u e s f o r a s s e s s i n g fragment
impact damage, i n c l u d i n g e x p l o s i v e i n i t i a t i o n by fragments. T h i s i s
followed by an assessment of t h e confidence i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n methods.
F i n a l l y , w e recommend t e s t s and a n a l y s e s t o v a l i d a t e t h e assumptions o r
r e d u c e u n c e r t a i n t i e s . Example c a l c u l a t i o n s appear throughout t h e c h a p t e r
t o c l a r i f y t h e u s e of t h e t e x t .
6.2 GENERAL PHENOMENA
L e t u s f i r s t d e f i n e some b a s i c terminology. D e f i n i t i o n s of some

b a s i c terms involved w i t h f r a g m e n t a t i o n and impact e f f e c t s f o l l o w .
0 Primary Fragments
The t e r m "primary fragment" d e n o t e s a fragment from a c a s i n g o r

c o n t a i n e r f o r a n e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e o r a fragment from an o b j e c t i n c o n t a c t
w i t h an e x p l o s i v e . I f t h e s o u r c e i s a t r u e high e x p l o s i v e , t h e c o n t a i n e r
6 -1
o r c a s i n g u s u a l l y r u p t u r e s i n t o a v e r y l a r g e number of small primary
fragments which can b e p r o j e c t e d a t v e l o c i t i e s up t o s e v e r a l thousand
f e e t p e r second by t h e e x p l o s i o n ( R e f . 6 . 1 ) . For bomb and s h e l l c a s i n g s ,
t y p i c a l masses of damaging fragments recovered i n f i e l d t e s t s are about
0.002 l b (Ref. 6 . 1 ) . These primary fragments, a l t h o u g h i r r e g u l a r , are
u s u a l l y of "chunky" geometry, i . e . , a l l l i n e a r dimensions are of t h e same
o r d e r of magnitude.
0 Secondary Fragments
C o n t a i n e r s o r c a s i n g s which fragment o r b u r s t d u r i n g a c c i d e n t a l
e x p l o s i o n s are n o t t h e o n l y s o u r c e s of fragments a n d ' m i s s i l e s . The b l a s t
waves from severe e x p l o s i o n s c a n i n t e r a c t w i t h o b j e c t s l o c a t e d n e a r t h e
e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e , tear them l o o s e from t h e i r moorings i f t h e y a r e a t t a c h e d ,
and a c c e l e r a t e them t o v e l o c i t i e s which can c a u s e impact damage. The
o b j e c t s could be p i e c e s of machinery, s m a l l t o o l s , materials such as p i p e s
and lumber, p a r t s of b u i l d i n g s and o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s d i s r u p t e d by t h e
e x p l o s i o n , l a r g e p i e c e s of equipment such as a u t o s o r p o r t a b l e g e n e r a t o r s ,
e t c . The u s u a l terms f o r t h e s e p o t e n t i a l l y damaging o b j e c t s a r e "secondary
missiles" o r "secondary fragments .
0 Drag-type and L i f t - t y p e Fragments
Once fragments o r m i s s i l e s have been formed and a c c e l e r a t e d by t h e

e x p l o s i o n , t h e y w i l l move a l o n g a s p e c i f i c t r a j e c t o r y m t i l they impact
a t a r g e t ( r e c e i v e r ) , o r t h e ground. The f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e fragments
and a f f e c t i n g t h e i r t r a j e c t o r i e s are i n e r t i a , g r a v i t a t i o n , and f l u i d
dynamic f o r c e s . The f l u i d dynamic f o r c e s are determined by t h e i n s t a n -
t a n e o u s v e l o c i t y of t h e fragment a t each i n s t a n t i n t i m e . G e n e r a l l y ,
fragments are q u i t e i r r e g u l a r i n shape and may be tumbling, s o a completely
a c c u r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e f l u i d dynamic f o r c e s d u r i n g f l i g h t i s d i f f i c u l t ,
i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e . I n t h e t r a j e c t o r y a n a l y s i s f o r fragment f l i g h t , one
u s u a l l y r e s o r t s t o some s i m p l i f i e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e f l u i d dynamic f o r c e s ,
and u s e s t h e c o n c e p t s from aerodynamics of d i v i s i o n of t h e s e f o r c e s i n t o
components c a l l e d d r a g ( a l o n g t h e t r a j e c t o r y o r n o r n a l t o t h e g r a v i t y
v e c t o r ) and l i f t (normal t o t h e t r a j e c t o r y o r opposing g r a v i t y ) . Then,
t h e f o r c e components a r e g i v e n a t any i n s t a n t by
and
2
FD = CD % PV ( 6 2)
where CL and CD are l i f t and d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t s determined e m p i r i c a l l y as
a f u n c t i o n of shape a n d o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r ,
and t h e magnitude of t h e v e l o c i t y V (see F i g u r e 6 . 1 ) . I n the equations,
p i s a i r d e n s i t y and q = (1/2) pV2 i s termed t h e dynamic p r e s s u r e . If
a fragment i s of chunky shape, s o t h a t CD >> CL f o r any f l i g h t o r i e n t a t i o n ,
i t i s c a l l e d a drag-type fragment. I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, C L -> CD f o r
6-2
Y
m
I
W
M-Mass
Figure 6.1, Nomenclature for Fragment Trajectory Analysis

some f l i g h t o r i e n t a t i o n , t h e fragment i s c a l l e d a l i f t i n g - t y p e fragment.
W e w i l l d i s c u s s i n S e c t i o n 6.2.4 t h e methods of t r a j e c t o r y p r e d i c t i o n s
f o r drag-type fragments.
0 T e r m s R e l a t i n g t o Fragment and Missile I m p a c t E f f e c t s
T r a j e c t o r y a n a l y s e s and test r e s u l t s can g i v e p r e d i c t i o n s of

fragment r a n g e s , masses, impact v e l o c i t i e s , and even t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of
s t r i k i n g a given t a r g e t ( s e e Refs. 6 . 1 - 6.3). Impact e f f e c t s determine
t h e d e g r e e of m i s s i l e h a z a r d s . W e w i l l d e f i n e h e r e a number of terms
r e l a t e d t o missile impact e f f e c t s .
An impacting fragment can c a u s e damage t o a m u l t i t u d e of t y p e s of

receivers by s t r i k i n g and e i t h e r p e n e t r a t i n g o r rebounding w i t h o u t pene-
t r a t i n g . The term p e n e t r a t i o n u s u a l l y means t h a t t h e fragment o r missile
d i s r u p t s o r d i s p l a c e s some of t h e t a r g e t material d u r i n g impact, b u t does
n o t p a s s through t h e t a r g e t . The missile may o r may n o t remain lodged
i n t h e t a r g e t . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , ' i f t h e m i s s i l e p a s s e s e n t i r e l y through,
t h e t a r g e t is s a i d t o have been p e r f o r a t e d .
Impacting m i s s i l e s may damage a t a r g e t by s i m p l e momentum t r a n s f e r ,

and v a r i o u s wave t r a n s m i s s i o n e f f e c t s . The term " s p a l l i n g " w i l l be used
t o i n d i c a t e the p r o c e s s by which impact-induced compression waves i n
s o l i d s c a u s e f a i l u r e s i n t e n s i o n . a f t e r wave r e f l e c t i o n from a f r e e s u r f a c e .
The p r o c e s s i s q u i t e w e l l d e s c r i b e d by R i n e h a r t (Ref. 6.4). In brittle
materials such as c o n c r e t e o r p l a s t e r , s p a l l i n g c a n occur f o r missile
i m p a c t s a t r e l a t i v e l y low v e l o c i t i e s , less t h a n 300 f e e t p e r second
( R e f . 6.5).
There i s much c o n f u s i o n i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e concerning d e f i n i t i o n s

f o r " s p a l l i n g " and "scabbing." O f t e n , t h e two terms are used i n t e r c h a n g e -
a b l y , o r one a u t h o r w i l l u s e a d e f i n i t i o n f o r one of t h e terms which
a n o t h e r a u t h o r would u s e f o r t h e o t h e r term. TM5-1300 (Ref. 6 . 6 ) , which
i s a document w i d e l y used by d e s i g n e n g i n e e r s , d e f i n e s " d i r e c t s p a l l i n g "
as t h e dynamic disengagement of t h e c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e of a n element,
r e s u l t i n g from a t e n s i o n f a i l u r e i n t h e c o n c r e t e normal t o i t s f r e e s u r f a c e ,
caused by shock p r e s s u r e s of a n impinging b l a s t wave being t r a n s m i t t e d
t h r o u g h t h e element. The same document d e f i n e s "scabbing" as t h e dynamic
disengagement of t h e c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e of a n element, r e s u l t i n g from a
t e n s i o n f a i l u r e i n t h e c o n c r e t e normal t o i t s f r e e s u r f a c e , caused by
l a r g e s t r a i n s i n t h e f l e x u r a l reinforcement.
6.2.1 Primary Fragments
A l a r g e number of primary fragments are g e n e r a t e d when a h i g h

e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e d e t o n a t e s w i t h i n and i n c o n t a c t w i t h a metal c a s i n g which
cannot c o n t a i n t h e e x p l o s i o n . The fragments which r e s u l t from bomb and
6-4
s h e l l c a s i n g s c o n t a i n i n g h i g h e x p l o s i v e s a r e u s u a l l y small, less t h a n 0.002
l b , "chunky" i n shape, and have i n i t i a l v e l o c i t i e s of n e a r l y t e n thousand
f e e t p e r second (Ref. 6 . 1 ) . The s i z e and shape of t h e fragments w i l l
depend g r e a t l y on t h e m e t a l l o g r a p h i c h i s t o r y of t h e c a s i n g , i t s p h y s i c a l
c o n d i t i o n (such as d e n t s , grooves, bends, o r i n t e r n a l c r a c k s o r f l a w s ) ,
and t h e c o n d i t i o n of j o i n t s , most n o t a b l y weld j o i n t s . The pages which
f o l l o w d i s c u s s methods f o r determining v e l o c i t i e s , mass d i s t r i b u t i o n s
and s i z e and shape d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r primary fragments.
6.2.1.1 Velocities
The fragment v e l o c i t y of major concern i s t h e v e l o c i t y w i t h which

t h e " d e s i g n f r a g m e n t ( s ) " ( t h e worst fragment which t h e s t r u c t u r e must
b e d e s i g n e d t o w i t h s t a n d ) s t r i k e s t h e p r o t e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e (Ref. 6 . 7 ) .
T h i s s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y i s e x p r e s s e d as
-12kvR
V = V e (6.3)
S 0
where V = fragment v e l o c i t y a t a d i s t a n c e R from t h e c e n t e r of t h e

S
detonation (ft/sec)
V = i n i t i a l (maximum) fragment v e l o c i t y ( f t / s e c )
0
R = d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t e r of d e t o n a t i o n ( f t )
kV = v e l o c i t y decay c o e f f i c i e n t
The v e l o c i t y decay c o e f f i c i e n t i s k v = (A/Wf) Y O C ~
where A/Wf = fragment form f a c t o r , t h e r a t i o of t h e p r e s e n t e d area of t h e
fragment ( i n . 2 ) t o t h e fragment weight ( s e e S e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 3 )
in lb.
3
YO = s p e c i f i c w e i g h t of a i r (4.438 x lb/in. )
C, = d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s )
(0.6 f o r V > 1100 f t / s f o r s p i n n i n g , chunky fragments, Ref. 6
F i g u r e 6.2 shows t h e v a r i a t i o n of primary fragment v e l o c i t y w i t h d i s t a n c e .
T h e term i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y refers t o t h e maximum fragment v e l o c i t y as
t h e fragment i s e j e c t e d from t h e charge. Due t o t h e extremely h i g h rates
of fragment a c c e l e r a t i o n , t h i s v e l o c i t y i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a t t a i n e d by
t h e fragment p r i o r t o moving a p p r e c i a b l y from i t s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n .
The most common t e c h n i q u e f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y

of f r a g m e n t s i n c o n t a c t w i t h an e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e i s t h e Gurney Method
(Ref. 6 . 9 ) . T h i s work w a s o r i g i n a l l y done f o r c y l i n d r i c a l and s p h e r i c a l
g e o m e t r i e s . Henry (.Ref. 6.10) l a t e r d e r i v e d a d d i t i o n a l formulas f o r o t h e r
g e o m e t r i e s . Gurney's o r i g i n a l work c o n s i s t e d p r i m a r i l y of a t h e o r e t i c a l
a n a l y s i s f o r p r e d i c t i n g mean v e l o c i t i e s of fragments from v a r i o u s t y p e s
of m i l i t a r y ordnance. H e demonstrated t h a t h i s a n a l y s i s (Ref. 6.9) could
s u c c e s s f u l l y p r e d i c t mean fragment v e l o c i t i e s from a grenade c o n t a i n i n g
1.5 o z of HE t o a bomb c o n t a i n i n g 3000 l b of HE. However, t h e l i t e r a t u r e
d o e s n o t a d d r e s s l i m i t a t i o n s i n terms of t h e r a t i o W P c f o r t h e u s e of t h e
Gurney f o r m u l a s . Hence, i t h a s been customary t o u s e t h e Gurney formulas
f o r a l l v a l u e s of W/Wc.
6-5 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

6 I
n
-5
e
rl
W
.rl
lJ .2
3
.1
.05
.03
.02
.01
.oo:0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
S t r i k i n g V e l o c i t y / I n i t i a l V e l o c i t y , vs/V0
NOTE: S t a n d a r d Fragment Shape Assumed, See S e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 3 .
Figure 6.2. V a r i a t i o n of Primary Fragment V e l o c i t y

with Distance (Ref. 6 . 7 )
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 6 -6

-1
Gurney found t h a t t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y of primary fragments

r e s u l t i n g from t h e d e t o n a t i o n of a cased e x p l o s i v e w a s a f u n c t i o n of t h e
e x p l o s i v e o u t p u t of t h e e x p l o s i v e and t h e - r a t i o of t h e e x p l o s i v e charge
weight t o t h e c a s i n g weight (Ref. 6 . 7 ) . F i g u r e 6.3 c o n t a i n s Gurney formulas
f o r some simple g e o m e t r i e s (Ref. 6 . 7 ) .
These e q u a t i o n s assume t h a t t h e conversion from chemical energy

t o "Gurney" energy i s accomplished w i t h no l o s s e s (Ref. 6.11). However,
t h e Gurney energy E' i s a s p e c i f i c k i n e t i c energy, determined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y
by measuring t h e maximum v e l o c i t y of primary fragments, and as such, t h e
energy c o n v e r s i o n e f f i c i e n c y a p p e a r s l i m i t e d . The t i m e r e q u i r e d t o t r a n s f e r
energy a c r o s s an expanding g a s cloud t o a moving metal p l a t e (fragment)
i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y as t h e gas d e n s i t y d e c r e a s e s . The energy t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s
i s e v e n t u a l l y t e r m i n a t e d by l o s s e s i n any real system b e f o r e t h e t r a n s f e r
i s completed (Ref. 6.11).
It is u s e f u l t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e chemical energy i s simply

t h e h e a t of d e t o n a t i o n , AH, and t h a t by e x p r e s s i n g E' and AH i n t h e
same u n i t s a n energy c o n v e r s i o n e f f i c i e n c y can b e d e f i n e d . The r a t i o of
Gurney energy t o chemical energy, E'/AH, r e p r e s e n t s t h e conversion e f f i -
c i e n c y (Ref. 6.11). Note t h e n , t h a t i f E' i s unknown f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
e x p l o s i v e , and AH i s known, E'/AH may b e determined f o r a similar e x p l o s i v e
(i.e., s i m i l a r d e n s i t y AH), and t h e v a l u e used t o estimate t h e Gurney
energy (Ref. 6.11).
F i g u r e 6.4 c o n t a i n s a p l o t of v e l o c i t y v e r s u s c h a r g e t o c a s i n g
weight r a t i o f o r v a r i o u s g e o m e t r i e s . The term J2E'which a p p e a r s i n each
formula i s known as t h e "Gurney Constant," o r Gurney c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
v e l o c i t y , and i s a c o n s t a n t f o r a g i v e n e x p l o s i v k as shown i n Table 6 . 1
(Ref. 6.11). A s shown i n t h e formulas, t h e r a t i o of f i n a l metal v e l o c i t y
V t o the characteristic velocity i s a n e x p l i c i t f u n c t i o n of t h e charge
t o netal mass r a t i o , w/Wc.
The Gurney c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v e l o c i t i e s i n Table 6 . 1 w e r e c a l c u l a t e d

u s i n g maximum v e l o c i t y d a t a from c a r e f u l l y conducted experiments i n which
end l o s s e s and gas l e a k a g e through f r a c t u r e s i n t h e metal were minimized.
The e f f e c t i v e v a l u e o f may d e c r e a s e by as much as 20 p e r c e n t i f end
l o s s e s o r f r a c t u r i n g of t h e d r i v e n metal o c c u r e a r l y in t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n
p e r i o d (Ref. 6.2).
6.2.1.2 Mass D i s t r i b u t i o n
Upon d e t o n a t i o n of an encased e x p l o s i v e , t h e c a s i n g b r e a k s up i n t o
a l a r g e nimber of h i g h v e l o c i t y fragments w i t h v a r y i n g w e i g h t s and v e l o c i t i e s .
The d e s t r u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l of t h e s e fragments i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e i r k i n e t i c
energy d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , through t e s t i n g o r a n a l y s i s t h e v e l o c i t y
and weight of t h e "worst case" fragment must b e determined and u t i l i z e d
a s a d e s i g n c r i t e r i o n f o r fragment s h i e l d s .
6- 7
>
Cross-
Sectional Initial Fragment Maximum
Type Shape Velocity vo V
O !
Cylinder
+---
1 21v.
'W
Sphere
'+5,
W
p ..-'d4
Steel cored
cylinder
Plate
1 4:
....
W
.*[+1 1
a,
here a-- 1.(id<
3 z
nw.+--'
+-- 5w
Sandwich
plates
Figure 6.3 Velocity of Primary Fragments*
*See Table 4-3, TM5-1300, for remarks on use of these formulas.
6-8
1.6
1.2
0.8
+
%
0.4
0
.1 .2 .4 .7 1. 2 4 7 10
Figure 6 . 4 . Dimensionless Velocity of Metal as a Function of

Loading Factor W,/w (Ref. 6.10)
6-9
Table 6 . 1 Gurney E n e r g i e s f o r Various E x p l o s i v e s (Ref. 6.9)
Sp e c i f i c Wei gh t rn
3 Explosive ftls
lb/ in
0.0639 RDX 9600
0.0578 Composition C-3 m o

0.0588 THT 8000
0.0621 T r i t anal* 7 600

( T N T / A =~ 8 0 / 2 0 )
0.0621 , Composition B 9100

(RDX/TNT)
0.0682 9750
0.0664 PBX-9404 9500

~~
-
0.0585 Tetryl 8200
0.0581 TACOT 7000
0.0411 N i t r ome t h a n e 7900
0.0635 PET" 9600
duPont S h e e t :
0.0527 EL506D 8200
0.0563 EL506L 7200
0.0397 T r i m o n i t e No. 1" 3400
*Den o t e s no n i d e31.
NOTE: C o r r e c t i o n s were a p p l i e d t o t h e d a t a on Refs. 6.10 and 6.12 as

d i s c u s s e d i n R e f . 6.13 t o estimate t r u e speed of metal b e f o r e
c a l c u l a t i n g Gurney energy, E .
6-10
The Mott e q u a t i o n (Ref. 6.7) y i e l d s estimates o f t h e fragment
m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n r e s u l t i n g from t h e high-order d e t o n a t i o n of evenly d i s -
t r i b u t e d e x p l o s i v e w i t h i n a uniform t h i c k n e s s c y l i n d r i c a l c a s i n g f o r natu-
r a l l y fragmenting c a s i n g s and t h e Gurney e q u a t i o n ( S e c t i o n 6.2.1.1) pre-
d i c t s v e l o c i t i e s . Motts e q u a t i o n s do n o t hold f o r c a s i n g s designed t o
fragment i n a s p e c i f i c manner. The Mott e q u a t i o n i s :
Iln Nx = Rn (CMA) - M/MA (6.4)
where N = t h e number of fragments w i t h weight g r e a t e r t h a n Wf

X
fragment d i s t r i b u t i o n c o n s t a n t
wC/ ( 2 ~ ~ 3 )
t o t a l c a s i n g weight ( l b )
(W,)1/2
f r i g m e n t weight ( l b )
fragment d i s t r i b u t i o n parameter
B tc5 / 6 di I3 (1 + tc/di>
- average casing thickness ( i n . )
tc -
- a v e r a g e i n s i d e diameter of c a s i n g ( i n . )
di
B = e x p l o s i v e c o n s t a n t (Table 6.2) ( s e e S e c t i o n 6.7.2)
The Mott e q u a t i o n assumes t h a t t h e fragments r e s u l t from t h e high-

o r d e r d e t o n a t i o n of a uniform t h i c k n e s s c y l i n d r i c a l c a s i n g f i l l e d w i t h
e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d e x p l o s i v e . S i n c e a c t u a l weapons do n o t conform t o
t h e s e i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e s u l t i n g fragment s i z e s and v e l o c i t i e s
v a r y i n a n g u l a r o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p r o j e c t i l e nose (Refs.
6.14 and 6.15). There i s n o e x a c t procedure f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e fragment
m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n from a n o n - c y l i n d r i c a l c o n t a i n e r . Consequently, such
cases a r e approximately treated by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c a s i n g a s a s e r i e s of
e q u i v a l e n t c y l i n d r i c a l c o n t a i n e r s (Ref. 6.9).
A number of r e l a t i o n s h i p s and d e s i g n e q u a t i o n s can b e o b t a i n e d

by e x p r e s s i n g t h e Mott e q u a t i o n (Eq. 6 . 4 ) i n t h e f o l l o w i n g form:
N = CMAe -M /MA (6.5a)
X
o r by s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r C = W , / ( ~ M A ~ )and M = (Wf)1/2,
(6.5b)
S e t t i n g t h e fragment weight Wf t o z e r o , t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e
t o t a l number of fragments NT i s o b t a i n e d :
6-11
T a b l e 6.2 Mott S c a l i n g C o n s t a n t s f o r Mild S t e e l Casings
and Various E x p l o s i v e s (Ref. 6.16)
Explosive B Heat o f Detonation *

(lb i n c h e s-7/6)
f t-lbf l b
Baratol 0.128 1,036,000
Comp B 0.0554 2,150,000
C y c l o t o l (75/25) 0.0493 2,198,000
H-6 0.0690 1,292,000
HBX-1 0.0639 1,286,000
HBX-3 0.0808 1,228,000

~ ~~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~
P e n t o l i t e (50/50) 0.0620 1,722,000
kTX-1
--~ -~
I ~~~
0.0554
~
PTX-2 0.0568
TNT 0.0779 1,526,000
Comp A-3 0.0549
RDx/wAx (95/5) 0.0531 2,114,000
Tetryl 0.0681 1,595,000
*These are e m p i r i c a l v a l u e s used by Mott.
6-12
2
N T = Wc/2MA
Hence, t h e a v e r a g e p a r t i c l e weight if can b e found:

-
Wf = W /NT = 2MA
2
C
Equation (6.5b) can t h e n be expressed as:
(6.8a)
or
Nx = e- $/MA
- (6.8b)
NT
The r a t i o N x / N ~ r e p r e s e n t s t h a t f r a c t i o n of t h e t o t a l number of fragments

which have a weight g r e a t e r than W f . The Mott e q u a t i o n p r e d i c t s a continuous
d i s t r i b u t i o n of fragments ranging i n s i z e from a l a r g e number of l i g h t w e i g h t
p a r t i c l e s t o a small number of v e r y heavy c a s i n g fragments. T h i s i s
i n d i c a t e d by t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e a v e r a g e fragment weight (2MA) 2 corre-
sponds t o a n N,/NT v a l u e of 0.243, implying t h a t 75.7 p e r c e n t of a l l primary
fragments g e n e r a t e d by t h e d e t o n a t i o n have weight less t h a n t h e o v e r a l l
average.
For d e s i g n purposes, a confidence level CL, where (0 < CL < l ) ,

can b e d e f i n e d as t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e w e i g h t , is the largest
wf:
weight fragment r e l e a s e d . The e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e d e s i g n fragment weight
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a p r e s c r i b e d d e s i g n confidence l e v e l (CL) i s given as
(Ref. 6.9):
CL = 1 - Nx/NT = 1 - e-$/ M ~ (6.9a)
or
e
-Ji"; /MA = l - C L (6.9b)
Then, t a k i n g t h e l o g a r i t h m and s q u a r i n g b o t h s i d e s of t h e e q u a t i o n ,
wf /MA2 = Rn 2 (1 - CL) (6.9~)
or
2 2
Wf = MA Iln (1 - CL) (6.9d)
6-13
Equation (6.9d) can t h e n be used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e d e s i g n fragment weight
f o r a p r e s c r i b e d d e s i g n c o n f i d e n c e l e v e l . Note t h a t Equation (6.9d) u s e s
a n i n f i n i t e d i s t r i b u t i o n t o d e s c r i b e a p h y s i c a l phenomenon which h a s a
f i n i t e upper l i m i t . Equation (6.9d) may b e used f o r CL - < 0.9999. If
CL > 0.9999, use:
(6.10)
Fragment masses f o r primary fragments from several e x p l o s i o n s

r e p o r t e d i n t h e f i l e s a t DDESB could b e e s t i m a t e d u s i n g Mott s c a l i n g .
However, t h i s formula can o n l y be employed t o c a l c u l a t e masses of primary
f r a g m e n t s which e v o l v e from a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g a n e x p l o s i v e d e t o n a t i o n
w i t h i n a c o n t a i n e r of some s o r t , l i k e a c a s i n g , s t o r a g e t a n k , o r a c o n f i n -
i n g piece of machinery such as a c e n t r i f u g e o r p r e s s . Masses of fragments
c r e a t e d as a r e s u l t of a given q u a n t i t y of e x p l o s i v e d e t o n a t i n g w h i l e
b e i n g machined o r i n unconfined s p a c e w i t h i n a b u i l d i n g must b e e s t i m a t e d
u s i n g o t h e r methods. Some of t h e s e methods are d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n s
6.2.2, 6.2.2.1, 6.2.2.2, 6.2.3 and 6.2.4.2.
6.2.1.3 S i z e and Shape D i s t r i b u t i o n s
I n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e damage p o t e n t i a l of primary fragments,

i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e v a l u a t e t h e c a l i b e r d e n s i t y and shape of t h e f r a g m e n t s ,
as w e l l as t h e p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d weight and s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y (Ref. 6 . 7 ) .
When a c o n t a i n e r fragments, a random d i s t r i b u t i o n of fragment shape r e s u l t s .
S e c t i o n 6.2.1.2 c o n t a i n e d a method f o r d e t e m i a i n g t h e m a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n
of primary fragments. From t h e mass of t h e fragment and shape of t h e
containment vessel, one can estimate t h e s i z e of i n d i v i d u a l fragments.
T h i s s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s a method f o r performing a n e n g i n e e r i n g estimate of
a s t a n d a r d d e s i g n f r a g m e n t ( s ) f o r u s e i n fragment impact damage.
The i n f l u e n c e of t h e fragment weight t o fragment d i a m e t e r r a t i o

i s e x p r e s s e d i n terms of t h e c a l i b e r d e n s i t y D of t h e fragment which i s
d e f i n e d as:
D = Wf/d (6.11)
where Wf = t o t a l fragment weight ( l b )
d = fragment diameter ( i n . )
The n o s e shape f a c t o r N i s d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s :
N = 0.72 +
0.25 Jn - 0.25 (6.12)
where n = c a l i b e r r a d i u s of t h e t a n g e n t o g i v e of t h e assumed fragment
nose
Two p o s s i b l e fragment shapes w i t h t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g c a l i b e r

d e n s i t i e s and n o s e f a c t o r s a r e shown i n F i g u r e 6.5. The b l u n t fragment

shape i n F i g u r e 6.5 i s c o n s i d e r e d as t h e s t a n d a r d fragment i n t h e d e s i g n
c h a r t s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n . While t h e s t a n d a r d fragment
has a m i l d e r n o s e shape than t h e a l t e r n a t e fragment, t h e s t a n d a r d fragment
is g e n e r a l l y considered a p p r o p r i a t e f o r use i n design s i n c e : (a) only a
s m a l l number of fragments w i l l s t r i k e t h e s t r u c t u r e nose-on; and (b) only
a small f r a c t i o n of t h e s e fragments will have a more s e v e r e nose shape
t h a n t h e s t a n d a r d fragment. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e length-to-diameter r a t i o o f
t h e s e fragments i s f e l t t o b e more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a n average fragment
c o n f i g u r a t i o n . For convenience, a p l o t of fragment weight i n pounds
v e r s u s fragment diameter f o r t h e s e two fragment shapes i s given i n
F i g u r e 6.6 (Ref. 6 . 9 ) .
6-15
n = 0.5
N = 0.845
3
Volume = 0.654d
3
Wf = 0.186d
D = 0.186 lb/in. 3
2
A = .rrd / 4
(a) S t a n d a r d Fragment Shape
, 0.88d , _ 1.124 L1
I n = 1.5
r
41
N = 1.00
Volume = 1.2d
Wf = 0.34d
D = 0.34
3
3
Ib/in. 3
2
A = rd /4
(b) A l t e r n a t e Fragment Shape
NOTE: N = Nose shape f a c t o r = 0.72 + 0.25

n = C a l i b e r r a d i u s o f tangent ogive of frag-
ment n o s e = R/d
3
D = C a l i b e r d e n s i t y = Wf/d
A = P r e s e n t e d area f o r u s e in s t r i k i n g
v e l o c i t y determinations
( C a l c u l a t i o n s a r e f o r s t e e l fragm nts w i t h
a s p e c i f i c w e i g h t of 0.283 l.b/in.')
F i g u r e 6.5. Primary Fragment Shapes
Change 1 - 15 August 1 9 8 1 6-16

9 u
rl c
M
rl
0
rn
U
m
N
4
0
0
rl
0
6-17
PROBLEM - Determine t h e i n i t i a l (maximum v e l o c i t y ) Vo and s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y

V, of a primary fragment e j e c t e d from a s p h e r i c a l c a s i n g c o n t a i n i n g
TNT .
GIVEN: W = weight of e x p l o s i v e ( l b )
W_L = weight of c a s i n g ( l b )
= Gurney energy ( f t / s e c )
= S p e c i f i c weight o f a i r ( l b / i n . 3 )
yo
CD = drag c o e f f i c i e n t (dimensionless)
R = d i s t a n c e from c e n t e r of charge t o t a r g e t impact l o c a t i o n ( f t )
W,A = weight of fragment ( l b )
- REFERENCE
r
FIND: Vo, Vs
SOLUTION: 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e i n i t i a l fragment v e l o c i t y .
v0 =m
I:3w
1+-
5w
Fig. 6.3
f o r equation,
Table 6 . 1
f o r Gurney
energy
2. Determine t h e p r e s e n t e d area of t h e fragment.
(Assume a s t a n d a r d fragment shape as d e f i n e d
i n F i g u r e 6.5 unless i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e a c t u a l
shape i s a v a i l a b l )
md2 e W, 273
A = -a dL = I F i g . 6.5
0.1862/3
213
=wf
A = = 2.41 <I3
(. 4 .x 0 ~ 8 6 ) ~ ~
3. C a l c u l a t e t h e v e l o c i t y decay c o e f f i c i e n t
kV*
kV = (A/Wf) y Z D Eq. (6.3)
4. C a l c u l a t e t h e s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y a t some
d i s t a n c e R.
Vs -- Vo e-12kvR Eq. (6.3)
6-18
CALCULATION
GIVEN: W = 100 l b of TNT

WeL = 10 l b of s t e e l
J2E'== 8000 f t / s e c 5
4.438 x 10- l b / i n .
3
YO
CD = 0.6
R = 30 f t
Wf = 0.01 l b
S t a n d a r d d e s i g n shape fragment
FIND: Vo, Vs
SOLUTION: 1. v0 =
v = 9560 f t / s e c L J
0
2. A = 2 . 4 1 Wf2 / 3
A = 0,112 i n . 2
3. kV = (A/Wf) yoCD
3
k = (0.112 i n . 2 / 0 . 0 1 l b ) (4.438 x lb/in. ) (0.6)
V
-1
k = 2.98 x in.
V
- 12kvR
4. Vs = V 0 e -1
V = (9560 f t / s e c ) e-12(2.98 x in. ) ( 3 0 ft)
VsS = (9560 f t / s e c )
= 8590 f t / s e c
vS
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.2
PROBLEM - Determine t h e a v e r a g e fragment weight w

f o r a primary fragment
e j e c t e d from a uniform c y l i n d r i c a l steef c a s i n g c o n t a i n i n g
Composition B; t h e t o t a l number of fragments NT e j e c t e d ; and t h e
d e s i g n fragment weight W f ; t h e number N X of fragments weighing
more t h a n t h e d e s i g n fragment.
6-19 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

GIVEN: C o m p B explosive
= average casing thickness (in.)
tC
di
- average inside diameter of casing (in.)
w, = total casing weight .(lb)
C L = confidence level (see Equation 6.9)
FIND: nf, NT, Wf , Nx REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine the explosive constant B for Table 6.2

Composition B.
2. Determine fragment distribution parameter M
A'
516 113
MA = B tc di (1 + tc/di) Eq. (6.4)
3. Determine the average weight of the fragments
G=.
ef =
L
2
2MA Eq. (6.7)
4. Determine the total number of fragments NT'
NT = Wc/2M2 Eq. (6.6)
5. Determine the design fragment weight Wf.
2 2
Wf = MA Rn (1 - CL) Eq. (6.9d)
or (6.10)
6. Determilie the ntunber of fragments N X whic?
weigh more than the design fragment.
N
-X
= e- T I M A Eq. (6.8b)
NT
N
=- x .
Nx NT NT
CALCULATION
GIVEN: C o m p B explosive
tc = 0.25 in.
di = 6.0 in.
wc = 16.34 lb
CL = 0.995
-
FIND: Wf, NT, Wf, Nx
6-20
- -
SOLUTION: 1. Using Table 6.2, B = 0.0554 lb1/2/in.7/6 for Comp B
explosiv
2. M = B t96di 1/3 (1 + t,/$)
A C
= (0.0554) (0.25) 5/6 (6)l/3 [l + (0.25/6)]
MA
MA = 3.303 x lb1/2
2
3. f = 2MA
-
= 2.182 x lb
wf
4 . NT = 1 d C / 2 M i
NT = 16.34/2.182 x
N = 7490 fragments (total)
2 2
5. W = M Rn (1 - CL)
f A
-2 2 2
Wf = (3.303 x 10 ) Rn (1 - 0.995)
Wf = 3.063 x lb
6. N
- X- - e- %/IfA
N
_X - -0.175/3.303 x -/3.303 x
- e e
N
_X -
- 5 x (100 x 5 x = 0.5% of the fragments
NTI
are heavier than the design fragment)
Nx = (0.005)(7490)
= 37 to 38 fragments heavier than the design fragment
NOTE: An alternate (and simpler) method for determining the number of
fragments which are heavier than the design fragment would be to
use Equation (6.9a). That is
C L = 1 - N /N
x T
N
X
= (1 - CL) (NT)
N = (1 - 0.995)(7490) = 37 tc 38 fragments
X
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.3
PROBLEN - Determine the area presented by a design fragment striking a

target.
GIVEN: W f = weight of the fragment ( l b )

___
Shape of the fragment (i.e.. standard or alternate)

REFERENCE
-
FIND: A
SOLUTION: 1. Choose design shape (alternate shaped assumed) Fig. 6.5

2. Determine the diameter of the fragment
Fig. 6.5
I
d = 1.433 Wf113
3. Find the presented area
Fig. 6.5
CALCULATION
GIVEN: Wf = 0.03 lb
-
FIND: A
SOLUTION: 1. A s s u m e alter t e shape.

2. d = 1.433 Wfv 3
113
d = 1.433 (0.03)
d = 0.445 in
3. A = 1.61 Wf213
213
A = (1.61)(0.03)
A = 0.155 in.2
6-22
6.2.2 Secondary Fragments
The e x p l o s i o n of HE d u r i n g some manufacturing o r forming p r o c e s s

(.i.e., n i t r a t i o n , c e n t r i f u g i n g , p r e s s i n g , machining on l a t h e , e t c . ) can
r e s u l t i n a l a r g e number of secondary fragments which v a r y g r e a t l y i n s i z e ,
shape, i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y , and range. Each of t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s a f f e c t s t h e
damage p o t e n t i a l of a n a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n and, t h e r e f o r e , should b e
c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e d e s i g n of p r o t e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e s .
The c u r r e n t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t f o r a s s e s s i n g damage p o t e n t i a l
r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e d e s i g n e n g i n e e r estimate t h e c o n d i t i o n s which are l i k e l y
t o e x i s t a t t h e time of t h e a c c i d e n t , and perform a s t r u c t u r a l assessment
of any equipment which w i l l b e involved. Some of t h e i n i t i a l f a c t o r s t o
c o n s i d e r are:
0 Type and amount of HE

0 C o n f i g u r a t i o n ( i . e . , s p h e r e , c y l i n d e r , c a s e d , uncased, e t c . )
0 L o c a t i o n of HE (i.e., a t t a c h e d t o l a t h e , r e s t i n g on s u p p o r t
t a b l e , c o n t a i n e d i n c e n t r i f u g e , proximity t o walls and o t h e r
equipment , e t c ) .
0 Type of p r o p a g a t i o n a f t e r i n i t i a t i o n ( i . e . , high o r d e r , burning,
p a r t i a l detonation, etc.)
A s an example of p r e d i c t i n g t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n of a machine, t h e
e x p l o s i o n which o c c u r r e d a t t h e Pantex P l a n t i n B u i l d i n g ll-14A on March
30, 1977 i s c o n s i d e r e d . I n t h i s i n c i d e n t , two b i l l e t s of HE were involved:
Q75 l b of LX-09-0 and %75 l b of LX-14, b o t h plastic-bonded e x p l o s i v e s
w i t h a TNT e q u i v a l e n c e of 1.3. A consequent i n v e s t i g a t i o n concluded t h a t
t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s may have e x i s t e d a t t h e t i m e of t h e a c c i d e n t .
The LX-09-0 w a s a t t a c h e d via a vacuum h o l d i n g f i x t u r e t o a Monarch l a t h e
and w a s i n t h e p r o c e s s of b e i n g rough c u t o r c e n t e r e d . The l a t h e w a s
a d j a c e n t t o a 3 - f t c o n c r e t e w a l l analyzed t o w i t h s t a n d an impulse of
2100 p s i - m s . The b i l l e t of LX-14 w a s approximately 15 f t from t h e Lx-09-0,
and w a s r e s t i n g on a g r a n i t e t a b l e a d j a c e n t t o a masonry b l o c k w a l l .
Both b i l l e t s w e r e 3 t o 4 f t above t h e f l o o r . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n suggested
t h a t t h e b i l l e t on t h e l a t h e may have d e t o n a t e d f i r s t and t h a t missiles
g e n e r a t e d a t t h e l a t h e s u b s e q u e n t l y l e d t o t h e d e t o n a t i o n of t h e LX-14
(Ref. 6.17). Both e x p l o s i o n s were high-order d e t o n a t i o n s .
When t h e i n i t i a l e x p l o s i o n occurred a t t h e l a t h e , secondary fragments

w e r e e j e c t e d i n a11 d i r e c t i o n s . I n g e n e r a l , t h e elements of t h e l a t h e
were i n t e r l o c k e d w i t h each o t h e r ( i . e . , b o l t e d , welded, etc.) a l l o w i n g u s
t o c o n s i d e r i n d i v i d u a l fragments as having been c o n s t r a i n e d . T h e r e f o r e ,
a f i n i t e amount of energy r e l e a s e d by t h e e x p l o s i o n w a s u t i l i z e d i n " t e a r i n g
a p a r t " t h e lathe. F a i r l y massive and h e a v i l y c o n s t r a i n e d p a r t s such as
t h e cam l o c k s p i n d l e a d a p t e r and t h e cam l o c k s p i n d l e n o s e , which were
among t h e c l o s e s t p a r t s t o t h e c h a r g e , s u s t a i n e d s u b s t a n t i a l p l a s t i c
deformation o r m e l t i n g b e f o r e b e i n g t o r n f r e e from t h e l a t h e . The m i s s i l e
6-23
maps which were c o n s t r u c t e d of t h e a c c i d e n t s c e n e i n d i c a t e t h e areal
fragment d i s t r i b u t i o n which r e s u l t e d (Ref. 6.17).
I n g e n e r a l , t h e smallest fragments o r i g i n a t e d c l o s e s t t o t h e charge.

T h i s may b e e x p l a i n e d , i n p a r t , by c o n s i d e r i n g t h o s e p a r t s of t h e l a t h e
a d j a c e n t t o t h e charge t o b e primary fragments. The d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t
arise from assuming t h a t t h e s e elements are primary fragments stems
from a l a c k of t o t a l encasement (i.e., v e r y few p a r t s of t h e l a t h e are
i n a c t u a l c o n t a c t w i t h t h e HE); v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e amount of constrainment
of t h e machine p a r t s ; and a v a r y i n g mass d i s t r i b u t i o n ( i . e . , t h e charge
may b e c o n t a c t e d by a v i r t u a l l y u n c o n s t r a i n e d c u t t e r on one s i d e and t h e
h e a v i l y c o n s t r a i n e d s p i n d l e assembly on a n o t h e r s i d e ) . The s i t u a t i o n i s
f u r t h e r complicated i n t h a t a r e l a t i v e l y small f o r c e a c t i n g on a p a r t from
one d i r e c t i o n may cause i t t o fragment w h i l e a much l a r g e r f o r c e a c t i n g
a l o n g some o t h e r l i n e of a c t i o n may n o t r e s u l t i n f r a g m e n t a t i o n .
I f t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n p a t t e r n varies w i t h t h e i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s ,
t h e A r c h i t e c t u r a l Engineer must examine several l i k e l y s c e n a r i o s t o
e v a l u a t e t h e damage p o t e n t i a l .
TO estimate t h e w e i g h t , shape, and velocity of fragments which

r e s u l t from d e t o n a t i o n of an HE d u r i n g a manufacturing o r forming p r o c e s s ,
one would perform t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s :
1) Determine d i s t a n c e (R;) from t h e c e n t e r of t h e e x p l o s i v e t o

t h e i t h p o i n t of i n t e r e s t on t h e machine ( r e f e r t o s t r u c t u r a l
d e t a i l s of t h e machine).
2) Determine t h e s i z e and shape of t h e expected fragment ( r e f e r
t o s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l s of t h e machine).
3) Determine t h e fragment v e l o c i t y ( r e f e r t o S e c t i o n s 6.2.2.1 and
6.2.2.2).
6.2.2.1 Unconstrained Secondary Fragments
To p r e d i c t v e l o c i t i e s t o which o b j e c t s are a c c e l e r a t e d by ex-

p l o s i o n s , one must c o n s i d e r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of b l a s t waves w i t h s o l i d
o b j e c t s . F i g u r e 6.7a (Ref. 6 . 3 ) shows s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n t h r e e s t a g e s t h e
i n t e r a c t i o n of a b l a s t wave w i t h a n i r r e g u l a r o b j e c t . As t h e wave s t r i k e s
t h e o b j e c t , a p o r t i o n i s r e f l e c t e d from t h e f r o n t f a c e , and t h e remainder
d i f f r a c t s around t h e o b j e c t . I n t h e d i f f r a c t i o n p r o c e s s , t h e i n c i d e n t
wave f r o n t c l o s e s i n behind t h e o b j e c t , g r e a t l y weakened l o c a l l y , and a
p a i r of t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s i s formed. R a r e f a c t i o n waves sweep a c r o s s t h e
f r o n t f a c e , a t t e n u a t i n g t h e i n i t i a l r e f l e c t e d b l a s t p r e s s u r e . After
p a s s a g e of t h e f r o n t , t h e body i s immersed i n time-varying f l o w f i e l d .
Maximum p r e s s u r e on t h e f r o n t f a c e d u r i n g t h i s "drag" pha.se of l o a d i n g i s t h e
stagnation pressure.
6-24
O b j e c t Exposed
t o Blast Wave
Reflected
B l a s t Wave \ Vortices
of Blast Wave
Figure 6.7a I n t e r a c t i o n of Blast Wave w i t h I r r e g u l a r O b j e c t
Pressure
I
c -- .
L 1 !:T! e
3
Figure 6.7b T i m e H i s t o r y of Net T r a n s v e r s e P r e s s u r e on

O b j e c t During P a s s a g e of a B l a s t Wave
(See S e c t i o n 4.3.1.1 For D e f i n i t i o n s of Parameters)
6-25 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1 9 8 1

To p r e d i c t t h e e f f e c t of a b l a s t wave o n t h e o b j e c t , i t i s
n e c e s s a r y t o examine t h e n e t t r a n s v e r s e p r e s s u r e on t h e o b j e c t as a f u n c t i o n
of t i m e . T h i s l o a d i n g , somewhat i d e a l i z e d , i s shown i n F i g u r e 6.7b.
After t i m e of arrival ta, t h e n e t t r a n s v e r s e p r e s s u r e rises l i n e a r l y from
z e r o t o a maximum peak r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e P r i n time (T1 - t a ) . For an
o b j e c t w i t h a f l a t f a c e n e a r e s t t h e approaching b l a s t wave, t h i s t i m e
i n t e r v a l is zero. P r e s s u r e then f a l l s l i n e a r l y t o drag p r e s s u r e i n t i m e
(T2 - T ) and decays more s l o w l y t o z e r o i n t i m e (T3
1
- T*> '
Once t h e t i m e h i s t o r y of n e t t r a n s v e r s e p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g i s
known, t h e p r e d i c t i o n of t h e o b j e c t ' s v e l o c i t y can b e made. The b a s i c
a s s u m p t i o n s f o r u n c o n s t r a i n e d secondary fragments are t h a t t h e o b j e c t
behaves as a r i g i d body, t h a t none of t h e energy i n t h e b l a s t wave i s
absorbed i n b r e a k i n g t h e o b j e c t l o o s e from i t s moorings o r deforming i t
e l a s t i c a l l y o r p l a s t i c a l l y , and t h a t g r a v i t y e f f e c t s aan b e ignored d u r i n g
t h i s a c c e l e r a t i o n phase of t h e motion. The e q u a t i o n of motion of t h e ob-
ject i s t h e n
A p ( t ) = tf?t (6.13)
where A = area of t h e o b j e c t p r e s e n t e d t o t h e b l a s t f r o n t
p ( t ) = n e t transverse p r e s s u r e a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 6.7b
X = d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e o b j e c t
K = a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e o b j e c t
M = mass o f t h e o b j e c t
The o b j e c t is assumed t o b e a t rcst i n i t i a l l y , so t h a t
x(0) = 0, g(0) = 0
Equation ( 6 . 1 3 ) can b e i n t e g r a t e d d i r e c t l y . With use o f t h e i n i t i a l condi-

t i o n s and F i g u r e 6 . 7 b , t h i s o p e r a t i o n y i e l d s , f o r appurtenance v e l o c i t y ,
%(T3) =
A
- lT3 A
p(t)dt = - i (6.14)
M M d
ta
where id = t o t a l d r a g and d i f f r a c t i o n impulse
5 = v e l o c i t y of t h e o b j e c t
The i n t e g r a t i o n i n Equation ( 6 . 1 4 ) c a n b e performed e x p l i c i t l y i f t h e
p r e s s u r e time h i s t o r y i s d e s c r i b e d by s u i t a b l e mathematical f u n c t i o n s , o r
performed g r a p h i c a l l y o r n u m e r i c a l l y i f p ( t ) cannot be e a s i l y w r i t t e n i n
f u n c t i o n form. I n e i t h e r case, Equation ( 6 . 1 4 ) y i e l d s t h e d e s i r e d r e s u l t - -
a p r e d i c t e d v e l o c i t y f o r an o b j e c t . The i n t e g r a l i n Equation ( 6 . 1 4 ) i s
merely t h e area under t h e c u r v e i n F i g u r e 6 . 7 .

For shocks of i n t e r m e d i a t e s t r e n g t h , Ps/po - 3.5 where P i s
side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e and p i s a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , t h e s o l u t i o n S of
E q u a t i o n (6.14) can b e fougd i n Reference 6 . 3 . A r a t h e r l o n g e q u a t i o n
d e v e l o p s i n which
( p o a H ( ~ ~ i ~s a f u n c t i o n of (2) and (PSD' (KH a. X

is + )) '
o r , i n a b b r e v i a t e d form,
V i s a function of ? and i
where M = mass of o b j e c t
v = v e l o c i t y of o b j e c t
a = v e l o c i t y of sound i n a i r
0
atmospheric pressure
A = mean p r e s e n t e d a r e a of o b j e c t
K = c o n s t a n t ( 4 i f o b j e c t i s on t h e gound o r r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e
and 2 i f o b j e c t i s i n a i r )
H = minimum t r a n s v e r s e dimension o f t h e mean p r e s e n t e d area o f
object
x = d i s t a n c e from t h e f r o n t of o b j e c t t o l o c a t i o n of i t s l a r g e s t
cross-sectional area
P = peak i n c i d e n t o v e r p r e s s u r e
S
cD = drag coefficient
i = i n c i d e n t s p e c i f i c impulse
S
A p i c t o r i a l e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e a p p u r t e n a n c e p a r a m e t e r s A, H , and X i s shown
i n F i g u r e 6 . 8 . Values f o r d r a g CD can b e found i n Hoerner ( R e f . 6 . 1 8 ) f o r
v a r i o u s shaped o b j e c t s . I n a d d i t i o n , a v a l u e of d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r ob-
j e c t s of v a r i o u s s h a p e s i s given i n F i g u r e 6 . 9 . S i n c e t h i s analysis is
a p p r o p r i a t e f o r o b j e c t s " f a r " from t h e c h a r g e , t h e o b j e c t i s n o t i n a high-
v e l o c i t y f l o w f i e l d ( i . e . , s u b s o n i c ) and CD i s e s s e n t i a l l y a c o n s t a n t . F o r
example, f o r a s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e ( d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e e x p l o s i v e
c h a r g e t o t h e n e a r e s t s u r f a c e o f t h e o b j e c t ) o f 33 charge r a d i i , t h e peak
p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y e q u a l s t h e s p e e d of sound i n a i r and d e c r e a s e s r a p i d l y
with increasing standoff distance. For c o m p u t a t i o n a-l p u r p o s e s , Equation
(6.15) i s p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 6.10 where 7 = Ps/po, i i s t h e nondimensional
term c o n t a i n i n g i s , and v i s t h e nondimensional t e r m c o n t a i n i n g V. The
f i g u r e c o n t a i n s several c u r v e s f o r d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s of and i s q u i t e use-
f u l f o r t h e r a n g e of and r p r e s e n t e d . When u s i n g t h e f i g u r e , t h e v a l u e s
o f P, and V must h a v e n o d i m e n s i o n a l u n i t s . T h i s f i g u r e can b e used i n
most cases where t h e d i s t a n c e i n c h a r g e r a d i i from t h e o b j e c t and c e n t e r
o f a s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e i s g r e a t e r t h a n 2 0 , which i s n o r m a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o
b e " f a r " from t h e c h a r g e . For o b j e c t s a t c l o s e r s c a l e d s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e s ,
one can c a l c u l a t e t h e s p e c i f i c impulse imparted t o t h e t a r g e t .
6-27 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1 9 8 1

Obj ec t Expo sed
t o Blast Wave
Incident
Blast Wave
D i s t a n c e from
F r o n t of O b j e c t
t o the L a r g e s t
S e c t i o n a l Area
Normal t o t h e
P l a n e of t h e
Shock F r o n t
I s o m e t r i c V i e w of Object
Mean P r e s e n t e d
Area = A
H Minimum T r a n s v e r s e Dimension
of Mean P r e s e n t e d Area
F r o n t V i e w of Object
F i g u r e 6.8 P i c t o r i a l E x p l a n a t i o n of Appurtenance V a r i a b l e s
6-28
c
I
Right Circular Cylinder

(long rod), side-
SKETCH
1.20
Sphere 0.47
R o d , end-on 0.82
Disc, face-on 1.17
Cube, face-on 1.05
I
1
Cube, edge-on 0.80
Long Rectangular Member, 2.05

f ace-en
Long Rectangular Member, 1.55

edge-on
Narrow % r i p , face-on 1.98
Figure 6.9 Drag Coefficient, CD, for Various Shapes

(Baker, Kulesz, et al., R e f . 6.3)
6-29
as a Function of
Figure 6.10 Nondimensional Object Velocity
Nondimensional Pressure P and Nondimensional Impulse i
6-30
To c a l c u l a t e t h e s p e c i f i c impulse imparted t o t h e target, Westine
(Ref. 6.19) conducted a model a n a l y s i s f o r a t a r g e t a l i g n e d p a r a l l e l to
a l i n e c h a r g e which i s l a r g e r t h a n t h e t a r g e t as shown i n F i g u r e 6.11.
A f t e r e l i m i n a t i n g terms which are i n v a r i a n t under similar atmospheric
c o n d i t i o n s such as t h e d e n s i t y of a i r , atmospheric p r e s s u r e and t h e speed
of sound and assuming t h a t t h e e f f e c t of l e n g t h of t h e t a r g e t r e l a t i v e
t o t h e r a d i u s of t h e e x p l o s i v e i s r e l a t i v e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t , one has
i
-is a f u n c t i o n of (6.16)
BRe
where i = s p e c i f i c acquired
B = nondimensional s h a p e - f a c t o r of t h e t a r g e t
R = r a d i u s of t h e e x p l o s i v e ( f t )
e
R = standoff distance ( f t )
Rt = t a r g e t r a d i u s ( f t )
R e = l e n g t h of e x p l o s i v e l i n e ( f t )
An e x p e r i m e n t a l program w a s conducted a t t h e B a l l i s t i c Research L a b o r a t o r i e s
t o d e t e r m i n e e m p i r i c a l l y t h e f u n c t i o n a l format f o r Equation (6.16). In
o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e the s p e c i f i c impulse a p p l i e d t o a t a r g e t when a b l a s t
from a l i n e c h a r g e occurs. tests were conducted i n which small s p h e r e s
and c y l i n d e r s were placed a t v a r i o u s s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e s from t h e c e n t e r
l i n e of v a r i o u s s i z e c y l i n d r i c a l e x p l o s i v e Comp B c h a r g e s as shown i n F i g u r e
6.11. The test procedure w a s t o ' d e t o n a t e a n e x p l o s i v e l i n e charge and
measure t h e r e s u l t i n g v e l o c i t y imparted t o u n c o n s t r a i n e d t a r g e t s . The
s p e c i f i c impulse imparted t o t h e t a r g e t could t h e n b e determined from
i = Mv
- (6.17)
AB
where M = mass of o b j e c t
V = v e l o c i t y of o b j e c t
A = p r o j e c t e d area of o b j e c t
The r e s u l t s of t h e c u r v e f i t t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a are shown by t h e

t o p c u r v e i n F i g u r e 6.12. The o r d i n a t e i n t h i s f i g u r e h a s a q u a n t i t y
called sff i n i t i n s t e a d of Re(Re/Re)0*333. T h i s q u a n t i t y Reff s t a n d s
f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e r a d i u s of t h e e q u i v a l e n t s p h e r e of e x p l o s i v e which could
b e formed from a c y l i n d e r of Radius R and l e n g t h R
e
. e
The t e r m Reff i s
r e l a t e d t o Re and Re through
C y l i n d r i c a l charge: Reff = 0.9086 ($) 0.333

Re (6.18a)
S p h e r i c a l charge: R e f f = Re (6.18b)
The e x i s t e n c e of two s t r a i g h t l i n e r e g i o n s f o r v a l u e s of R/R,

less t h a n and g r e a t e r t h a n 5.25 ( c y l i n d r i c a l c h a r g e s ) i s a p p a r e n t i n F i g u r e
6.12. I n t h e near f i e l d where R/% i s less t h a n 5.25, t h e s l o p e of t h e l i n e
6-31
Cylindrical
Explosive
'R
tR$ 8 = -4
8 - 1.0
(a) Exposed F l a t Face (b) Exposed Cylindrical ( c ) Exposed Spherical

Surf ace Surf ace
Figure 6 . 1 1 Target Orientation f o r Unconstrained Tests
6-32
10(
6C
5c
4c
3c
20
10
m
6
2
1 2 3 5 10
R/ R
e
F i g u r e 6.12. S p e c i f i c Acquired Impulse

( E x p l a n a t i o n of Symbols
Appear on Following Page)
6-33
f o r c y l i n d r i c a l c h a r g e s i n F i g u r e 6.12 i s minus 1 . 0 which means that ( i / B I & f
times (R/R ) e q u a l s a c o n s t a n t f o r i n v a r i a n t R , / R t . The normally r e f l e c t e d
s p e c i f i c g p u l s e c l o s e t o t h e line c h a r g e is t h u s caused p r i m a r i l y by
momentum of t h e e x p l o s i v e p r o d u c t s . I n o t h e r words, t h e impulse c l o s e t o
t h e c h a r g e is caused by adding up t h e mass t i m e s t h e v e l o c i t y p r o d u c t s of
a l l t h e p a r t i c l e s from t h e e x p l o s i v e , c a s i n g , and e n g u l f e d a i r . Because
t h e s p e c i f i c impulse i i s caused by momentum i n e x p l o s i v e p r o d u c t s , i t
d e c a y s w i t h s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e i n v e r s e l y as t h e s u r f a c e area of a c y l i n d e r
e n c l o s i n g t h e l i n e s o u r c e , which e q u a l s 2TRRe. Only as s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e s
grow l a r g e r do t h e e f f e c t s of momentum l o s s through a i r d r a g and g r a v i t a -
t i o n a l e f f e c t s r e d u c e t h i s phenomenon s u f f i c i e n t l y f o r shock wave phenomena
t o become more i m p o r t a n t and t h e s l o p e of t h e l i n e t o change, as shown by
t h e t o p c u r v e i n F i g u r e 6.12.
A similar r e l a t i o n s h i p h o l d s f o r o b j e c t s exposed t o nearby s p h e r i c a l

c h a r g e s of Comp B as shown by t h e bottom c u r v e i n F i g u r e 6.12 which w a s
determined by d i r e c t l y a p p l y i n g W e s t i n e ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e d a t a
developed by Kineke (Ref. 6.20) f o r c y l i n d e r s exposed end-on t o s p h e r i c a l
c h a r g e s . Because t h e s p e c i f i c impulse i imparted t o a t a r g e t c l o s e t o
t h e c h a r g e is caused by momentum i n e x p l o s i v e p r o d u c t s , i t decays w i t h
s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e i n v e r s e l y as t h e 2 s u r f a c e area of a s p h e r e e n c l o s i n g t h e
s p h e r i c a l s o u r c e , which e q u a l s 471R . (Standoff d i s t a n c e i s t h e d i s t a n c e of
t h e c e n t e r of t h e c h a r g e t o t h e n e a r e s t face of o b j e c t . ) T h e area
of t h i s s p h e r e of e n g u l f e d . a i r i s l a r g e r than t h e area of t h e c y l i n d e r of
e n g u l f e d a i r d e s c r i b e d above whenever R > Re. T h e r e f o r e , t h e s p e c i f i c
impulse i imparted t o o b j e c t s exposed t o s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e s should d e c r e a s e
more r a p i d l y w i t h d i s t a n c e ( f o r R > E,) f o r o b j e c t s exposed t o c y l i n d r i c a l
c h a r g e s o r i e n t e d as i n F i g u r e 6.11. T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s demonstrated
by t h e s t e e p e r s l o p e of t h e bottom c u r v e ( s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e ) i n F i g u r e
6.11. When R e q u a l s Q , t h e t a r g e t i s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e c h a r g e and
s p e c i f i c impulse imparted t o t h e t a r g e t should approach t h e same v a l u e
f o r s p h e r i c a l and c y l i n d r i c a l c h a r g e s . I f one e x t e n d s t h e c u r v e s i n
F i g u r e 6.11 t o R/& e q u a l t o one, one can o b s e r v e that t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p
h o l d s w i t h i n t h e s c a t t e r of t h e d a t a .
Baker (Ref. 6.21) performed a similar a n a l y s i s i n o r d e r t o

p r e d i c t n o r m a l l y r e f l e c t e d impulses c l o s e t o s p h e r i c a l e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s
H e e x p e r i m e n t a l l y determined t h a t t h e s c a l i n g l a w a p p l i e s f o r d i s t a n c e s
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a mass of e n g u l f e d a i r which i s c o n s i d e r a b l y less t h a n
( a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e - t e n t h ) t h e mass of t h e e x p l o s i v e . For a s p h e r i c a l
Comp B e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e , t h i s would correspond t o
-R=
Re 1 [ P
= 5.07
Examining t h e bottom c u r v e i n F i g u r e 6.12, one w i l l n o t i c e a t r a n s i t i o n i n

t h e curve near R/% e q u a l t o 5.07. However, l a c k of s u f f i c i e n t d a t a
h i n d e r s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a n a c c u r a t e e x p e r i m e n t a l t r a n s i t i o n p o i n t .
6-34
Thus, the c u r v e s i n F i g u r e 6.12 should n o t b e used a t d i s t a n c e s beyond
t h o s e shown by t h e l i n e s i n t h e f i g u r e . For l o n g e r d i s t a n c e s from t h e
e x p l o s i v e charge, F i g u r e 6.10 can b e used.
The s t r a i g h t l i n e s p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 6.12 c a n e a s i l y b e p u t
i n e q u a t i o n form. These p r e d i c t i v e e q u a t i o n s are:
C y l i n d r i c a l charges:
0.158
R
= 8.40 x lo3 (>)for 5.25 (6.19)
e
(2)
i 0.158 1.75
-
-
BRef f ($) = 2.92 104 for
R -
e
> 5.25 (6.20)
S p h e r i c a l charges:
L(?)
BReff
0.158
= 6.86 x lo3 (>) 1.4
for -
R -< 5.07
e
(6.21)
The u n i t s f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n on t h e l e f t - h a n d s i d e i n Equations (6.19),

(6.20) and (6.21) are l b * s e c / f t 3 .
I f an e x p l o s i v e o t h e r t h a n Composition B i s used, t h e v a l u e f o r
impulse i o S t a i n e d from F i g u r e 6.12 and t h e p r e v i o u s t h r e e e q u a t i o n s
need t o b e a d j u s t e d as f o l l o w s :
(6.22)
where AH i s energy ( h e a t o f d e t o n a t i o n ) p e r u n i t m a s s ,
p is density,
s u b s c r i p t "Comp B" r e p r e s e n t s Composition B e x p l o s i v e ,
s u b s c r i p t "expl" r e p r e s e n t s e x p l o s i v e 'being used, and
icomp i s t h e v a l u e o f i o b t a i n e d from F i g u r e 6.12 o r t h e previous
three equations.
(NOTE: T h i s e q u a t i o n w a s d e r i v e d b y M r . P e t e r S. Westine o f Southwest Re-
s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e u s i n g a model a n a l y s i s . )
6-35
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.4
PROBLEM - Determine t h e v e l o c i t y V of a n u n c o n s t r a i n e d o b j e c t c l o s e to a n
exploding HE charge (See F i g u r e 6 . 1 1 ) . For i l l u s t r a t i v e purposes,
assume t h a t a s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e of RDX explodes w h i l e b e i n g h e l d
i n a l a t h e . A c y l i n d r i c a l t o o l h o l d e r made of steel i s r e s t i n g
( u n c o n s t r a i n e d ) on t h e l a t h e bed such t h a t i t s l o n g i t u d i n a l axis
i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e r a d i a l l i n e from t h e charge t o t h e t a r g e t .
GIVEN: W = weight and t y p e of HE ( l b )

R = d i s t a n c e from c e n t e r of e x p l o s i v e s o u r c e t o the sur-
f a c e of o b j e c t ( s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e ) ( f t )
Re = r a d i u s of e x p l o s i v e ( f t )
Rt = r a d i u s of t a r g e t ( f t )
B = shape f a c t o r f o r t a r g e t
M = mass o f t a r g e t ( l b - s e c 2 / f t )
A = mean p r e s e n t e d area of t a r g e t ( f t 2 )
= energy f a c t o r f o r e x p l o s i v e (same units as AHCamp B)
AHexpl
= energy f a c t o r f o r Comp B e x p l o s i v e (same u n i t s as
AHComp B
"*e xp 1)
'expl
= d e n s i t y of e x p l o s i v e (same u n i t s as pcomp 1
= d e n s i t y of Comp B e x p l o s i v e (same u n i t s as p )
'Camp B =PI
FIND: V REFERENCE
-
SOLUTION: 1. C a l c u l a t e the r a t i o of s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e R
and r a d i u s of e x p l o s i v e &
R/% Fig. 6.11
2 . I f R/% i s l e s s t h a n 10 f o r c y l i n d r i c a l c h a r g e s F i g . 6.12
o r less t h a n 5 f o r s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e s , determine
t h e imparted impulse.
3. I f t h e e x p l o s i v e i s n o t Comp B a d j u s t impulse Table 6 of
by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e impulse imparted t o t h e Appendix A
t a r g e t by t h e e n e r g y / d e n s i t y r a t i o . (Physical
Properties
o f Explosives)
- Eq. (6.22)
Comp B -
4. C a l c u l a t e the v e l o c i t y o f t h e u n c o n s t r a i n e d
object.
V = Eq. (6.17)
M
6-36
CALCULATION
GIVEN: a s p h e r i c a l charge o f RDX

W = 10 l b
R = 1.0 f t
Re -
- ( - ?4 n9 p/ 3
= I&)-- (1.RO6 p/cm)(l
(10 lb)
1b1454 g ) ( 2 . 5 4 c m / i n . ) 3 (12 i n . / f t ) 3
- 0.28 f t
R = (1.0 i n . ) (1.0 f t / 1 2 i n . ) = 0.083 f t

t
6 = rr/4
2 2
14 ( m L ) p = ~(1.0i n . ) (8.0 i n . ) ( 7 . 3 6 ~ 1 0 ~l 4b - ~ e c 2 / i n . ~ )
=
= 5.89 x 10-3 l b - s e c 2 / i n .
2 2 2
A = (2.0 i n . ) ( 8 . 0 i n . ) ( l . O f t /144 i n . ) = 0.11 f t
AHmX = 0.909 (TNT e q u i v a l e n t w e i g h t )
= 0.881 (TNT e q u i v a l e n t w e i g h t )
AHComp B
= 1.806 g/cm
3
RDX
3
'Camp B = 1.74 g/cm
FIND: V
SOLUTION: 1. R/Re = 1 . 0 f t / 0 . 2 8 f t = 3.6

2. R/Re i s l e s s t h a n 5 ( s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e ) . Vertical axis
of F i g u r e 6.12 h a s a v a l u e o f %12 l b - s / f t 2 . Therefore,
i = 1 2 BR(Rt/Re)0.158 x l o 2 where R = Re f o r s p h e r i c a l
charges.
i = (l2Ibfi3 1 ($) f.28 ft) 3

:(:
0.158
E):
x l o 2 l b - s / f t 3 = 185 l b - s / f t
Note t h a t o n e c o u l d have s u b s t i t u t e d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
2
v a l u e s i n t o E q u a t i o n (6.22) t o d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e
f o r i. r -I
i - - (0.909 ) (1.806 g/cm) 185 I b - s / f t 2=

3
RDx (0.8S1)1/2 (1.74 g/cm )
2
195 l b - s / f t
2
( 0 . 1 1 f t 2 ) ( 2 / 3 ) (195 l b - s/ft )
4. v = A iRDx = = 202 f t l s
M (12 i n . / f t ) (5.89 x lb-sec2/in.)
.-

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.5
PROBLEM - Determine t h e v e l o c i t y V of a n u n c o n s t r a i n e d o b j e c t f a r from

a n e x p l o d i n g HE c h a r g e (R/R > l O ) ( s e e F i g u r e 6 . 8 ) . For
e
i l l u s t r a t i v e p u r p o s e s , assume t h a t a s p h e r i c a l c h a r g e of RDX
explodes while being held i n a l a t h e . A c y l i n d r i c a l t o o l holder
made of s t e e l i s r e s t i n g ( u n c o n s t r a i n e d ) on a n e a r b y t a b l e n e x t
t o t h e l a t h e s u c h t h a t i t s l o n g i t u d i n a l axis i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r
t o t h e r a d i a l l i n e from t h e c h a r g e t o the t a r g e t .
GIVEN: M = m a s s of o b j e c t ( l b - s e c 2 / f t )
2
A = mean p r e s e n t e d a r e a o f o b j e c t ( f t )
K = c o n s t a n t ( 4 i f o b j e c t i s on t h e ground o r r e f l e c t i n g
s u r f a c e and 2 i f o b j e c t i s i n a i r )
H = minimum t r a n s v e r s e d i s t a n c e of t h e mean p r e s e n t e d a r e a of
object (f t )
x = d i s t a n c e from t h e f r o n t of o b j e c t t o l o c a t i o n of i t s
l a r g e s t c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area ( f t )
drag coefficient
velocity of sound in a i r (ft/sec)
atmospheric pressure (psi)
peak i n c i d e n t overpressure ( p s i )
i n c i d e n t s p e c i f i c impulse ( p s i - s e c )
FIND: V REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. C a l c u l a t e nondimensional p r e s s u r e .
= Ps/Po P from
dapter 4
(as function
of s t a n d o f f
distance R
and c h a r g e
weight W)
2. C a l c u l a t e nondimensional impulse.
CD from F i g .
6 . 9 , i from
Chapteg 4
(as function
of s t a n d o f f
distance R
and c h a r g e
weight W)
Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981 6-38

3. Locate t h e p o i n t (I, p) on F i g u r e 6.10 and
d e t e r m i n e nondimensional v e l o c i t y v. F i g . 6.10
4. C a l c u l a t e t h e v e l o c i t y of o b j e c t .
vp A(K!+X)
0
v = Ma
F i g . 6.10
0
CALCULATION
GIVEN : I n example problem 6.4, R, = 0.28 f t . For t h i s problem, l e t

R = 1 0 f t and W = 10.28 l b of PDX. Thus X / R = 10/0.28 = 36.
11 = 7.07 x 10-2 l b - s e c 2 / f t ( s e e example p r o h e m 6.4)
A = 0 . 1 1 f t 2 ( s e e example problem 6.4)
K = 4 ( o b j e c t on ground o r r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e )
H = 0.17 f t ( d i a m e t e r of o b j e c t i n t h i s case - see example
problem 6.4)
X = 0.083 f t ( r a d i u s of o b j e c t i n t h i s c a s e - see example
problem 6.4)
CD = 1 . 2 0 ( f i g u r e 6.9 f o r c y l i n d e r loaded p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a x i s )
a = 1100 f t / s e c
0
po = 14.7 p s i
Ps = 33 p s i Chapter 4 ( s c a l e d d i s t a n c e R/W 1 / 3 =
= 0.025 1 0 f t / ( 1 0 . 2 8 l b x 1 . 1 4 9 ) 1 / 3 = 4.39 f t / l b 1 / 3
FIND: V
-
SOLUTION: 1. P = Ps/po = 33 p s i / 1 4 . 7 p s i = 2.24
- D is a. -
- (1.20)(0.025 p s i - s e c ) ( l l O O f t / s e c ) = 1.31
2. = P (KH+X) (33 p s i ) [(4)(0.17 ft)+(0.083 f t ) ]
- S
3. v = 5.0
-
v po A(KH+X)
4. v =
Ma
0
2
- (5.0)(14.7 l b / i n . )(144 i n . 2 / f t 2 ) ( 0 . 1 1 f t 2 ) [ ( 4 ) ( 0 . 1 7 f t ) + (0.083 f t ) ]
2
(7.07 x lb-sec /ft) (1100 f t / s e c )
=11.4 f t / s e c
PROBLEM - Same as t h e example problem 6 . 5 i n t h i s s e c t i o n e x c e p t R/R,

is s l i g h t l y greater than 10.

CALCUJATI ON
GIVEN: I n example problems 6.4 and 6 . 5 , R = 0.28 f t . For i l l u s t r a t i v e

p u r p o s e s , assume t h a t t h e s t a n d o f f e d i s t a n c e R i s 3.0 f t .
Thus, R/& = 3 . 0 / 0 . 2 8 = 11.
W = 10.28 l b o f RDX
M = 7.07 x 10-2 l b - s e c z / f t (see example problem 6.4)
A = 0.11 f t 2 ( s e e example problem 6.4)
K = 4 ( o b j e c t on ground o r s u r f a c e )
H = 0.17 f t ( d i a m e t e r o f o b j e c t i n t h i s c a s e )
X = 0.083 f t ( r a d i u s o f o b j e c t i n t h i s c a s e )
CD = 1 . 2 0 ( f i g u r e 6.9 f o r c y l i n d e r l o a d e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a x i s )
a = 1100 f t / s e c
0
po = 14.7 p s i
P
S
= 560 p s i
= 0,0342 p s i - s e c 1 Chapter 4 ( s c a l e d d i s t a n c e R/W1/3)=
3.0 f t / ( 1 0 . 2 8 l b x 1.149)
'I3 = 1.32 C t / l b 113
FIND: V
-
SOLUTION: 1. = Ps/po = 560 p s i / 1 4 . 7 p s i = 38.1
C i a
- D s o - - (1.20)(0.0342 p s i - s e c ) ( 1 1 0 0 f t / s e c ) = o.106
2. i = P (KH+X) (560 p s i ) [ ( 4 ) ( 0 . 1 7 f t ) + ( 0 . 0 8 3 f t ) ]
S
3. Since the point (r, i') i s o u t s i d e t h e range o f F i g u r e 6 . 1 0 ,
o n e i s u n a b l e t o c a l c u l a t e tLe v e l o c i t y a c c u r a t e l y . One
can o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e v e l o c i t y by assuming t h a t t h e o b j e c t
i s c l o s e r t o t h e c h a r g e and u s i n g F i g u r e 6.12 f o r R/Re = 5.0
( s e e example problem 6 . 4 ) .
6-40
6.2.2.2 Constrained Secondary Fragments
Westine (Ref. 6.19) h a s developed a n e n g i n e e r i n g procedure f o r

e s t i m a t i n g secondary fragment v e l o c i t i e s when o b j e c t s a r e exposed t o
e x p l o s i v e d e t o n a t i o n s . T h i s o b j e c t i v e w a s a.ccomplished by d i v i d i n g t h e
problem i n t o two p a r t s . The f i r s t p a r t concerned e s t i m a t i n g t h e s p e c i f i c
impulse imparted t o u n c o n s t r a i n e d f l a t , c y l i n d r i c a l , and s p h e r i c a l
secondary fragments i n t h e v i c i n i t y of c y l i n d r i c a l e x p l o s i v e charges.
The second p a r t concerned e s t i m a t i n g t h e v e l o c i t y of c o n s t r a i n e d beams
of any material and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area which could become secondary
fragments because of t h i s impulsive load.
The f i r s t h a l f of W e s t i n e ' s a n a l y s i s , c o n s i s t i n g of p r e d i c t i n g
t h e s p e c i f i c impulse imparted t o o b j e c t s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of c y l i n d r i c a l
e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s , w a s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . A method f o r
p r e d i c t i n g t h e s p e c i f i c impulse imparted t o o b j e c t s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of
s p h e r i c a l e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s i s a l s o g i v e n i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . For
u n c o n s t r a i n e d o b j e c t s , v a l u e s of imparted s p e c i f i c impulse can b e used
d i r e c t l y t o determine v e l o c i t y .
The second h a l f of W e s t i n e ' s a n a l y s i s c o n s i s t e d of t h e develop-

ment of a method t o d e t e r m i n e t h e amount of energy consumed i n f r e e i n g
t h e c o n s t r a i n e d o b j e c t from i t s moorings. The s t r a i n energy U consumed
i n f r a c t u r i n g a c a n t i l e v e r beam w a s e s t i m a t e d by assuming a deformed shape
and s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e mechanics r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r d i f f e r e n t
modes of r e s p o n s e i n b o t h d u c t i l e and b r i t t l e beams. A number of d i f f e r e n t
s o l u t i o n s r e s u l t e d which had s u f f i c i e n t similarities t o p e r m i t g e n e r a l i z a -
t i o n a f t e r t h e s t r a i n e n e r g i e s were developed.
To d e v e l o p t h e a n a l y s i s , Westine determined t h e s t r a i n energy a t

f r a c t u r e by assuming a deformed shape w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e boundary c o n d i t i o n s .
Westine performed t h e a n a l y s i s u s i n g d u c t i l e bending, b r i t t l e bending,
d u c t i l e s h e a r , and b r i t t l e s h e a r f a i l u r e modes and various shapes of beam
c r o s s s e c t i o n s . The r e s u l t s of t h e a n a l y s i s appear i n Table 6.3. In this
t a b l e , U i s s t r a i n energy, T i s toughness ( t h e a r e a under t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n
c u r v e ) , A i s t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of t h e beam, and II i s t h e l e n g t h of
t h e beam. Also, Z i s t h e p l a s t i c s e c t i o n modulus, h is t h e depth of
t h e beam, S i s t h e e l a s t i c s e c t i o n modulus, and v i s P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o .
The major p o i n t which should be made from t h e s e s o l u t i o n s f o r

s t r a i n energy f o r t h e f o u r d i f f e r e n t modes of f a i l u r e i s t h a t , no matter
what mode of f a i l u r e i s h y p o t h e s i z e d , t h e s t r a i n energy a t f a i l u r e e q u a l s
(TAR) times a c o n s t a n t . For some modes of f a i l u r e , t h e c o n s t a n t may be
a weak f u n c t i o n of t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l shape of t h e fragment (a f u n c t i o n
of S/Ah o r Z/Ah), b u t t h i s c o n s t a n t varies l i t t l e . Table 6.3 demonstrates
the limited variation i n these constants.
6-41
-3
Table 6.3 V a r i a t i o n s i n S t r a i n Energy C o e f f i c i e n t s

U
Ductile Brittle Ductile B r i t tle

Bending Bending Shear Shear
General S o l u t i o n k
II Ah
z -
S
Ah
-12 1
2(l+v)
Circular Solid 0.270 0.125 0.500 0.385
Rectangular S o l i d 0.318 0.167 0.500 0.385
I-Beam ZO. 637 ZO. 500 0.500 0.385
The second major c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t toughness T a p p e a r s t o be

t h e o n l y mechanical p r o p e r t y of importance. All f o u r s o l u t i o n s g i v e t h e
r e s u l t t h a t t h i s area under t h e e t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e times t h e volume of
t h e specimen times a c o n s t a n t e q u a l s t h e s t r a i n energy U expended i n
f r a c t u r i n g t h e specimen,
For a n a l y s i s purposes t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e mode

of f a i l u r e does n o t have t o be determined. The s o l u t i o n can proceed by
assuming t h a t s t r a i n energy is g i v e n by Equation (6.19) and t h a t t h e
c o n s t a n t C can be o b t a i n e d from e x p e r i m e n t a l test r e s u l t s .
U - C(TU) (6.23)
The u s e of a d i f f e r e n t deformed shape w i l l n o t change t h e c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t

U i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o ( T U ) ; however, a d i f f e r e n t shape w i l l
r e s u l t i n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t numerical p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y c o n s t a n t C.
Because C i s determined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , t h e q u a l i t a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s s t i l l
can be a p p l i e d i n t h e development of a s o l u t i o n .
All f o u r modes of f a i l u r e were developed f o r f a i l u r e i n a c a n t i -

l e v e r beam. Other boundary c o n d i t i o n s such as clamped-clamped, simply
s u p p o r t e d , e t c . , w i l l g i v e similar q u a l i t a t i v e r e s u l t s ; however, t h e
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t C i s a f u n c t i o n of s u p p o r t c o n d i t i o n s (Ref.
6.19).
Using t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n of momentum and a l l o w i n g t h e s t r u c t u r a l

c o n s t r a i n t t o reduce t h e imparted impulse by an amount Ist, one h a s
I - Ist
- mV (6.24)
6-42
.... ... .... .... ..... _ _ _ _ ~-
where I is t h e t o t a l impulse a c q u i r e d by t h e t a r g e t . S u b s t i t u t i n g
f o r Ist and r e a r r a n g i n g terms y i e l d s t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n of momentum r e l a t i o n -
ship
(6.25)
T o t a l impulse I e q u a l s ibR where b is t h e loaded w i d t h , 11 is t h e loaded

l e n g t h , and t o t a l mass m of t h e fragment e q u a l s psAR where p, is t h e
d e n s i t y of t h e c o n s t r a i n e d o b j e c t and A is i t s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area i n
t h e p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e long a x i s of t h e t a r g e t . S u b s t i t u t i n g
t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s and t h e s t r a i n energy U as given by Equation ( 6 . 2 3 )
i n t o Equation (6.25) one h a s
i b l l
(6.26)
i b
(6.27)
Equation (6.27) is a two-parameter s p a c e f o r nondimensional

e n e r g y r a t i o s . I f t h e term 5 V / f i is s q u a r e d , t h i s group i s t h e r a t i o
of fragment k i n e t i c energy p e r s u n i t volume t o s t r a i n energy expended p e r
u n i t volume. The s q u a r e of the term i b / A fi r e p r e s e n t s t h e energy p u t
i n t o t h e fragment p e r u n i t l e n g t h d i v i d e d by f h e s t r a i n energy expended
p e r u n i t l e n g t h of fragment. T h i s s o l u t i o n i n f e r s t h a t t h e c o n s t r a i n e d
secondary fragment v e l o c i t y is independent of beam l e n g t h 11. Test
r e s u l t s show that t h i s c o n c l u s i o n is n o t q u i t e a c c u r a t e .
After c u r v e f i t t i n g t o e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a , Westine (Ref. 6.19)

concluded t h a t the v e l o c i t y of the c o n s t r a i n e d fragment could be d e s c r i b e d
by
4pJ
-I -0.2369 + 0.3931
fi
(6.28)
6-43
where V = fragment v e l o c i t y
= fragment mass d e n s i t y
pS
T = toughness of fragment material
b = loaded width of beam
R = l e n g t h of t a r g e t
A = c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area
i = s p e c i f i c impulse
T h i s p a i r of e q u a t i o n s works f o r c a n t i l e v e r beams of any materials

and any c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area. To estimate t h e v e l o c i t y , t h e s p e c i f i c
impulse i imparted t o t h e beam i s a n estimate from t h e s t a n d o f f d i s t a n c e
and l i n e charge geometry u s i n g t h e t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s
s e c t i o n . S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s impulse, beam p r o p e r t i e s and beam geometry
i n t o Equation (6.28) ives t h e fra ment v e l o c i t y ( s e e F i g u r e 6.13). If
P
t h e q u a n t i t y (i b / psT A)(R/b/2)O*5 is less t h a n 0.602, t h e fragment w i l l
n o t b r e a k f r e e ; hence, i t s v e l o c i t y i s z e r o .
An e q u a t i o n similar i n format t o Equation (6.28) b u t w i t h d i f f e r e n t

c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r s l o p e and i n t e r c e p t can a l s o be used f o r beams w i t h o t h e r
boundary o r s u p p o r t c o n d i t i o n s . Although Westine d i d n o t have a l a r g e
q u a n t i t y of d a t a a v a i l a b l e t o demonstrate t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n , enough d a t a
e x i s t e d on clamped-clamped beams t o show t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s -0.6498
i n s t e a d of -0.2369 and 0.4358 i n s t e a d of 0.3931 work b e t t e r f o r t h i s
boundary c o n d i t i o n .
6-44
5'7-9
c
w
Iv
I r
co
CD
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.7
PROBLEM - Determine t h e v e l o c i t y V of a c o n s t r a i n e d o b j e c t c l o s e t o a n
exploding HE charge. For i l l u s t r a t i v e p u r p o s e s , assume a
s p h e r i c a l charge of RDX explodes w h i l e b e i n g h e l d i n a l a t h e .
A c y l i n d r i c a l t o o l h o l d e r made of s t e e l i s clamped ( c o n s t r a i n e d
c a n t i l e v e r ) t o t h e l a t h e bed such t h a t i t s l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s
i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e r a d i a l l i n e from t h e c h a r g e t o t h e
target. (See example problem 6.4 of s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 2 . 1 f o r
numerical v a l u e s t o b e used i n t h i s problem.)
4
GIVEN: p = fragment mass d e n s i t y ( l b - s e c / i n )
3
T = toughness of fragment material ( i n . - l b / i n . ) ( t o u g h n e s s i s
t h e area under t h e t r u e - s t r e s s vs t r u e - s t r a i n curve)
R = l e n g t h of o b j e c t ( i n . )
b = loaded w i d t h of o b j e c t ( i n . )
A = c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of t h e member (in.2)
i = s p e c i f i c impulse imparted t o o b j e c t ( p s i - s e c )
boundary c o n d i t i o n = c a n t i l e v e r o r clamped-clamped
Find:
- -
SOLUTION:
V
1.
2.
(
v
-IL)
A b/2
0.3 REFERENCE
Eq. 6.28
CALCULATION
~
2 4
GIVEN: p = 7.324 x lb.s3/in
T = 17,000 i n . - l b / i n .
b = 2.0 i n .
R = 8.0 i n .
2
A = (2.0 i n . ) ( 8 . 0 i n . ) = 16 i n .
2 2 2
i = (195 l b s e c / f t ) ( 1 . 0 f t / 1 4 4 i n . ) = 1 . 3 5 l b - s e c / i n
( s e e example problem 6 . 4 i n s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 2 . 1 )
-
FIND: V
in. ( 2.0 i n . )
-'n-;--1b- 1 2
)17,0OOp 3) (16 i n . )
in.
X
= 0.0892

2. V = 0 ( o b j e c t does n o t b r e a k loose)
NOTE: A n i m p l i c i t assumption i s t h a t t h e l a t h e w i l l remain
i n t a c t . T h i s may o r may n o t be t r u e . The AE should
c o n s i d e r a l l r e a s o n a b l e f a i l u r e modes.
6-47
6.2.3 B u i l d i n g Fragmentation
Estimating, f o r d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e manner(s) i n which a

s t r u c t u r e w i l l fragment when s u b j e c t e d t o an i n t e r n a l b l a s t , i n v o l v e s
several c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .
The AE should t a k e i n t o account:
0 t y p e and c o n f i g u r a t i o n of e x p l o s i v e ;
0 l o c a t i o n and s i z e of charge; and
0 structural strength.
The t y p e of e x p l o s i v e i s considered i n o r d e r t o estimate t h e

p r o b a b i l i t y of a high-order d e t o n a t i o n . Note t h a t i f a d e f l a g r a t i o n i s
expected i n s t e a d of a d e t o n a t i o n , i t may b e p o s s i b l e t o achieve b l a s t
a t t e n u a t i o n through t h e p r o p e r u s e of v e n t p a n e l s ( s e e Chapter 4 ) . The
c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e charge ( i . e . , cased, uncased, shaped charge, e t c . )
i s c o n s i d e r e d as a means of p r e d i c t i n g t h e occurrence and p o s s i b l y t h e
d i r e c t i o n of primary fragments. Note t h a t t h e l o c a t i o n and s i z e (weight)
of t h e charge i s important t o estimate o v e r p r e s s u r e and impulses a t
v a r i o u s p o i n t s on t h e s t r u c t u r e . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s a l s o h e l p f u l i n
e s t i m a t i n g any b l a s t enhancement which may occur as t h e shock wave r e f l e c t s
within the structure.
The s t r u c t u r a l s t r e n g t h of t h e b u i l d i n g i s t h e primary c o n s i d e r a t i o n
f o r p r e d i c t i n g fragment d i s t r i b u t i o n s . The AE should e v a l u a t e the most
l i k e l y f a i l u r e mode(s) ( i . e . , s p a l l i n g , s h e a r , bending, e t c . ) f o r v a r i o u s
p o i n t s of t h e s t r u c t u r e . H i s e v a l u a t i o n should b e based on t h e expected
b l a s t and fragment parameters as determined i n t h e f i r s t two c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
and t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t r u c t u r e i n t h e v a r i o u s modes of f a i l u r e . For
i l l u s t r a t i v e purposes, g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e r e s p o n s e of s p e c i f i c
s t r u c t u r e s involved i n a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s , s a f e - s e p a r a t i o n s t u d i e s ,
and a p r o t e c t i v e d e s i g n experiment f o l l o w . The cases considered i n c l u d e t h e
f r e e - s t a n d i n g b u i l d i n g involved i n an a c c i d e n t a l d e t o n a t i o n a t t h e Pantex
p l a n t on March 30, 1977 (Ref. 6.17), f u l l - s c a l e i g l o o tests (Ref. 6.22),
and t h e Swedish p r o t e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e tests (Ref. 6.23). These i l l u s t r a t i v e
examples were i n c l u d e d t o g i v e t h e AE a n i d e a of some of t h e t h i n g s t o
l o o k f o r when p r e d i c t i n g b u i l d i n g f r a g m e n t a t i o n .
0 Pantex P l a n t
The i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e manual i s a
summary of an HE a c c i d e n t which occurred a t t h e Fantex P l a n t . If t h e
AE needs a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n , he should r e a d Reference 6.17.
The area of t h e b u i l d i n g involved i n t h e a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n on
March 30, 1977, may be viewed as a f r e e - s t a n d i n g c u b i c l e w i t h t h r e e b l a s t -
r e s i s t a n t w a l l s . These w a l l s were 3 - f t , l - f t , and l - f t t h i c k c o n c r e t e .
6-48
They were analyzed a f t e r t h e a c c i d e n t and determined capable of s u s t a i n i n g
impulsive l o a d s of 2100, 415 and 350 psi-ms b e f o r e f a i l u r e ( v a l u e s d i f f e r
due t o reinforcement v a r i a t i o n s ) . The f o u r t h w a l l w a s c o n s t r u c t e d of
c o n c r e t e bloclcs w i t h no dowels extending i n t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n , allowing
it "... t o a c t as a blow-out w a l l " (Ref. 6.17). The 1 - f t t h i c k c o n c r e t e
w a l l s experienced s h e a r f a i l u r e a t t h e f l o o r and w a l l i n t e r s e c t i o n s ,
as would be p r e d i c t e d u s i n g TM5-1300 (Ref. 6.6). The 1 - f t w a l l
c l o s e s t t o t h e charge w a s discovered t o have a 4-ft diameter h o l e i n an
area e s s e n t i a l l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e charge. The block w a l l "exploded"
outward p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o i t s o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n . The poured l i g h t w e i g h t
roof w a s e j e c t e d as fragments i n a rough hemisphere i n response t o t h e
o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e charge w i t h i n t h e s t r u c t u r e (Ref. 6.17).
The e x p l o s i o n a t t h e Pantex P l a n t caused several modes of s t r u c t u r a l

f a i l u r e r e s u l t i n g i n a d i s p a r a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n of fragments. The apparent
s h e a r i n g and subsequent motion of t h e 1 - f t c o n c r e t e w a l l s r e s u l t e d i n
l a r g e s h o r t range fragments which i n f l i c t e d e x t e n s i v e damage on t h e w a l l s
of neighboring bays. Overpressure a l s o caused e x t e n s i v e damage throughout
t h e building.
0 1p.100 Tests
The Eskimo i g l o o t e s t series w a s conducted t o determine t h e

minimum p e r m i s s i b l e s p a c i n g between earth-covered, s t e e l - a r c h magazines
(Ref. 6.22). As a r e s u l t , v e r y l i t t l e d a t a were c o l l e c t e d w i t h r e g a r d
t o t h e manner i n which a donor s t r u c t u r e fragmented, although i n one case
a l i m i t e d survey w a s made of t h e fragment d i s p e r s i o n .
T h i s t e s t involvod a s t e e l - a r c h i g l o o c o n s t r u c t e d of one-gage
c o r r u g a t e d s t e e l , i n accordance w i t h t h e O f f i c e of t h e Chief of Engineers
S p e c i f i c a t i o n 33-15-64-62, and covered w i t h a compacted e a r t h mound, 2 - f t
t h i c k a t t h e t o p w i t h s i d e s l o p e s of one i n two. The i g l o o w a s 1 4 - f t ,
4-in. h i g h i n s i d e , 25-ft wide a t the c u r b s , and 59-ft long. A n e a r t h
b a r r i c a d e was c o n s t r u c t e d i n f r o n t of t h e i g l o o , w i t h a d i s t a n c e of 25 f t
between t h e i g l o o and t h e t o e of t h e b a r r i c a d e . The b a r r i c a d e w a s 3 - f t
t h i c k a t t h e t o p , about 1 4 - f t h i g h , had s i d e s l o p e s of one i n two, and
w a s long enough t o subtend a f u l l 60" a n g l e t o t h e door of t h e i g l o o .
The o n l y compaction of t h e s o i l w a s t h a t i n c i d e n t a l t o t h e passage of
earth-moving equipment d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n (Ref. 6.22).
S i m i l a r i g l o o s , without a b a r r i c a d e i n f r o n t , were c o n s t r u c t e d
on e i t h e r s i d e of t h e donor i g l o o . These i g l o o s w e r e s e p a r a t e d from t h e
1/3
donor i g l o o by 58 f t and 70 f t , corresponding t o 1.25 x W1/3 and 1 . 5 x W ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y . The t h r e e i g l o o s were connected v i a a c o n c r e t e headwall
designed t o s h e a r between t h e i g l o o s as shown i n F i g u r e 6.14. The donor
c h a r g e c o n s i s t e d of 100,000 l b (W1I3 = 46.4) of Composition B , packed i n
2,106 s e a l e d , 9.5-in. c u b i c a l c a n s , w i t h 47.5 l b of e x p l o s i v e i n each
c o n t a i n e r (Ref. 6.22).
6-49
n
N
N
\D
w
2
W
m
al
a
fd
V
a
C
fd
N
fd
H
6-50
Detonation of t h e 100,000 l b charge r e s u l t e d i n complete destruc-
t i o n of t h e donor magazine. A l i m i t e d survey r e v e a l e d t h a t f o u r main
t y p e s of fragments were thrown long ranges. These included fragments of
s t e e l r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s , s t e e l a r c h , c o n c r e t e , and c l o d s of e a r t h . The
maximum range of s o i l fragments w a s 3300 f t . The clod which t r a v e l l e d
t h i s d i s t a n c e weighed approximately 1 5 l b b e f o r e impact and broke i n t o
smaller p i e c e s a t impact. This s i z e w a s t y p i c a l of many o t h e r c l o d s . The
l a r g e r p i e c e s of s t e e l a r c h , 50 p e r c e n t t o 80 p e r c e n t of a complete panel,
w e r e l i m i t e d t o a r a d i u s of 1600 f t , w i t h one 24-in. x 24-in. fragment
b e i n g found 2900 f t i n f r o n t of t h e i g l o o s . Most of t h e l a r g e r c o n c r e t e
fragments were s c a t t e r e d t o 800 f t i n f r o n t o f t h e i g l o o s , w i t h t h e main
c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n zones of 25' t o 50' from t h e i g l o o c e n t e r l i n e . The e a r t h
b a r r i c a d e e f f e c t i v e l y i n t e r c e p t e d most of t h e s t e e l door fragments and
l i m i t e d t h e i r t r a v e l t o approximately 200 f t beyond t h e b a r r i c a d e . How-
e v e r , a few s m a l l door t o door-frame fragments were found 2000 t o 2450 f t
i n f r o n t of t h e magazines.
0 Protective Structures
Swedish p r o t e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e s are designed f o r u s e i n t h r e e ranges

of e x p l o s i v e q u a n t i t y (Ref. 6.23) :
Class A - 1 t o 20 l b of TNT
Class B - 21 t o 200 l b of TNT
Class C - 201 t o 2000 l b 6f TNT
S t r u c t u r e s c o n t a i n i n g l e s s t h a n 20 l b of TNT are designed t o remain i n t a c t

i n t h e event of a n explosion. S t r u c t u r e s c o n t a i n i n g e x p l o s i v e q u a n t i t i e s
i n t h e Class B o r C range are expected t o f a i l , b u t a r e designed t o f a i l
i n a s p e c i f i c manner, allowing s a f e t y zones t o be w e l l d e f i n e d .
I n t h e range from approximately 20 l b t o 200 l b of TNT, a "kinematic

c h a i n design'' has been used t o some e x t e n t i n Sweden. T h i s d e s i g n i s based
on v a r y i n g t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e j o i n t s between a d j o i n i n g p l a t e elements.
The weak connections have s h o r t p i n s through c o n s t r u c t i o n j o i n t s , supplying
enough s t r e n g t h t o p l a c e t h e f a i l u r e t h r e s h o l d due t o r i p p i n g f o r c e s j u s t
beyond t h e wind and snow l o a d . The s t r o n g connections have continuous
r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s , some of which are s p e c i a l l y f a s h i o n e d t o p r o v i d e a n
unimpeded h i n g e e f f e c t . I n t h e g e n e r a l d e s i g n , a l l t h e w a l l s are connected
t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n by s t r o n g hinges. The roof i s s i m i l a r l y hinged t o
one of t h e w a l l s and a l l o t h e r connections are weak. These hinged j o i n t s
a l l o w t h e b u i l d i n g t o u n f o l d , l i m i t i n g t h e b u i l d i n g d e b r i s t o t h e immediate
v i c i n i t y . Also, s i n c e t h e response of t h e heavy p l a t e elements i s slow
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e v e l o c i t y of most "primary" fragments emanating from
around t h e charge, many w i l l b e stopped by t h e s t r u c t u r e s (Ref. 6.23).
6-51
For s t r u c t u r e s i n v o l v i n g approximately 200 t o 2000 l b of TNT a
similar d e s i g n procedure i s followed. The major d i f f e r e n c e i n t h i s d e s i g n
i s that h i n g e s are no l o n g e r used t o t r y t o r e s t r a i n t h e w a l l s and r o o f .
I n s t e a d , c o n n e c t i o n between p l a t e s a r e b u i l t t o f a i l a t d i f f e r e n t s t r e n g t h s
s o t h a t fragments may b e d i r e c t e d i n predetermined zones (Ref. 6.23).
6.2.4 T r a j e c t o r i e s and Impact Conditions
6.2.4.1 Trajectories
A f t e r a fragment h a s a c q u i r e d an i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y , t h a t i s , t h e
fragment i s no l o n g e r a c c e l e r a t e d by an e x p l o s i o n o r p r e s s u r e r u p t u r e , two
f o r c e s a c t on t h e fragment d u r i n g i t s f l i g h t . These are g r a v i t a t i o n a l
f o r c e s and f l u i d dynamic f o r c e s . F l u i d dynamic f o r c e s are u s u a l l y sub-
d i v i d e d i n t o drag and l i f t components (see F i g u r e 6.1). The e f f e c t of
d r a g and l i f t w i l l depend b o t h on t h e shape of t h e fragment and i t s d i r e c -
t i o n of motion w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r e l a t i v e wind. The f l u i d dynamic f o r c e
components of d r a g and l i f t a t any i n s t a n t can b e expressed as:
n
FD = CD A,, (1/2) p Vz (6.29)
and
2
PL = CL 4, (1/2) p v (6.30)
where CD and CL a r e d r a g and l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t s determined e m p i r i c a l l y

as a f u n c t i o n o f shape and o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e v e l o c i t y
v e c t o r and AD and AL are d r a g and l i f t areas, r e s p e c t i v e l y . V i s t h e
v e l o c i t y o f t h e fragment and p i s t h e d e n s i t y of t h e medium. Most of
t h e fragments g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g e x p l o s i v e s a c c i d e n t s d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s
manual w i l l b e "chunky" d r a g fragments.
I n a s i m p l i f i e d t r a j e c t o r y problem (Ref. 6.16), where t h e

fragment i s c o n s i d e r e d t o move i n one p l a n e , e q u a t i o n s of motion can b e
w r i t t e n f o r a c c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e X and Y d i r e c t i o n .
The a c c e l e r a . t i o n i n t h e Y d i r e c t i o n ( d r a g o n l y ) i s :
-
.. ACDp(X + Y >
'2 -2
y = - g - s i n ci (6.31)
2M
and f o r t h e X d i r e c t i o n ( d r a g o n l y ) :
.. A CD p (i2+ i2)
x=- 2M
c o s ci (6.32)
6-52
where A = area of fragment
CD = drag c o e f f i c i e n t
a t t = O
i = Vi cos a
i
(6.33)
Y = V s i n ai (6.34)
i
where V = i n i t i a l velocity
i
a = i n i t i a l t r a j e c t o r y angle
i
The e q u a t i o n s shown above can be solved simultaneously u s i n g t h e
Runge-Kutta method and can be used f o r fragment v e l o c i t i e s up t o Mach 1
f o r s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s . Baker, Kulesz, e t a l . (Ref. 6.3) have e x e r c i s e d
t h e FRISB program t o determine fragment range f o r a number of c o n d i t i o n s .
Some of t h i s work w a s d u p l i c a t e d by Baker, Kulesz, e t a l . (Ref. 6.16) and
p u t i n a more convenient form. F i g u r e 6.15 summarizes t h e r e s u l t s f o r
fragments a f f e c t e d v n l y b y drag f o r c e s .
The curve i n F i g u r e 6.15 w a s developed by f i r s t performing a model

a n a l y s i s t o g e n e r a t e dimensionless parameters which d e s c r i b e t h e g e n e r a l
problem. There t h e computer code FRISB w a s used t o determine ranges f o r
s e l e c t e d cases, and t o p l o t r e s u l t s . It should b e noted t h a t , i n g e n e r a t -
i n g t h i s curve, several i n i t i a l t r a j e c t o r y a n g l e s w e r e used i n t h e a n a l y s i s
t o o b t a i n t h e maximum range f o r t h e r e s p e c t i v e fragments. Thus, one does
n o t need t o know t h e i n i t i a l t r a j e c t o r y a n g l e of t h e fragment i n o r d e r t o
use Figure 6.15.
When u s i n g F i g u r e 6.15, u n i t s should be chosen f o r each of t h e

parameters such t h a t t h e terms on t h e axes have dimensionless u n i t s .
F i g u r e 6.6 c o n t a i n s drag c o e f f i c i e n t s C,, f o r v a r i o u s s i m p l e geometries.
I f needed, maximum ranges f o r l i f t i n g fragments can be acquired from range
c u r v e s i n Reference 6.20.
6-53
0 d 0
ri 3
n
VI
0 3
0
d
6-54
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.8
PROBLEM - Determine t h e maximum range R of a fragment. For i l l u s t r a t i v e

p u r p o s e s , assume a cube of c o n c r e t e i s h u r l e d face-on.
GIVEN: p o = m a s s d e n s i t y of a i r (2.378 x l b - s e c 2/ f t 4 )
C = d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t ( F i g u r e 6.9)
D
2
% = d r a g area ( f t )
M = mass
V = i n i t i a l velocity (ft/sec)
0
2
g = g r a v i t y c o n s t a n t (32.2 f t / s e c )
FIND: R REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. C a l c u l a t e nondimensional v e l o c i t y .
3
L
v- = 0 D % 0 F i g . 6.15
Mg
2. Read t h e v a l u e of nondimensional r a n g e
from F i g u r e 6.15.
F i g . 6.15
3. C a l c u l a t e maximum r a n g e .
CALCULATION
GIVEN:
___ T h e r u b e o f concrete h a s an e d g e d i m e n s i o n of 6.0 in.
2 4
= 2.378 x lb-s /ft
C, = 1 . 0 5
u
A,, = 6.0 i n . x 6 . 0 i n . (1.0 f t2 /144 i n . 2 ) = 0.25 f t 2
M = (0.084 l b / i n . 3 ) ( 6 . 0 i n . ) 3 [(1/32.2)(lb-sec 2/ l b f t ) ]
r)
L
= 0.56 l b - s e c / f t
v0 = 100 ft/sec
2
g = 32.2 f t / s e c
FIND: R
6-55 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

SOLUTION: 1. Nondimensional velocity.
2 2
% '0 (2.375~10-~l b - sec2/ft4) (1.05)(0.25 f t ) (100 ft/sec)
'0 D' -- 2 2
Mg (0.56 l b - sec /ft)(32.2 ft/sec
= 0.35
2. Enter Figure 6.14 and read nondimensional range = 0.30.
3. Calculate maximum range.
M -
R =
'0 D' %
(0.30) (0.56 l b - sec2 /ft)
-
2 4 2
(2.378~10-~
l b -sec /ft )(1.05)(0.25 ft )
= 270 ft
6-56
6.2.4.2 Impact Mass D i s t r i b u t i o n s and Impact Range D i s t r i b u t i o n s
A thorough fragment d a t a b a s e w a s c r e a t e d from a l i t e r a t u r e s e a r c h

t h r o u g h t h e a v a i l a b l e f i l e s a t t h e Department of Defense E x p l o s i v e S a f e t y
Board f o r a c c i d e n t r e p o r t s c o n t a i n i n g f r a g m e n t a t i o n d a t a from a c c i d e n t a l
explosions i n s t r u c t u r e s such as those a t t h e Pantex p l a n t . Extracted
d a t a i n c l u d e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e , b u i l d i n g d e s c r i p t i o n s
and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f f r a g m e n t s , such as w e i g h t , s i z e and r a n g e . Those
r e f e r e n c e s which had t h e most u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n . w e r e s e l e c t e d a s a d a t a
b a s e and were s e p a r a t e d i n t o t h r e e groups by e s t i m a t e d energy of t h e explo-
s i o n o r e x p l o s i v e y i e l d . T a b l e 6.4 summarizes t h e e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e and
b u i l d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r seven r e f e r e n c e s i n t h e d a t a b a s e . The one
r e f e r e n c e i n Group A c o n s i s t e d of a n e x p l o s i o n w i t h e s t i m a t e d energy of
approximately 1.6 x l 0 7 f t - l b . Group B e x p l o s i o n s had e x p l o s i v e e n e r g i e s
on t h e o r d e r of 5 x lo8 f t - l b . Group C c o n s i s t e d of t h r e e s o u r c e s w i t h
explosion energies near 1 x l o l o ft-lb. Fragment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r
e a c h group were e x t r a c t e d from a s s o c i a t e m i s s i l e maps o r c a l c u l a t e d from
descriptions given i n the references.
S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s have been performed on fragment w e i g h t ,

r a n g e , nondimensionalized r a n g e (by a r e a ) a n d nondimensionalized e n e r g y .
These u s e f u l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e p a r a m e t e r s a l l o w one t o p r e d i c t
fragment s c a t t e r i n weight and r a n g e f o l l o w i n g a n a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n
of a g i v e n energy i n a b u i l d i n g s i m i l a r t o t h o s e b u i l d i n g s d e s c r i b e d i n
t h i s d a t a base.
A d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s performed t o d e t e r m i n e
impact w e i g h t , r a n g e and s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s i s g i v e n below. T h i s i s
fOllOGJed by a p r o c e d u r e f o r u s i n g t h e g r a p h s p r e s e n t e d t o e s t i m a t e fragment
weight and r a n g e f o r s i m i l a r e x p l o s i o n s .
The fragment weight and r a n g e d a t a f o r each o f t h e energy l e v e l s

w e r e s o r t e d i n ascending o r d e r . The t o t a l number of f r a g m e n t s f o r a l l of
t h e a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s i n e a c h e n e r g y l e v e l w e r e counted. The o r d e r e d
d a t a (by w e i g h t and r a n g e ) f o r e x p l o s i o n s from each energy l e v e l were t h e n
d i v i d e d i n t o g r o u p s c o n t a i n i n g 5 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l number of f r a g m e n t s .
Thus, t h e d a t a w e r e s u b d i v i d e d i n t o g r o u p s from t h e 5 t h t h r o u g h t h e 9 5 t h
p e r c e n t i l e by number of f r a g m e n t s as shown i n 'Table 6 . 5 . For example
( s e e T a b l e 6 . 5 ) , f o r t h o s e e x p l o s i o n s having a n energy of 1 . 6 x l o 7 f t - l b ,
5 p e r c e n t of t h e f r a g m e n t s had a weight below 0.22 l b , 1 0 p e r c e n t below
0.58 lb, 15 p e r c e n t below 0.87 l b , e t c . A l s o , 5 p e r c e n t of t h e f r a g m e n t s
w e r e i n t h e 0.22 - 0.58 l b r a n g e , 5 p e r c e n t i n t h e 0.58 - 0.87 l b r a n g e , e t c .
F i g u r e s 6.16 and 6.17 a r e p l o t s of t h e p e r c e n t i l e p o i n t s a l o n g

w i t h a n " e y e b a l l " l i n e f i t t o t h e p o i n t s . The mean was e s t i m a t e d a s t h e
l o g a r i t h m ( t o t h e b a s e e ) of t h e 5 0 t h p e r c e n t i l e . The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n
w a s e s t i m a t e d (Ref. 6.24) as t w o - f i f t h s o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e
l o g a r i t h m s of t h e 90th and 1 0 t h p e r c e n t i l e s .
6-57 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

Ttible 6 . 4 Data Base for Building Fragmentation
(Group A)
..
EXPLOSION SOURCE BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS
Estimated
O r t e n t a t ion Energy Volume
To B l d g (f t . lh) Shape Dimensions (ft3) C o n s t riic t ion/Ma t e r i a l
Rrf ercnce
7 28,512 f t 3 S t e e l frame w i t h r e i n f o r c e d
Explosion i n 011 second r l o o r 1.6 x 10 Four 36 f t x 7 2
o f R l d g Jc)(15 i n story f t x 33 f t per floor; c o n c r e t e slab f l o o r s , s e p -
a Nttration
f e r d c r t o cen- rer tan- h i g h (11 f t h o w e v e r , ai1 a r a t e d by s t e e l 1 - s e c t i o n
I BldF, 3 0 4 5
R a d f n r d Army trifuge gular hetween opening was columns; b r i c k masonry end-
floors) p r o v i d e d tn walls; arcylic p l a s t i c
Ammiin i t i o n
P l a n t , VA third floor g l a z e d s i d e walls ( u n b a r r i -
11-02- 78 above c e n t r i - caded); dimensfons o f b r i c k s
f u g e s up t o in e n d walls: I n n e r c o u r s e -
f o u r t h so 2-112 i n . x 3 - 7 / 1 6 i n . x
v o l u m e of 7-314 i n . o u t e r - 2-112 in.
t h f r d floor x 3-518 i n . x 0 i n .
is tncreased
t o include
fourth;
volume of
s y s t e m in-
volved
= 995 f t 3 .
Table 6 . 4 (Continued)
(Group B)
I
EXPLOSION SOURCE BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS
Estimated
Quantity Orientation Energy
Reference Mater i a 1 (1b) Shape To B l d g ( f t .lb) Shape Dimensions Construction/hterial
I
8
Bacchus P l a n t Rocket p r o p e l - 350.0 Slurry 5 . 2 x 10 Ret a n g u l a r Three s i d e s - 1 2 in. r e i n -
Accident Report land slurry forced concrete
Wh N o . 1 1 2 , Con- mix (VCA) One s i d e - wood f r a m e ;
t r a c t AF 0 4 ( 6 4 7 ) wood f l o o r s ; a s b e s t o s s h i n g l e
7 -243, H e r c u l e s r o o f ; no f i r e w a l l s or d o o r s ;
t h r e e c o n c r e t e s i d e s backed
Powder Company
Magna, U t a h u p w i t h e a r t h mound. F r o n t
10.-05-61 p r o t e c t e d by a 1 2 i n . sand
f i l l e d , wood c o n s t r u c t e d
bullet shield.
8 Wood f r a m e on c o n c r e t e f o u n d a -
H e r c u l e s Powder Nitrocellulose 130.0 i n Blocks o f Inside, 8 . 4 x 10 Box-like 15.6 f t x
Comlwiy , VA, f o r M-5 equip- n i trocel- (fairly 15.6 f t ; tion; asbestos s h i n g l e roof
E x p l o s i o n i n Bldg Formulation men t ; lulose t o centered) height not
3560, Block 440.0 i n h e mech- given; long
Breaker C-line buggy an i c a l l y p o r c h on
Area. hroken front
down
I
Explosion a t
Pantex Plant,
Amarillo, TX
LX-09
LX-14 I 76.0
75.0
151.0
Rough
billets
t o be
machlned
W i t h i n Ray
8, a l o n g
south wall
o f Bldg
3.4 x 10
8
One-story I 151 f t x 171.234 Concrete cavity-wall type
block; i n t e r i o r s t e e l frame
c o n s i s t e d o f 4 H.E. m a c h i n i n g
b a y s , a n H.E. remote o p e r a t i m
03-30-77
(Two d e t o n - 11-14A b a y , a r e m o t e c o n t r o l room, a
a t i o n s of two m e t r o l o g y l a b work a r e a , a
d i f f e r e n t H.E. s t a g i n g a n d material s t o r a g e
explosives. a r e a and a n office.
Table 6 . 4 (Continued)
(Group C)
RUILOl N6 CHARACTL%TSTICS
Qunntlty cientntion :ons t r u r t Ion/

Hate r 1 a 1
Rc f Prcnce (lh)
--
Shape To Alrlg (Ft-lb) -_
1---
&Four Hotoi cThrouRhuut Rectnn:ul ar LRll i)ay : m c r e t e hlock

Incidrnt a t LFow P o l a r i s 'L33,500 11)
were In c a s t t n c hay liifih btiy 1 f t x 42 f t id vood lramc.
Allrphany B a l l t s - A? Second (propellant
varlnus s a r ~ ai n Uldg with smnllrr 48 l t h i g h .
t l r s Lnh St;rjie Fiher-
g l a s s rased grs of (one a w a i t - nnller build-
04 .27-h3 32 f L x
Uotors: proces+ln fng trans- 1%:
(tlercu I e s Powder 2 f t x 20.67
f:nmpn nv ) ' ~ 9 0 XNitro- % 4.800 I I ~ iLTn two s t Fer t o p i l ) ;
glycerin le-s s t c e t l n a room 9- 1.n x 10'" t high.
C a s t 1 tip. des lccot o a d j a r r n t to
Solvent; su+pendrd c a s t i n g hay
bHLgh Enrrgy 9 865 l h from over and n e n r r s t
c, R t t Ilg head Mnno t o p t t con-
Powder; r a t 1 beam t a i n i n g one
$scrap C a s t i n g & 250 l b $In mctal motor;
Solvent powder L I n room ad-
(above) ; hoxer j o i n i n g sol-
~ L l l r s i d u a lCast. s> 30 l h v e n t men-
tioned i n
m Inp. S o l v e n t
aqpt r a t o r
I
m -- c a t c h tank.
0 - -- -- ____ 9 62.5 f t x 7 7 . ' trlntcrced
4,mn i h V I t h i n Bldg 9 . 3 x 10
Explnsion i n NC Nitroglycerin F t approxi- .oncrete walls
Area MI. 2
9463 backcil hy
mated From
R d f n r d Armv Am- drnwing;hr t ~ l r l ?art11 In Nitra-
nniiiition I'InnL, 1s approxmiafe
tion H O I I ~ C ? ;
VI r p. I i a l y 1 5 f t From s t e e l house<
01-fl6-78 fjrst floor t c arc 1 tp.111 wood
( N a l n l v Rldg Framr, h a l l a s t
r e i l i n g ; ba.;e.
9461) ment i n h l d g . lboard ( C o l l a r
N; t r a t i on slhle).
House - . . . . . . _ . _-- - -
- __--
__ .
1 . 2 x 10
11 18 i n . Rein-
6891 l h o f w i t l i l n Kortti f o r c e d ron-
blotor nc tonated O n e Nike Z e l > l S
Pvtrln Uny i n t e s t P re t r wa 11s.
High Order sustnlnrr
Arylate i n stand b a r r i r n d t d on
Ihirlng S t a t I C mol01
Tc-ring; Rrd- Da t t l e s i i i p North and
ston,. Arsrnal. Hardware. soul h wal Is hv
Alnlraria. (loaded 1 2 in. r r t n -
flu-19-$9 wetgilt of i o r c r d con-
motor and r r e t e furtlv-r
n i d 8 78i7
norrle = reinlorred hy
10.654 Ih) earth rnvprrd
with minlmrnn
width o f 23 f t
and minlmiim
dt-pth of 3 f t ;
roo[ v a s 1 8 in.
r e i n f o r r p d cai-
cretr s l a h
over t e s t hays
--___-.--
. - . ..... ~ .. - . .....
Table 6 . 5 Cumulative P e r c e n t i l e s f o r P l o t t i n g Fragment

Weights and Ranges
E = 1.6 x 1 07 f t - l b E = 5.0 x 10a f t - l b E = 1.0 x lolo f t - l b

Percentile Weight ( l b ) Range ( f t ) Weight ( l b ) Range ( f t ) Weight ( l b ) Range ( f t )
5 -0.22 6 0.20 44 0.054 21a

10 0.58 7 0.40 58 0.082 270
15 0.87 9 0.65 70 0.120 325
20 1.02 11 0.88 89 0.160 375
25 2.18 11 1.20 103 0.220 410
30 2.61 11 1.68 113 0.300 460
35 3.92 11 2.26 11a 0.410 496
40 4.35 11 2.72 125 0.490 5 32
45 5.22 12 3.65 132 0.650 566
50 7.61 14 4.90 141 0. a70 616
55 8.70 16 6.72 147 1.26G 672
60 10.44 19 9 .oa 159 1.520 710
65 11.55 24 10.50 170 2.000 780
70 15.37 28 13.08 180 2.670 a32
75 24.36 32 21.90 193 4.200 9 20
ao 31.32 46 29. sa 20 7 5.440 1000
85 50.20 52 45.48 233 10.000 1080
90 104.40 77 84.00 266 16.320 1218
95 187.90 146 172.10 324 50.000 1485
6-61
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Ll
R
a
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U
7
P
d
k
U
v1
d
n
h
U
d
d
d
P
(d
P
0
LI
P4
aJ
3
d
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(d
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7
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rl
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m m m m to
6-63
T a b l e 6.6 i s a l i s t i n g o f t h e e s t i m a t e d means and s t a n d a r d devia-
t i o n s f o r t h e l o g normal ( t o t h e b a s e e) d i s t r i b u t i o n s . A "T\rp"statistic
(Ref. 6 . 2 4 ) f o r goodness of f i t w a s c a l c u l a t e d f o r each of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s .
The approximate p r o b a b i l i t y of o b t a i n i n g t h e c a l c u l a t e d t e s t s t a t i s t i c ,
g i v e n t h a t t h e chosen d i s t r i b u t i o n i s c o r r e c t , w a s t h e n determined. These
r e s u l t s a r e a l s o shown i n Table 6.6. F i g u r e 6.18 i s a graph of t h e proba-
b i l i t y p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s of t h e "W" s t a t i s t i c . As i t i s customary t o
c o n s i d e r v a l u e s of p r o b a b i l i t y f o r t h e "W" s t a t i s t i c exceeding 2 t o 10
p e r c e n t as a d e q u a t e grounds f o r n o t r e j e c t i n g t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e d a t a
belong t o t h e chosen d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e f i t s f o r a l l d a t a except t h e r a n g e
d a t a f o r an energy of 1 . 6 x l o 7 f t - l b are much more t h a n adequate. The
I 1 11
W s t a t i s t i c f o r r a n g e s i n t h a t energy l e v e l is s l i g h t l y less t h a n 1 0
p e r c e n t and, t h u s , i s s t i l l adequate.
F i g u r e 6.16 c a n b e used t o estimate t h e p e r c e n t a g e of fragments

( f o r a g i v e n energy level) which w i l l have a weight, W, e q u a l t o o r less
t h a n a p a r t i c u l a r W. For example, i f we wished t o estimate t h e p e r c e n t a g e
of fragments which would have a weight e q u a l t o o r less than 1 0 l b f o r an
energy l e v e l of 1.0 x lG0 f t - l b , w e would r e f e r t o F i g u r e 6.16 and on t h e
weight axis ( a b c i s s a ) a t 10 l b go upward t o t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e l i n e
for 1.0 x l o l o f t - l b . Then, a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t read t h e value
from t h e o r d i n a t e , which i s 86 p e r c e n t . Conversely, i f w e wanted t o
estimate what weight 90 p e r c e n t of t h e fragments would n o t exceed, w e would
e n t e r t h e c h a r t on t h e 90 p e r c e n t l i n e , go over t o t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h
t h e c u r v e and r e a d downward t o ' t h e weight axis t h e v a l u e 1 6 l b . E s t i m a t e s
for p e r c e n t a g e of fragments between two w e i g h t s c a n b e made by determining
t h e d i f f e r e n c e between c o r r e s p o n d i n g p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s . F i g u r e 6.17 can
b e used i n t h e same manner f o r t h e range.
S t s t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s were a l s o performed f o r nondimensionalized

range E (R/&) a. 3 nondimensionalized energy E (RMg/E) . However, t h e y
were n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h i s manual s i n c e t h e y do n o t add any a d d i t i o n a l
u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n f o r b u i l d i n g f r a g m e n t a t i o n a t t h e p r e s e n t time.
Before t h e s e nondimensionalized terms can b e f u l l y u s e d , more d a t a need
t o be accumulated. Cumulative frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n s and s t a t i s t i c a l
a n a l y s e s f o r goodness of f i t f o r nondimensionalized r a n g e and energy can
b e found i n Reference 6.25.
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e l i n e s on F i g u r e 6.16 are
a l m o s t p a r a l l e l . That i s , t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s are almost e q u a l f o r
a l l t h e l o g normal d i s t r i b u t i o n s . T h i s l e a d s t o t h e s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t
i f more e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a are a c q u i r e d i n t h e f u t u r e a t v a r i o u s energy
l e v e l s , it may b e p o s s i b l e t o d e r i v e a scale f a c t o r from t h e energy r a t i o s
and magnitude which i s r e l a t e d t o t h e mean of t h e weight d i s t r i b u t i o n .
F i g u r e 6.17, t h e p l o t f o r t h e r a n g e p e r c e n t i l e s , i s an e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s
6-64
Table 6.6 L i s t i n g of E s t i m a t e d Means, S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s ,
and "W" S t a t i s t i c s f o r Log-Normal D i s t r i b u t i o n s
f o r Weights and Ranges of Fragments
Weight
Estimated
Energy Level Estimated Standard IIW'I
(ft-lb) Mean Deviation S t a t is t i c
* Probability
7
1.6 x 10 1.94 2.11 0.992 0.999
5.0 x 1 08 1.64 2.12 0.990 0.996
1.0 x 1 01 0 0 2.22 0.981 0.935
Range
Estimated
Energy Level Estimated S t andar d 1 ~ 1 1
(ft-lb) Mean Deviation Statistic

* Probability
7
1 . 6 x 10 3.0204 0.9611 0.915 0.095
8
5 . 0 x 10 4.9900 0.5487 0.980 0.922
1.0 x 1010 6.4052 0.6305 0.989 0.994
* See F i g u r e 6 . 1 8
6-65
99
05
9c
8(
QJ
6(
00
m
U
G
a
L,
6 4
F i g u r e 6.18 ATproximate P r o b a b i l i t y P e r c e n t a g e P o i n t s
(n-19)
6-66
s p e c u l a t i o n due t o t h e l a r g e number of fragments c o l l e c t e d a t one c l o s e - i n
d i s t a n c e ( 1 1 f t ) from t h e e x p l o s i o n w i t h a n energy of 1 . 6 x l o 7 f t - l b
( s e e Table 6.5). I t should b e n o t e d t h a t d a t a from o n l y one a c c i d e n t
w e r e i n c l u d e d a t t h i s e n e r g y l e v e l . A l a r g e r d a t a b a s e may have caused
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n t o s h i f t t o a p o s i t i o n more n e a r l y p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s of r a n g e f o r t h e o t h e r two energy l e v e l s .
A p r o c e d u r e f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e number of f r a g m e n t s of a g i v e n
mass i n t e r v a l which w i l l f a l l w i t h i n a g i v e n d i s t a n c e from a n e x p l o s i o n
source i n a building is a s follows:
1) E s t i m a t e % = t o t a l d e s t r o y e d weight of t h e b u i l d i n g
( p o r t i o n of t h e b u i l d i n g which h a s fragmented). T h i s estimate
w i l l depend mainly upon t h e amount of e x p l o s i v e s t o r e d o r
machined i n t h e b u i l d i n g a t any g i v e n t i m e and t h e b u i l d i n g
s t r u c t u r e and shape. ( T h i s document does n o t d i s c u s s methods
f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t o t a l m a s s of t h e b u i l d i n g d e s t r o y e d . T h i s
c a l c u l a t i o n w i l l have t o b e performed u s i n g o t h e r s o u r c e s . )
2 ) Using t h e weight d i s t r i b u t i o n i n F i g u r e 6.16, o b t a i n t h e
a v e r a g e w e i g h t o f a fragment from t h e e x p l o s i o n , Ma, by r e a d i n g
i t o f f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e curve at t h e 50th p e r c e n t i l e .
The t o t a l number of fragments from t h e e x p l o s i o n i s t h e n
N = -MB (6.35)
f M
a
3 ) Using t h e r a n g e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n F i g u r e 6.17, t a k e e q u a l
p e r c e n t a g e i n c r e m e n t s (0-lo%, 10-20%, e t c . ) o r e q u a l r a n g e
i n c r e m e n t s (0-10 f t , 10-20 f t , e t c . ) and f i n d t h e number of
f r a g m e n t s , Nf , i n e a c h increment. ( I f e q u a l p e r c e n t a g e
i
i n c r e m e n t s were t a k e n , t h e number of fragments i n each increment
i s , of c o u r s e , the s a m e . )
4) Again u s i n g t h e w e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n F i g u r e 6.16, d e t e r m i n e
t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f fragments i n a p a r t i c u l a r w e i g h t i n t e r v a l . The
t o t a l numbers o f f r a g m e n t s i n e a c h r a n g e i n t e r v a l have a l r e a d y
been c a l c u l a t e d ( S t e p 3): Thus, t h e number of f r a g m e n t s
of a p a i - t i c u l a r m a s s i n a p a r t i c u l a r r a n g e i n t e r v a l ( d i s t a n c e
a u t f r o m the s o u r c e ) can be determined.*
*The major assumption made i n t h i s procedure i s t h a t a l l w e i g h t s a r e d i s -

t r i b u t e d l o g normally i n a g i v e n i n t e r v a l of range. S i n c e w e c o u l d f i n d
no c o r r e l a t i o n between w e i g h t and r a n g e , f o r a g i v e n energy l e v e l and
s i n c e w e i g h t i s l o g normally d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r each e n e r g y level (which
c o v e r s t h e ' e n t i r e r a n g e ) , t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o assume t h a t w e i g h t i s n o t
l o g normally d i s t r i b u t e d w i t h i n a given range increment.
6-67
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.9
PROBLEM - Determine t h e e s t i m a t e d number of fragments N of a g i v e n

weight which w i l l f a l l w i t h i n a g i v e n d i s t a n c%
e from an explosion
s o u r c e of a given y i e l d i n a b u i l d i n g . Using t h i s number,
d e t e r m i n e a n a v e r a g e fragment d e n s i t y p o v e r t h e a r e a covered
within t h a t distance . k
GIVEN : MB = t o t a l d e s t r o y e d weight of t h e b u i l d i n g ( l b ) ( t o t a l weight

of t h e d e b r i s )
E = energy o f t h e e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e ( f t - l b )
Ri = r a n g e of fragments under c o n s i d e r a t i o n ( f t )
M. = w e i g h t o f fragments under c o n s i d e r a t i o n ( I b )
1
FIND :
REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine a v e r a g e w e i g h t Ma of a fragment from Fig. 6.16
t h e e x p l o s i o n . T h i s number i s read o f f t h e (Weight Dis-
c u r v e f o r t h e d e s i r e d energy, E , a t 50%. tri bu tion)
2. C a l c u l a t e t h e t o t a l number of fragments f r o m
t h e explosion.
- -MB E q . (6.35)
Nf M
a
-
3. Taking e q u a l p e r c e n t a g e i n c r e m e n t s (0-lo%, F i g . 6.17
10-20%- e t c . ) o r e q u a l r a n g e increments (Range
(0-10 f t , 10-20 f t , e t c . ) , f i n d t h e number Distribu-
of fragments i n each range i n c r e m e n t ,
*f-i
tion)
4. Determine t h e p e r c e n t a g e of fragments i n t h e F i g . (3.16

p a r t i c u l a r w e i g h t i n t e r v a l o f concern. (Weight D i s -
tritiution)
5. Determine t h e number of fragments of t h e
p a r t i c u l a r weight i n a p a r t i c u l a r range
interval,
Rk
N = (% i n w e i g h t i n t e r v a l ) ( N )
Rk fk
6. C a l c u l a t e t h e area of t h e r i n g d e f i n e d by t h e
range i n t e r v a l ,
R n
Rk .
L I
6-68
- 1
.
where the interval \ is bounded by radii

5c1 and Rk2'
7. Determine average fragment density over the
entire range interval (ring).
CALCULATION
GIVEN: M = 10,000 lb
B ..
E =
lo' ft-lb Due to structures and personnel in
R
R2
1
=
=
90-100 ft
150-170 ftJ
1 these areas, the number of fragments
which will land here is of concern.
M1 = 5-10 lb
-_FIND: N
' p(90-100 ft)' p(150-170 ft)
R(90-loo ft) ' NR(150-170 ft)
SOLUTION: 1. M at the 50th percentile for E = 5 x lo8 ft-lb equals

a
5.1 lb.
2. Total number of fragments.
M,, 10,000 lb
N = - =D = 1,961
f M 5.1 lb
a
3. Number of fragments in each of the two range increments.
= (29% - 22%)(1,961) = 137 fragments
Nfl
= (66% - 582)(1,961) = 157 fragments
Nf*
4. Percentage of fragments weighing 5-10 lb.
64% - 50% = 14%
5. Number of 5-10 lb fragments in each of the two range
intervals.
N = (14%)(137)
* = 19 fragments
R1
N = (14%)(157) = 22 fragments
R2
6. Area of each circular interval.
A = ~(100
1
- ~902 ) = 5970 ft2
6-69
7. Average fragment d e n s i t i e s ( i f fragments d i s t r i b u t e d
e v e n l y o v e r t h e area of t h e r i n g ) .
= 137/5970 f r 2 = 0.023 f r a g m e n t s / f t 2
p1
2
= 157/20100 f t 2 = 0.0078 f r a g m e n t s / f t
p2
NOTE: The above s o l u t i o n could b e r e p e a t e d f o r d i f f e r e n t
weight and range i n t e r v a l s t o g e n e r a t e a complete
missile map.
6-70
6.2.4.3 Impact K i n e t i c Energies
Recall t h a t k i n e t i c energy i s one-half t h e product of mass and

v e l o c i t y squared (MV2/2) . From t h e a c c i d e n t r e p o r t s mentioned p r e v i o u s l y ,
w e have been a b l e t o d e s c r i b e s t a t i s t i c a l l y t h e w e i g h t and range d i s t r i -
b u t i o n s from which t h e m a s s can b e determined. However, none o f t h e
a c c i d e n t r e p o r t s c o n t a i n e d any i n f o r m a t i o n on impact v e l o c i t i e s o r i m -
p a c t k i n e t i c e n e r g i e s . I n o r d e r t o a c q u i r e such i n f o r m a t i o n , i t would
b e n e c e s s a r y t o s i m u l a t e an a c c i d e n t , probably i n model scale f o r c o s t
e f f e c t i v e n e s s , and measure fragment impact masses and v e l o c i t i e s e i t h e r
p h o t o g r a p h i c a l l y o r by damage i n d i c a t o r s . Information of t h i s type h a s
been a c q u i r e d i n t h e v i c i n i t y of v a r i o u s ordnance e x p l o s i o n s i n o r d e r
t o d e f i n e k i l l p r o b a b i l i t i e s b u t t h i s information is n o t a p p r o p r i a t e
f o r t h e purposes of t h i s handbook. Impact v e l o c i t i e s of primary and
secondary fragments can b e determined u s i n g t h e i n i t i a l t r a j e c t o r y para-
meters o f t h e fragments and t r a j e c t o r y computer codes such as FRISB (Ref.
6.3) which g i v e fragment impact c o n d i t i o n s .
An impact damage c r i t e r i o n f o r humans which i s widely used by

t h e m i l i t a r y i s t h e 58 f t - l b c r i t e r i o n ; t h a t i s , i t i s assumed t h a t t h e
o n s e t of s e r i o u s i n j u r y o c c u r s when a fragment s t r i k i n g an i n d i v i d u a l
h a s a n impact k i n e t i c energy e q u a l t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n 58 f t - l b . * Figure
6.16 shows t h a t 50 p e r c e n t o r more of t h e fragments have masses of 1 l b
o r g r e a t e r . A 1-lb fragment would o n l y have t o f a l l 58 f t o r a 58 l b
fragment f a l l 1 f t i n o r d e r t o e q u a l t h e 58 f t - l b impact damage c r i t e r i o n .
T h e r e f o r e , i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o conclude t h a t many o f t h e fragments from
b u i l d i n g s s u b j e c t e d t o i n t e r n a l a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s which s t r i k e i n d i -
v i d u a l s w i l l cause s e r i o u s i n j u r i e s .
6.3 MISSILE DISPERSION
6.3.1 Experimentally Based Methods
Accurate, complete m i s s i l e maps w h i c h i n d i c a t e m i s s i l e d i s p e r s i o n

as w e l l as r a n g e are l i m i t e d i n t h e d a t a b a s e f o r a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s .
D i f f e r e n t r e s e a r c h t e a m s p i c k up and map d i f f e r e n t fragments; t h u s , a
complete map, which i s n e c e s s a r y t o make a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s of d i s -
p e r s i o n , i s rare. The m i s s i l e maps which make up t h e d a t a b a s e d e s c r i b e d
*Much more a c c u r a t e measures of impact i n j u r y are p o s s i b l e , b u t t h e y

a r e a l s o q u i t e complex. W e do - n o t recommend t h e 58 f t - l b c r i t e r i o n ,
b u t r e f e r t h e r e a d e r i n s t e a d t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e on impact trauma and
e f f e c t s of p e n e t r a t i n g fragments on humans. (See S e c t i o n s 6.5.1 and 6.5.2).
6-71
i n S e c t i o n 6.2.1 were used t o e x t r a c t fragment p o s i t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o
t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e charge i n t h e b u i l d i n g . The area surrounding an
e x p l o s i o n w a s d i v i d e d i n t o e i g h t c o a r s e s e c t o r s of 45" each. The s e c t o r s
were numbered c o n s e c u t i v e l y clockwise with a n g u l a r s e c t o r number 1 b e i n g
c e n t e r e d d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t o f t h e e x p l o s i v e charge where t h e fragments
are most dense ( s e e F i g u r e 6.19 f o r an example of a s e c t o r e d m i s s i l e
map p a t t e r n ) . Angles are measured from t h e z e r o - l i n e i n d i c a t e d i n Figure
6.19. These a n g u l a r s e c t o r s w e r e then f u r t h e r d i v i d e d by range increments
o f 40 f - t . Fragments were counted and a d e n s i t y of fragments p e r s q u a r e
f o o t w a s c a l c u l a t e d f o r each s e c t o r .
I n o r d e r t o f o r m u l a t e a model f o r p r e d i c t i n g where a fragment

w i l l l a n d a f t e r an a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n o c c u r s , a m u l t i p l e l i n e a r
r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s w a s performed on fragment d e n s i t y d a t a from e n e r g i e s
of 5 x 108 f t - l b and 1 x 1010 f t - l b . I n b o t h cases, t h e f i t t e d model
i s of t h e form
R n z = a + a x + a y (6.36)
0 1 2.
where z = d e n s i t y (fragments/square foot)
x = angle (radians)
y = distance (feet)
The c o e f f i c i e n t s a i and p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s v and v

f o r e a c h case are l i s t e d i n T a b l e 6.7. High c o r r e l a t i o n wXZ a s found YZ
between fragment d e n s i t y and d i s t a n c e a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e y z v a l u e s ;
however, t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between d e n s i t y and a n g l e ( d i s p e r s i o n ) , w h i l e
a c c e p t a b l e as a s t a t i s t i c a l v a l u e i n t h e a n a l y s i s , w a s q u i t e low. More
d a t a would a l l o w b e t t e r p r e d i c t i o n of d i s p e r s i o n p a t t e r n s f o r e x p l o s i o n s
of t h e t y p e d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s manual.
Fragment d e n s i t i e s i n s e c t o r s 1 through 4 (0 < x c 3.14) were

used i n t h e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s s i n c e t h e d e n s i t i e s i n c r e a s e d as t h e
a n g l e i n c r e a s e d . A d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n w a s observed f o r s e c t o r s 5 through
8 (3.14 < x < 6 . 2 8 ) ; t h u s , a d i f f e r e n t e q u a t i o n would r e s u l t u s i n g t h o s e
d a t a i n a r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s . It s h o u l d b e s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e e q u a t i o n s
and c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s d e r i v e d from t h i s a n a l y s i s are based on t h e
l i m i t e d d i s p e r s i o n d a t a a v a i l a b l e a t t h i s t i m e . Thus, t h i s d i s p e r s i o n
a n a l y s i s can p r o v i d e an estimate of how fragment d e n s i t y can vary w i t h
a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n around a b u i l d i n g such a s t h o s e l o c a t e d a t t h e Pantex
f a c i l i t y . F u r t h e r d a t a would be b e n e f i c i a l i n o r d e r t o r e f i n e t h e
analysis.
Some r e c e n t model scale tests performed i n S w i t z e r l a n d and Sweden

(Ref. 6.23) i n d i c a t e d i s t i n c t d i s p e r s i o n p a t t e r n s f o r e x p l o s i o n s occur-
r i n g i n b u i l d i n g s . The model b u i l d i n g s were of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
s t r u c t u r e w i t h d i f f e r e n t - s i z e d c h a r g e s c e n t e r e d i n s i d e . Upon d e t o n a t i o n
6-72
/- Zero Line
Figure 6.19. Example S e c t o r e d Missile Map P a t t e r n f o r

Measurement o f Fragment D e n s i t y
6-73
Table 6.7 Resultant Coefficients from Multiple Linear
Regression Analysis on Missile Dispersion
8
E = 5.0 x 10 ft-lb
a = -2.23 v = -0.268
0 XZ
a = -0.363
1
a = -0.0348 v = -0.924
2 Y=
E = 1.0 x 10'' ft-lb
a = -4.79 v = -0.276
0 XZ
a = -0.417
1
a = -0.00729 v = -0.792
2 YZ
6-74
of t h e c h a r g e , r e s u l t a n t d e b r i s w a s c o n c e n t r a t e d i n h i g h l y d i r e c t i o n a l
p a t h s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o each of t h e f o u r w a l l s . I n comparison, v e r y l i t t l e
d e b r i s w a s s c a t t e r e d i n t h e d i a g o n a l d i r e c t i o n o u t from t h e c o r n e r s of
t h e b u i l d i n g . T h i s w a s n o t t h e case i n t h e a c c i d e n t d a t a . However,
d i s p e r s i o n w a s a major concern i n t h e performance of t h e s e model tests;
t h e r e f o r e , g r e a t care w a s t a k e n t o c o l l e c t , weigh, and r e c o r d a l l p o s s i b l e
d e b r i s . I f more a c c u r a t e m i s s i l e maps were a v a i l a b l e from a c c i d e n t a l
e x p l o s i o n s , a more in-depth s t u d y of d i s p e r s o n could be performed t o
compare r e s u l t s w i t h t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e model scale tests. However,
a d i r e c t comparison between t h e s e model s c a l e t e s t s and t h e a c c i d e n t a l
e x p l o s i o n s d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r cannot be made because t h e b u i l d i n g t y p e s
f o r t h e scale models are v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e b u i l d i n g t y p e i n
t h e a c c i d e n t a l explosions.
6-75
PROBLEM - E s t i m a t e t h e d e n s i t y zk of fragments l o c a t e d i n a given a n g u l a r

s e c t o r outward from a n e x p l o s i o n source. (Due t o t h e l i m i t e d
d a t a on d i s p e r s i o n , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d h e r e w i l l o n l y
b e a p p l i c a b l e w i t h e x p l o s i v e e n e r g i e s of 5.0 x lo8 f t - l b and
1 . 0 x 10" f t - l b . Also, t h e p r e d i c t i o n model used h e r e i s
o n l y a p p l i c a b l e f o r d e n s i t i e s i n s e c t o r s 1 through 4. See
F i g u r e 6.19 f o r s e c t o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . )
GIVEN: E = energy of e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e
x = a n g u l a r p o s i t i o n of t h e s e c t o r i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e
e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e ( r a d i a n s ) ( s e e F i g u r e 6.19)
y = d i s t a n c e outward from t h e e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e , i . e . , t h e
midpoint of a r a n g e i n t e r v a l R i ( f t ) (see example
problem 6.9 i n s e c t i o n 6.2.4.2)
N = t o t a l number of fragments w i t h i n range i n t e r v a l (see
fk example problem 6.9 i n s e c t i o n 6.2.4.2)
8 = subtended a n g l e of t h e s e c t o r under c o n s i d e r a t i o n ( r a d i a n s )
r e g r e s s i o n p a r a m e t e r s f o r p a r t i c u l a r energy l e v e l
(Table 6.7)
FIND: zk REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. With p a r a m e t e r s a o , a , a2 d e f i n e d f o r t h e
d e s i r e d energy l e v e 1 , l c a l c u l a t e e s t i m a t e d
fragment d e n s i t y , z
i'
Rnz = a. + a x + a2y Eq. (6.36)
i 1
i n each of t h e f o u r s e c t o r s 1 through 4 .
2. Sum t h e d e n s i t i e s zi, i = 1.4. Determine a
p e r c e n t a g e p of t h e t o t a l d e n s i t y zT f o r
i
each s e c t o r .
p i = 'i/'T
3. Determine d e n s i t y of fragments i n t h e s e c t o r
d e f i n e d by a n g l e and d i s t a n c e from t h e explo-
s i o n source.
(1/2)N
k' -
-
(e/zR) R
fk
(<
2
- <
1
-
- 'k e($2
Nfk
- < 1
)
6-76
CALCULATION
GIVEN: E 8
= 5 x 10 ft-lb
x = 1.5708 radians (90" - sector 2 on Figure 6.19)
y = 160 ft [midpoint of interval R2 in example problem
6.9 in section 6.2.4.2 (150-170 ft)]
= 157 fragments (from example problem 6.9 in section
Nf2 6.2.4.2)
I = 0.7854 radians
a = -2.23
0
a = -0.363
1
a = -0.0348
2
-
FIND: z
k
SOLUTION: 1. En2
1
= -2.23 + (-0.363)(0.785) + (-0.0348)(160)
Rnzl = -8.08
2
2 = 0.000310 fragments/ft
1
Rnz2 = -2.23 + (-0.363) (1.57) + (-0.0348) (160)
Rnz2 = -8.37
- 2
22 - 0.000233 fragments/ft
Rnz3 = -2.B+ (-0.363)(2.32) + (-0.0348)(160)
Rnz3 = -8.64
- 0.000178 fragments/ft
2
z3 -
Rnz4 = -2.23 + (-0.363)(3.14) + (-0.0348)(160)
Rnz4 = -8.94
- 0.000132 fragments/ft 2
24 -
4 2
2. c zi = 0.000853 fragments/ft
i = l
Percentages of fragments located in each sector are,
thus *
= 0.000310/0.000853 = 0.363
P1
= 0.000233/0.000853 = 0.273
p2
= 0.000178/0.000853 = 0.209
p3
= 0.000132/0.000853 = 0.155
p4
3. Density of fragments in the second sector between 150
and 170 ft from the explosion described in example
6-77
problem 6.9 i n s e c t i o n 6.2.4.2 would b e
2
22 = (0.273)(157/O.785)(l7O2 - 150 ) =
= 0.0085 f r a g m e n t s / f t 2
NOTE: I f one compares t h i s d e n s i t y f o r t h e second

s e c t o r between 150 and 170 f t (0.0085 fragments/
f t 2 ) w i t h t h e average d e n s i t y o v e r t h e same
range i n t e r v a l o b t a i n e d i n example problem 6.9
i n s e c t i o n 6.2.4.2 (0.0078 f r a g m e n t s / f t * ) ,
one f i n d s t h a t t h e r e is a h i g h e r t h a n average
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of fragments i n t h e area d e s c r i b e d
i n t h i s problem. Due t o t h e l i m i t e d amount of
fragment d i s p e r s i o n d a t a , w e recommend t h a t
s e c t i o n 6.2.4.2 b e used t o determine fragment
d e n s i t y f o r most s i t u a t i o n s . This method i s
more a c c u r a t e f o r " f r o n t a l " fragments (Sector 1 )
6- 78
6.3.2 A n a l y t i c a l l y Based Methods
A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h e r e are no s u i t a b l e a n a l y t i c a l l y based
solutions f o r predicting m i s s i l e dispersion. W e presented a s o l u t i o n
based on o u r a c c i d e n t d a t a base i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n which could be
used t o estimate d i s p e r s i o n from an e x p l o s i o n i n a b u i l d i n g similar t o
t h e ones i n t h e d a t a base. Thus, t h a t s o l u t i o n i s extremely l i m i t e d
i n i t s a p p l i c a t i o n . Both e x p e r i m e n t a l and a n a l y t i c a l work needs t o be
performed t o p r e d i c t m i s s i l e d i s p e r s i o n more a c c u r a t e l y . We recommend
t h a t model t e s t s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a nondimensional a n a l y s i s be per-
formed i n t h e f u t u r e i n o r d e r t o b e t t e r d e f i n e missile d i s p e r s i o n
characteristics.
6.4 METHODS FOR ASSESSING FRAGMENT IMPACT DAMAGE
S t r u c t u r e s which can be damaged by fragments i n c l u d e l i g h t t o

heavy i n d u s t r i a l b u i l d i n g s , o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s , frame o r masonry s t r u c t u r e s ,
cars, and many o t h e r s . Damage can be s u p e r f i c i a l , such as d e n t i n g of
metal p a n e l s o r breakage of panes of g l a s s . But, massive fragments can
c a u s e more e x t e n s i v e damage such as p e r f o r a t i o n of wooden r o o f s , s e v e r e
c r u s h i n g of small b u i l d i n g s and c a r s , e t c . Most of t h e fragments w i l l
b e n o n p e n e t r a t i n g and w i l l cause damage by i m p a r t i n g impulsive l o a d s
d u r i n g impact. The impacts w i l l almost c e r t a i n l y b e of s h o r t enough
d u r a t i o n t o b e p u r e l y impulsive f o r almost any " t a r g e t " s t r u c t u r e o r
s t r u c t u r a l component. Impact c o n d i t i o n s w i t h l a r g e fragments which can
be c e r t a i n t o cause s i g n i f i c a n t s t r u c t u r a l damage can probably a l s o be
e s t a b l i s h e d by e q u a t i n g k i n e t i c energy i n t h e fragment t o energy absorp-
t i o n c a p a b i l i t y f o r t y p i c a l roof p a n e l s , roof s u p p o r t i n g beams, e t c .
Most e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a and p r e d i c t i o n methods f o r fragment p e n e t r a -

t i o n o r p e r f o r a t i o n are l i m i t e d t o t h e worst-case normal impact o b l i q u i t y .
Impacts of o t h e r o b l i q u i t i e s p r e s e n t a g r e a t e r t h i c k n e s s o f material t o
b e p e n e t r a t e d , and a t g r e a t enough o b l i q u i t y , w i l l c a u s e r i c h o c h e t . For
b u l l e t s and o t h e r m i l i t a r y p r o j e c t i l e s , r i c h o c h e t has been s t u d i e d exten-
s i v e l y . But, fragment r i c h o c h e t h a s been s t u d i e d i n o n l y a c u r s o r y way,
and i n s u f f i c i e n t d a t a are a v a i l a b l e f o r i n c l u s i o n i n t h i s manual.
6.4.1 Impacts on Metal S t r u c t u r e s
The s t r u c t u r e s t h a t are c o n s i d e r e d h e r e are metal p l a t e s and

s h e e t s . There does n o t appear t o be any e f f e c t of t h e c u r v a t u r e of t h e
t a r g e t ; t h e r e f o r e , i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o u s e d a t a f o r f l a t t a r g e t s and a p p l y
them t o any g e n e r a l shape t h a t may b e of i n t e r e s t .
6.4.1.1 General S o l u t i o n f o r P e n e t r a t i o n of Metal T a r g e t s by Fragments
The methods which f o l l o w (Ref. 6 . 3 ) are based upon an examina-

t i o n of d a t a of fragment and h a i l s t o n e impact upon metal s h e e t s and
p l a t e s (Refs. 6 . 6 , 6 . 2 2 and 6 . 2 3 ) . I n t h e s e s t u d i e s , s y n t h e t i c h a i l -
6-79
s t o n e s ( i c e s p h e r e s ) were f i r e d a t t a r g e t s h e e t s of aluminum a l l o y s , and
v a r i o u s shapes of fragments w e r e f i r e d a t s t e e l t a r g e t s . A model a n a l y s i s
u s i n g t h e methods d e s c r i b e d by Baker, Westine and Dodge (Ref. 6 . 2 6 ) ,
g i v e s t h e parameters of i n t e r e s t l i s t e d i n Table 6.8.
T h i s a n a l y s i s i s concerned w i t h p l a s t i c deformation, which makes

t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h CT more important t h a n t h e modulus of e l a s t i c i t y of
t h e t a r g e t material.t Also, t h e fragment i s assumed t o be e i t h e r a r i g i d
body, o r a v e r y weak, c r u s h a b l e body, which makes t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e
fragment a n unnecessary parameter. The model a n a l y s i s and a s t u d of t h e
d a t a r e s u l t i n t h e nondimensional terms i n Table 6.9. When (6h/a ) i s 3
p l o t t e d v e r s u s ( p p V / G ) , t h e d a t a f o l l o w a s t r a i g h t l i n e w i t h some
s c a t t e r i n the p oti n t ts ( s e e F i g u r e 6.20) as shown by t h e shaded area
of t h e f i g u r e . The l i n e i n t e r s e c t s t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s a t a p o s i t i v e
v a l u e of v e l o c i t y . T h i s i s expected because t h e r e i s a f i n i t e fragment
v e l o c i t y below which no permanent t a r g e t d e f l e c t i o n o c c u r s .
For g i v e n fragment p r o p e r t i e s , a given t a r g e t , and a given normal

component of fragment v e l o c i t y , 6 can be o b t a i n e d . Of c o u r s e , f o r
v e r y l o w fragment v e l o c i t i e s , t h e r e i s no permanent d e f l e c t i o n .
T h i s method w a s developed f o r impacts n o t v e r y c l o s e t o t h e edge

of a s h e e t o r p l a t e . For fragment impact n e a r t h e unsupported edge of a
s h e e t o r p l a t e , t h e d e f l e c t i o n may b e t w i c e t h e d e f l e c t i o n t h a t would be
o t h e r w i s e expected from u s e of t h e figure.
The V 5 3 l i m i t v e l o c i t y i s d e f i n e d as t h e v e l o c i t y a t which a
p r o j e c t i l e w i l l have a 50 p e r c e n t chance of p e r f o r a t i n g a g i v e n t a r g e t .
Given t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e p r o j e c t i l e (fragment) and t h e t a r g e t , V5()
can b e o b t a i n e d from F i g u r e 6.21.
The s o l i d l i n e i n F i g u r e 6.21 g i v e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

l i m i t v e l o c i t y and t a r g e t t h i c k n e s s . A s t h e graph shows, t h e r e i s
u n c e r t a i n t y i n t h i s r e l a t i o n . For h a r d fragments which are less l i k e l y
t o deform, a lower nondimensional l i m i t v e l o c i t y (more c o n s e r v a t i v e ) should
b e chosen. For s o f t e r fragments, a h i g h e r l i m i t v e l o c i t y can be used.
A t t h i s t i m e , i t i s n o t known whether t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h o l d s f o r v a l u e s
of h / a g r e a t e r t h a n about 2 . 2 .
T h i s method i s good f o r t h e impact of a fragment w i t h i t s v e l o c i t y

normal t o t h e t a r g e t s u r f a c e . According t o one r e p o r t (McNaughtan and
Chisman, Ref. 6.29) f o r o b l i q u e impacts t h e p e n e t r a t i o n v e l o c i t y i s
minimum a t an a n g l e of 30" from t h e normal d i r e c t i o n . The d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e p e n e t r a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s a t 0" and a t 30" m y b e as g r e a t
as 20 p e r c e n t . T h e r e f o r e , i f o b l i q u e impact i s e x p e c t e d , t h e p e n e t r a t i o n
v e l o c i t y o b t a i n e d by u s e of F i g u r e 6.21 should b e m u l t i p l i e d by 0.8.
6-80
Table 6.8 L i s t of Parameters f o r P e n e t r a t i o n
o f Metal S h e e t s and P l a t e s
r a d i u s o f f r a g m e n t (assuming s p h e r i c a l shape)
t h i c k n e s s of t a r g e t
v e l o c i t y of f r a g m e n t
permanent d e f l e c t i o n of t a r g e t a t p o i n t of impact
d e n s i t y of f r a g m e n t ( p r o j e c t i l e )
OP
O t d e n s i t y of t a r g e t
a
t y i e l d stress of t a r g e t m a t e r i a l
T a b l e 6.9 Nondimensional Terms f o r P e n e t r a t i o n of

Metal S h e e t s and P l a t e s
-
v = (E) dimensionless p r o j e c t i l e velocity
-
6 =
(F) dimensionless t a r g e t deflection
-
h = (:) dimensionless t a r g e t thickness
6-81
0.4
0.3
g / A a 0.2
0.1
C 8 c 3
Figure 6.20 Nondimensional D e f l e c t i o n versus Nondimensional V e l o c i t y f o r

"Chunky" Crushable Fragments
6-82
I
P
I .
N 3 co
4 rl
6-83
This analysis has been formulated for spherical fragments To
apply this to fragments of other shapes, let a = [m/p ( 4 1 ~ / 3 ) ] 1 / 3where
,
m is the mass of the fragment. More research must be'done to determine
other effects of fragment shape. Table 6.10 is a list of the important
properties (density and yield stress) of a few selected fragment and
target materials.
6.4.1.2 Penetration of Steel Targets by Wooden Rods
Baker, Hokanson and Cervantes (Ref. 6 . 5 ) have conducted a number

of experiments in which solid wooden cylinders with length-to-diameter
ratios of 31:l were impacted end on into thin mild steel targets.
Fitting a curve to the data, they came up with the following penetration
equation :
where V =
E
0
P v2
= 1.751
t
(a)(%) -1
+ 144.2 (a) (%)
2
s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y for 50% perforation (V )

-1
(6.37)
S 50
- density of the projectile
pP
B = yield strength of the target
t
h = thickness of the target
R = length of the projectile
d = diameter of the projectile
6.4.1.3 Penetration of Steel Plates by Compact Steel Fragments
Another recommended method for predicting compact steel fragment

penetration of steel plate(s) is based on the procedures of References
6.28 and 6 . 2 9 , and is shown in outline form in Figure 6 . 2 2 . The predic-
tion method and quantities required for its utilization are discussed
further below:
Input Parameters: Quantities needed to begin the procedure

are:
0 plate thickness, t inches;

0 angle of obliquity = angle between line of flight of fragment
and the normal to the plate surface, 0 degrees;
0 orientation angle = least angle between any flat fragment
surface and the plate surface, 0 degrees;
0 fragment length-to-diameter ratio, L/D;
0 fragment area presented to plate, A in.2 .,
0 fragment striking weight, Ws lb; P
0 fragment striking velocity, Vs fps.
These quantities will either be known or can be estimated for the problem
of interest. Otherwise, they must be assumed.
6-84
Table 6.10 Material P r o p e r t i e s
*
S p e c i f i c Weight Y
Yield S t r e s s a
Material (lb /ft3)
(psi)
Steel 489
1015 50,000-65,000
1018 53,000
1020 ( l a r g e g r a i n e d ) 64,000
1020 ( s h e e t ) 45 ,000
A3 6 36,000
Aluminum Alloys ( s h e e t ) 173
2024-0 12,800
20 24-T3 53,000
2024-T4 53,400
6061-T6 35,000
T i t a n i u m Alloy 28 2
6AR4V 160,000
* Refer t o Chapter 7 , S e c t i o n 7.4, f o r p r o p e r t i e s of o t h e r materials

( s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s and others).
t To o b t a i n a nondimensional term f o r use in p l o t s o r e q u a t i o n s i n o l v i n g

nondimensio al p a r a m e t e r s , i t may b e n e c e s s a r y tS c o n v e r t l b /ft t o Y
- c -
l b s e c 2 / f t by m u l t i p l y i n g d e n s i t y by 1 lb sec /32.2 lb f ft.
6-85
Angle for Shatter
4c, Eq. ( 6 . 4 1 )
Cornet Impact
Compute Critical 4 '
's 2 'cr Velocity for Shatter,
Vcr, Eq- ( 6 . 4 2 )
$';s < JL A
Compute Correlastiondl 4
vco -
> 2500 velocity, vco 700 e vc0 e 2500
Eq. ( 6 . 4 4 )
Compute Residual
$v
co -< 700 Compute Residud
Mass Uslng Mass Using
r' =us
Figure 6.22 P r e d i c t i o n of P e n e t r a t i o n of S t e e l P l a t e
6-86
B a l l i s t i c L i m i t V e l o c i t y : The b a l l i s t i c l i m i t v e l o c i t y i s
d e f i n e d as t h e lowest s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y t h a t r e s u l t s i n p e r f o r a t i o n of
t h e t a r g e t w i t h z e r o r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y . The b a l l i s t i c l i m i t v e l o c i t y
f o r compact fragments s t r i k i n g mild s t e e l t a r g e t s can b e e s t i m a t e d as:
(6.38)
where V i s t h e b a l l i s t i c l i m i t v e l o c i t y i n f p s ; Ao, m and n are c o n s t a n t s

R
d e f i n e d i n Table 6.11; and t h e o t h e r terms are as p r e v i o u s l y d e f i n e d .
Equation (6.38) i s a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o p e r f o r a t e d p l a t e s w i t h
t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n of R2A f o r Ap, where R i s t h e p e r f o r a t i o n f a c t o r . The
p e r f o r a t i o n f a c t o r i s d e f i n e d as
R = 1 - d /h (6.39)
P P
where d i s t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and $ i s t h e average c e n t e r -
P
t o - c e n t e r d i s t a n c e between p e r f o r a t i o n s . Values of t h e p e r f o r a t i o n f a c t o r
as a f u n c t i o n of v e n t area r a t i o , ae, f o r hexagonal and s q u a r e h o l e
p a t t e r n s are shown i n F i g u r e 6.23.
Residual Velocity: I n order t o p r e d i c t t h e r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y

of a fragment t h a t h a s p e r f o r a t e d a mild s t e e l p l a t e , a q u a n t i t y
i s computed f i r s t where V i s t h e s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y and V i s t h e b a l l i s t i c

S R
l i m i t v e l o c i t y . Then
I (6.40)
where f3 = f o r L/D 2
B = 1 f o r L/D > 2
y = d e n s i t y of t h e t a r g e t p l a t e , l b / i r ~ . (should
~ t a k e account
of h o l e s f o r p e r f o r a t e d p l a t e s )
a , b , c = c o n s t a n t s from Table 6.12
C r i t i c a l Angle f o r S h a t t e r : A fragment which has p e r f o r a t e d a

m i l d s t e e l p l a t e may o r may n o t l o s e mass depending upon t h e o r i e n t a t i o n
a n g l e @ between any f l a t fragment f a c e and t h e t a r g e t . I f 4 i s small
enough, t h e impact i s e s s e n t i a l l y f l a t , o r 41 5 +c, where I$C i s t h e
c r i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n a n g l e in d e g r e e s f o r s h a t t e r .
6-87
Table 6.11
E m p i r i c a l Constants f o r P r e d i c t i n g Compact Fragment

L i m i t V e l o c i t y f o r Mild S t e e l T a r g e t s
L/D - *t A.
m n
" 4 5
-< 5 0 -
< 0.46 1414 0.295 0.910
0.46 < 1.06 1936 0 ..096
-< s - 1.310
-< 5 > 1.06 2039 0.064 0.430
> 5 1261 0.427 0.647

b
* R is t h e p e r f o r a t i o n f a c t o r f o r perforated p l a t e s ;
see Equation ( 6 . 3 9 ) .
Table 6.12
E m p i r i c a l C o n s t a n t s f o r P r e d i c t i n g Compact Fragment
R e s i d u a l V e l o c i t y f o r Mild S t e e l T a r g e t s
Constant L/D < 5 L/D 5
a 1.12 1.10
I
b 0.52 0.80
C 1.29 1.45
6-88
\ I Array
le e-e 8
" Un it Ce 1Is "
1.0
0.9
0.6
0.7
a
Hexagonal Array
0.6
cl
0
a
Irr
c 0.5
0 Square Array
.r(
c,
a
0.4
y.(
Lc
0
c,
0.3
0.2
0.1 I 1 I 1 1 I 1 I I I
-
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 . 55
Vent Area R a t i o ae
Single Perforated Plate
Figure 6.23 P e r f o r a t i o n F a c t o r v e r s u s Vent Area R a t i o f o r

D r i l l e d Hole P a t t e r n s
6-89
where c p = s o n i c v e l o c i t y of t h e p l a t e = 18,010 f p s f o r s t e e l . I f Q > . $ c ,
t h e impact i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a c o r n e r o r edge impact. Define a c r i t l c a l
v e l o c i t y as
Then, f o r a f l a t impact w i t h a s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y e q u a l t o o r g r e a t e r tha.n

the critical velocity, i.e.,
4) L 4)c
's 1 'cr \
t h e fragment w i l l b e i n t h e s h a t t e r mass l o s s mode. The r e s i d u a l weight

of t h e fragment f o r t h i s case i s determined by
0.138 w0.074 (_sece) 0.143 v0.761
r' = wS [I - 0.002063t S S J (6.43)
where a l l terms a r e as p r e v i o u s l y d e f i n e d .
For f l a t impacts w i t h a s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y l e s s t h a n t h e c r i t i c a l
velocity, i.e.,
" s < 'cr
and f o r a l l c o r n e r o r edge impacts, i . e . ,
1
t h e fragment i s i n t h e deformation m a s s l o s s mode. To determine t h e
fragment r e s i d u a l mass f o r t h i s mode, a c o r r e l a t i o n v e l o c i t y i s computed
vcO
- +
11
S
c o s+
(0.6tyAp e o.15j
f i r s t . The c o r r e l a t i o n v e l o c i t y i n f p s i s d e f i n e d as
( 6.44)
wS
where a l l terms are as p r e v i o u s l y d e f i n e d . Then,
For Vco -
< 700 f p s : Wr = Ws
> 2500 f p s :
v co - w = ws [1-0.002063t 0.138wS 0.074(sece) 0.143v S 0.761 1
r
700 f p s < Vco < 2500 f p s : Wr = Ws[l - 0.0000151(Vco - 700)1'42] (6.45)
6-90
The p e n e t r a t i o n p r e d i c t i o n method o u t l i n e d above can b e expected
t o g i v e c o n s e r v a t i v e r e s u l t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r fragment r e s i d u a l mass
estimates. Two f u r t h e r assumptions can be made when i n v e s t i g a t i n g m u l t i -
l a y e r p a n e l s t h a t w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e conservatism of t h e method and reduce
t h e number of c a l c u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e d . These are: 1) t o set B = 1 i n
Equation' ( 6 . 4 0 ) . and 2) t o n e g l e c t any fragment l o s s of mass. I f t h e p a n e l
d e f e a t s t h e fragment w i t h t h e r e s u l t i n g known h i g h e r r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y and
l a r g e r m a s s , i t i s c l e a r l y s a f e . I f t h e fragment d e f e a t s t h e p a n e l w i t h
t h e s e two assumptions, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s should be r e p e a t e d u s i n g more
a c c u r a t e fragment r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y and mass.
6-91
PROBLEE? - Determine the deflection 6 which results when a metal sheet

is struck by a "chunky" crushable fragment. For illustrative
purposes, assume that a piece of concrete strikes an aluminum
panel.
GIVEN: 14 = mass of the fragment

= density of fragment
pP
= density of target
Ot
0 = yield stress (nominal) of target
t
h = thickness of target
V = striking velocity
(use any self-consisrent units)
-
FIND: 6 REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Radius of fragment (a) (assume spherical shape)

3
= M/vol; vol = ( 4 / 3 ) n a
OP
a3 = 3 ~ / 4 n p
P
2. -
Calculate nondimensional velocity.
= Pp vm Table 6.9
3. Determine dimensionless deflection r8. Fig. 6.20
4. Calculate actual deflection.
- 2
6 = 6h/a Table 6.9
- 2
6 = ba /h
CALCULATION
GIVEN: M = 3.1 x 10-3 lb-sec2/ft

P = 3.7 lb-sec2/ft4
P
= 5.4 lb-sec2/ft4
P t
0
t
= 7.63 x lo6 lb/ft
h = 2.5 x lom3 ft
v = 200 ftls
-
FIND: 6
SOLUTION: 1. a =
Change 1 - 15 August 1 9 8 1
6-92
a = 0:058 ft
2. v
P
= p
t t
v / c
? = (3.7)(200)/4.63 x 106 ( 5 . 4 ) = 0.12
3. Entering
- Figure 6.20, determine nondimensional deflection,
6,
- and calculate actual deflection 6.
6 = 0.026
6 = 8a2/h
2
6 = (0.026)(0.058) /(2.5 x
6 = 3.5 x ft = 0 . 4 2 in.
EXAMPLE PROBLEPI 6.12
PROBLEM - Determine the limit velocity V for a "chunky" nondeforming

fragment striking a metal plat20 This is an example to show
whether existing metal plate siding on a building will o r will
not be perforated by a steel fragment.
GIVEN: h = target thickness

a = radius of fragment (assume spherical)
p = density of fragment
P
u = yield stress of target
t .
= density of target
pt
(use any self-consistent set of units)
FIND: V50 REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Calculate dimensionless target thickness.

E = h/a Table 6.9
2. -Find dimensionless limit velocity.
Fig. 6.21
'50
3. Calculate limit velocity
'50 - "50
- J ta Pt p p Table 6.9
CALCULATION
GIVEN: h =-0.03 in.

a = 0.031 in.-4
2 4
p = 7.33 x 10 lb-sec /in.
P -4 lb-sec2/in.4
= 2.6 x 10
pt
2
ut = 53,000 lblin.
6-93
FIND: V50
SOLUTION: 1. h = h/a
h = 0.03/0.03
h = l
2. E n t e r i n g F-i g u r e 6.21, d e t e r m i n e nondimensional l i m i t
v e l o c i t y , V50.
-
v50 = 3.5
3. Calculate a c t u a l l i m i t ve.locity V
50'
v50 = Vj0(jotPt/PP)
"50 = (3.5)/(53,000)(2.6 x 10-4)/(7.33 x
v~~ = 1.77 x lo4 i n . /sec
= 1477 f t / s
EXAPPLE PROBLEM 6.13
PROBLEM - Determine t h e t h i c k n e s s , h , of a m i l d s t e e l p l a t e r e q u i r e d t o
make t h e s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y of a wooden rod e q u a l t o t h e
l i m i t velocity.
GIVEN: Vs = s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y
p n = d e n s i t y o f fragment
r
o t = y i e l d s t r e n g t h of t a r g e t
9, = l e n g t h of p r o j e c t i l e
d = d i a m e t e r of p r o j e c t i l e
( u s e any s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t s e t of u n i t s )
FIND: h REFERENCE
SOLUTION : 1.
(6.37)
NOTE: This is t h e solution t o a quadratic equation.

Only t h e p o s i t i v e s o l u t i o n f o r h i s v a l i d .
Change 1 - 1 5 August 1 9 8 1 6-94

CALCULATION
GIVEN: V = 1000 ft/s

S
2 4
= 1.55 lb-sec /ft
pP
u
2
= 7.2 x lo6 l b / f t
t
9, =2ft
d = 0.1 ft
FIND: h
1.751
SOLUTION :
R -
1. h =
h = 1.67 x ft
h = 0.20 in.
EX.A."LE PROBLEM 6.14
PROBLEM - Determine the ballistic limit velocity (V R ) for a compact

fragment striking a mild steel target.
GIVEN: Ws = fragment striking weight (lb)

t = plate thickness (in.)
@ = angle of obliquity degrees)
A = presented area (in.$)
P
L/D = length-to-diameter ratio of fragment
FIND: VR REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Find empirical constants.

A ~ m,
, n, t/RI/;A Table 6.11
P
2. Calculate the ballistic limit velocity (ft/s) .
v R =( ~ ~
A" /
(t f l eln
sec ~) Eq. (6.38)
P
6-95
CALCULATION
GIVEN: Ws = 0.1 l b
t = 0.25 i n .
e = 0"
2
A = 0.5 i n .
P
L / D = 0.586
FIND: VR
-_t - (0.25) = 0.35
SOLUTION: 1. R~
P
(1) Jo
Using Table 6 . 1 1 and t h e v a l u e f o r ( t ) / [ (R) $1
and L/D, f i n d Ao, m and n .
A = 1414
0
m = 0.295
n = 0.910
2. VQ = (A / K A" ( t s e c e)"
VR = (1414/
O "SE
0 . 1 ) ( 0 . 5 ) 0 ' 2 9 5 (0.25 sec 0") 0.910
VR = 1032 f t / s e c
PROBLEM - Calculate t h e r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y , Yr, f o r a compact fragment

s t r i k i n g a mild steel t a r g e t .
GIVEN: Ws = fragment s t r i k i n g weight (lb)

t = p l a t e thickness (in.)
8 = a n g l e of o b l i q u i t y ( d e g r e e s )
A = p r e s e n t e d area ( i n . 2 )
P
L/D = length-to-diameter r a t i o
V = striking velocity (ft/s)
S
y = t a r g e t s p e c i f i c weight ( l b / i n . 3 )
FIND: Vr REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e b a l l i s t i c l i m i t v e l o c i t y VR ' Examp l e

Problem
6.14
2. Find e m p i r i c a l c o n s t a n t s .
a, b, c Table 6.12
6-96
3. Calculate the following quantities.
Eq. (6.40)
B = 1; L/D > 2
4. C a l c u l a t e t h e r e s i d u a l ve_locity.
L
vr = VR B . (ax2 +xbx+ +l c&i Eq. (6.40)
CALCULATION
GIVEN: \Js = 0 . 1 l b
t = 0.25 i n .
8 = 0"
2
A = 0.5 i n .
P
L/D = 0.886
V = 1500 f t / s
S
y = 0.283 l b / i n .
3
FIND: V
r
SOLUTION: 1. From example problem 6.14
Vi = 1032 ft/sec
2. a = 1.12
b = 0.52
c = 1.29
V 1500
3. x = - -S l = - -
1 = 0.453
1032
v!L
B =
1 -- 1
+ YA t/bTsl [l + (0.283) ( 0 . 5 ) ( 0 . 2 5 ) / ( 0 . 1 ) ] 1 / 2
P
= 0.859
4. vr = Vi B
[ '+
8x bx + c&
1
c
x + l
vr
Vr =
= (1032) x (0.859)
814 f t / s
(1.12)(0.453)' + (0.52)(0.453)
(0.453 + 1)
+ (1.29)-
1
6-97
EXAEPLE PROBLEM 6.16
PROBLEM - Determine t h e r e s i d u a l w e i g h t , W,. of a fragment which h a s

penetrated a mild steel p l a t e .
GIVEN: 8 = a n g l e o f o b l i q u i t y ( d e g r e e s ) ( s e e b e g i n n i n g of s e c t i o n 6.4.1.3)
$ = o r i e n t a t i o n angle (degrees)
V = striking velocity (ft/sec)
S
c = s o n i c v e l o c i t y of p l a t e ( f t / s e c )
P
Ws = fragment w e i g h t ( l b )
t = p l a t e thickness ( i n . )
Y = s p e c i f i c w e i g h t of p l a t e ( l b / i n . 3 )
A = p r e s e n t e d area ( i n . )
P
FIND: W REFERENCE
r
SOLUTION: 1. Calculate c r i t i c a l s h a t t e r angle.
-1
= sin (V c o s 0 / c 1 Eq. (6.;,:)
S P
2. Calculate c r i t i c a l velocity.
vcr = 2000 ( f t / s ) / c o s e Eq. (6./+?)
3. Determine m a s s l o s s mode.
0 I f (4 $c) a d (V s - > V c r ) t h e n s h a t t e r mode.
Continue a t S t e p 4.
0 If ( 4 f 0,) and (Vs < Vcr) o r Q >
t h e n d e f o r m a t i o n mode. Continue a t S t e p 5.
4. C a l c u l a t e r e s i d u a l weight.
0.138w 0.074 0.143v 0.76,]
r S - 0.002063t S (sece) S
Eq. (6.L3)
5. Calculate the correlation velocity.
V
S
Eq. (6.41,)
case
6. Determine t h e p r o p e r e q u a t i o n t o u s e f o r
c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r e s i d u a l weight.
0 I f Vc o - < 700 f t / s , t h e n Wr = W S
0 If v > 2500 f t / s , t h e n
co -
0.138, 0.074(sece) 0.143v 0.761
wr = W S [I - 0.002063t S S 1
Eq. (6.43)

o I f 700 f t / s < Vco < 2500 f t / s , t h e n
1.42]
r'
= Ws [l - 1 . 5 1 x 10-5(Vc0 - 700) Eq. (6.45)
CALCULATION
GIVEN: e 0" =
9 20"=
Vs = 1500 f t / s e c
c = 18000 f t / s e c
P
W = 0.116 l b
S
t = 0.25 i n .
3
y = 0.283 l b / i n .
A = 0.5 in.*
P
FIND: W
r
SOLUTION: 1.
-1
= sin [ ( 1 5 0 0 ) c o s ( 0 " > / ( 1 8 0 0 0 ) ] = 4.8"
2. v cr = ~ O O O / C O S ~= 2 0 0 0 / ~ 0 ~ ( 0 "=) 2000 f t / s
3. 9 ' @ c ; t h e r e f o r e , use deformation mode e q u a t i o n and

c o n t i n u e a t S t e p 5.
4. Omlt.
V
S
5. cos0
vco
1500
vco COS(0")
(0.25) (0.283) (0.5)
(0.5) +
(0.116)
v co = 375 f t / s
6. V
co -
< 700 f t / s e c , t h e r e f o r e , F? = W
r S
.
That i s , t h e
r e s i d u a l weight of t h e fragment i s t h e same as t h e
s t r i k i n g weight of t h e fragment.
6-99
6.4.2 Impact on Concrete and Masonry S t r u c t u r e s
S e v e r a l t e s t s by v a r i o u s r e s e a r c h e r s have been conducted t o

examine t h e problem of p e n e t r a t i o n of c o n c r e t e t a r g e t s by low-velocity
p r o j e c t i l e s . Most of t h e s e t e s t s were conducted t o examine t h e p o s s i -
b i l i t y of tornado-borne m i s s i l e s damaging c o n c r e t e n u c l e a r r e a c t o r
containment w a l l s .
Baker, Hokanson and C e r v a n t e s (Ref. 6 . 5 ) performed several e x p e r i -

mental tests i n which model wooden u t i l i t y p o l e s o r model s c h e d u l e 40
p i p e w e r e impacted normal t o t h e c e n t e r o f c o n c r e t e t e s t p a n e l s . A s
was t h e case f o r t h e i r t e s t s w i t h s h e e t s t e e l i m p a c t s , t h e t a r g e t s were
s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e t o confine r e s i d u a l deformation t o t h e c e n t r a l p o r t i o n s
o f t h e t a r g e t . Deformation p r o f i l e s were somewhat i r r e g u l a r , w i t h
d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s n e a r f r a c t u r e p l a n e s , b u t were q u i t e s i m i l a r i n n a t u r e
t o p r o f i l e s r e p o r t e d by Vassal0 (Ref. 6 . 3 0 ) . Although t h e l i m i t e d number
of t e s t s conducted p r e c l u d e d r e p e a t s h o t s , t h e f o r m a t i o n of spa11 c r a t e r s
and f r a g m e n t s appeared t o b e c o n s i s t e n t from t e s t t o t e s t . Baker,
Hokanson and C e r v a n t e s (Ref. 6 . 5 ) l a t e r reviewed a v a i l a b l e t e s t d a t a
o b t a i n e d b o t h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and a b r o a d , and s u m a r i z e d t h e a v a i l a b l e
d a t a . T h e i r summary i s i n c l u d e d h e r e .
6.4.2.1 S t e e l P i p e Missiles
P r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s a r e based on a t o t a l of 66 t e s t s i n which s t e e l
p i p e missiles w e r e impacted a g a i n s t c o n c r e t e p a n e l s . Nine t e s t s f o r s h o r t
p i p e s (6.06 < R/d < 9 . 7 4 ) w e r e r e p o r t e d by 3 a s s a l o (Ref. 6 . 3 0 ) . Stephenson
(Ref. 6 . 3 1 ) and Stephenson e t a l . (Ref. 6 . 3 2 ) p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s of 1 4
f u l l - s c a l e tests i n which l o n g p i p e s ( 1 3 . 8 < R/d < 3 6 . 3 ) were p r o p e l l e d
by a r o c k e t s l e d i n t o c o n c r e t e p a n e l s . The most complete s e r i e s o f
tests i s r e p o r t e d by Jankov e t a l . (Ref. 6 . 3 3 ) , where t h e r e s u l t s of 36
q u a r t e r - s c a l e ( 4 . 5 < R/d < 2 4 . 3 ) m i s s i l e p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t s a r e p r e s e n t e d .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a b o u t h a l f of t h e s e t e s t s were conducted a g a i n s t p a n e l s
which had b e e n impacted p r e v i o u s l y . The remaining seven t e s t s were
r e p o r t e d by Baker, Hokanson and C e r v a n t e s (Ref. 6 . 5 ) . T h i s series of
t e s t s i s u n i q u e i n t h a t t h e p a n e l s are thought t o b e more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
of a c t u a l c o n c r e t e containment s t r u c t u r e s t h a n t h e p a n e l s i n any of t h e
p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d r e p o r t s . T h i s i s b e c a u s e t h e r e b a r s were spaced v e r y
c l o s e t o g e t h e r . The model p i p e missile n o t o n l y c o u l d n o t p a s s between
t h e r e b a r s , b u t impacted a g a i n s t a t l e a s t f o u r of them. Three of t h e
t e s t s w e r e f o r p i p e missiles w i t h a 30" n o s e a n g l e . The r e s u l t s of t h e s e
t h r e e t e s t s i n d i c a t e t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of t h e p r o j e c t i l e
k i n e t i c e n e r g y i s expended i n deforming t h e n o s e of t h e m i s s i l e , l e a v i n g
less energy t o deform t h e t a r g e t . A p p a r e n t l y , blunt-end p i p e m i s s i l e s
r e p r e s e n t t h e most severe t h r e a t t o c o n c r e t e p a n e l s .
F i g u r e 6 . 2 4 p r e s e n t s t h e scabbing t h r e s h o l d f o r blunt-end s t e e l
p i p e m i s s i l e s p e n e t r a t i n g r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e p a n e l s . The format o f t h e
6-100
f i g u r e i s t h e same as o r i g i n a l l y p r e s e n t e d by Jankov e t a l . (Ref. 6 . 3 3 ) ;
s c a l e d k i n e t i c energy v e r s u s s c a l e d t a r g e t t h i c k n e s s . Note t h a t t h e
v e r t i c a l a x i s i s d i m e n s i o n a l . The d a t a are grouped i n t o t h r e e sets
depending on t h e w a l l t h i c k n e s s t o d i a m e t e r r a t i o ( 2 t / d ) o f t h e missile.
W
The l i n e s of t h e f i g u r e a r e p r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s , w i t h s c a b b i n g p r e d i c t e d
above t h e c u r v e s and n o t below. Because of t h e l i m i t e d amount o f d a t a ,
p r e d i c t i o n of t h e s c a b b i n g t h r e s h o l d o f p i p e missiles impacting c o n c r e t e
p a n e l s i s l i m i t e d t o t h e r e g i o n s shown i n t h e f i g u r e . F u t h e r e f f o r t s
i n t h i s area of r e s e a r c h s h o u l d i n c l u d e s y s t e m a t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e
s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e i n f l u e n c e of d i f f e r e n t amounts of r e b a r . A t t h e
present t i m e , c a l c u l a t i o n s should be l i m i t e d t o conditions s p e c i f i e d
i n F i g u r e 6.24.
b
Rotz (Ref. 6.34) h a s p r e s e n t e d a s i m p l e e m p i r i c a l e q u a t i o n f o r
p r e d i c t i n g t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h r e s h o l d of s p a l l i n g , t w , f o r s t e e l p i p e
missiles. We do n o t i n c l u d e t h i s formula h e r e , because i t i s d i m e n s i o n a l ,
and can be shown t o g i v e i n a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t e s t s conducted a t
scales o t h e r t h a n t h e small series on whikh Rotz based t h e e q u a t i o n .
I n l a t e r unpublished work, however, Rotz h a s modified h i s e q u a t i o n t o make
i t d i m e n s i o n a l l y homogeneous.
P
6.4.2.2 U t i l i t y P o l e Missiles
t
There i s a t o t a l of 1 5 t e s t s i n which model u t i l i t y p o l e s were

f i r e d a g a i n s t c o n c r e t e p a n e l s . Nine t e s t s are r e p o r t e d by V a s s a l o
(Ref. 6 . 3 0 ) , Stephenson (Ref. 6.31), Stephenson e t a l . (Ref. 6.32) and
Jankov e t a l . (Ref. 6 . 3 3 ) ; w h i l e f o u r tests a r e g i v e n by Baker, Hokanson
and C e r v a n t e s (Ref. 6 . 5 ) . The r e m a i n i n h t e s t s a r e f o r composite c o n c r e t e
and s t e e l p a n e l s r e p o r t e d by Ting (Ref. 6 . 3 5 ) . Spa11 damage of any l e v e l
w a s observed i n o n l y t h r e e t e s t s . Two of t h e s e t e s t s [Jankov e t a l .
(Ref. 6 . 3 3 ) ] w e r e conducted a t v e l o c i t i e s w e l l above t h e p o s t u l a t e d
v e l o c i t y of a t o r n a d o - a c c e l e r a t e d u t i l i t y p o l e . The o t h e r t e s t i n which
s p a l l a t i o n o c c u r r e d [Baker, Hokanson and Cervantes ( R e f . 6 . 5 ) ] w a s t h e
o n l y one i n which t h e p r o j e c t i l e d i d n o t f a i l on impact. A p p a r e n t l y ,
t h e u t i l i t y pole missile is not a t h r e k t t o heavily reinforced concrete
walls.
6.4.2.3 Rod Missiles #
W e have l o c a t e d 66 tests i n which s o l i d s t e e l rod p r o j e c t i l e s

w i t h l o n g R/d r a t i o s w e r e f i r e d a t c o n c r e t e t a r g e t s . Twenty-six of t h e s e
tests were conducted i n t h e United S t a t e s , by Barber (Ref. 6 . 3 6 ) , Vassalo
(Ref. 6 . 3 0 ) , Ting (Ref. 6.35), Stephenson (Ref. 6.31) and Jankov (Ref. 6 . 3 3 ) .
Barber, T i n g and S t e p h e n s o n ' s d a t a are f b r long R/d (15<R/d<40) r o d s ,
F i q u e t (Ref. 6.38) p r e s e n t s 22 and G o l d s t e i n (Ref. 6.39) p r e s e n t s 18 s h o r t
R/d r o d tests. The p a n e l s from t h e s e t h r e e r e f e r e n c e s had much h e a v i e r
r e i n f o r c i n g t h a n d i d t h e p a n e l s of o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s . I n many cases,
f i v e l a y e r s o f r e b a r were u s e d , e a c h l a y e r more c l o s e l y spaced t h a n t h e
l a y e r s found i n t h e American p a n e l s . The i n f l u e n c e of t h e h e a v i e r r e b a r
6-101
600
50C
4Of I I
I
1 2 3
Scaled Target Thickness, h/d
Figure 6 . 2 4 Scabbing Threshold for Steel Pipes

On Reinforced Concrete Panels
6-102
i s t o r a i s e t h e scabbing t h r e s h o l d . The more d e n s e l y r e i n f o r c e d p a n e l s
r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l y more k i n e t i c energy t o i n d u c e scabbing t h a n do p a n e l s
which a r e l i g h t l y r e i n f o r c e d . The l i n e s on F i g u r e 6.25 are p r e d i c t i o n
l i n e s f o r h e a v i l y and l i g h t l y r e i n f o r c e d panels.
Westine and Vargas (Ref. 6 . 4 0 ) have developed a model t o p r e d i c t

i n c i p i e n t s p a l l a t i o n from t a r g e t s which are s t r u c k by fragments whose
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l w i d t h a t impact i s much less t h a n t h e l a t e r a l dimensions
o f t h e t a r g e t . I n t h e i r a n a l y s i s , t h e y c o n s i d e r as a w o r s t case a
c y l i n d r i c a l fragment s t r i k e s a p l a t e normally ( a t a z e r o a n g l e of
o b l i q u i t y ) a s shown i n F i g u r e 6.26. The h i g h p r e s s u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t h i s impact p r o c e s s send a stress wave i n t o t h e m a t e r i a l i n a f a s h i o n
similar t o t h a t d e s c r i b e d f o r t h e a i r b l a s t wave. The major d i f f e r e n c e s
i n t h i s impact a r e t h a t t h e t i m e h i s t o r i e s of t h e stress waves a r e n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y t r i a n g u l a r . Waves now p r o p a g a t e through t h e fragment a s
w e l l a s i n t o t h e t a r g e t , and some wave d i s s i p a t i o n o c c u r s because t h e
loading is applied l o c a l l y , r a t h e r than uniformly, t o a s u r f a c e .
M a t h e m a t i c a l l y t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h i s problem i s n o t an e a s y one; however,
d i m e n s i o n a l a n a l y s i s , p h y s i c a l r e a s o n i n g and t e s t d a t a can b e a p p l i e d
t o d e v e l o p a n e m p i r i c a l s o l u t i o n which d e s i g n e r s can u s e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
t h r e s h o l d of s p a l l .
Using d i m e n s i o n a l a n a l y s i s , t h e t h r e s h o l d of s p a l l can be
determined from
P
- i s a f u n c t i o n of (6.46)
U
where P = peak c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e
u = u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of t h e t a r g e t m a t e r i a l
i = s p e c i f i c impulse imparted t o t h e t a r g e t
a = speed of sound i n t h e t a r g e t m a t e r i a l
h2 = t a r g e t t h i c k n e s s
d l = i m p a c t diameter of the fragment
T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s t a t e s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t t h e peak stress wave r e l a t i v e

t o t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of t h e t a r g e t m a t e r i a l i s some f u n c t i o n of t h e
d u r a t i o n of l o a d i n g ( i / P ) r e l a t i v e t o t h e t r a n s i t t i m e ( h / a ) f o r a wave
t h r o u g h t h e material; a n d , f o r nonuniform l o a d i n g s as i n F i g u r e 6 . 2 6 ,
a f u n c t i o n of the r e l a t i v e dimensions of t h e fragment and t h e t a r g e t
(dl/h2). The r a t i o ( i a / P h ) i s t h e number of t r a n s i t s of t h e wave t h r o u g h
t h e t a r g e t mater+al b e f o r e t h e fragme2t comes t o r e s t .
Using d i m e n s i o n a l a n a l y s i s , e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t d a t a were c a s t
i n t o o r d e r e d p a i r s o f nondimensional impulse ? and nondimensional
pressure where
-i = -i a-
(6.47)
2Ph2
6-103
Light Reinforcing
300
(0.2 - 0.4%) -
200
----
100
70 -
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Scaled Target Thickness, h/d
F i g u r e 6.25 Scabbing Threshold f o r S o l i d Rod Missiles

Impacting R e i n f o r c e d Concrete P a n e l s
(Reference 6.39)
4
r l
F i g u r e 6.26 S k e t c h o f a Fragment Impact
6-104
and
0.4
(6.48)
where p 2 = d e n s i t y of t a r g e t
p1 = d e n s i t y of rod
a = speed of sound i n t h e rod
1
a = speed of sound i n t h e t a r g e t
2
V = impact v e l o c i t y
P
R = l e n g t h of rod
1
F i g u r e 6.27 c o n t a i n s a p l o t of v e r s u s :, as o b t a i n e d from Baker e t a l .

(Ref. 6 . 4 1 ) which shows t h e t h r e s h o l d of s p a l l f o r rod m i s s i l e s impacting
p l a t e t a r g e t s . Missiles and t a r g e t s were made of v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s .
For v a l u e s of i g r e a t e r t h a n 4 0 , t h e v a l u e f o r f o r t h r e s h o l d of s p a l l
is approximately 5.25.
6.4.2.4 S t e e l P l a t e Approximation f o r Concrete T a r g e t
For a v e r y q u i c k and crude rule-of-thumb estimate of t h e

e f f e c t i v e n e s s of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e p a n e l s i n r e s i s t i n g p e n e t r a t i o n by
s t e e l fragments, i t can be assumed t h a t 1 i n . of mild s t e e l i s e q u i v a l e n t
t o 9 i n . of c o n c r e t e , i . e . , i f i t i s known t h a t a 1-in. t h i c k n e s s of mild
s t e e l w i l l d e f e a t a p a r t i c u l a r fragment t h r e a t , i t can b e e s t i m a t e d t h a t
9 i n . of r e a s o n a b l e q u a l i t y r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e w i l l a l s o d e f e a t t h e
fragment. When more r e a l i s t i c estimates of c o n c r e t e p e n e t r a t i o n a r e
d e s i r e d , t h e methods f r o m R e f e r e n c e 6.6 summarized below can b e u t i l i z e d .
6.4.2.5 Armor-Piercing Fragments
A c e r t a i n amount of e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a analogous t o primary

fragment p e n e t r a t i o n h a s been accumulated i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h p r o j e c t s
t o determine t h e e f f e c t s of bomb and p r o j e c t i l e impact on c o n c r e t e
s t r u c t u r e s . These d a t a were analyzed and r e l a t i o n s h i p s developed where
t h e amount of fragment p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o c o n c r e t e elements could b e ex-
p r e s s e d i n terms of t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of b o t h t h e metal fragment
and t h e c o n c r e t e , (Ref. 6 . 2 8 ) . The g e n e r a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e maximum
p e n e t r a t i o n Xf i n i n c h e s of a compact armor-piercing fragment w a s d e r i v e d
i n terns of t h e fragment weight W f i n pounds and s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y
V i n fps, i.e.,
S
-6 0 . 4 v1.8
Xf = 4 . 9 1 x 1 0 (6.49)
wf S
6-105
1 2 40
Figure 6.27 Spa11 Threshold f o r Fragment Impacts

( V a r i o u s P r o j e c t i l e arid T a r g e t M a t e r i a l s )
Equation (6.49) i s based on a c o n c r e t e compression s t r e n g t h f
e q u a l t o 5,000 p s i and i t s l i m i t s i n t e r m s of fragment weight and v e l o Cc i t y
and t a r g e t p e n e t r a t i o n t h i c k n e s s i s unknown. Maximum p e n e t r a t i o n s of
fragments i n c o n c r e t e of o t h e r s t r e n g t h s may be o b t a i n e d by m u l t i p l y i n g
t h e v a l u e of $ of Equation (5.45) by t h e s q u a r e r o o t of t h e r a t i o of
5,000 p s i t o t h e compressive s t r e n g t h of t h e c o n c r e t e i n q u e s t i o n .
The l i m i t i n g t h i c k n e s s of c o n c r e t e a t which p e r f o r a t i o n w i l l
o c c u r can be o b t a i n e d from F i g u r e 6.28 and i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e fragment
weight, s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y , and maximum p e n e t r a t i o n and t h e d i l a t a t i o n a l
v e l o c i t y C of t h e e l a s t i c wave through c o n c r e t e where
S
C = 5.16 El (ft/sec) (6.S?)

S C
and t h e modulus of e l a s t i c i t y E i s d e f i n e d t o be
C
E
C
= 33 y1m5
C
~C f ( p-s i ) (6.51)
where y = s p e c i f i c weight of c o n c r e t e , l b / f t
3
C
f = s t a t i c unconfined compressive s t r e n g t h of c o n c r e t e , p s i
C
(6.52)
and t h e e q u a t i o n f o r t h e lower l i n e i s
1.25
(6.53)
Fragments which p e r f o r a t e a c o n c r e t e element w i l l have a

r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y V, which may endanger t h e receiver system. The magni-
t u d e of t h i s v e l o c i t y may b e approximated from t h e e x p r e s s i o n which
d e f i n e s t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e fragment a t any t i m e as i t p e n e t r a t e s t h e
concrete, i.e.,
(6.54)
where Tc = t h i c k n e s s of c o n c r e t e element, i n .
V = r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y of fragment a s i t l e a v e s c o n c r e t e element. f p s
r
Equation ( 6 . 5 4 ) a p p l i e s when t h e depth of p e n e t r a t i o n i s g r e a t e r than two
fragment d i a m e t e r s . I f t h e d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n Xf i s l e s s t h a n two
fragment d i a m e t e r s d , Healey e t a l . (Ref. 6 . 7 ) recommend
(6.55)
P l o t s of t h e r a t i o V /V a g a i n s t T /Xf a r e given i n F i g u r e 6.29.

r s C
6-107
r r i I
I
+
,CY( J
II
4
u
2.52
*f
F i g u r e 6.28 L i m i t s of Concrete S p a l l i n g and P e r f o r a t i o n

( Re f e r en ce 6.6)
6-108
The above a n a l y s i s a p p l i e s t o compact armor-piercing fragments.
For i r r e g u l a r s h a p e s , one can c a l c u l a t e a n e q u i v a l e n t fragment d i a m e t e r
from
(6.56)
4
= ,T
L)13
Tpp
where 14 = mass of t h e fragment, l b - s e c / i n .

z
p = i t s m a s s density I b - s e ~ ~ / i n . ~
P
6.4.2.6 Other Fraements
To e s t i m a t e t h e c o n c r e t e p e n e t r a t i o n of m e t a l f r a g m e n t s o t h e r
t h a n armor p i e r c i n g , a p r o c e d u r e h a s been developed t o r e l a t e t h e c o n c r e t e
p e n e t r a t i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s of s u c h fragments t o t h o s e of armor-piercing
f r a g m e n t s . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s e x p r e s s e d i n terms of r e l a t i v e m e t a l
h a r d n e s s ( t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e metal t o resist d e f o r m a t i o n ) and d e n s i t y ,
and i s r e p r e s e n t e d by c o n s t a n t C i n Equation ( 6 . 5 7 ) ( R e f . 6.6)
2
x ; = c 2x f
(6.57)
where X i = maximum p e n e t r a t i o n i n c o n c r e t e of m e t a l f r a g m e n t s o t h e r
t h a n armor -p i e r c i n g
The n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s of C f o r several of t h e more common c a s i n g m e t a l s
2
are l i s t e d i n T a b l e 6.13.
T a b l e 5.13 Penetration Factors
Type of Material
Armor-piercing steel 1.00

Mild s t e e l 0.70
Lead 0.50
Aluminum 0.25
6-109
0.8
0.6
XU
\
0
w
0.4
When Tc i s e q u a l t o o r
g r e a t e r t h a n Xf ' . v r i s
equal t o zero.
d = fragment d i a m e t e r
0.2 Modify xf for variation -
of f i and fragment material.
, 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0
F i g u r e 6.29 R e s i d u a l V e l o c i t y of Primary Fragment

a f t e r P e r f o r a t f o n (Ref. 6.23 and 6.26)
( f c = 5000 p s i )
6-110
~ ~ ~~
PROBLEM - Determine i f scabbing w i l l o c c u r when a s t e e l p i p e m i s s i l e

impacts a r e i n f o r c e d concrete panel.
GIVEN: h = t a r g e t thickness (in.)

d = m i s s i l e diameter ( i n . )
W = m i s s i l e weight ( l b )
S
V = s t r i k i n g velocity (in./sec)
S
t = w a l l t h i c k n e s s of m i s s i l e ( i n . )
W
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of s c a b b i n g REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Calculate the scaled t a r g e t thickness.

h = h/d Fig. 6.24
2. C a l c u l a t e s c a l e d k i n e t i c energy.
2
KE W V
_ _- s s
Fig. 6.24
h3 ( 2 ) ( 3 8 6 ) h3
(NOTE: U n i t s of s c a l e d k i n e t i c energy a r e p s i . )
3 . C a l c u l a t e t h e q u a n t i t y (2t,/d) and d e t e r m i n e
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e _curve on F i g u r e 6 . 2 4 .
4 . P l o t t h e p o i n t ( h , KE/h3) on F i g u r e 6.24 and
d e t e r m i n e i f s c a b b i n g w i l l o c c u r . Note t h a t
p o i n t s above t h e a p p r o p r i a t e ( 2 t / d ) c u r v e
a r e above t h e s c a b b i n g threshold:
CALCULATION
GIVEN: h = 10 i n .
d = 4 in.
W = 5 1 b
S
vS = 10000 i n . / s e c
t = 0.2 i n .
W
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of s c a b b i n g
SOLUTION: 1. h = h / d = 1 0 / 4 = 2.5
2. KE/h3 = W V 2 / [ ( 2 ) ( 3 8 6 ) h 3 1 = ( 5 ) ( 1 0 0 0 0 ) 2 / [ ( 2 ) ( 3 8 6 )
s s
= 648 p s i
3. 2 t /d = ( 2 ) ( 0 . 2 ) / ( 4 ) = 0.1
W
4. Scabbing w i l l occur:.
6-111
PROBLEM - Determine i f scabbing w i l l occur when a s o l i d , rod-type

m i s s i l e impacts a r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e p a n e l .
GIVEN: h = t a r g e t thickness (in.)

d = missile diameter ( i n . )
W = m i s s i l e weight ( l b )
S
Vs = s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y ( i n . / s )
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of scabbing REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Calculate the scaled target thickness.

h = h/d
2. C a l c u l a t e s c a l e d k i n e t i c energy.
2
KE
--- ws vs
h3 ( 2 ) (386) h3
(NOTE: U n i t s of s c a l e d k i n e t i c energy a r e p s i . )
3. P l o t t h e p o i n t (g, KE/h3) on F i g u r e 6.25.
4 . Determine i f scabbing w i l l o c c u r . Note t h a t Fig. 6.25
p o i n t s above t h e a p p r o p r i a t e curve are above
t h e scabbing t h r e s h o l d .
CALCULATION
GIVEN: (light reinforcing)

h = 18 i n .
d = 6 in.
Ws = 20 l b
V = 6000 i n . / s e c
S
-
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of scabbing
SOLUTION: 1. h = h/d
E = 1816 = 3
KE wsv s 2
2. -- -
h3 (2) (386)h
- (20) (6000)
(2) (386) (18)
= 160 p s i
3. Find p o i n t on F i g u r e 6.25.
4. No scabbing should o c c u r .
6-112
PROBLEM - Determine i f s p a l l i n g w i l l o c c u r when a wood p r o j e c t i l e s t r i k e s

a concrete panel.
GIVEN: dl = impact d i a m e t e r of fragment

h2 = t a r g e t t h i c k n e s s
p 2 = d e n s i t y of t a r g e t
p1 = d e n s i t y of fragment
u = u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of t a r g e t materials
2
a2 = speed of sound i n t a r g e t material
V = striking velocity
P
a = speed of sound i n fragment
1
R1 = l e n g t h of fragment
( o r u s e any s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t set o f u n i t s )
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of s p a l l i n g REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. C a l c u l a t e s c a l e d impulse.
-i = P-I R l P2a2
( 1 +-) Eq. (6.47)
2P2h2 lal
2. Calculate scaled pressure.
Eq. (6.48)
3.
2; + g)
P l o t t i n g t e p o i n t ( i , p 1 ) on F i g u r e 6 . 2 7 and
comparing i t w i t h t h e t h r e s h o l d of spa11 c u r v e ,
determine i f s p a l l i n g occurs.
CALCULATION
GIVEN: d = 0.5 f t
1
h2 = 1 . 5 f t
2 4
lb-sec / f t
= 4.67
p2
2 4
p1 = 2.17 l b - s e c / f t
5 2
a2 = 7.2 x 1 0 l b / f t
= 4000 f t / s
a2
v = 200 f t / s
P
6-113
a = 1000 f t / s
1
R1 = 9 f t
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of s p a l l i n g
SOLUTION: 1. i = -
- (2.17)(9)
(2) (4.67) (1.5)
= 13.4
(4.67) (4000)
+ (2.17)(1000)
1
- (dl/h2) P2a2vp
2. P1 -
-
- (0.644)(4.67) (4000) (200)

-
5L 1
(4.67) (4000)
(7.2 x 1 0 ) 1 +
(2.17) (1000)
= (0.5/1.5)O' (4.67) (4000) (ZOO)
3.
(7.2
= 0.348
lo5)
(4.67) (4000)
(2.17)(1000)
+
1
N o s p a l l i n g o c c u r s . P l o t t i n g t h e p o i n t (7.F) = 1 3 . 4 ,
0.348) on F i g u r e 6.27, one can see t h a t i t f a l l s w e l l
below t h e s p a l l t h r e s h o l d l i n e . T h e r e f o r e , no s p a l l i n g
w i l l o c c u r . Note t h a t t h e c u r v e i n F i g u r e 6.27
a s y m p t o t i c a l l y approaches a l i m i t a s t h e v a l u e of i
-
increases. Thus, i f P remains c o n s t a n t , i n c r e a s i n g j u s t
i w i l l never c a u s e t h e p a n e l t o s p a l l .
PROBLEM - For a metal fragment s t r i k i n g c o n c r e t e , d e t e r m i n e p e n e t r a t i o n ,

p e r f o r a t i o n , s p a l l i n g , and r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y .
GIVEN: f ' = compressive s t r e n g t h of c o n c r e t e ( p s i )

C
Wf = fragment weight ( l b )
V = striking velocity (ft/sec)
s
3
= s p e c i f i c w e i g h t of c o n c r e t e ( l b / f t )
yC
T = t h i c k n e s s of c o n c r e t e ( i n . )
C
d = fragment d i a m e t e r (in.)
6-114
-
FIND: X f , p r o b a b i l i t y of p e r f o r a t i o n and s p a l l i n g , V
r REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. C a l c u l a t e maximum p e n e t r a t i o n ( i n . ) f o r
armor-piercing s t e e l fragment.
-6 0 . 4 1.8
Xf = 4.91 x 10 Eq. (6.49)
wf vs
Note t h a t f o r c o n c r e t e t a r g e t s w i t h a
compressive s t r e n g t h d i f f e r e n t from 5000
p s i , Xf must b e m u l t i p l i e d by
45000 p s i / s t r e n g t h of c o n c r e t e ( p s i )
2. Determine C Table 6.13
2'
3. C a l c u l a t e t h e maximum p e n e t r a t i o n of a m e t a l
fragment .
t x ; = c 2 xf Eq. (6.57)
4. Calculate the d i l a t a t i o n velocity of the elastic
wave ( f t / s e c ) .
C = 5.16 EC 112 Eq. (6.59)
S
where
Eq. (6.51)
5. Determine i f p e r f o r a t i o n a n d / o r s p a l l i n g F i g . 6.28
occurs.
413
Abscissa = 2.52-
Ordinate =
+ 0.87i7Wf 1/3 -
6. Calculate residual velocity.

a) i f X;/d > 2
E q . (6.54)
b) i f X;/d < 2
Eq. (6.55)
CALCULATION
GIVEN: S t e e l fragment
'f = 6000 p s i
C
6-115
. Wf = 0.5 l b
V = 1500 f t / s e c
S
3
= 150 l b / f t
YC
T = 18 i n .
C
d = 1 in.
-
FIND: X f , p r o b a b i l i t y of p e r f o r a t i o n and s p a l l i n g , Vr
-6 0.4 1.8 ( f o r f; = 5000)
SOLUTION: 1. Xf = 4 . 9 1 x 1 0 wf vs
X = 4.91 x 10 WfO m 4 vS
'08 J5000/6000 ( f o r f i = 6000)
f
= 1.77 i n .
2. C2 = 0.70
= C X = (0.7)(1.77) = 1:24 in.
3* 2 f
4. C = 5.16
1/2
EC
S
~
6
EC
= 33 y1*5
C JfcC = (33)(150)1'5m = 4.70 x 10
6 1/2
= (5.16)(4.70 x 10
cS 4
C = 1.12 x 1 0 . f t / s e c
S
-
5. A b s c i s s a = 2.52 (4l3/X;)
= 2.52 ( 0 . 5 l I 3 / 1 . 2 4 ) = 1.61
Ordinate = ('. +
1/3
Wf - 1) (q3
= 27.5
=[ (18) + (0.877)(0.5)
1.24
F i g u r e 6.28 p r e d i c t s t h a t no p e r f o r a t i o n o r s p a l l i n g
w i l l occur.
6. Xi 1.24
-=- = 1.24
d 1
2
There i s no r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y i n t h i s case because
6-116
6.4.3 Impacts on I n t e r i o r Walls
To d a t e , p e n e t r a t i o n s t u d i e s i n v o l v i n g t a r g e t m a t e r i a l s which might
be used i n i n t e r i o r w a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n have been e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d . A s
a r e s u l t , t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l o n l y d e a l w i t h two m a t e r i a l s , strawboard and
f i b e r b o a r d . Strawboard i s a m a t e r i a l w i t h a s p e c i f i c weight of a b o u t 45
l b / f t 3 , s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f w h i t e oak. F i b e r b o a r d i s a s i m i l a r material w i t h
s p e c i f i c w e i g h t s r a n g i n g from 16 t o 28 l b / f t 3 (Ref. 6 . 4 2 ) . Some common t r a d e -
names f o r f i b e r b o a r d a r e C e l o t e x , P l a s t e r g o n , I n s u l i t e , F l i n t k o t e and
Smoothlite.
For b o t h t a r g e t m a t e r i a l s and impact by s t e e l f r a g m e n t s , t h e

f o l l o w i n g f u n c t i o n a l form w a s e m p i r i c a l l y f i t t o t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a
(Ref. 6 . 4 2 ) :
v = C(G)"Wf B
(6.53)
where V = b a l l i s t i c l i m i t ( f t / s )
h = t h i c k n e s s of t a r g e t ( i n . )
2
= e s t i m a t e d a v e r a g e impact area o f fragment ( i n . )
W f = weight of t h e fragment ( l b )
c , a, B a r e e m p i r i c a l l y determined c o n s t a n t s f o r e a c h m a t e r i a l
Note t h a t by i n p u t t i n g t h e fragment s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y f o r t h e b a l l i s t i c
l i m i t , t h e e q u a t i o n may b e r e a r r a n g e d t o s o l v e f o r t h e t a r g e t t h i c k n e s s ,
h . T h i s v a l u e d e f i n e s t h e t a r g e t t h i c k n e s s f o r which there. i s a 50 P e r c e n t
p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e fragment w i l l p e r f o r a t e t h e m a t e r i a l (Ref. 6 . 4 2 ) .
Equating t h i s p r e d i c t e d t a r g e t thickness t o t h e depth of p e n e t r a t i o n
y i e l d s conservative penetration values i f t h e t a r g e t is thicker than
t h e t h i c k n e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b a l l i s t i c l i m i t (Ref. 6 . 4 3 ) .
The e m p i r i c a l l y f i t t e d e q u a t i o n f o r strawboard i s :
-
V = 59,010 (hA) (7000wf)-0.674 (6.5ci)
and t h e e q u a t i o n f o r f i b e r b o a r d i s :
V = 44,740 (hA)
- 0.75
( 7000Wf)
-0.75 (6.5I;()
where t h e terms a r e d e f i n e d p r e v i o u s l y f o r E q u a t i o n ( 6 . 5 8 ) . T a b l e 6.14

g i v e s t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l l y v a l i d a t e d r a n g e s f o r E q u a t i o n s (6.59) and ( 6 . 6 0 ) .
6-117 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1 9 8 1

T a b l e 6.14Ranges of V e l o c i t y f o r Equations ( 6 . 5 9 ) and (6.60)
(Reference 6.42)
EA
Specific
Target ( E = 3/12'y) Striking
Target Fragment Weight IJeieht Thickness A = Fragment Velocity Angle of
Material w, ( I b )
L
y (lb/ft3) h (in.) Impact Area V (ft/s) Obliquity
Strawboard 0.0023 - 0.03 43 -f 46 0 . 2 1 + 4.3 0.8 - 2 1 500-2800 00
Fiberboard 0.00036 - 0.034 16 + 28 0.013 + 8 0.01 - 16 400-4900 0"

PROBLEM - Determine t h e d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n , h , i n t o an i n t e r i o r w a l l
and t h e w a l l t h i c k n e s s r e q u i r e d t o s t o p t h e same fragment 50%
of t h e time. I n t e r i o r wallboard materials are u s u a l l y 0.5 i n .
t h i c k and are used on b o t h s i d e s of an i n t e r i o r w a l l .
GIVEN: V = striking velocity (ft/s)

li = fragment impact area ( i n .
Wf = weight of fragment ( l b )
w a l l material = strawboard
-
FIND: h REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. B a l l i s t i c l i m i t equation.
V = 59,010 ( G )-0.606 (7000Wf)- 0.674 Eq. (6.59)
2. Rearrange t o s o l v e f o r h .
V 0.606
= h
-0.606 -0.674
59,010 A (700Wf)
. r 1/0.606 1
=I 59,010 A
v
- 0 . 6 0 6 ~ 7 0 0 m f ~0- . 6 7 4
CALCULATION
GIVEN: V = 2000 f t / s
= 0.207 i n .
W f = 0.02 l b
FIND: h
SOLUTION: 1. h =[ v
-O* 606 (7000~'')- 0.674
59,010 A 1 1/0.606
=[
2. h
59,010 (0.207)
-
h = 4.42 i n .
2000
0*606(7000 x 0.02)
-0.674
1
1/0.606
S i n c e i n t e r i o r w a l l s u s u a l l y have a s h e e t of wallboard
material on each s i d e of t h e w a l l (combined t h i c k n e s s
of 1.0 i n . ) , t h e fragment should e a s i l y p e r f o r a t e t h e
i n t e r i o r w a l l ..
*When u s i n g Equations (6.59) and (6.60) t h e a c t u a l fragment impact area

should be used f o r x
i f it i s known. Otherwise, t h e e s t i m a t e d p r e s e n t e d
area of t h e fragment should b e used.
6-119
6.4.4 Impacts on Roofing Materials
An a n a l y s i s f o r impact upon m e t a l t a r g e t s l e a d s one t o b e l i e v e

t h a t t h e important p r o j e c t i l e p r o p e r t y i s momentum. U n t i l more i n f o r m a t i o n
i s o b t a i n e d , i t must b e assumed t h a t momentum i s a l s o important i n
impact upon r o o f i n g materials. [The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n i s based upon
d a t a by G r e e n f i e l d (Ref. 6.44) i n which s y n t h e t i c h a i l s t o n e s were
p r o j e c t e d a t r o o f i n g - m a t e r i a l t a r g e t s . The v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e tests
correspond t o t h e t e r m i n a l f a l l v e l o c i t i e s of h a i l s t o n e s of t h e p a r t i c u l a r
s i z e s used.]
Because of t h e many k i n d s of r o o f i n g and t h e s c a r c i t y of d a t a on

fragment impact upon r o o f i n g materials, t h i s d i s c u s s i o n w i l l b e k e p t as
g e n e r a l as p o s s i b l e , p r e s e n t i n g o n l y t h e lower l i m i t s of damage f o r
groupings of r o o f i n g materials, w i t h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e s e are
n o t known v e r y a c c u r a t e l y .
The r o o f i n g materials can b e s e p a r a t e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s :

a s p h a l t s h i n g l e s , b u i l t - u p r o o f s ( a l t e r n a t e l a y e r s of bitumen and rein-
f o r c i n g membranes, o f t e n topped w i t h p e b b l e s o r crushed s t o n e ) , and
m i s c e l l a n e o u s materials ( a s b e s t o s cement s h i n g l e s , s l a t e , c e d a r s h i n g l e s ,
c l a y t i l e . and s h e e t m e t a l ) . Lower l i m i t s of fragment momentum f o r s e r i o u s
damage t o common r o o f i n g materials are given i n Table 6.15. P o r t i o n s of
t h e d a t a g i v e n i n T a b l e 6.15 a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 6.30. F i g u r e 6.30
c a n be r e a d i l y used t o o b t a i n t h e s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y which a fragment of
known m a s s (M) must have t o exceed t h e minimum fragment momentum r e q u i r e d
t o produce s e r i o u s damage.
I n g e n e r a l , any fragment which s t r i k e s a r o o f i n g material w i l l

p r o b a b l y exceed t h e momentum r e q u i r e d t o produce s e r i o u s damage. T h i s
i s t r u e because most of t h e fragments w i l l b e l a r g e , drag-type fragments,
e x p e r i e n c i n g l i t t l e o r no l i f t which might a l l o w i t t o "settle" on t h e
r o o f . To d e t e r m i n e t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y V
yf
f o r t h e s i m p l e case where y = y and V i s g r e a t e r than 0, t h e following
o f
YO
e q u a t i o n may be used:
r ,
(6.61.)
where M = fragment m a s s
g = gravity constant
V = i n i t i a l v e r t i c a l component of v e l o c i t y
YO
K = CD%p/2
Y
where CD = d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t
= area p r e s e n t e d i n t h e v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n
po = d e n s i t y of a i r
6-120
T a b l e 6.15 Fragment Impact Damage f o r Roofing Haterials
( G r e e n f i e l d , Ref. 6.44)
Minimum Fragment Momentum (mV)

f o r S e r i o u s Damage
Roofing Material lb-sec Comments
Asphalt s h i n g l e s 0.159 crack shingle
1.37 damage deck
Built-up roof <O .159 crack tar f l o o d coat
0.451 c r a c k s u r f a c e of con-
v e n t i o n a l built-up roof
w i t h o u t t o p l a y e r of
stones
2
>o .991 w i t h a 2.867 l b / f t
t o p l a y e r of s l a g , t h e r e
w a s no damage up t o
0.991 f t / s e c , which w a s
t h e maximum momentum of
t h e test
Miscellaneous
1/8-inch a s b e s t o s 0.159
cement s h i n g l e s
1/4-inch a s b e s t o s 0.285
c e m e n t shingles
1/4-inch g r e e n s l a t e 0.285
1/4-inch g r e y s l a t e 0.159
l/Z-inch c e d a r 0.159
shingles
3/4-inch red clay 0.285

tile
S t a n d i n g seam t e r n e 0.991 plywood deck c r a c k e d

metal
6-121
F i g u r e 6.30 Fragment Mass v e r s u s S t r i k i n g V e l o c i t y f o r
S p e c i f i c Damage t o Roofing Materials
Change 1 - 15 August 1 9 8 1 6-122

Impact c o n d i t i o n s f o r o t h e r c a s e s may be e s t i m a t e d u s i n g numerical
approximations t o s o l v e t h e e q u a t i o n s of motion.
6.4.5 Fragment P e n e t r a t i o n
T h i s s e c t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b s e c t i o n s : Cohesive S o i l
P e n e t r a t i o n ; Sand P e n e t r a t i o n ; and P e n e t r a t i o n of Miscellaneous Materials.
The need f o r t h i s d i v i s i o n arises because d i f f e r e n t methods are used t o ?
d e r i v e t h e e q u a t i o n s f o r p r e d i c t i n g p e n e t r a t i o n s i n t h e s e materials. I
6.4.5.1 Cohesive S o i l P e n e t r a t i o n *
I n t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e r e s u l t s of a combined a n a l y t i c a l and e x p e r i -
mental e v a l u a t i o n of p e n e t r a t i o n i n cohesive s o i l s i s p r e s e n t e d (Ref. 6.45).
The development of b o t h fundamental (Ref. 6.45) and e m p i r i c a l (Ref. 6.46)
p e n e t r a t i o n e q u a t i o n s are based on Newton's e q u a t i o n of motion. The
g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e t e r m and t h e m a s s of t h e s o i l t r a n s l a t e d by t h e
p r o j e c t i l e a r e assumed t o be n e g l i g i b l e , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e f o l l o w i n g form
of Newton's e q u a t i o n (Ref. 6 . 4 5 ) :
dx = M(VdV/F) (6.62)
where V = v e l o c i t y of p r o j e c t i l e
F = f o r c e r e s i s t i n g movement
M = m a s s of t h e p r o j e c t i l e
x = d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n
(NOTE: VdV/dx i s a c c e l e r a t i o n )
E m p i r i c a l l y d e r i v e d e q u a t i o n s evolved from t h e assumption t h a t

s o i l i s a single-phase medium (Ref. 6.45 and S e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 1 ) . The f u n c t i o n s
i n c l u d e d h e r e u t i l i z e a r e s i s t i n g f o r c e which a l s o a c c o u n t s f o r p o r e
a i r and water p r e s s u r e w i t h i n t h e v o i d s between t h e s o > l g r a i n s . Note
t h a t g r a n u l a r s o i l s a r e n o t covered by these f u n c t i o n s as t h e y have a
s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e n g t h v a r i a t i o n w i t h d e p t h caused by g r a v i t a t i o n a l e f f e c t s
and are much more dependent on t h e v o i d r a t i o (Ref. 6.45).
The f i n a l set of e q u a t i o n s which w i l l be p r e s e n t e d are s i m p l i f i e d

by s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g symbols f o r r e c u r r i n g groups of parameters
(Ref. 6.45):**
-
x=-
00 =
MN
i'- ..p),
2BPAx
yA3I2p
(6.63a)
(6.63b)
*This t o p i c i s a l s o d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 7 , S e c t i o n 7.3.
** When u s i n g Equations (6.63a-e) one must u s e a s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t set of

u n i t s . Symbols w i t h a b a r over them are d i m e n s i o n l e s s . Voo h a s dimensions
of l e n g t h / t i m e , too of t h e t i m e / l e n g t h and uoo of l e n g t h s q u a r e d l t i m e squared.
6-123
4. - -B p A t
(6.63~)
(6.63d)
L
(6.63e)
BPVoo
where >=I p r o j e c t i l e mass

A = p r o j e c t i l e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area
N = p r o j e c t i l e nose shape f a c t o r
p = s o i l mass d e n s i t y
x = d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n
Vo = p r o j e c t i l e impact v e l o c i t y
0 = unconfined compressive s t r e n g t h of t h e s o i l
Y
S = d e g r e e of s a t u r a t i o n
= ambient atmospheric p r e s s u r e
PO
t = time
x
ci =
f? =
y =
6 =
E =
58.27
0.75
0.031
93.06
-35.24 I These c o e f f i c i e n t s w e r e determined by curve f i t t i n g
t h e o r e t i c a l e q u a t i o n s t o e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . They
do n o t v a r y w i t h d i f f e r e n t - s h a p e d p r o j e c t i l e s o r
d i f f e r e n t c o h e s i v e s o i l c o n d i t i o n s (Ref. 6 . 4 5 ) .
N o t i c e t h a t t h e p r e c e e d i n g five-paLameter g r c a p s have p h y s i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e :
i s an e f f e c t i v e d i s p l a c e m e n t x; V o o i s an e f f e c t i v e v e l o c i t y of impact V 0 ;
too i s 3n e f f e c t i v e t i m e t ; uoo i s an e f f e c t i v e r e s i s t i n g s o i l stress
r e l a t e d t o t o t a l stress d i v i d e d by s o i l d e n s i t y ; and F i s an e f f e c t i v e
f o r c e F.
The parameter N i s a nondimensional nose shape f a c t o r p r o p o r t i o n a l

t o C . W. Young's (Ref. 6.46) nose performance c o e f f i c i e n t . Values of N
f o r v a r i o u s p e n e t r a t o r s h a p e s a r e given i n Table 6.16 and were determined
by Westine (Ref. 6 . 4 5 ) .
- -
Having d e f i n e d x, Voo, too, uo0, and F , t h e e q u a t i o n s f o r t r a n s i e n t
motion can b e p r e s e n t e d . T r a n s i e n t displacement i s g i v e n by:
(6.64)
*The l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e v a r i o u s nondimensional groups are t h e maximum

and minimum v a l u e s of t h e c u r v e s i n F i g u r e s 6.31, 6.32 and 6.33.
Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981 6-124

Table 6 . 1 6 Nose Shape F a c t o r s
(Ref. 6 . 4 5 )
Shape Penatrator N Coefficient

Flat Nose 1.00
2.2 CRH*Tangent Ogive 1.47
6.0 CRH Tangent Ogive 1.79
9.25 CREI Tangent Ogive 1.99
12.5 CRB Tangent Ogive 2.16

t
Cone, R/d = 2 1.93
Cone, R/d = 3 2.36
Conic S t e p , Cone Plus Cylinder P l u s Cone 2.29
Biconic, R/d 3 2.34
Short Inverse Ogive, Il/d.= 2 1.84
Inverse Ogive, t / d = 3 2.36
* C a l i b e r r a d i u s head
t R/d 1s the nose length divided by the projectile
major diameter
6-125
The t r a n s i e n t v e l o c i t y V i s g i v e n by :
112
l--
00
t a n (a1I2t )
*
V 00 00
-V= 00
(6.65)
V V
00
1+ %
a
tan (a 1'2t
00 00
)
00
The t r a n s i e n t f o r c e i s g i v e n by:
*
(6.65)
E q u a t i o n s ( 6 . 6 4 ) , ( 6 . 6 9 , and (6.66) are p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e s 6.31,

6.32, and 6.33. The c o n t o u r s of c o n s t a n t V ~ o / a o op r e s e n t g r a p h i c a l l y
t h e t r a n s i e n t r e s p o n s e f o r a g i v e n impac v e l o c i t y i n t o a g i v e n s o i l
(Ref. 6.47) Note t h a t t h e time a x i s a & i 2 t o o h a s been d i v i d e d by
(V2 / a l1li i n F i g u r e s 6 . 3 1 t h r o u g h 6.33.
00 00
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t r a n s i e n t s o l u t i o n s , e q u a t i o n s are p r e s e n t e d
f o r p r e d i c t i n g r e s i d u a l r e s p o n s e . The nondimensional maximum r e s i d u a l
penetration HmaX
i s g i v e n by:
-
X
max
= i n
( ",)*
I+- (6.67)
Motion s t o p s when t h e v e l o c i t y V i n Equation (6.65) e q u a l s z e r o .

The time t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s e v e n t i s g i v e n by:
f
1 1 2t f ) =
t a n (aoo kg) - lI2 * (6.68)
*The l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e v a r i o u s nondimensional groups are t h e m a x i m u m

and minimum v a l u e s of t h e c u r v e s i n F i g u r e s 6.31, 6.32 and 6.33.
6-126
10- 0
I I I I i i i
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0 314,
00 00
v 00112
Figure 6.31 Normalized Solution for Transient Displacements
6-127
x)
3
9
0
h
u
m N
.d
0 rl
m
E
4
0
0 a * N
0 0 0
4 0
6-128
lo2b VooL/uoo = 0.01
t
t voo
2/o
00
= 0.03
I v 00 L / a 0 0 = 0.1
- V
L
/a = 0.3
00 00
loo
10-1
IU
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
00
Figure 6.33 Normalized S o l u t i o n f o r T r a n s i e n t R e t a r d i n g F o r c e
6-129
-
The m a x i m u m f o r c e o c c u r s a t t i m e t = 0 and e q u a l s :
Fmax
-
F (6.69)
max
00
T h i s f o r c e decays u n t i l i t r e a c h e s Ff an i n s t a n t b e f o r e motion s t o p s .
Ff
i s g i v e n by:
- -
U
- - 00
Ff v2 (6.70)
00
The maximum p e n e t r a t i o n [Equation ( 6 . 6 7 ) ] i s p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e s 6.34

and 6.35.
6.4.5.2 Sand P e n e t r a t i o n
A number of r e p o r t s have been p u b l i s h e d d e s c r i b i n g t h e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p between t h e d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n i n sand and t h e fragment s t r i k i n g
v e l o c i t y (Ref. 6.6, 6.7, 6.14, and 6 . 4 8 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e non-homo-
geneous n a t u r e of sand makes t h e r e s u l t s extremely dependent on t h e d e n s i t y ,
compaction, s a t u r a t i o n , and g r a i n s i z e (Ref. 6 . 7 ) . A s a r e s u l t , t h e r e
i s much d i s c r e p a n c y i n t h e p r e d i c t e d d e p t h s of p e n e t r a t i o n (Ref. 6 . 7 ) .
A p e n e t r a t i o n e q u a t i o n which r e p r e s e n t s an a v e r a g e of t h e r e s u l t s of
several experiments i s Reference 6.7 :
(6.71)
where V = s t r i k i n g velocity (kfps)

S
Z = d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n i n p r o j e c t i l e d i a m e t e r s
D = fragment c a l i b e r d e n s i t y ( l b / i n . 3 )
F i g u r e 6.36 c o n t a i n s a p l o t of t h i s e q u a t i o n f o r a r a n g e of fragment w e i g h t s
and s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t i e s f o r t h e c a l i b e r d e n s i t y 0.186 l b / i n . 3 . This
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s t a n d a r d d e s i g n fragment shown i n F i g u r e 6.37.
I n t h e e v e n t t h a t t h e sand l a y e r i s completely p e r f o r a t e d , t h e
r e s i d u a l fragment v e l o c i t y can b e c o n s e r v a t i v e l y determined from t h e
following:
= (1 - t / t s )
0.555 * (6.72)
'r 1's
*Figures 6.36 and 6.38 i n d i c a t e t h e v a l i d r a n g e of Equations (6.71) and

(6.72).
6-130
0
0
rl
0
9
0
U
0
e4
0
rl
9
0
V
0 u
iJ
C
QI
Q4
rn
0
U
.m
\D
rl
0
a
0
3
U
0
0
U rl a U cv
0 0 0
6-131
4 .O
2.0
1.0
0.2
0.1
0.05
F i g u r e 6.35 Depth o f P o i n t e d P r o j e c t i l e P e n e t r a t i o n i n Soil

(Reference 6 . 4 3 & 6 . 4 4 )
40
50
m
I
P
w
w
75
00
10 20 30 40 50 GO 70 80 90 100
Maximum P e n e t r a t i o n , i n .
Note: Numbers n e x t t o curves i n d i c a t e fragment weight (02)
Figure 6 . 3 6 Depth o f P e n e t r a t i o n i n t o Sand by

S t a n d a r d Primary Fragment
(a) Standard Fragment Shape
(b) Alternate Fragment Shape
Figure 6.37 Primary Fragment Shapes
6-134
where t = d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n ( i n . )
c a l c u l a t e d from Equation (6.71) o r
o b t a i n e d from F i g u r e 6.36
ts = a c t u a l t h i c k n e s s of sand l a y e r ( i n . )
F i g u r e 6.38 c o n t a i n s a p l o t of Equation (6.72).
6.4.5.3 P e n e t r a t i o n i n Miscellaneous Materials
The m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n have m i l i t a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e ,
b u t t h e y do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s t i t u t e primary t a r g e t s (Refs. 6.43 and
6.49). The e q u a t i o n s which w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n have been
c o n s t r u c t e d e m p i r i c a l l y . They are founded on t h e assumption t h a t t h e
r e s i s t a n c e of a material t o p e r f o r a t i o n by s t e e l fragments can b e r e l a t e d
t o t h e l o s s e s i n weight and v e l o c i t y s u s t a i n e d by t h e fragment d u r i n g
p e n e t r a t i o n (Ref. 6.43). The d a t a b a s e used i n developing t h e s e e q u a t i o n s
w a s l i m i t e d t o c a s e s where p e r f o r a t i o n was a c h i e v e d , and t h e r e s i d u a l
v e l o c i t y and r e s i d u a l weight w e r e r e c o r d e d . These measurements r e f e r
t o t h e l a r g e s t p i e c e of t h e o r i g i n a l fragment which p e r f o r a t e s t h e
t a r g e t material (Ref. 6.43 and 6.49).
The e m p i r i c a l THOR e q u a t i o n s , based on a l a r g e s e r i e s o f t e s t s

performed over 29 y e a r s ago, were p r e s e n t e d f o r m e t a l l i c t a r g e t m a t e r i a l s
i n 1961 (Ref. 6.50) and f o r n o n m e t a l l i c materials i n 1963 (Ref. 6.43).
Greenspon (Ref. 6.49) summarized t h e r e s u l t s of t h e THOR r e p o r t s and p u t
t h e d a t a i n nondimensional g r a p h i c a l form i n 1976. The most e x t e n s i v e l y
used of t h e THOR e q u a t i o n s a r e t h o s e f o r b a l l i s t i c l i m i t v e l o c i t y ,
r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y , and r e s i d u a l mass. The b a l l i s t i c l i m i t v e l o c i t y ,
V R , i s t h e minimum v e l o c i t y t h a t a fragment must have t o p e r f o r a t e a
t a r g e t p l a t e of g i v e n material and t h i c k n e s s . The THOR e q u a t i o n g i v e n
f o r b a l l i s t i c v e l o c i t y i s as f o l l o w s :
V = 10C~(hA)a1(7000W,)~l (sec 8)Yl (6.73)

R
trhere V = ballistic l i m i t velocity i n f t / s
II
h = target p l a t e thickness i n in.
2
A = a v e r a g e impact a r e a of t h e fragment i n i n .
wS = weight of t h e o r i g i n a l fragment i n l b
8 = a n g l e between t h e t r a j e c t o r y of t h e fragment and t h e normal
to the target
C1,cxl,B1,yl = e m p i r i c a l c o n s t a n t s which a r e dependent on t h e
p l a t e m a t e r i a l t o b e p e r f o r a t e d (Refs. 6.50, 6.43,
and 6.49) (see Table 6.17)
The THOR e q u a t i o n f o r r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y i s
v = V -10C(hA)a(70001Js) B ( s e c 8)VS x (6.74)
r S
6-135 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

L.0
0.8
v1
0.6
L)
\
U
Q4
42
0.0
os0 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
V,/Vs Residual VelocityjStriking Velocity
Figure 6.38 Residual Fragment Velocity Upon

Perforation of Sand Layers
6-136
where V = r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y of t h e fragment ( i n f t / s e c a f t e r p e r f o r a t i o n
r
of t h e t a r g e t o c c u r s
V = i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y of t h e fragment b e f o r e p e r f o r a t i n g t h e t a r g e t
S
(in ft/sec)
t,A,W
S
, e =parameters given above
c,a,B,y,X = e m p i r i c a l c o n s t a n t s similar t o those defined f o r
b a l l i s t i c limit v e l o c i t y (Refs. 6.50, 6.43 and
6.49) ( s e e Table 6.17).
The THOR e q u a t i o n f o r r e s i d u a l weight i s
(700ObG) = (7000W
S
)-lo c2 (hA)a2 (7000Ws) B2 ( s e c e) 2V
S
A2
(6.75)
where (7000Wr) = r e s i d u a l weight of t h e l a r g e s t p i e c e of fragment,

( i n g r a i n s ) a f t e r p e r f o r a t i o n of t h e t a r g e t o c c u r s
t , A , W ,B,V = parameters g i v e n above
S S
C a B y X = e m p i r i c a l c o n s t a n t s similar t o t h o s e d e f i n e d f o r
2 ' 2 ' 2' * b a l l i s t i c and r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y (Refs. 6.50, 6.43,
and 6.49) (see Table 6.17)
The v a l u e s of t h e c o n s t a n t s i n Equations (6.73), ( 6 . 7 4 ) - and (6.75) are

g i v e n i n Table 6.17. The ranges of v a r i a b l e s f o r each material i s given
i n Table 6.18. The c o n s t a n t s which a p p e a r i n Table 6.17 a r e f o r no
p a r t i c u l a r fragment shape. Greenspon's (Ref. 6.49) nondimensionalized
forms are n o t i n c l u d e d h e r e s i n c e t h e y are i n g r a p h i c a l form and would
r e q u i r e a much l a r g e r number of pages t o p r e s e n t .
6-137
. .. ...... .. . . ... .. .. . ... ... . . . . . . . ... . . . .. .... . . . . . . . . .. -
Table 6.18
Range of V a r i a b l e s i n E q u a t i o n s (6.69), ( 6 . 7 0 ) , (6.71)
[References (6.50 and 6.52)]
w
=get h W e
Matarid (in.) jlb/ft2) Jdegees) (f:s) (lb )
Magnesium 0.05-3.00 0.5-28 0-80

500-10500 1.5~10 - 2.40~102
Alloys
Aluminum 0.02-2.00 0.3-29 0-80 1200-11000 5.0x10 - 2

2.40~10
(2024T-3
1 2
Titanium 0.04-1.20 1.0-28 0-80 700-10400 3.0~10 - 2.4MO
Alloys
Cast I r o n 0.19-0.56 7.0-21 0-45 1099-6100 1.5~10 - 2.40~102

Face-Hard- 0.14-0.50 5.0-20 0-70 2500-9800 1.5~10 - 2.40~10~
ened S t e e l
Homogeneous 0.03-1.00 1.0-40 0-70 600-12000 -

5 . 0 ~ 1 0 ~ 8.25~102
S tee1
Copper 0.06-1.00 3.0-46 0-70

1100-11400 1.5~10 - 2.4ox10 2
Lead 0.07-1.00 4.0-57 0-70 500-10400 -
1 . 5 ~ 1 0 ~ 2.40~10
2
Tuballoy 0.10-0.20 10-19 0-60 4500-10100 3.0~10 - 4.75~10
Unb0ld.d 0.02-3 .O 0.1-12.5 0-70 300-10000 7.14~lO-~-2.96~lO-~

Nylon
Bonded 0.4 3-2.0 2.1-9.7 0-70 1000-12000 7. - 1.18~10-~

Nylon
Laxan 0.125-1.0 0.8-6.2 0-70 1000-11500 7 . 1 4 ~ l o - ~ -3.43~.lO-~
Plexiglas 0.20-1.1 1.2-6.7 0-70 200-9500 -

7 . 1 4 ~ 1 0 - ~ 6.79~10-
as Cast
Stretched 0.OS .1 .o 0.3-6.4 0-70 500-11000 7 . 1 4 ~ 1 0-~6 . 7 9 ~ 1 0 - ~
Plexiglas
Doron 0.05-1.5 0.5-U.6 0-70 500-llooo 3.57d0-4 - 8.57x10-

Bullet- 0.20-1.65 2.6-21.2 0-70 200-10000 2.14~10-~ 6.7%10- -
Rasisurnt
Class
6-139
PROBLEM - Determine fragment penetration x into cohesive soil. For

illustrative purposes, assume that a steel rod is hurled
into an earth barrier.
GIVEN: M = fragment mass

A = fragment presented area
5 = unconfined compressive strength of soil (aY has to 'be measured
or assumed)
p = soil mass density
V = impact velocity
0
s = degree of saturation
= ambient atmospheric pressure
PO
Fragment shape
(or use any self-consistent set of units)
FIND: x REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. a) Nose shape factor N Table 6.16

b) Y, B , a, 6 , E E q . (6.63a-e)
2. Calculate effective velocity.
e)
yA3l2p Eq. (6.63b)
v 00 = (I- m2)v 0
3.
4.
Calculate effectiv
(y00 = -5y
P (i
+) >(;I
Calculate maximum effective penetration.
>
esistin soil stress.
+ (
1 - cos &) Eq. (6.63d)
Eq. (6.67)
5. Calculate actual penetration.

- MN
x = xmax 2BpA Eq. (6.63a)
CALCULATION
-
2
GIVEN: M = 0.016 lb-sec /ft
A = 0.01 ft
2
5 = 288 Ib/ft
Y
p 3 . 1 lb-sec2 /ft4
=
Vo = 1500 ft/sec
s = 0.5 2
= 2120 lb/ft
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 6-140

F l a t nose fragment (The fragment i s a f l a t - f a c e d c y l i n d e r w i t h
a diameter of 1.33 i n . and a l e n g t h of 1.2 i n . )
FIND: x
SOLUTION: 1. N = l . ' O O
a = 58.27, 8 = 0.75, y = 0.031, 6 = 93.06
E = -35.24
2. v 00 =
v00 =
1
(0.031; (0.01) 3/2 (3.1)
(0.016) (1)
(1500)
3. o =
00 I- 7
u
00
=
33600 f t 2 / s e c 2
+ (
212
L
~ .
9I
(-35.24) - ( 9 3 . 0 6 )
d
1
= 4.2P J
-MN
5. x = xmax 28pA
(0.016) (1.00)
= (4*21) (2)(0.75)(3.1)(0.01)
x = 1.45 f t
PROBLEM - Determine fragment p e n e t r a t i o n , x, i n t o sand. For i l l u s t r a t i v e

p u r p o s e s , assume a s t e e l fragment w i t h "standard" fragment
shape s t r i k e s a sand b a r r i e r .
GIVEN: Wf = fragment weight (lb)

V = striking velocity (kft/sec)
S
Fragment shape [ i n diameter ( d ) ] ( i n . )
FIND: x
6-141 Change 1 - 15 August 1981

SOLUTION: 1. Calculate c a l i b e r density. REFERENCE
D = Wf/d F i g . 6.5
2. Calculate c a l i b e r penetration.
2
Z = 19D Rn(1 +
2160 V )
S
Eq. (6.71)
3. Calculate actual penetration (x).
x = Z'd
CALCULATION
GIVEN: W, = 2 lb
L
vS = 1.2 kft/sec
d = 3 in.
FIND: x
3
SOLUTION: 1. D = Wf/d
- -( 2 ) 1 = 0.0741 l b / i n . 3
(313
2
2. Z = 19D Rn(1 + 2160 V
S
)
= (19) (0.0741) Rn[l + (2160) ( 1 . 2 ) 2 ]

= 11.32
3. x = Zed
x = (11.32)(3)
x = 34 i n .
PROBLEM - Determine t h e thickness, h , of aluminum (2024T-3) r e q u i r e d t o

s t o p a steel fragment.
GIVEN: Vs = s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y ( f t / s e c ) ( I n t h i s problem vs = vg.)

A = fragment impact area ( i n . )
Ws = w e i g h t o f fragment ( l b )
8 = a n g l e between t h e t r a j e c t o r y of t h e fragment and t h e
normal t o t h e t a r g e t
FIND: h REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine t h e p e n e t r a t i o n c o n s t a n t s f o r
aluminum (2024T-3).
cl, al' f+
Y1 T a b l e 6.17
Change 1 - 15 August 1 9 8 1 6-142

REFERENCE
2. Solve f o r t h i c k n e s s h r e q u i r e d t o p r e v e n t
penetration.
a Rearrange
';1
= (hA) (700OW )" (sec 0)Y 1 Eq. (6.75)
vR S
vR
(7000Ws)B1( s e c 0 )
CALCULATION
GIVEN: Vs = VR = 2000 f t / s e c
2
A = 0.11 i n .
Ws = 0.01 l b
e = oo
Note t h a t f o r t h i s problem, t h e s t e e l fragment can be any shape.
For i l l u s t r a t i v e purposes, we chose a c u b i c a l fragment w i t h a
weight of 0.01 l b and a n edge l e n g t h of 0.33 i n . The fragment2
impacts t h e p l a t e f a c e forward w i t h an impact area of 0 . 1 1 i n .
(0.33 i n . x 0.33 i n . ) .
FIND: h
SOLUTION: 1. C1 = 6.85
a = 0.903
1
6, = -0.941
y1 = 1.098
-
2. h=$[ vR
Y1
' : 1 (7000WS)B1 ( s e c 8)
~
(2000) 1/0.903
h =
06*185[ (7000) (O.Ol)] -0.941 [ s e c ( O O >1
h = 0.49 in.
6-143
6.5 HAZARDS TO PERSONNEL FROM FRAGMENTS
I n j u r i e s t o p e r s o n n e l due t o fragment impact c a n be d i v i d e d i n t o

two c a t e g o r i e s , primary fragment and secondary fragment i n j u r i e s .
Primary fragments a r e normally s m a l l , high-speed fragments which cause
i n j u r y by p e n e t r a t i o n and p e r f o r a t i o n of v i t a l areas of t h e body.
Secondary fragments a r e normally l a r g e r and have l e s s v e l o c i t y upon impact
and can c a u s e n o n p e n e t r a t i n g b l u n t trauma. Both of t h e s e i n j u r y c a t e g o r i e s
are d i s c u s s e d below.
6.5.1 Primary Fragment I n j u r i e s
A g r e a t d e a l of r e s e a r c h h a s been conducted t o produce c l a s s i f i e d

wound b a l l i s t i c s e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e m i l i t a r y . Although thorough u n c l a s s i -
f i e d e q u a t i o n s of t h i s t y p e do n o t e x i s t , some p u b l i c l y a v a i l a b l e body
p e n e t r a t i o n d a t a have been accumulated i n r e c e n t t i m e s and some r e l a t i v e l y
s i m p l e a n a l y s e s have been performed. More r e l i a b l e damage c r i t e r i a w i l l
undoubtedly b e produced as t h e s t a t e of t h e a r t improves.
Sperrazza and Kokinakis (Ref. 6.51) concerned themselves w i t h

a b a l l i s t i c l i m i t v e l o c i t y V 5 0 f o r animal t a r g e t s . The V50 v e l o c i t y i s
t h e s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y a t which one e x p e c t s h a l f t h e impacting m i s s i l e s
t o p e r f o r a t e a n o b j e c t . They found t h a t . t h i s v e l o c i t y depended on t h e
a r e a t o weight r a t i o , t h a t i s
A
a - (6.76)
where A i s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of t h e p r o j e c t i l e a l o n g t h e t r a j e c t o r y ,
andwf i s t h e weight of t h e p r o j e c t i l e . They f i r e d s t e e l cubes, s p h e r e s
and c y l i n d e r s of v a r i o u s masses up t o 0 . 0 3 3 l b i n t o 0.118-in. t h i c k
i s o l a t e d s k i n (human and g o a t ) t o e s t a b l i s h a b a l l i s t i c l i m i t . One of
t h e i r assumptions w a s t h a t , i f t h e p r o j e c t i l e p e n e t r a t e s t h e s k i n , i t s
r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y would be s u f f i c i e n t t o c a u s e severe damage. T h i s
c a u t i o u s assumption i s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a c e r t a i n margin of
s a f e t y i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . T h e i r c o n c l u s i o n s w e r e t h a t , i n t h e r a n g e of
t h e i r d a t a f o r s t e e l c u b e s , s p h e r e s and c y l i n d e r s , V50 depended l i n e a r l y
on p r o j e c t i l e A/W r a t i o . S p e c i f i c a l l ,
f V50 = 836 lb (A) + 72.3 f t / s e c (6.77)
f t-sec Wf
2
f o r A/&L 0.44 f t / l b and f o r wf 0.033 l b ,
where V is i n f t / s e c
50
Kokinakis (Ref. 6.52) f i r e d p l a s t i c s a b o t s end-on i n t o 20 p e r c e n t
g e l a t i n t h a t w a s 0.4-in. t h i c k . The s a b o t s were f i r e d end-on s i n c e
t h i s r e p r e s e n t s t h e w o r s t c a s e , and 20 p e r c e n t g e l a t i n w a s used because
t h i s b a l l i s t i c a l l y s i m u l a t e s i s o l a t e d human s k i n . The l i n e a r r e l a t i o n of
Vso v e r s u s A/Wf f o r m u l a t e d by S p e r r a z z a and Kokinakis (Ref. 6.51) i s
p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 6.39. The a v e r a g e v a l u e s f o r t h e s e experiments are
l o c a t e d on t h i s graph. C i r c l e s on t h e f i g u r e r e p r e s e n t t h e i n i t i a l
Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981 6-144

4 00
350
300
250
U
a,
-?
U
200
w
.d
0
m 150
3
100
50
"
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
2
ANf, ft / l b
Frgure 6.39. Ballistic Limit (Vso) versus Fragment Area/Weight

for Isolated Human and Goat Skin
e x p e r i m e n t s u s i n g s t e e l c u b e s , s p h e r e s and c y l i n d e r s weighing up t o
0.033 l b and each a v e r a g e v a l u e r e p r e s e n t s as many a s 30 d a t a p o i n t s .
The l i n e drawn on t h e g r a p h i s a l e a s t s q u a r e s f i t t o t h e s e a v e r a g e
v a l u e s . Upward p o i n t e d t r i a n g l e s r e p r e s e n t t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e s f o r t h e
s u b s e q u e n t e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h end-on p l a s t i c s a b o t s . These a v e r a g e v a l u e s
a l s o l i e n e a r t h e l i n e drawn f o r t h e p r i o r s t u d y , t h u s a d d i n g a d e g r e e
of confidence i n t h e analysis.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , o t h e r a u t h o r s have n o t p r e s e n t e d t h e i r p e n e t r a t i o n
d a t a i n t h e same form as S p e r r a z z a and Kokinakis. ' G l a s s t o n e (Ref. 6.53)
e x p r e s s e d t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of g l a s s f r a g m e n t s p e n e t r a t i n g t h e abdominal
c a v i t y i n terms of t h e m a s s o f t h e g l a s s f r a g m e n t s . To compare G l a s s t o n e ' s
c o n c l u s i o n s w i t h t h a t of S p e r r a z z a and K o k i n a k i s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o make
a few a s s u m p t i o n s . The f i r s t assumption i s t h a t t h e g l a s s fragment
v e l o c i t y f o r 50 p e r c e n t p r o b a b i l i t y of p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e abdominal c a v i t y
i s b i o l o g i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e b a l l i s t i c l i m i t v e l o c i t y V50 f o r p e n e t r a t i n g
i s o l a t e d human s k i n . G l a s s t o n e o n l y s p e c i f i e s t h e mass of t h e g l a s s
r e q u i r e d f o r p e n e t r a t i o n and d o e s n o t g i v e i t s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a ,
t h i c k n e s s o r d e n s i t y . For t h e p u r p o s e of comparing t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of
G l a s s t o n e w i t h t h o s e of S p e r r a z z a and Kokinakis i t w a s assumed t h a t
g l a s s f r a g m e n t s are p r o p e l l e d edge-on, which i s probably t h e w o r s t case,
and t h a t t h e y a r e s q u a r e w i t h t h i c k n e s s e s of 1 / 8 i n . t o 1 1 4 i n . It
w a s assumed t h a t t h e g l a s s f r a g m e n t s have a n a v e r a g e s p e c i f i c weight of
154.3 l b / f t 3 (Ref. 6.54). With t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s , i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o
calculate A/Wf. I f t h e g l a s s fragment h a s a t h i c k n e s s , t , and edge l e n g t h
y , t h e n f o r volume
2
J = y t (6.78)
where V = volume of t h e fragment

y = edge l e n g t h
t = thickness
Thus, t h e w e i g h t W f of t h e fragment i s
2
Wf = y y t (6.79)
where y i s t h e s p e c i f i c w e i g h t of t h e g l a s s . Rearranging E q u a t i o n (6.79)

g i v e s t h e edge l e n g t h ,
The area-to-weight
Y =e
r a t i o A P f , assuming edge-on i m p a c t , i s
(6.80)
qA --L Wyf (6.81)
o r from E q u a t i o n s ( 6 . 7 9 ) , (6.30) and (6.81) ,
(6.82)
Change 1 - 15 A u g u s t . 1 9 8 1 6-146
G l a s s t o n e ' s c r i t e r i a f o r 50 p e r c e n t p r o b a b i l i t y of g l a s s fragments pene-
t r a t i n g t h e abdominal c a v i t y a r e shown i n Table 6.19. This t a b l e a l s o contains
t h e estimates f o r A/Wf f o r g l a s s t h i c k n e s s e s of 1 / 8 i n . and 1 / 4 i n . The
v e l o c i t y v a l u e s and c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s f o r B h f w h i c h f a l l i n t h e r a n g e
of v a l u e s used by S p e r r a z z a and Kokinakis a r e p l o t t e d a s s q u a r e s i n
F i g u r e s 6.39. The dashed l i n e s i n d i c a t e a range o f A / W f v a l u e s f o r
t h i c k n e s s v a l u e s from 1 / 8 i n . t o 1 / 4 i n . Even w i t h t h e caude assumptions
mentioned above, t h e c a l c u l a t e d p o i n t s f a l l v e r y n e a r t h e l i n e drawn
on F i g u r e 6.39.
White (Ref. 6.55) a l s o r e l a t e d s k i n p e n e t r a t i o n v e l o c i t y t o

t h e masses of impacting fragments. H e concluded t h a t s l i g h t s k i n
l a c e r a t i o n occurred when s p h e r i c a l b u l l e t s w i t h weight 0.0191 l b w e r e
p r o p e l l e d i n t o t h e body a t 190 f t / s e c . Assuming t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c weight
of steel i s 495 l b / f t 3 , t h e A/Wf r a t i o can b e c a l c u l a t e d from
2
-A= - Tr (6.83)
Wf Wf
where r i s t h e r a d i u s of t h e s p h e r i c a l p e n e t r a t o r , o r
(6.84)
Using Equation (6 8 4 ) and t h e mass and d e n s i t y mentioned above, A/wf

becomes 0.0723 f t 2 / l b . The v e l o c i t y v a l u e g i v e n above (190 f t / s e c )
and t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e f o r Ahfare p l o t t e d on F i g u r e 6.39 as a downward
p o i n t e d t r i a n g l e . T h i s p o i n t a p p e a r s t o b e a l i t t l e h i g h e r t h a n expected,
e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e o n l y s l i g h t s k i n l a c e r a t i o n i s expected a t t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s
i n s t e a d of 50 p e r c e n t p e n e t r a t i o n .
Custard (Ref. 6 . 5 6 ) , l i k e G l a s s t o n e , s p e c i f i e s v e l o c i t y as a
f u n c t i o n of mass o n l y f o r 50 p e r c e n t p e n e t r a t i o n . Making t h e assumptions
t h a t t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e glass can v a r y from 1 / 8 i n . t o 1 / 4 i n . , t h a t the
f r a g m e n t s t r a v e l edge-on and are s q u a r e , and t h a t t h e d e n s i t y of g l a s s
i s 154.3 l b / f t 3 , A & w a s c a l c u l a t e d from Equation (6.84). The r e s u l t s
are p l o t t e d on F i g u r e 6.39 as diamonds and a g r e e f a i r l y w e l l w i t h t h e
c o n c l u s i o n s of S p e r r a z z a and Kokinakis. Thus, f o r v a l u e s of A/Wf up t o
0.44 f t 2 / l b and v a l u e s of Wf up t o 0.033 l b , t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p
e x p r e s s e d i n Equation (6.34) and drawn as a s o l i d l i n e i n F i g u r e 6.39
i s a n a d e q u a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of 50 p e r c e n t p r o b a b i l i t y of s k i n p e n e t r a t i o n
by a p r o j e c t i l e t h a t can r e s u l t i n s e r i o u s wounds.
6.5.2 Secondary Fragment I n j u r i e s
Very l i m i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n f o r body damage from n o n p e n e t r a t i n g

o b j e c t s i s c o n t a i n e d i n Table 6.20. It should b e noted t h a t a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e t a b l e , damage i s dependent on fragment mass and v e l o c i t y o n l y .
The t a b l e a l s o o n l y c o n t a i n s one fragment mass v a l u e . One can l o g i c a l l y
6-147
Table 6.19 50 Percent Probability of Glass Fragments
Penetrating Abdominal Cavity
(Glasstone, (Ref. 6.55)
A/ IJf A/ Wf
Weight of Glass
Fragment Impact V e l o c i t y 118 in. thick 1/4 i n . thick
lb ftlsec ft2/1b ft2/lb
2 x 410 0.555 0.783
1 X 10-3 275 0.248 0.350
2 x 245 0.175 0.248
2 x 180 0.0552 0.0781
Table 6.20 Tentative Criteria for IlldirectBlast Effects

from Nonpenetrating Fragments
(Ahlers, Ref. 6.57; Clemedson, Ref. 6.58; White, Ref. 6.59)
Extent
Weight -
Event of Damage Impact Velocity
Most 1y "safe" 10 ftlsec

Cerebral Concussion
10 l b
Threshold 15 ftlsec
Skull Fracture Mostly "safe" 10 ftlsec
ThreshoId 15 ft/sec
Near 100% 2 3 ftlsec
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 6-148

assume t h a t l a r g e r w e i g h t s p r o p e l l e d a t t h e same v e l o c i t i e s shown i n t h e
t a b l e w i l l produce more damage t h a n t h e 1 0 l b weight p r e s e n t e d i n t h e t a b l e .
F i g u r e s 6 . 4 0 and 6 . 4 1 c o n t a i n p e r s o n n e l fragment impact damage

c r i t e r i a a s p r e s e n t e d by A h l e r s (Ref. 6 . 5 7 ) . For fragment w e i g h t s g r e a t e r
t h a n 1 0 l b , t h e c r i t e r i a f o r t h r e s h o l d head impact i n j u r i e s a r e s l i g h t l y
lower (more c o n s e r v a t i v e ) t h a n t h o s e o f T a b l e 6 . 2 0 . The p e r c e n t a g e
n e x t t o a p a r t i c u l a r c u r v e i n F i g u r e 6 . 4 0 d e n o t e s t h e p e r c e n t of p e o p l e
( f o r a l a r g e sample) t h a t would d i e i f s u b j e c t e d t o any of t h e impact
c o n d i t i o n s d e t a i l e d by t h e c u r v e . The s e r i o u s i n j u r y t h r e s h o l d c u r v e s
on F i g u r e s 6 . 4 0 and 6 . 4 1 s p e c i f y t h e d e b r i s v e l o c i t y and weight combina-
t i o n s below which no s e r i o u s i n j u r i e s are expected t o o c c u r .
6-149
n
v)
ci
E
0
a
P
4
W
$4
Frr
0
u
6-150
ln
N
3
4
U
V
ln
m
a
E
H
U
N
G
fll
B
M n
i C3Q
$ 4 4
Fro
n o m
c
ln 4 uar
N
4
I
3
r(
Ln
N
6-151
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6 . 2 5
PROBLEM - Determine t h e v e l o c i t y a t which a fragment of a g i v e n s i z e

( d e f i n e d by a r a t i o of area t o w e i g h t ) w i l l p e n e t r a t e human s k i n
50% of t h e t i m e and c a u s e s e r i o u s i n j u r y .
GIVEN: A/Wf = area t o w e i g h t r a t i o of fragment ( f t ' / l b )
FIND: V REFERENCE
50
SOLUTION: 1. Determine e s t i m a t e d V by l o c a t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e
50
A/Wfratio on g r a p h , o r by c a l c u l a t i o n u s i n g t h e
V50 e q u a t i o n f i t t e d by S p e r r a z z a and Kokinakis.
V50 = k(A/Wf) + b Fig. 6.39
where k = 8 3 6 I b / f t - s e c
b = 72.3 f t / s e c
CALCULATION
GIVEN: A p i e c e of a s t e e l l a t h e t o o l which i s 5 i n . l o n g and 1 / 2 i n .

s q u a r e on end. Assume i t f l i e s o f f edge-on, i . e . , t h e
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f t h e fragment a l o n g i t s t r a j e c t o r y i s
2.5 in.2. The fragment weighs 0 . 3 5 l b .
2
-A = f t =0.050 f t / l b
2
W 0.35 l b
f
FIND: V
50
2
SOLUTION: 1. V50 = (836 lb/ft-sec)(O.O5Gft /lb) + 72.3 f t / s e c
V50 = 114 f t / s e c
PROBLEM - Determine t h e e x t e n t of human head i n j u r y r e s u l t i n g from impact

by a 1 0 l b n o n - p e n e t r a t i n g fragment t r a v e l i n g a t a g i v e n v e l a c i t )
GIVEN: V = fragment v e l o c i t y ( f p s )
Wf = fragment w e i g h t ( l b )
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of human head i n j u r y -

REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Determine t h e e x t e n t of a c e r e b r a l c o n c u s s i o n Table 6.20

which would r e s u l t .
2. Determine t h e e x t e n t of s k u l l f r a c t u r e . Table 6.20
Change 1 - 15 August 1 9 8 1 6-152

CALCULATION
GIVEN: V = 14 f t / s e c
Wf = 10 I b
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of human head i n j u r y
SOLUTION: 1. A fragment w i t h a n impact v e l o c i t y of 1 4 f t / s e c would

be j u s t under t h e t h r e s h o l d f o r c a u s i n g c e r e b r a l
concussion. According t o t h e d a t a , i t would n o t c a u s e
c e r e b r a l c.oncussion.
2. Again, t h e v e l o c i t y i s n e a r t h e t h r e s h o l d , b u t one would
conclude t h a t s k u l l f r a c t u r e would probably n o t o c c u r .
EXAFPLE PROBLEM 6.27
PROBLEM - Determine t h e p e r c e n t of p e o p l e i n a l a r g e group who would d i e

i f s u b j e c t e d t o impact by a fragment of p a r t i c u l a r weight
impac.ting a t a g i v e n v e l o c i t y ( i n t h e area o f t h e abdomen
o r limbs).
GIVEN: Wf = weight of fragment ( l b )

V = debris velocity (fps)
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of i n j u r y KEFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. Locate p o i n t on graph d e f i n e d by t h e weight Fig. 6.40

of t h e fragment and t h e d e b r i s v e l o c i t y .
E s t i m a t e k i l l p r o b a b i l i t y o r i n j u r y from
curves given.
CALCULATION
GIVEN:
- - Wf = 1lb
V = 50 f p s
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of i n j u r y
SOLUTION: 1. The p o i n t l i e s n e a r t h e 10% k i 1 1 / 9 0 % i n j u r y p r o b a b i l i t y

l i n e . L e s s t h a n 10% of t h e sample of p e o p l e would d i e ,
b u t g r e a t e r t h a n 90% would b e s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d by
t h e impact of a l - l b fragment a t 50 f p s .
PROBLEM - Determine the impact v e l o c i t y , V , below which no s e r i o u s

head i n j u r i e s w i l l o c c u r from impact of a p a r t i c u l a r weight
of d e b r i s .
6-153
GIVEN: W f = d e b r i s weight ( l b )
-
FIND: V REFERENCE
SOLUTION: 1. L o c a t e p o i n t on a p p r o p r i a t e c u r v e correspond- Fig. 6.41

i n g t o d e s i r e d d e b r i s w e i g h t . Read d e b r i s
v e l o c i t y from v e r t i c a l scale.
CALCULATION
GIVEN: W = 2 lb
f
FIND: V
SOLUTION: 1. Below 24 f t / s e c no s e r i o u s head i n j u r i e s would r e s u l t
from impact of a 2-lb f r a g m e n t .
6-154
6.6 EXPLOSIVE I N I T I A T I O N BY FRAGMENTS
Most severe a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s i n v o l v i n g h i g h e x p l o s i v e s are

e s c a l a t e d from e x p l o s i o n s of a s i n g l e p i e c e of e x p l o s i v e o r s i n g l e
e x p l o s i v e component i n a weapon o r munition by t h e subsequent impact
of high-speed f r a g m e n t s on o t h e r p i e c e s of e x p l o s i v e o r weapons which
a r e l o c a t e d n e a r b y . Thus, t h e l i t e r a t u r e c o n t a i n s many r e p o r t s o f s a f e t y -
r e l a t e d s t u d i e s which g i v e t e s t r e s u l t s f o r i n i t i a t i o n of b a r e and cased
e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s by high-speed p r o j e c t i l e s which s t i m u l a t e f r a g m e n t s .
To c o l l a t e t h i s m a s s o f d a t a and g e n e r a t e p r e d i c t i o n e q u a t i o n s , w e have
reviewed t h e d a t a from t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s which c o n t a i n enough r a w d a t a ,
c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s o f impact v e l o c i t i e s which have a 50 p e r c e n t p r o b a b i l i t y
of c a u s i n g e x p l o s i v e i n i t i a t i o n (V~O), and conducted a s i m i l i t u d e a n a l y s i s
t o s c a l e t h e d a t a and d e t e r m i n e a p p r o p r i a t e d i m e n s i o n l e s s s c a l i n g f a c t o r s
f o r c o r r e l a t i n g d a t a from d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s . We were a b l e t o o b t a i n
f i r m o r t e n t a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r several t y p e s of b a r e e x p l o s i v e s ,
l i g h t l y c a s e d e x p l o s i v e s , and h e a v i l y cased e x p l o s i v e s . Data a r e l i m i t e d ,
however, t o s t e e l - c a s e d e x p l o s i v e s and s t e e l s i m u l a t e d f r a g m e n t s . Within
t h e s c a l e d d a t a l i m i t s , some p r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s were developed which can
b e used f o r p r e d i c t i o n of V50 v a l u e s f o r a v a r i e t y of fragment masses,
f o r several t y p e s of b a r e e x p l o s i v e s , and f o r c a s e d e x p l o s i v e s having a
wide r a n g e of s c a l e d c a s i n g t h i c k n e s s e s . The r e s u l t s a r e r e p o r t e d i n
R e f e r e n c e 6.60. which i s t h e b a s i s f o r p r e d i c t i o n methods g i v e n i n t h i s
section.
6.6.1 Bare ExDlosive
T e s t d a t a f o r e x p l o s i v e i n i t i a t i o n of T e t r y l and Composition B
e x p l o s i v e s were o b t a i n e d by S l a d e and Dewey (Ref. 6 . 6 1 ) , u s i n g gun-
launched, s t e e l and b r a s s f l a t - f a c e d p r o j e c t i l e s t o s i m u l a t e f r a g m e n t s .
L a t e r McLean and A l l a n ( R e f . 6.62) used a n e x p l o s i v e p r o j e c t i o n t e c h n i q u e
t o launch steel r e c t a n g u l a r parallelopiped simulated fragments i n t o
P e n t o l i t e and C y c l o t o l b a r e e x p l o s i v e r e c e p t o r s . Finally, P e t i n o and
Leondi (Ref. 6.63) r e p o r t d a t a u s i n g t h e same e x p l o s i v e l a u n c h method
and s t e e l f r a g m e n t s f o r Amatex e x p l o s i v e . T i m e delays a f t e r impact
f o r d e t o n a t i o n of b a r e e x p l o s i v e s are v e r y s h o r t , of t h e o r d e r of micro-
seconds.
A l l of these d a t a are reduced t o o b t a i n mean v a l u e s of V and

50
s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r e a c h d a t a s e t , and are r e p o r t e d i n Reference
6.62. The s c a l i n g and s c a l e d d a t a c o r r e l a t i o n i n t h a t r e f e r e n c e showed
good c o r r e l a t i o n s between s e v e r a l s c a l e d p a r a m e t e r s , when p l o t t e d as
f u n c t i o n s of s c a l e d m a s s p e r u n i t area of t h e p r o j e c t i l e s ,
M
fi =P (6.35)
P ppA3I2
6-155
where M = p r o j e c t i l e mass
P
p = d e n s i t y of p r o j e c t i l e material
P k
A = f r o n t a l area of t h e f l a t - f a c e d fragment s i m u l a t o r .
The p a r a m e t e r s which c o r r e l a t e d w e r e
TI
(6.86)
P
- -
I = M v (6.37)
P 50
and -E = ii v50 2
(6.8$)
2
where a = sound v e l o c i t y i n p r o j e c t i l e m a t e r i a l
-P
-I = s c a l e d impact momentum
E = s c a l e d impact k i n e t i c energy.
-
P l o t s of and vso v e r s u s M a r e g i v e n i n F i g u r e s 6 . 4 2 and 6 . 4 3 .
P r e d i c t i o n c u r v e s are drawnP i n t h e s e f i g u r e s , w i t h T e t r y l and P e n t o l i t e
forming one group, Comp B and C y c l o t o l a n o t h e r group, and Amatex a t h i r d
group. The Amatex c u r v e i s shown i n F i g u r e 6 . 4 2 ; however, t h e d a t a
s p r e a d w a s i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r c o n c l u s i o n s f o r a V50 v e r s u s spcurve and
hence i s n o t shown i n F i g u r e 6 . 4 3 . E r r o r bands f o r i n d i v i d u a l groups
of t e s t s a r e shown i n F i g u r e 6 . 4 3 .
6.6.2 Encased E x p l o s i v e s
The s t u d y r e p o r t e d i n Reference 6 . 6 0 showed t h a t h e a v i l y encased*

e x p l o s i v e s , such as a r t i l l e r y p r o j e c t i l e s ( s h e l l s ) r e a c t d i f f e r e n t l y t o
fragment impact t h a n more l i g h t l y cased o r confined e x p l o s i v e s .
E x p l o s i v e s which w e r e t e s t e d w i t h simple cover p l a t e s on t h e

impacted s i d e , o r w i t h weak c o n t a i n e r s which would r u p t u r e under low
i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s seemed t o b e i n i t i a t e d i n somewhat t h e same manner as
b a r e e x p l o s i v e s , i . e . , probably p r i m a r i l y by shock t r a n s m i s s i o n .
P e r f o r a t i o n of t h e c o v e r p l a t e w a s n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e i n i t i a t i o n c o u l d o c c u r ,
s o t h r e s h o l d s were somewhat r a i s e d . Test d a t a were n o t as e x t e n s i v e
a s f o r b a r e e x p l o s i v e s , c o n s i s t i n g of l i m i t e d series by S l a d e and Dewey
(Ref. 6.61) on T e t r y l , P e t i n o e t a l . (Ref. 6.64) on Composition B ,
P e t i n o and Leondi (Ref. 6 . 6 3 ) on Amatex, and Frey e t a l . (Ref. 6 . 6 5 ) on
Composition B and O c t o l . V a r i a t i o n s were s m a l l i n t h e independent
s c a l e d parameter
*"Cased" e x p l o s i v e and "encased" e x p l o s i v e are used i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y .
6-156
h 1/2
= hfA (6.89)
where - h i s s t e e l c a s i n g t h i c k n e s s . B e s t d a t a c o r r e l a t i o n w a s achieved
by V50, which i s shown p l o t t e d a g a i n s t h i n F i g u r e 6 . 4 4 . Tentative
r a n g e s f o r v a l u e s of ? f o r Comp B and Amatex, and f o r T e t r y l and Octo1
50
a s two s e p a r a f e groups are shown i n t h e f i g u r e . There i s a l a c k of
v a r i a t i o n of h i n t h e test d a t a , and a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s a r e needed.
Whenever i n i t i a t i o n s occurred i n t h e s e t e s t s , t i m e d e l a y s were a l s o
r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t , t e n s of microseconds.
For h e a v i l y encased e x p l o s i v e s , i n i t i a t i o n of v i o l e n t r e a c t i o n s
which would fragment t h e c a s i n g o f t e n occurred w i t h long d e l a y s ( s e c o n d s ) ,
below v e l o c i t i e s which would shock i n i t i a t e . T e s t d a t a were from two
sources, Reeves (Ref. 6 . 6 6 ) and t h e Tera Group r e p o r t (Ref. 6 . 6 7 ) , w i t h
b o t h u s i n g r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d r i c a l fragment s i m u l a t o r s gun launched
a g a i n s t Composition B loaded a r t i l l e r y s h e l l s . I n t h e s e t e s t s , i n i t i a -
t i o n o f t e n seemed t o c o r r e l a t e w e l l w i t h b a l l i s t i c l i m i t (V50) v a l u e s
f o r t h e c a s i n g a l o n e , a l t h o u g h t h i s c r i t e r i o n seemed t o f a i l f o r low
v a l u e s of h. The comparisons f o r t h i s class of t e s t i n g i n Reference
6.48 are shown i n F i g u r e s 6.45 and 6 . 4 6 . E i t h e r s e t of c u r v e s , V50 o r
f/K v e r s u s h, can be used f o r p r e d i c t i o n of c r i t i c a l s c a l e d impact
c o n d i t i o n s . For t h e l a t t e r c r i t e r i o n s , v a l u e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t
f o r h > 0.7. Data s c a t t e r shown i n t h e s e c u r v e s i n d i c a t e c o n f i d e n c e
limits f o r t h e p r e d i c t i o n s .
Very l i t t l e o r no d a t a e x i s t f o r fragment impact i n i t i a t i o n

f o r many of t h e p r e s s e d e x p l o s i v e s p r e s e n t i n t h e Pantex p l a n t , s o t e s t s
on t h e s e e x p l o s i v e s are d e f i n i t e l y needed t o supplement t h e p r e d i c t i o n
curves given here.
6-157
tu
F i g u r e 6.42 7 versus
P
f o r Bare E x p l o s i v e s
6-158
0.
0.I
Comp B and Cyclotol
0.3
-
"50
0.2
0.
Figure 6 . 4 3 vso versus fi

P
f o r B a r e Explosives I n c l u d i n g l a E r r o r Bands
1
T e n t a t i v e Range- of
S c a l e d Impact V
50 -.
0.5 f o r Comp B and
Amatex
0.4
-
F i g u r e 6.44 750 versus h L i g h t E x p l o s i v e Confinement I n c l u d i n g
10 E r r o r Bands
6-160
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.1
0 0.4
-0.8 1.2 1.6
h
Figure 6.45 V50 v e r s u s h , Heavy E x p l o s i v e Confinement

I n c l u d i n g l o E r r o r Bands
6-161
1.
1.01
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
F i g u r e 6.46
-I/h- v e r s u s E, Heavy E x p l o s i v e Confinement I n c l u d i n g
l a E r r o r Bands
6-162
PROBLEM - Determine i f a fragment of s p e c i f i e d dimensions, mass, and

v e l o c i t y can cause i n i t i a t i o n of HE i n l i g h t e x p l o s i v e
confinement, heavy e x p l o s i v e confinement and f o r b a r e e x p l o s i v e .
GIVEN: A = p r e s e n t e d fragment a r e a
p = d e n s i t y of fragment
M = mass of p r o j e c t i l e
P
V = fragment v e l o c i t y
a = speed of sound i n p r o j e c t i l e
P
h = casing thickness
Exp 10si v e t y p e
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of e x p l o s i v e i n i t i a t i o n REFERENCE
SOLUTION : 1. C a l c u l a t e t h e v a r i o u s nondimensional t e r m s Eq. (6.85),

r e q u i r e d t o u s e F i g u r e s 6.42, 6.43, 6.44, (6.861, .
6.45, and 6.46. The terms are %p, v,I, (6.87) ,
and h. U s e t h e same e q u a t i o n s f o r V but (6.88) ,
use V given.
50 (6.89)
2. Use F i g u r e s 6.42, 6.43, 6.44, 6.45, and
6.46 t o determine comparison w i t h v
50
curves F i g . 6.42,
and cse judgment t o d e t e r m i n e i f i n i t i a t i o n 6.46
w i l l occur.
CALCULATION
GIVEN: E x p l o s i v e t y p e : Comp B
Fragment type: s t e e l
A = 1 in. 2
p = 7.36 x -4 l b - s e c 22 / i n . 4
M = 7.36 x 10 lb-sec / i n .
P
v = 1000 f t / s e c = 12000 i n . / s e c
a = 2.00 x 10 5 i n . / s e c
P
Consider t h r e e c a s e s :
h = 0 i n . f o r uncased
h = 0.25 i n . f o r l i g h t cased
1
h = 1.2 i n . f o r heavy cased
2
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of e x p l o s i v e i n i t i a t i o n
- M
SOLUTION: 1. M = = 7.36 = 1
P ppA3j2 7.36 x 10-4(1)3/2
6-163 Change 1 - 15 August 1981

.3
v- = V- = 12000
-2
a 5 = 6.0 x 10
2.00 x 1 0
-
I = fi 7 = (1)(6.0 x = 6.0 x
2-
M V
L i g h t Cased
- -
hl--= 1
0.25
Heavy Cased
-I - -
-h2 --1-
1.2
- 1.2, a l s o - - 6.0 x = 10-2
E, 1.2
L
-
f o r b a r e e x p l o s i v e , of c o u r s e , no h e x i s t s .
2. Using F i g u r e s 6.42 - 6.46, t h e f o l l o w i n g i s
noted :
Bare HE
F i g u r e 6.42 - The_ p o i n t (G i) o r (1, 6,O x
i s b e l o w Comp B I l i n e and P hI a s a low b u t unknown
p r o b a b i l i t y of e x p l o d i n g .
F i g u r e 6.43 - P o i n t (Mp, v) -2
o r (1, 6 . 0 x 10 ) i s
below t h e Comp B i s o l i n e .
L i g h t E x p l o s i v e Confinement
-2
F i g u r e 6.44 --P o i n t ( h , 7 ) o r ( 0 . 2 5 , 6.0 x 1 0 )
i s below t h e V50 l i n e .
Heavy E x p l o s i v e Confinement- -2
F i g u r e 6.45 - P o i n t ( h 2 , V) o r ( 1 . 2 , 6.0 x 10 )
i s below t h e v50 line.
-2
F i g u r e 6.46 - P o i n t (G2, I/;,) o r (1.2, 5 x 1 0 )
i s below t h e c u r v e .
In summary, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a n e x p l o s i o n i s always
v e r y low.
PROBLEM - Rework Example Problem 6.29 u s i n g a n o t h e r v a l u e f o r impact

velocity.
CALCULATION
GIVEN: T h i s same problem i s now reworked w i t h V = 4000 f t / s e c = 48,000

in./sec.
-
FIND: P r o b a b i l i t y of e x p l o s i v e i n i t i a t i o n
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 6-164

M
SOLUTION: 1. fi = = 1
P A3/2
P
v- = -V = 48,000
= 0.24
a 5
2.0xlO
7 = =(1)(0.24) = 0.24
-P-
- M V
= (1)(0.24) = 0.12
E =
2 2
L i g h t Cased
h1 = 0 . 2 5
Heavy
- Cased -
2 h2
0.24 = o.2
h = 1.2 a l s o I = -
1.2
-
For b a r e e x p l o s i v e , of c o u r s e , no h e x i s t s .
2. Using F i g u r e s 6.44 - 6 . 4 8 , t h e f o l l o w i n g i s n o t e d :
Bare HE
F i g u r e 6.42 - P o i n t (fi , T)
o r (1, 0 . 2 4 ) i s above
t h e Comp B i s o l i n e and: t h e r e f o r e , t h e HE h a s a g r e a t e r
t h a n 0 . 5 p r o b a b i l i t y of d e t o n a t i n g .
Figure 6.43 - Point (G , 7) o r (1, 0 . 2 4 ) i s above

t h e Comp B i s o l i n e . P
L i g h t E x p l o s i v e Confinement-
F i g u r e 6.44 - P o i n t (E V) o r ( 0 . 2 5 , 0 . 2 4 ) i s n e a r
1'
o r w i t h i n t h e l a e r r o r band of t h e Comp B r e g i o n and
t h u s HE d e t o n a t i o n i s l i k e l y .
Heavy E x p l o s i v e Confinement
F i g u r e 6 . 4 5 - The point ( g 2 , v)
o r (1.2, 0.24) is
below t h e c u r v e and o u t s i d e t h e l r e r r o r band.
F i g u r e 6.46 - The p o i n t . ( E 2 , T / h 2 ) o r ( 1 . 2 , 0 . 2 ) f a l l s
a t t h e i / h c u r v e and hence p r e d i c t s a 0 . 5 0 p r o b a b i l i t y
2
of d e t o n a t i o n o c c u r r e n c e .
I n sumnary, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e b a r e e x p l o s i v e d e t o n a t i n g i s
h i g h ( 7 5 % ) . D e t o n a t i o n of t h e l i g h t l y cased e x p l o s i v e a l s o h a s a proba-
b i l i t y of about 50%. because i t l i e s w i t h i n t h e l a e r r o r band f o r t h i s
p r o b a b i l i t y . The r e s u l t s f o r a h e a v i l y c o n f i n e d c h a r g e are i n c o n c l u s i v e ,
b e c a u s e t h e two i n i t i a t i o n c r i t e r i a g i v e d i f f e r e n t answers. To be s a f e ,
one s h o u l d assume t h e more dangerous r e s u l t , i . e . , t h a t , i n t h i s c a s e ,
t h e e x p l o s i v e also h a s a 50% p r o b a b i l i t y of d e t o n a t i n g .
6-165 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1981

6.6.3 Crush, Impact, and Skid I n i t i a t i o n
A number of tests have been conducted on e x p l o s i v e materials t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e i r s e n s i t i v i t y t o s p e c i f i c i n i t i a t i o n methods (Ref. 6.70).
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s e t e s t s have f a i l e d t o y i e l d a workable d a t a b a s e on
e x p l o s i v e s e n s i t i v i t y . I n c o n s i s t e n c i e s i n t h e t e s t procedures and a l a c k
of r e p o r t i n g on p e r t i n e n t v a r i a b l e s are two r e a s o n s why a t t e m p t s t o
develop f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e v a r i o u s t e s t s have so f a r
been u n s u c c e s s f u l . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s u l t s of s e n s i t i v i t y t e s t s ( s e e
Appendix A, P r o p e r t i e s of E x p l o s i v e s ) should be used o n l y as a determina-
t i o n of t h e r e l a t i v e s e n s i t i v i t i e s of e x p l o s i v e s t o s p e c i f i c i n i t i a t i o n
methods. Do not a t t e m p t t o estimate t h e r e s u l t s of one t e s t from t h e
r e s u l t s of a n o t h e r ; i . e . , t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s k i d i n i t i a t i o n t e s t cannot
be p r e d i c t e d based on t h e r e s u l t s of t h e drop-weight t e s t .
6.7 ASSESSMENT OF CONFIDENCE I N PREDICTION METHODS
Because of l i m i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n from a c c i d e n t s and experiments,

t h e a c c u r a c y of t h e p r e d i c t i o n methods w i l l b e a f f e c t e d . S p e c i f i c
l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e u s e of t h e p r e d i c t i o n methods have been d i s c u s s e d
i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e s e c t i o n s of t h i s c h a p t e r . The s e c t i o n s which f o l l o w ,
however, w i l l g i v e an overview, i n g e n e r a l terms, of t h e assumptions and
u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n methods and w i l l l i s t recommended t e s t s
and a n a l y s e s t o v a l i d a t e assumptions o r reduce u n c e r t a i n t i e s .
6.7.1 I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Assumptions and U n c e r t a i n t i e s
T h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s , i n g e n e r a l terms, t h e assumptions and

u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e fragment damage s c e n a r i o p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r .
V e l o c i t y P r e d i c t i o n of Primary Fragments ( S e c t i o n 6.2.1.1)
C a l c u l a t i o n of v e l o c i t i e s of primary fragments i s based on t h e

Gurney Method. T h i s method, which g i v e s maximum v e l o c i t i e s , w a s
developed f o r c a s e s where an HE completely f i l l s t h e i n s i d e of a c y l i n d e r
of uniform w a l l t h i c k n e s s and a few o t h e r g e o m e t r i e s . There a r e a l s o
l i m i t s on t h e t y p e s of e x p l o s i v e s f o r which t h e Gurney energy w a s
determined. V e l o c i t i e s f o r c o n t a i n e r s of d i f f e r e n t shapes and approxima-
t i o n s of Gurney e n e r g i e s f o r d i f f e r e n t e x p l o s i v e s should be used w i t h
appropriate reservation.
Mass D i s t r i b u t i o n ( S e c t i o n 6.2.1.2)
C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e mass d i s t r i b u t i o n u s i n g t h e Mott e q u a t i o n s can

only b e a c c u r a t e l y made f o r uniform c y l i n d e r s , completely f i l l e d w i t h
HE.
6-166
Primary Fragment Shape ( S e c t i o n 6.2.1.3)
Choice of fragment shape i s somewhat a r b i t r a r y . The s t a n d a r d

and a l t e r n a t e fragment s h a p e s r e p r e s e n t c o n s e r v a t i v e worst-case fragments.
Secondary Fragment Shape ( S e c t i o n 6.2.2)
With t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e of t h e a r t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e AE t o
make a n e n g i n e e r i n g assessment of t h e manner i n which a p i e c e of machinery
o r equipment w i l l b r e a k a p a r t . Because of u n c e r t a i n t y i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
a c t u a l breakup p a t t e r n , i t i s b e n e f i c i a l f o r t h e AE t o c o n s i d e r a l l
r e a s o n a b l e breakup p a t t e r n s .
V e l o c i t y P r e d i c t i o n of Secondary Fragments ( S e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 2 . 1 )
The a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v e l o c i t y of uncon-
strained objects - f a r from t h e e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s h o u l d b e f a i r l y a c c u r a t e
f o r many o b j e c t s h a p e s . I r r e g u l a r o b j e c t s h a p e s w i l l have t o be e v a l u a t e d
by a p p r o x i m a t i n g them by t h e o b j e c t shapes mentioned i n t h e s e c t i o n . When
t h i s i s done, i t i s b e s t t o examine t h e v a r i a n c e i n u n c o n s t r a i n e d o b j e c t
v e l o c i t y w i t h changes i n d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t and o b j e c t dimensions. Experi-
m e n t a l d a t a f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v e l o c i t y of u n c o n s t r a i n e d o b j e c t s n e a r
t h e e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e are l i m i t e d b u t a c c u r a t e . E s t i m a t i o n of v e l o c i t i e s
f o r o t h e r o b j e c t s h a p e s w i l l v a r y dependent on t h e s h a p e f a c t o r and area
used. The s h a p e f a c t o r s i n F i g u r e 6 . 1 1 v a r y by as much a s 5 0 p e r c e n t . S i n c e
v e l o c i t y i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e shape f a c t o r , a c h o i c e of an
i n t e r m e d i a t e s h a p e f a c t o r f o r a n i r r e g u l a r o b j e c t c o u l d produce a n e r r o r
i n c a l c u l a t e d v e l o c i t y of a b o u t 25 p e r c e n t . The e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e a l s o per-
formed u s i n g s p L e r i c a 1 and c y l i n d r i c a l Comp B c h a r g e s . Other s h a p e s o f t y p e s
of e x p l o s i v e s w i l l y i e l d u n c e r t a i n r e s u l t s . However, a d j u s t m e n t of a n
a c t u a l HE c h a r g e t o a n e q u i v a l e n t Comp B c h a r g e u s i n g t h e h e a t of d e t o n a t i o n
of t h e e x p l o s i v e s s h o u l d y i e l d a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s .
( S e c t i o n 6.2.2.2)
C a l c u l a t i o n of c o n s t r a i n e d o b j e c t v e l o c i t i e s n e a r a n e x p l o s i v e
c h a r g e i s l i m i t e d t o c a n t i l e v e r and clamped-clamped boundary c o n d i t i o n s
and u n i f o r m beams. V e l o c i t y i s n o t t o o dependent on t h e t y p e of f a i l u r e .
Thus, v e l o c i t y c a l c u l a t i o n s are a c c u r a t e f o r t h e s e two c o n d i t i o n s .
B u i l d i n g Fragments ( S e c t i o n 6.2.3)
B u i l d i n g f r a g m e n t a t i o n depends on a number of f a c t o r s and c a n v a r y

s i g n i f i c a n t l y from one b u i l d i n g t y p e t o a n o t h e r . Because o f l i m i t e d i n f o r -
mation on t h i s s u b j e c t , t h e AE w i l l be f o r c e d t o make numerous e n g i n e e r i n g
a s s e s s m e n t s . I n some cases, i t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o produce a l t e r n a t e
s c e n a r i o s i n o r d e r t o a s s u r e an a d e q u a t e amoullt o f c o n s e r v a t i s m i n d e s i g n .
6-167
8( S e c t i o n 6.2.4)
Fragment r a n g e f o r i n d i v i d u a l fragments i s dependent on i n i t i a l

c o n d i t i o n s and fragment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Once t h e s e are known, maximum
r a n g e c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r a "chunky" fragment should have an accuracy of
w i t h i n 10 percent.
( S e c t i o n 6.2.4.2)
Impact mass and r a n g e d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n s f o r fragmenting

b u i l d i n g s have a h i g h d e g r e e of c r e d i b i l i t y from a s t a t i s t i c a l p o i n t
of view. I f similar b u i l d i n g s and e x p l o s i v e charge e n e r g i e s a r e b e i n g
c o n s i d e r e d , a s t a t i s t i c a l l y a c c u r a t e m i s s i l e map can be c o n s t r u c t e d .
I f o t h e r b u i l d i n g t y p e s are b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , t h e u s e of t h e s e d a t a may
y i e l d i n a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s . I f t h e b u i l d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are t h e
same b u t t h e charge energy v a r i e s , some d e g r e e of accuracy can b e main-
t a i n e d through i n t e r p o l a t i o n w i t h i n t h e energy range i n t h e f i g u r e s .
E x t r a p o l a t i o n o u t s i d e t h e energy range shown i n t h e f i g u r e s i s n o t
recommended.
( S e c t i o n 6.2.4.3)
S i z e of b u i l d i n g fragments can b e approximated from t h e m a s s

d i s t r i b u t i o n and knowledge of t h e t y p e of b u i l d i n g materials. S i n c e
s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n s are i n v o l v e d , average s i z e s a r e more
r e l e v a n t t h a n s i z e s of i n d i v i d u a l fragments.
( S e c t i o n 6.2.4.4)
Due t o t h e mass of b u i l d i n g fragments and t h e r a n g e over which

t h e y t r a v e l , iinpact k i n e t i c e n e r g i e s w i l l b e h i g h and cause a l a r g e
amount of damage t o o b j e c t s which t h e y s t r i k e . Of more importance
are t h e m a s s and r a n g e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of b u i l d i n g fragments which are
discussed i n previous s e c t i o n s .
( S e c t i o n 6.3.1)
Missile d i s p e r s i o n e q u a t i o n s should b e used f o r b u i l d i n g s of

similar s i z e and c o n s t r u c t i o n and HE c h a r g e s of s i m i l a r e n e r g i e s t o
t h o s e used i n t h e a n a l y s i s . C o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e c u r v e
f i t s t o t h e d a t a are discussed i n t h e t e x t .
Impact Damage ( S e c t i o n 6.4.1)
Impact damage t o m e t a l s t r u c t u r e s i s w e l l d e f i n e d f o r t h e
c o n d i t i o n s s p e c i f i e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n . The e q u a t i o n s and c u r v e s are based
on e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a and r e p r e s e n t a b e s t - f i t t o t h e d a t a .
6-168
( S e c t i o n 6.4.2)
W i t h i n t h e r a n g e of t h e d a t a , p e n e t r a t i o n of f r a g m e n t s i n t o
c o n c r e t e and masonry s t r u c t u r e s i s q u i t e a c c u r a t e .
( S e c t i o n 6.4.3)
Very l i m i t e d b u t a c c u r a t e p e n e t r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are
i n c l u d e d f o r s t r a w b o a r d and f i b e r b o a r d . The d a t a a r e l i m i t e d t o a
s m a l l r a n g e of fragment masses and v e l o c i t i e s . E x t r a p o l a t i o n o u t s i d e
t h e r a n g e of t h e d a t a i s n o t recommended.
( S e c t i o n 6.4.4)
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o know w i t h a h i g h d e g r e e of c o n f i d e n c e what
fragment impact momentum w i l l b e w i t h o u t r u n n i n g a t r a j e c t o r y code program.
The impact damage c r i t e r i a , however, p r o v i d e a good i n d i c a t i o n of fragment
momentum r e q u i r e d f o r damage. A l s o , t h e v e l o c i t y d i r e c t i o n p r o v i d e s a
u s e f u l i n d i c a t i o n of how v e l o c i t y v a r i e s w i t h drop h e i g h t .
( S e c t i o n 6.4.5)
Fragment p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o c o h e s i v e s o i l s and sand i s based on

e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s and should p r o v i d e good r e s u l t s when used i n
t h e r a n g e of t h e d a t a . When d e t e r m i n i n g p e n e t r a t i o n of fragments i n t o
o t h e r materials a s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e r e are r e s t r i c t i o n s t o
s t e e l f r a g m e n t s , s m a l l fragment s i z e s , and s p e c i f i c t y p e s o f t a r g e t s .
The e q u a t i o n s were e m p i r i c a l l y developed f o r m i l i t a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s and
n a t u r a l l y provide limited information f o r explosion accidents.
( S e c t i o n 6.5.1)
Primary fragment injury criteria were experimentally derived

and p r o v i d e a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s w i t h i n t h e r a n g e of t h e d a t a .
( S e c t i o n 6.5.2)
Secondary fragment i n j u r y c r i t e r i a are a l s o experimenta.lly

d e r i v e d and p r o v i d e a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s w i t h i n t h e r a n g e of t h e d a t a .
E x p l o s i v e I n i t i a t i o n ( S e c t i o n 6.6.1)
A model a n a l y s i s and a n a n a l y s i s of t e s t d a t a were performed t o

d e v e l o p t h e c r i t e r i a f o r e x p l o s i v e i n i t i a t i o n of b a r e e x p l o s i v e s by
fragment impact. The c r i t e r i a a r e a c c u r a t e w i t h i n t h e r a n g e of d a t a
b u t cannot be e x t r a p o l a t e d w i t h a p r e d i c t a b l e d e g r e e of a c c u r a c y .
6-169
( S e c t i o n 6.6.2)
The c r i t e r i a f o r e x p l o s i v e i n i t i a t i o n of encased e x p l o s i v e s by
fragment impact are a c c u r a t e w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of t h e d a t a .
( S e c t i o n 6.6.3)
Very l i t t l e o b j e c t i v e e x p l o s i v e s e n s i t i v i t y i n f o r m a t i o n can b e
d e r i v e d from t h e c r u s h , impact, and s k i d i n i t i a t i o n tests. These tests
p r o v i d e a s u b j e c t i v e comparison between e x p l o s i v e s .
6.7.2 Recommended T e s t s a n d / o r Analyses t o V a l i d a t e Assumptions o r

Reduce U n c e r t a i n t i e s
The s u b j e c t s of f r a g m e n t a t i o n and impact damage are extremely

broad and may n e v e r be f u l l y understood. Fragmentation h e a v i l y depends
upon t h e t y p e of l o a d i n g , p o s i t i o n s of loaded o b j e c t s r e l a t i v e t o t h e
s o u r c e and o t h e r o b j e c t s , material p r o p e r t i e s , c o n s t r u c t i o n d e s i g n , e t c .
Fragment impact damage depends on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p r o j e c t i l e
(material p r o p e r t i e s , m a s s , shape, v e l o c i t y , i m p a c t a n g l e , e t c . ) and of
t h e t a r g e t (material p r o p e r t i e s , t h i c k n e s s , c o n s t r a i n t s , e t c . ) . Because
o f t h e l a r g e number of parameters i n v o l v e d , i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o
develop an u n t e n a b l e number of subproblems. There are, however, a number
of areas which c o u l d be examined.which would p r o v i d e major advances i n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g and d e a l i n g w i t h t h e whole problem of f r a g m e n t a t i o n and
impact damage. Some f r u i t f u l areas f o r f u t u r e work are:
0 S t u d i e s of f r a g m e n t a t i o n p a t t e r n s of HE p r o c e s s machinery
and measurement of fragment v e l o c i t i e s .
T r a n s l a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s of u n c o n s t r a i n e d and c o n s t r a i n e d o b j e c t s
of v a r i o u s shapes and materials s u b j e c t e d t o b l a s t l o a d s
from HE c h a r g e s of several t y p e s , s h a p e s and c o n f i g u r a t i o n s .
0 Fragment p a t t e r n s f o r s t r u c t u r e s , s i m i l a r t o t h o s e a t t h e
P a n t e x f a c i l i t y , s u b j e c t e d t o i n t e r n a l o r e x t e r n a l HE
e x p l o s i o n s . C a r e f u l l y planned model tests would b e a p p r o p r i a t e .
0 Missile maps of fragments from s t r u c t u r e s , similar t o t h o s e

a t t h e Pantex f a c i l i t y , subjected t o i n t e r n a l explosions.
0 Measurements of impact v e l o c i t i e s of fragments from s t r u c t u r e s

s u b j e c t e d t o i n t e r n a l explosions.
0 Fragment p e n e t r a t i o n of b u i l d i n g materials and p a n e l s . These

i n c l u d e a t least c o n c r e t e fragments impacting e a r t h f i l l and
composite b u i l d i n g p a n e l s , f i b e r b o a r d , e t c . ; and s t e e l o r o t h e r
6-170
metal fragments impacting some of t h e same materials and b r i c k ,
c l a y t i l e , and masonry.
0 Explosive i n i t i a t i o n due t o impact from l a r g e , c r u s h i n g o b j e c t s .
6.8 PROCEDURE FOR PERFORMING A FRAGMENTATION ANALYSIS
T h i s c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s many d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s of a f r a g m e n t a t i o n
a n a l y s i s . Throughout t h e c h a p t e r , w e have i n c l u d e d i l h s t r a t i v e
examples of v a r i o u s f r a g m e n t a t i o n subproblems. To a i d t h e a n a l y s t i n
performing a f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n a l y s i s , w e have developed t h e f l o w c h a r t s
c o n t a i n e d i n F i g u r e s 6.47a and 6.47b. To u s e t h e f l o w c h a r t s , one b e g i n s
a t t h e t o p of F i g u r e 6.47a and f o l l o w s t h e arrows through t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
Yes-No answers and a n a l y s i s b l o c k s ( n o t e t h a t F i g u r e 6.47a i s l i n k e d t o
F i g u r e 6.47b through t h e "A" c o n n e c t o r ) . Each a n a l y s i s b l o c k r e f e r s t o
some s u b s e c t i o n i n t h i s c h a p t e r of t h e manual where an a n a l y s i s procedure
and a n example problem can be found. S i n c e many fragments u s u a l l y need
t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i n a f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n a l y s i s , F i g u r e 6.47b l e a d s back
t o t h e s t a r t of t h e f l o w c h a r t i n F i g u r e 6.47a. Thus, one i t e r a t e s through
F i g u r e s 6.47a and 6.47b u n t i l t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n a l y s i s i s complete.
F i g u r e 6.47a d i s t i n g u i s h e s between non-building secondary fragments and
b u i l d i n g fragments. Non-building secondary fragments i n c l u d e p i e c e s
of machinery, f u r n i t u r e , t o o l s , and m i s c e l l a n e o u s o b j e c t s n e a r t h e
e x p l o s i o n s o u r c e . B u i l d i n g fragments are p i e c e s from t h e s t r u c t u r e
i t s e l f , such as p o r t i o n s of w a l l s and c e i l i n g s .
6-171
DETERMINE DETERMINE DETERMINE S I Z E
VELOCITY -h MASS -w AND SHAPE
SECTION 6 ; 2 . 1 . 1 SECTION 6 . 2 . 1 . 2 SECTION 6 . 2 . 1 . 3
j
Y
DETERMINE VELOCITY
DETERMINE
FOR CONSTRAINED
+ MAXIMUMRANGE
FRAGMENT
SECTION 6 . 2 . 2 . 2
SECTION 6 . 2 . 4 . 1
.
DETERMINE MASS
AND RANGE DETERMINE M I S S I L E
DISTRIBUTIONS __C DISPERSION
SECTION 6 . 2 . 3
6 6.2.4.2 . SECTION 6 . 3 . 1
6-172
NO YES DETERMINE EXTENT
c OF DAMAGE
SECTION 6 . 4 . 1
OF DAMAGE
SECTION 6 . 4 . 2
+ 1
YES DETERMINE EXTENT
OF DAMAGE
SECTION 6 . 4 . 3
+DETERMINE EXTENT
OF DAMAGE
SECTION 6 . 4 . 4
DETERMINE EXTENT
re 1-4
OF DAMAGE
SECTION 6 . 4 . 5
YES DETERMINE
OF DAMAGE
EXTENT
SECTION 6 . 4 . 5
DETERNINE EXTENT
YES OF DAMAGE
SECTION 6 . 4 . 5
NO YES DETERMINE EXTENT'
I
b OF DAMAGE
SECTIONS 6.5.1
h 6.5.2
1
YES DETERMINE EXTENT

c OF DAMAGE
SECTIONS 6 . 6 . 1 .
6.6.2 b 6.6.3
F i g u r e 6.47bFlow C h a r t (Continued)
6-173
6.9 LIST OF SYMBOLS
A p r e s e n t e d area f o r u s e i n s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n s ;
p r e s e n t e d area of an o b j e c t exposed t o a b l a s t wave; c r o s s -
s e c t i o n a l area of a beam; p r o j e c t i l e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a ;
fragment a v e r a g e p r e s e n t e d area; a v e r a g e fragment impact area;
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of p r o j e c t i l e a l o n g i t s t r a j e c t o r y ;
f r o n t a l area of f l a t - f a c e d fragment s i m u l a t o r
d r a g area
%
Ai area of r i n g d e f i n e d by t h e r a n g e i n t e r v a l R i
A e m p i r i c a l c o n s t a n t f o r p r e d i c t i n g compact fragment l i m i t
0
v e l o c i t y f o r mild s t e e l t a r g e t s
A fragment area p r e s e n t e d t o p l a t e
2
A e s t i m a t e d a v e r a g e impact area of fragment
a r a d i u s of fragment; e m p i r i c a l c o n s t a n t f o r p r e d i c t i n g compact
fragment r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y f o r mild s t e e l t a r g e t ; speed of
sound i n t a r g e t material
a v e l o c i t y of sound i n a i r
0
a sound v e l o c i t y i n p r o j e c t i l e material
P
a c o n s t a n t i n fragment d e n s i t y e q u a t i o n
0
a c o n s t a n t i n fragment d e n s i t y e q u a t i o n ; speed of sound i n
1
fragment material
c o n s t a n t i n fragment d e n s i t y e q u a t i o n ; speed of sound i n

a2 t a r g e t material
B explosive constant
b e m p i r i c a l c o n s t a n t f o r p r e d i c t i n g compact fragment r e s i d u a l
v e l o c i t y f o r mild steel t a r g e t s
C c o n s t a n t ; t a r g e t material c o n s t a n t f o r s t e e l fragment
penetration
CL confidence l e v e l
drag c o e f f i c i e n t
cD
l i f t coefficient
cL
dilatational velocity
cS
t a r g e t material c o n s t a n t f o r steel fragment p e n e t r a t i o n
6-174
c2
constant for maximum penetration in concrete of metal fragments
other than armor-piercing; target material constant for steel
fragment penetration
C fragment distribution constant
C empirical constant for predicting compact fragment residual

velocity for mild steel targets; constant in penetration
equation; target material constant for steel fragment penetra-
tion
C sonic velocity of target plate

P
D diameter; fragment caliber density
d fragment diameter; diameter of rod projectile
d diameter of a steel core inside an HE containment shell

co
di outside diameter of HE containment shell; average inside

diameter of casing
t
d diameter of perforations in a target plate
P
impact diameter of fragment
dl
E modulus of elasticity for concrete
C
-
E nondimensional energy; scaled impact kinetic energy
E* areal density of target
E Gurney energy
F face resisting movement
FD drag force
lift force
FL
-
F effective force F
function of time t
f C static unconfined compressive strength of concrete
gravity constant
minimum transverse dimension of mean presented area of object
h steel casing thickness; thickness of a beam; thickness of

target
6-175
h average c e n t e r - t o - c e n t e r d i s t a n c e between p e r f o r a t i o n s i n a
P target plate
t a r g e t thickness
h2
-
h s c a l e d steel casing thickness; dimensionless t a r g e t t h i c k n e s s
I impulse imparted t o a t a r g e t
t o t a l d r a g and d i f f r a c t i o n impulse
Id
i n c i d e n t s p e c i f i c impulse
IS
impulse absorbed by a deforming t a r g e t
Ist
-
I nondimensional side-on s p e c i f i c impulse; s c a l e d impact
moment um
i s p e c i f i c a c q u i r e d impulse; s p e c i f i c impulse imparted t o a

t a r g e t from an impacting rod m i s s i l e
K con st a n t
K c o n s t a n t f o r f r e e - f a l l i n g body
Y
k v e l o c i t y decay c o e f f i c i e n t
V
KE k i n e t i c energy of an impacting p r o j e c t i l e
L length
R l e n g t h of a beam; l e n g t h of rod p r o j e c t i l e ; l e n g t h of
pipe m i s s i l e
R l e n g t h of e x p l o s i v e l i n e
e
l e n g t h of fragment
M Mott p a r a m e t e r ; m a s s of an o b j e c t ; m a s s of p r o j e c t i l e
fragment d i s t r i b u t i o n parameter
MA
M a v e r a g e m a s s of a fragment
a
t o t a l d e s t r o y e d mass of a b u i l d i n g
MB
a p a r t i c u l a r mass of b u i l d i n g fragments
Mi
M pro j ecilt-! mass
P
6-176
. ..... .... .... - - . -
-
M s c a l e d m a s s p e r u n i t area of a p r o j e c t i l e
P
m e m p i r i c a l c o n s t a n t f o r p r e d i c t i n g compact fragment l i m i t
v e l o c i t y f o r mild s t e e l t a r g e t s
N p r o j e c t i l e nose shape f a c t o r
t o t a l number of fragments
Nf
number of fragments i n a p a r t i c u l a r r a n g e increment
Nf
i
number of fragments of a p a r t i c u l a r mass i n t h e r a n g e
interval
Rk
t o t a l number of fragments
NT
N number of fragments w i t h weight g r e a t e r t h a n W
X f
n c a l i b e r r a d i u s of t h e t a n g e n t ogive of t h e assumed fragment
nose; e m p i r i c a l c o n s t a n t f o r p r e d i c t i n g compact fragment
l i m i t v e l o c i t y f o r mild s t e e l t a r g e t s
P peak c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e of rod m i s s i l e
P ambient atmospheric p r e s s u r e
j
P atmospheric pressure
0
P maximum peak r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e
r
P peak i n c i d e n t o v e r p r e s s u r e
S
-
P nondimensional side-on o v e r p r e s s u r e
n e t transverse pressure
Q peak dynamic p r e s s u r e
R d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t e r of d e t o n a t i o n ; sta.ndoff d i s t a n c e ;
range; p e r f o r a t i o n f a c t o r
r a d i u s of t h e e x p l o s i v e
Re
e f f e c t i v e s p h e r i c a l r a d i u s of e x p l o s i v e
a p a r t i c u l a r range i n t e r v a l
Ri
R lower bound of a p a r t i c u l a r r a n g e i n t e r v a l
il
6-17 7
R. upper bound of a p a r t i c u l a r r a n g e i n t e r v a l
"2
a p a r t i c u l a r range i n t e r v a l
5c
R target radius
t
-
R nondimensional range
R' e f f e c t i v e s p h e r i c a l r a d i u s of e x p l o s i v e
r r a d i u s of a s p h e r i c a l p e n e t r a t o r
S e l a s t i c s e c t i o n modulus; d e g r e e of s a t u r a t i o n
T toughness
t h i c k n e s s of c o n c r e t e element
TC
t i m e of maximum peak r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e
T1
time a t which r e f l e c t e d p r e s s u r e falls t o d r a g p r e s s u r e
T2
t i m e a t which ambient p r e s s u r e i s reached a f t e r p a s s a g e of
T3
a b l a s t wave
t t h i c k n e s s of f r a g m e n t ; d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n ; time; p l a t e
thickness
t i m e of a r r i v a l
ta
t average casing thickness
C
a c t u a l t h i c k n e s s of sand l a y e r
tS
w a l l t h i c k n e s s of p i p e m i s s i l e
tW
-
t e f f e c t i v e time t
U s t r a i n energy
U p a r t i c l e v e l o c i t y of b l a s t wave
v v e l o c i t y ; b a l l i s t i c l i m i t v e l o c i t y ; v e l o c i t y of p r o j e c t i l e
c o r r e h t i o n velocity
vco
c r i t i c a l velocity
'cr
i n i t i a l velocity
'i
6-178
b a l l i s t i c l i m i t velocity
V i n i t i a l fragment v e l o c i t y ; p r o j e c t i l e impact v e l o c i t y
0
V impact v e l o c i t y of p r o j e c t i l e
P
fragment r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y ; r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y of fragment a s
'r
i t l e a v e s c o n c r e t e element
V s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y ; fragment s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y
S
V v e r t i c a l component of s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y
Y
v i n i t i a l v e r t i c a l component of v e l o c i t y
YO
b a l l i s t i c l i m i t v e l o c i t y ; fragment impact v e l o c i t y which h a s
'50
a 50% p r o b a b i l i t y of c a u s i n g e x p l o s i v e i n i t i a t i o n
-
V nondimensional v e l o c i t y ; e f f e c t i v e v e l o c i t y of impact V
0
- dimensionless l i m i t v e l o c i t y
'50
W weight of e x p l o s i v e ; a t y p e of s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n
function
W weight of HE containment s h e l l
C
W weight of s t e e l c o r e i n s i d e an HE containment s h e l l
co
weight of one s i d e of a metal p l a t e sandwich c o n t a i n i n g HE
wcl
weight of one s i d e of a m e t a l p l a t e sandwich c o n t a i n i n g HE
wc2
fragment w e i g h t
wf
W r e s i d u a l weight of t h e fragment
r
fragment s t r i k i n g weight
wS
W areal d e n s i t y of t a r g e t ( d e n s i t y x t h i c k n e s s )
X d i s t a n c e from f r o n t of o b j e c t t o l o c a t i o n of i t s l a r g e s t
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area
i horizontal velocity
..
X horizontal acceleration
maximum p e n e t r a t i o n of armor-piercing fragment

xf
6-179
maximum p e n e t r a t i o n i n c o n c r e t e of metal fragments o t h e r t h a n
armor-piercing
-
X e f f e c t i v e displacement X
X displacement of an o b j e c t ; d i s p e r s i o n a n g l e i n fragment d e n s i t y
e q u a t i o n ; d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n
X v e l o c i t y of an o b j e c t
..
X a c c e l e r a t i o n of an o b j e c t
i. vertical velocity
..
Y vertical acceleration
Y edge l e n g t h of fragment; d i s t a n c e i n fragment d e n s i t y e q u a t i o n
v e r t i c a l impact h e i g h t
yf
v e r t i c a l drop h e i g h t
yo
Z p l a s t i c s e c t i o n modulus; c a l i b e r p e n e t r a t i o n
z fragment d e n s i t y
CY. t r a j e c t o r y angle; constant i n penetiation equation; constant

f o r c o h e s i v e s o i l p e n e t r a t i o n ; t a r g e t material c o n s t a n t f o r
s t e e l fragment p e n e t r a t i o n
a v e n t area r a t i o
e
a i n i t i a l t r a j e c t o r y angle
i
a t a r g e t m a t e r i a l c o n s t a n t f o r s t e e l fragment p e n e t r a t i o n
1
8 nondimensional shape f a c t o r ; p e n e t r a t i o n p a r a m e t e r ; c o n s t a n t
i n p e n e t r a t i o n equation; constant f o r cohesive s o i l p e n e t r a t i o n ;
t a r g e t material c o n s t a n t f o r s t e e l fragment p e n e t r a t i o n
B1
t a r g e t m a t e r i a l c o n s t a n t f o r s t e e l fragment p ene t ra t i o n
$2
Y s p e c i f i c weight; constant f o r cohesive s o i l p e n e t r a t i o n ;
y1
c
6-180
y2
s p e c i f i c weight of c o n c r e t e
C
s p e c i f i c weight of a i r
YO
AH h e a t of d e t o n a t i o n
6 permanent d e f l e c t i o n of t a r g e t a t p o i n t of impact; c o n s t a n t
f o r cohesive s o i l p e n e t r a t i o n
-
6 dimensionless d e f l e c t i o n
E: c o n s t a n t f o r cohesive s o i l p e n e t r a t i o n
e subtended a n g l e of a s e c t o r ; a n g l e between l i n e of f l i g h t of
fragment and normal t o p l a t e s u r f a c e
x t a r g e t m a t e r i a l c o n s t a n t f o r steel fragment p e n e t r a t i o n
x2
V Poisson's r a t i o
V p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between fragment d e n s i t y and

XZ
dispersion angle
V p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between fragment d e n s i t y and

YZ distance
P d e n s i t y ; peak d e n s i t y of b l a s t wave; s o i l mass d e n s i t y
density of Comp B explosive

'comp B
weight d e n s i t y of c o n c r e t e
pC
d e n s i t y of e x p l o s i v e
'expl
average fragment d e n s i t y o v e r a range i n t e r v a l
'i
d e n s i t y of a i r
P d e n s i t y of fragment ( p r o j e c t i l e )
P
d e n s i t y of a c o n s t r a i n e d o b j e c t
'S
9
d e n s i t y of t a r g e t
Pt
d e n s i t y of fragment material
'1
d e n s i t y of t a r g e t m a t e r i a l
p2
6-131
U u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of t a r g e t m a t e r i a l
0 y i e l d stress of t a r g e t m a t e r i a l
t
U cohesive y i e l d s t r e n g t h of s o i l
Y
-
U e f f e c t i v e r e s i s t i n g s o i l s stress r e l a t e d t o t o t a l stress
d i v i d e d by s o i l d e n s i t y
4 least a n g l e between any f l a t fragment s u r f a c e and t h e p l a t e

s u rf a c e
c r i t i c a l orientation angle f o r s h a t t e r
+C
6-182
6.10 REFERENCES
6.1 Zaker, T . A . , "Fragment and Debris Hazards," T e c h n i c a l P a p e r

No. 12, Dept. of Defense E x p l o s i v e s S a f e t y Board, J u l y 1975, AD
A013 634.
6.2 Zaker, T . A . , 11 Computer Program f o r P r e d i c t i n g C a s u a l t i e s

and Damage from A c c i d e n t a l E x p l o s i o n s , " T e c h n i c a l Paper No. 11,
Dept. of Defense E x p l o s i v e s S a f e t y Board, May 1975, AD A012 847.
6.3 Baker, W. E . , Kulesz, J . J . , R i c k e r , R. E . , Bessey, R. L . , Westine,

P. S . , P a r r , V. B. and Oldham, G . A . , "Workbook f o r P r e d i c t i n g
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6.4 R i n e h a r t , J . S., S t r e s s T r a n s i e n t s i n S o l i d s , Hyperdynamics,

S a n t a Fe, NM.
6.5 Baker, W. E . , Hokanson, J. C . and C e r v a n t e s , R. A., Model

Tests of I n d u s t r i a l Missiles," F i n a l R e p o r t , SwRI P r o j e c t 02-9153-
001, Southwest Research I n s t i t u t e , San Antonio, TX, May 1976.
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Dept. o f t h e Army T e c h n i c a l Manual TM 5-1300, Dept. of t h e Navy
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6.7 Healey, J . , Werner, H . , Weissman, S . , Dobbs, N . , P r i c e , P.,

"Primary Fragment C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Impact E f f e c t s on P r o t e c t i v e
Barriers," P i c a t i n n y A r s e n a l T e c h n i c a l Report No. 4093, Amman and
Whitney, C o n s u l t i n g E n g i n e e r s , New York, NY, December 1975.
6.8 Thomas, L . H . , "Computing t h e E f f e c t of D i s t a n c e on D a m a g e by

Fragments," Report No. 468, BRL, Aberdeen P r o v i n g Ground, MD,
May 1944.
6.9 Gurney, R. W . , "The I n i t i a l V e l o c i t i e s of Fragments from Bombs,

S h e l l s and Grenades," Report No. 648, B a l l i s t i c Research L a b o r a t o r y ,
Aberdeen P r o v i n g Ground, >ID, September 1947.
6.10 Henry, I . G . , "The Gurney Formula and R e l a t e d Approximations f o r

High-Explosive Deployment of Fragments," Report No. PUB-189,
Hughes A i r c r a f t Co., Culver C i t y , CA, 1967, Ad 813 398.
6.11 "Behavior and U t i l i z a t i o n of E x p l o s i v e s i n E n g i n e e r i n g Design and

Biomechanical P r i n c i p l e s Applied t o Chemical Medicine," P r o c e e d i n g s
of t h e 1 2 t h Annual Symposium American S o c i e t y of Mechanical E n g i n e e r s ,
March 1972.
6-183
6.12 Kury, J . W. e t a l . , "Metal A c c e l e r a t i o n by Chemical E x p l o s i v e s , "
F o u r t h Symposium ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l ) on D e t o n a t i o n , ONR ACR-126,
J a n u a r y 1 3 , 1965.
6.13 Kennedy, J . E . , "Gurney Energy of E x p l o s i v e s : E s t i m a t i o n of t h e

V e l o c i t y and Impulse Imparted t o Driven Metal," Sandia Report
SC-PR-70-790, December 1970.
6.14 " E f f e c t s of Impact and Explosion," Vol. 1, O f f i c e of S c i e n t i f i c

Research and Development, N a t i o n a l Defense Research Committee,
Washington, D C , 1946.
6.15 Johnson, C . and Moseley, J . W. , " P r e l i m i n a r y Warhead Terminal

B a l l i s t i c Handbook, P a r t 1, Terminal B a l l i s t i c E f f e c t s , " NAVWEPS
Report No. 7673, U. S . Naval Weapons L a b o r a t o r y , Dahlgren, VA,
March 1964.
6.16 Baker, W. E . , K u l e s z , J . J . , R i c k e r , R. E . , Westine, P . S . , P a r r ,

V . B . , Vargas, L . M . , and Moseley, P . K., "Workbook f o r
E s t i m a t i n g t h e E f f e c t s of A c c i d e n t a l Explosions i n P r o p e l l a n t
Handling Systems," NASA C o n t r a c t o r Report 3 0 2 3 , Contract NAS
3-20497, NASA L e w i s Research C e n t e r , August 1978.
6.17 U. S. Energy Research and Development A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Albuquerque

O p e r a t i o n Off i c e , "Report of I n v e s t i g a t i o n of the E x p l o s i o n w i t h
F a t a l I n j u r i e s i n Bldg. 11-14A on March 3 0 , 1977 a t t h e P a n t e x
P l a n t - A m a r i l l o , Texas," June 28, 1977.
6.18 Yoerner, S . F. Fluid-Dynamic Drag, Midland P a r k , NJ, 1958.
6.19 Westine, P. S . and Kineke, J . H. J r . (1978), " P r e d i c t i o n of

C o n s t r a i n e d Secondary Fragment V e l o c i t i e s , " The Shock and V i b r a t i o n
B u l l e t i n 48, P a r t 2, I s o l a t i o n and Damping, Impact, B l a s t , A
p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e Shock and V i b r a t i o n I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t e r , Naval
Research L a b o r a t o r y , Washington, DC, September 1978.
6.20 Kineke, J . H. J r . , "Secondary Fragment Speed w i t h Unconfined

E x p l o s i v e s : Model and V a l i d a t i o n , " Minutes of t h e S e v e n t e e n t h
E x p l o s i v e s S a f e t y Seminar, Vol. 11, September 1976.
6.21 Baker, w. E . , " P r e d i c t i o n and S c a l i n g o f R e f l e c t e d Impulse

from S t r o n g B l a s t Waves," I n t . J o u r . Mech. S c i . , 9 , 1967, pp. 45-51.
6.22 Weals, F. H . , "Tests t o Determine S e p a r a t i o n D i s t a n c e s o f Earth-

Covered Magazines," Annals of t h e New York Academy of S c i e n c e s ,
Vol. 1 5 2 , A r t . 1, October 1968.
6-184
e
6.23 Bergman, S . G . A . , "Swedish P r o t e c t i v e S t r u c t u r e s f o r Manufacturing
U n i t s C o n s t i t u t i n g Explosion Hazard i n t h e Range 1 - 2,000 Pounds
of TNT," Annals of t h e New York Academy o f S c i e n c e s , Vol. 152,
A r t . 1, October 1968.
6.24 Hahn, G . J . and S h a p i r o , S . S . , S t a t i s t i c a l Methods i n E n g i n e e r i n g ,

John Wiley and Sons, I n c . , New York, NY, 1967.
6.25 Kulesz, J . J . , Moseley, P. K . , and P a r r , V. B . , " P r e d i c t i o n of

Weight and Range D i s t r i b u t i o n s from A c c i d e n t a l E x p l o s i o n s I n s i d e
B u i l d i n g s , " t o be p r e s e n t e d a t t h e N i n e t e e n t h DoD E x p l o s i v e s
S a f e t y Seminar, September 9-11, 1980.
6.26 Baker, W. E . , Westine, P. S . , and Dodge, F. T . , S i m i l a r i t y

Methods i n E n g i n e e r i n g Dynamics: Theory and P r a c t i c e of S c a l e
Modeling, S p a r t a n Brooks, R o c h e l l e P a r t , N J .
6.27 McNaughtan, I. I. and Chisman, S . W . , "A Study of H a i l Impact a t

High Speed on L i g h t A l l o y P l a t e s , " P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e Ninth Annual
N a t i o n a l Conference on Environmental E f f e c t s on A i r c r a f t and
P r o p u l s i o n Systems, Naval A i r P r o p u l s i o n T e s t C e n t e r , October 7-9,
1969, pp. 16-19.
6.28 "Suppressive S h i e l d s S t r u c t u r a l Design and A n a l y s i s Handbook,"

HNDM-1110-1-2, U . S . Army Corps of E n g i n e e r s , H u n t s v i l l e D i v i s i o n ,
H u n t s v i l l e , AL, November 1977.
6.29 R i c c h i a z z a i , A. J . and Barb, J . C . , "A T e n t a t i v e Model f o r Pre-

d i c t i n g the Terminal B a l l i s t i c E f f e c t s of B l u n t Fragments
A g a i n s t S i n g l e and Spaced T a r g e t s : A Comparison of P r e d i c t e d
and E x p e r i m e n t a l T e s t R e s u l t s , " BRL MR 2578, Aberdeen Proving
Ground, MD, J a n u a r y 1976.
6.30 V a s s a l l o , F. A . , "Missile Impact T e s t i n g of R e i n f o r c e d

C o n c r e t e P a n e l s , " Calspan Report No. HC-5609-D-1, F i n a l Report,
B u f f a l o , NY, J a n u a r y 1975.
6.31 Stephenson, A. E . , "Full-Scale Tomado-Missile Impact

Tests,'' EPRI-NP-440, P r o j e c t 399, F i n a l R e p o r t , E l e c t r i c Power
Research I n s t i t u t e , P a l o Algo, CA J u l y 1977.
6.32 Stephenson, A. E . , S l i t e r , G . and B u r d e t t e , E . , "Full-

Scale Tornado-Missile Impact Tests Using a Rocket Launcher,"
Second ASCE S p e c i a l t y Conf. on S t r u c t u r a l Design of Nuclear P l a n t
F a c i l i t i e s , Vol. 1-A, New O r l e a n s , LA, December 1975, pp. 611-636.
6.33 Jankov, Z . D . , Shananhan, J . A . , and White, PI. P . , "Missile

T e s t s of Q u a r t e r S c a l e R e i n f o r c e d C o n c r e t e Barriers," P r o c e e d i n g s
of t h e Symposium on Tornadoes, Assessment of Knowledge and Implica-
t i o n s f o r Man. Texas Tech U n i v e r s i t y , J u n e 22-24, 1976, p p . 608-622.
6-185
6.34 R o t z , J . V . , " R e s u l t s o f Missile Impact T e s t s on R e i n f o r c e d
C o n c r e t e P a n e l s , " Second ASCE S p e c i a l t y Conf. on S t r u c t u r a l Design
of N u c l e a r P l a n t F a c i l i t i e s . V o l . 1-A. N e w O r l e a n s . LA. December
1975, pp. 720-738.
6.35 T i n g , R. M. L . , "Non-Composite and Composite S t e e l P a n e l s

f o r Tornado Missile Barrier Walls," Second ASCE S p e c i a l t y Conf. on
S t r u c t u r a l Design of Nuclear P l a n t F a c i l i t i e s , Vol. l A , New O r l e a n s ,
LA, December 1975, pp. 663-687.
6.36 B a r b e r , R. B . , " S t e e l Rod/Concrete S l a b Impact T e s t (Experi-

mental S i m u l a t i o n ) , " T e c h n i c a l Development Program, F i n a l R e p o r t ,
J o b No. 90142, S c i e n t i f i c Development, B e c h t e l Corp., October 1973.
6.37 Gueraud, R . , Sokolovsky, A . , Kavyrchine, M. and A s t r u c , M.,

"Study of t h e P e r f o r a t i o n of R e i n f o r c e d C o n c r e t e S l a b s by R i g i d
Missiles - G e n e r a l I n t r o d u c t i o n and Experimental Study, P a r t I , "
N u c l e a r E n g i n e e r i n g and Design, No. 41, 1977, pp. 97-102.
6.38 F i q u e t , G . and Dacquet, S . , "Study of t h e P e r f o r a t i o n o f

R e i n f o r c e d C o n c r e t e by Rigid Missiles - Experimental Study,
P a r t 11," N u c l e a r E n g i n e e r i n g and Design, No. 41, 1977, pp.
103-120.
6.39 G o l d s t e i n , S . and Berriaud,' C . , "Study of t h e P e r f o r a t i o n of

R e i n f o r c e d C o n c r e t e S l a b s by R i g i d Missiles - E x p e r i m e n t a l Study,
P a r t 111," N u c l e a r E n g i n e e r i n g and Desigr,, No. 4 1 , 1977, pp.
121-128.
6.40 Westine, P. S. and Vargas, L. M . , "Design Guide f o r Armoring

C r i t i c a l A i r c r a f t Components t o P r o t e c t From High-Explosive
P r o j e c t i l e s , " F i n a l R e p o r t , C o n t r a c t F33615-77-C-3006, U. S.
A i r F o r c e F l i g h t Dynamics L a b o r a t o r y , August 1978.
6.41 Baker, W. E . , Cox, P. A . , Westine, P. S . , K u l e s z , J . J . , and

S t r e h l o w , R. A . , A S h o r t Course on E x p l o s i o n Hazards E v a l u a t i o n ,
Copyright 1978, Southwest Research I n s t i t u t e , San Antonio, TX.
6.42 "A Comparison of V a r i o u s Materials i n T h e i r R e s i s t a n c e t o P e r f o r a -

t i o n by S t e e l Fragments, E m p i r i c a l R e l a t i o n s h i p s , " TR#25, B a l l i s t i c s
Research L a b o r a t o r y , Aberdeen P r o v i n g Ground, MD, J u l y 1956.
6.43 "The R e s i s t a n c e of V a r i o u s Non-Metallic Materials t o P e r f o r a t i o n

by S t e e l Fragments, E m p i r i c a l R e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r Fragment R e s i d u a l
V e l o c i t y and R e s i d u a l Weight," TR1151, B a l l i s t i c s Research L a b o r a t o r y ,
Aberdeen P r o v i n g Ground, MD, A p r i l 1963.
6.44 G r e e n f i e l d , S . H . , " H a i l R e s i s t a n c e of Roofing P r o d u c t s , " U . S .

Dept. of Commerce, N a t i o n a l Bureau of S t a n d a r d s , B u i l d i n g S c i e n c e
S e r i e s 23, August, 1969.
6-186
6.45 Westine, P. S . , " P r e d i c t i o n o f Fragment Displacement V e l o c i t y and
F o r c e on P r o j e c t i l e s P e n e t r a t i n g Cohesive S o i l s , " J o u r n a l o f Terra
Mechanics, Vol. 1 2 , No. 3 / 4 , December 1975, pp. 149-170.
6.46 Young, C . W . , "The Development of E m p i r i c a l E q u a t i o n s f o r P r e d i c t i n g

Depth o f a n E a r t h - P e n e t r a t i n g P r o j e c t i l e , ' ' Report No. SC-DR-67-60,
S a n d i a L a b o r a t o r y , May 1967.
6.47 Thompson, L . J . , Ferguson, G. H. 111, Murff, V. D . , and C e t i n e r ,

A., "The E f f e c t s o f S o i l P a r a m e t e r s on Ea.rth P e n e t r a t i o n of P r o j e c -
t i l e s , " Texas A&M Research Foundation Report No. PB 186074, f o r
S a n d i a Corp., J u l y 1969.
6.48 B u t l e r , D. K . , "Development of a High-Velocity Powder Gun and

A n a l y s i s of Fragment P e n e t r a t i o n Tests i n t o Sand," M i s c e l l a n e o u s
Paper S-75-27, ADA 017056, S o i l s and Pavements L a b o r a t o r y ,
U . S . Army Engineer Waterways Experiment S t a t i o n , Vicksburg,
M I , October 1975.
6.49 Greenspon, J . E . , "An Approximate Nondimensional R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of

t h e THOR E q u a t i o n s , " U . S. Army Materiel Systems A n a l y s i s A c t i v i t y ,
TR#173, October 1976.
6.5C! B a l l i s t i c A n a l y s i s L a b o r a t o r y , Johns Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y , " T h e R e s i s t a n c e

o f V a r i o u s Metallic M a t e r i a l s t o P e r f o r a t i o n by S t e e l Fragments;
E m p i r i c a l R e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r Fragment R e s i d u a l V e l o c i t y and R e s i d u a l
Weight," I n s t i t u t e t o r C o o p e r a t i v e Research, P r o j e c t THOR T e c h n i c a l
Report No. 47, A p r i l 1961.
6.51 S p e r r a z z a , J . and Kokinakis, W . , " B a l l i s t i c L i m i t s of T i s s u e and

C l o t h i n g , " T e c h n i c a l Note No. 1645, Army B a l l i s t i c Research
L a b o r a t o r i e s , RDT&E P r o j e c t No. lP025601A027, B a l l i s t i c Research
L a b o a r t o r i e s , January 1 9 6 7 .
6.52 K o k i n a k i s , W . , "A New Methodology f o r Wounding and S a f e t y C r i t e r i a , "

P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e 1 6 t h E x p l o s i v e S a f e t y Seminar, September 1974,
pp. 1209-1226.
6.53 G l a s s t o n e , S . , The E f f e c t s of Nuclear Weapons, U. S .

Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e Revised E d i t i o n , A p r i l 1962.
6.54 F l e t c h e r , E. R., "A Model t o S i m u l a t e T h o r a c i c Responses

t o A i r Blast and t o Impact," Aerospace Medical Research L a b o r a t o r y ,
Paper No. 1, W r i g h t - P a t t e r s o n A i r F o r c e Base, Ohio, AD 740-438,
December 1971.
6.55 White, C . S . , Bowen,.I. G . , Richmond, D. R . , and C o r s b i e , R. L.

"Comparative Nuclear E f f e c t o f Biomedical I n t e r e s t , I 1 CEX-
58.8, C i v i l E f f e c t s Study, U. S . Atomic Energy Commission, J a n u a r y
1961.
6-187
6.56 C u s t a r d , G . H. and Thayer, J . R . , " E v a l u a t i o n of E x p l o s i v e
S t o r a g e S a f e t y C r i t e r i a , " Falcon Research and Development Co.,
C o n t r a c t DAHC 04-69-C-0095, March 1970; a l s o "Target Response t o
E x p l o s i v e B l a s t , " September 1970.
6.57 A h l e r s , E . B . , "Fragment Hazard Study," Minutes of t h e E l e v e n t h

E x p l o s i v e s S a f e t y Seminar, V o l . 1, Armed S e r v i c e s E x p l o s i v e s S a f e t y
Board, Washington, DC, September 1969.
6.58 Clemedson, C. J . , H e l l s t r o m , G . , and Lingren, S . , "The

Relative T o l e r a n c e of t h e Head, Thorax, and Abdomen t o Blunt
Trauma," Annals of t h e New York Academy of S c i e n c e s , Vol. 152,
A r t . 1, pp. 187+, October 1968.
6.59 White, C . S . , "The Nature o f t h e Problems Involved i n

E s t i m a t i n g t h e Immediate C a s u a l t i e s from N u c l e a r Explosions,'1
CEX-71.1, C i v i l E f f e c t s Study, U. S . Atomic Energy Commission,
DR-1886, J u l y 1971.
6.60 Baker, W. E . , Whitney, M. G . , and P a r r , V . B . , "Scaling o f

I n i t i a t i o n of E x p l o s i v e s by Fragment Impact," ( s u b m i t t e d t o 5 0 t h
Shock and V i b r a t i o n Symposium).
6.61 Sla.de, D. C. and Dewey, J . , "High Order I n i t i a t i o n . o f Two M i l i t a r y

E x p l o s i v e s by P r o j e c t i l e Impact," BRL Report No. 1021, Aberdeen
P r o v i n g Ground, MD, J u l y 1 9 5 7 , AD 145868.
6.62 McLean, D. G.'and A l l a n , D. S . , "An Experimental Program t o Determine

t h e S e n s i t i v i t y of E x p l o s i v e Materials t o Impact by Regular Fragments,"
F i n a l R e p o r t , C o n t r a c t DA-19-020-ORD-5617, P i c a t i n n y Arsenal,
December 29, 1965, AD 477875.
6.63 P e t i n o , G . J r . and Leondi, Pi. F . , " S e n s i t i v i t y o f Molten and S o l i d

Amatex Charges t o Impact by Primary S t e e l Fragments," ARLDC-CR
78011, ARRADCOM, Dover, N J , A p r i l 1978.
6.64 P e t i n o , G. J r . , D e m e l l a , D . , and Rindner, R. M . , " S e n s i t i v i t y of

Cased Charges of Molten and S o l i d Composition B t o Impact by Primary
S t e e l Fragments," PA-TR-4975, P i c a t i n n y A r s e n a l , Dover, N J , J u n e
1976.
6.65 F r e y , R. B . , Howe, P. M . , Trimble, J . , and Melani, G . , " I n i t i a t i o n

of E x p l o s i v e s by P r o j e c t i l e Impact,'' D r a f t T e c h n i c a l Report, USA
BRL, J u n e 1 9 7 9 .
6.66 Reeves, H. J . , "An E m p i r i c a l l y Based A n a l y s i s on t h e Response

of HE Munitions t o Impact by S t e e l Fragments," BRL MR 2031, U. S .
Army B a l l i s t i c Research L a b o r a t o r y , March 1 9 7 0 , AD 508607.
6-188
6.67 TERA Group, New Mexico I n s t i t u t e of Mining and Technology,
" V u l n e r a b i l i t y of 105 mm HE P r o j e c t i l e s t o Fragment Impact,"
F i n a l Report f o r C o n t r a c t No. DAAD05-76-C-0789, U. S . B a l l i s t i c
Research L a b o r a t o r y , August 1978.
6.68 Dobratz, B. M., " P r o p e r t i e s of Chemical E x p l o s i v e s and E x p l o s i v e

S i m u l a n t s , " U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Livermore, CA, J u l y 1974
(UCRL-51319).
6-189
CHAPTER 7
DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF MATEXIALS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
It i s w e l l known t h a t m a t e r i a l s behave d i f f e r e n t l y under dynamic

l o a d i n g t h a n under s t a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . For most materials, t h e d e f o r m a t i o n
d u r i n g l o a d i n g ,is n o t o n l y a f u n c t i o n of t h e a m p l i t u d e of t h e a p p l i e d
f o r c e b u t a l s o t h e r a t e of a p p l i c a t i o n a n d d u r a t i o n of t h e f o r c e . Optimized
d e s i g n of s t r u c t u r e s and u t i l i z a t i o n of m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r e s an a d e q u a t e
d e s c r i p t i o n and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e material p r o p e r t i e s a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
r a t e s of l o a d i n g ( o r r a t e s o f d e f o r m a t i o n , i . e . , s t r a i n r a t e s ) .
V a r i o u s p r o c e d u r e s have been developed t o s t u d y and q u a n t i f y t h e

r e s p o n s e of materials t o dynamic ( o r i m p u l s i v e ) l o a d s . The p r i n c i p a l
v a r i a b l e s measured i n t h e s e t e s t s i n c l u d e t h e stresses and s t r a i n s
produced d u r i n g l o a d i n g and t h e e n e r g y absorbed by t h e specimen. These
t e s t s d i v i d e n a t u r a l l y i n t o two d i v e r s e groups s i n c e t h e stress and
s t r a i n measurements may b e c o n s i d e r e d p r o p e r t i e s of t h e m a t e r i a l b e i n g
s t u d i e d whereas t h e energy measurements are r e l a t e d t o t h e geometry of
t h e specimen as w e l l a s a v a r i e t y of t h e s p e c i m e n ' s m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s
The main purpose o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o p r e s e n t a review of t h e

m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s which a r e of i n t e r e s t t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r ,
w i t h s p e c i a l emphasis on t h o s e which v a r y w i t h t h e r a t e of l o a d i n g . T h i s
i n f o r m a t i o n i s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 7.2. I n S e c t i o n 7.3, a d i s c u s s i o n i s
g i v e n of v a r i o u s measures of a m a t e r i a l ' s a b i l i t y t o a b s o r b energy under
dynamic l o a d i n g . P e r t i n e n t material p r o p e r t i e s are c o n s i d e r e d . F i n a l l y ,
p r o p e r t i e s of t h e materials commonly used i n c o n s t r u c t i o n are t a b u l a t e d
i n S e c t i o n 7.4. I n c l u d e d i n t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s a r e t h o s e dynamic v a l u e s
based on r a t e s of l o a d i n g a p p l i c a b l e t o d e s i g n of s t r u c t u r e s for b l a s t
loads.
h
Under dynamic l o a d s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x p l o s i o n , s t r a i n r a t e s i n
materials may b e i n t h e r a n g e of 1 t o 100 i n . / i n . / s e c . I f the actual
s t r a i n r a t e i s known, increases i n t h e material s t r e n g t h can b e o b t a i n e d
u s i n g t h e dynamic r e l a t i o n s h i p s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 7 . 2 . These r e l a t i o n s h i p s
are e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h n u m e r i c a l methods. I f t h e
a c t u a l r a t e of s t r a i n i s n o t known, t h e dynamic p r o p e r t i e s must b e based
on some a v e r a g e o r minimum v a l u e of s t r a i n r a t e . S e c t i o n 7.4, which
t a b u l a t e s p r o p e r t i e s of v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l materials, i n c l u d e s minimum
v a l u e s o f dynamic s t r e n g t h f o r s t r a i n r a t e s of 1 and 100 i n . / i n . / s e c .
For t h e d e s i g n of s t r u c t u r e s s u b j e c t t o b l a s t l o a d i n g , e n g i n e e r s
t y p i c a l l y u s e a dynamic i n c r e a s e f a c t o r (DIF) t o account f o r t h e dynamic
b e h a v i o r of materials. Values of DIF f o r v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s used i n
7-1
f a c i l i t y c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e g i v e n i n a u t h o r i t a t i v e d e s i g n manuals o r
codes. S i n c e t h i s manual i s n o t i n t e n d e d as a n independent d e s i g n g u i d e
f o r DIF, e n g i n e e r s should c o n s u l t t h e s e a p p l i c a b l e d e s i g n manuals o r
c o d e s f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n of a p p r o p r i a t e DIFs f o r t h e i r d e s i g n .
7.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION UNDER DYNAMIC LOADING
A v a r i e t y o f m a t e r i a l s i s used i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t y p i c a l
b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t s t r u c t u r e s . These i n c l u d e : (1) t h e s t r u c t u r a l metals,
s t e e l and aluminum; ( 2 ) c o n c r e t e and masonry, i n c l u d i n g r e i n f o r c e d con-
c r e t e , c l a y t i l e b l o c k , and b r i c k ; ( 3 ) woods, such as S o u t h e r n y e l l o w
p i n e and Douglas f i r ; and ( 4 ) weak, b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s , such as i n s u l a t i n g
r o o f p a n e l s and w a l l b o a r d . Each of t h e s e t y p e s of materials d i s p l a y s
s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y i n i t s r e s p o n s e t o l o a d i n g . For t h a t r e a s o n , a
r e v i e w of each material t y p e i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n . A g e n e r a l
r e v i e w w i l l b e made of material p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h a r e o f i n t e r e s t t o t h e
s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n e r a l o n g w i t h a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n of t h o s e p r o p e r t i e s
which may v a r y w i t h t h e rate of l o a d i n g .
The m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s most commonly used i n d e s i g n are o b t a i n e d

from s t a t i c u n i a x i a l t e n s i o n and compression t e s t s . [So-called s t a t i c
s t r a i n r a t e s are commonly on t h e o r d e r of 0.0001 i n . / i n . / s e c (r4
sec-)]. I t i s c u s t o m r y t o p l o t t h e r e s u l t s i n t h e form of a stress-
s t r a i n diagram, s u c h a s t h e one shown i n F i g u r e 7 . l a . V a r i o u s p r o p e r t i e s
can b e s e e n i n t h i s f i g u r e . An i n i t i a l r e g i c l i i s shown i n which t h e
stress i s l i n e a r l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o s t r a i n . The m a t e r i a l behaves i n a n
e s s e n t i a l l y e l a s t i c manner i n t h i s r e g i o n , and t h e s l o p e of t h e stress-
s t r a i n c u r v e i s c a l l e d t h e modulus of e l a s t i c i t y , E . The t e r m i n a t i o n
of t h e e l a s t i c regime i s i m p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n e x p e r i m e n t a l l y s i n c e t h e
measurement o f s l i g h t amounts o f p l a s t i c i t y would r e q u i r e p e r f e c t
i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . The b e g i n n i n g of p l a s t i c f l o w i s more p r a c t i c a l l y
d e f i n e d i n t e r m s of t h e stress r e q u i r e d t o c a u s e some m e a s u r a b l e amount
of p l a s t i c s t r a i n . The y i e l d s t r e n g t h , 9 ,i s d e f i n e d o f t e n as t h e
stress a t which m a t e r i a l e x h i b i t s a s p e c i f i e d d e v i a t i o n from t h e
p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y o f stress t o s t r a i n . I n F i g u r e 7 . l a . t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h
i s t a k e n t o be t h e s t r e s s a t which t h e s t r a i n i s o f f s e t 0 . 2 p e r c e n t from
t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l . s t r a i n . The u l t i m a t e stress, ou, i s t h e maximum stress
s u s t a i n e d by the material. The e l o n g a t i o n , e , i s t h e s t r a i n s u s t a i n e d
by t h e m a t e r i a l a t f a i l u r e .
The e x i s t e n c e of a n e l a s t i c r e g i o n v a r i e s w i t h materials. F i g u r e
7 . l b shows t h e u n i a x i a l compression c u r v e f o r materials such as wood
and c o n c r e t e i n which l i t t l e o r no p r o p o r t i o n a l r e g i o n i s d e t e c t a b l e .
For t h e s e m a t e r i a l s , v a r i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s a r e used f o r modulus of e l a s t i c -
i t y , i n c l u d i n g : (1) t h e t a n g e n t modulus, ET, which i s t h e s l o p e of t h e
s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e a t a g i v e n s t r e s s , normally t h e o r i g i n ; ( 2 ) t h e
7-2
U
U
D U
Y Y i e l d Stress
v) Proportional L i m i t
m
aJ
Li
L1
v)
I I I t
0 .01 .02 e
Strain E
a > G e n e r a l S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curve
U
D U
Strain E Strain E
T y p i c a l Curve f o r Wood o r c) T y p i c a l Curve f o r Low-Carbon,

Concrete S t r u c t u r a l S tee1
F i g u r e 7.1. T y p i c a l S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves f o r E n g i n e e r i n g Materials
7-3
s e c a n t modulus ES, which i s t h e s l o p e o f t h e s e c a n t drawn from t h e o r i g i n
t o any s p e c i f i e d p o i n t on t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e ; and ( 3 ) t h e chord
modulus, E C , which i s t h e s l o p e of t h e chord drawn between any two
s p e c i f i e d p o i n t s on t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e .
For a few m a t e r i a l s , n o t a b l y t h e low c a r b o n s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s ,

a r e g i o n e x i s t s a f t e r i n i t i a l y i e l d i n which t h e amount of stress r e q u i r e d
t o a t t a i n a u n i t increase i n s t r a i n a c t u a l l y decreases. This behavior,
shown i n F i g u r e 7 . 1 ~ . r e s u l t s i n t h e e x i s t e n c e of a n u p p e r - y i e l d stress,
CJ
YU
, and a l o w e r - y i e l d s t r e s s , CI
Yk
. Subsequent t o t h i s b e h a v i o r , t h e
s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e rises t o a n u l t i m a t e stress which i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y
g r e a t e r t h a n e i t h e r y i e l d stress.
For b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s , s p o r a d i c r e s u l t s o f t e n occur i n u n i a x i a l
t e n s i o n t e s t s . For materials such a s wood o r c o n c r e t e , i t i s v e r y
d i f f i c u l t t o clamp t y p i c a l d e s i g n t e n s i l e specimens. T h e r e f o r e , t e n s i l e
p r o p e r t i e s f o r t h e s e materials a r e o f t e n o b t a i n e d from s t a n d a r d f l e x u r a l
o r bend t e s t s . I n t h e s e t e s t s , t h e specimen i s s u p p o r t e d a t two p o i n t s
and loaded a t a t h i r d p o i n t . Loading i s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l f a i l u r e o c c u r s .
The specimens a r e d e s i g n e d s o t h a t t h e y w i l l f a i l i n t e n s i o n a t t h e
o u t e r s u r f a c e , Based on t h e v a r i o u s dimensions of t h e specimen and
t e s t s e t u p and t h e l o a d r e q u i r e d t o c a u s e f a i l u r e , s e v e r a l m a t e r i a l
p r o p e r t i e s are d e t e r m i n e d . The modulus of r u p t u r e , R , i s c a l c u l a t e d
using the r e l a t i o n
R L -MC (7.1)
I
where M = maximum bending moment d u e t o t h e l o a d
C = one-half t h e d e p t h of t h e beam
I = moment of i n e r t i a o f t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n
The e x a c t s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s p a r a m e t e r i s n o t c l e a r . E q u a t i o n ( 7 . 1 )
i s t h e e q u a t i o n f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e o u t e r f i b e r t e n s i l e stress i n a n
e l a s t i c beam under l o a d . I f t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e
specimen were l i n e a r t o t h e p o i n t of f a i l u r e , R would correspond t o
t h e u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e stress. However, most of t h e m a t e r i a l s t e s t e d i n
t h i s fashion display a s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve s i m i l a r t o Figure 7.lb i n
which l i t t l e o r no p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y e x i s t s . For t h i s r e a s o n , t h e modulus
of r u p t u r e s h o u l d b e used more as a q u a l i t a t i v e measure o f a m a t e r i a l ' s
d u c t i l i t y o r b r i t t l e n e s s t h a n a s a q u a n t i t a t i v e number t o b e used d i r e c t l y
i n design.
The m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s which a r e n o r m a l l y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e r a t e
of l o a d i n g a r e t h e m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h s and t h e t o t a l e l o n g a t i o n a t
f a i l u r e . The p r o p e r t y most o f t e n s t u d i e d i s t h e y i e l d stress of t h e
m a t e r i a l . I t i s n o t uncommon f o r t h e y i e l d stress t o b e d o u b l e t h e s t a t i c
v a l u e f o r s t r a i n r a t e s of 100 sec-1. AII i n c r e a s e i n u l t i m a t e stress
o f t e n o c c u r s , a l t h o u g h n o t as d r a m a t i c a l l y as f o r t h e y i e l d stress.
Change 1 - 1 5 August 1 9 8 1 7-4

Measurements of t h e t o t a l e l o n g a t i o n t o f a i l u r e a r e v e r y h a r d t o o b t a i n
f o r v e r y h i g h rates of l o a d i n g , i . e . , s t r a i n r a t e s g r e a t e r t h a n 1 secl.
Thus, some r e p o r t e d v a l u e s of e l o n g a t i o n o r toughness (area under t h e
s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e ) may be q u e s t i o n a b l e f o r t h e s e h i g h r a t e s of
l o a d i n g . These v a l u e s w i l l o n l y be g i v e n i n t h i s s e c t i o n f o r t h o s e
cases where t h e r e i s a h i g h c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e a c c u r a c y of t h e s e d a t a .
7.2.1 P r o p e r t i e s of Metals
In t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t s t r u c t u r e s , s t e e l and
aluminum a r e t h e o n l y metals n o r m a l l y used. V a r i o u s g r a d e s of s t e e l
a r e u t i l i z e d based on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n . A d i s c u s s i o n of b o t h t h e s t a t i c
and dynamic p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s e g r a d e s of s t e e l i s g i v e n i n t h i s s e c t i o n .
I n f o r m a t i o n o n aluminum 6061 i s a l s o p r o v i d e d .
7.2.1.1 S t a t i c Behavior
The s h a p e of t h e s t a t i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e f o r a s t e e l depends
upon t h e exact a l l o y c o n t e n t and t h e stress and t e m p e r a t u r e h i s t o r y .
S t r e s s - s t r a i n curves of t y p i c a l a l l o y s t e e l s are given i n Figure 7.2.
The c u r v e s f o r t h e low c a r b o n s t e e l s d i s p l a y upper and lower y i e l d
p o i n t s . For d e s i g n p u r p o s e s , t h e lower y i e l d p o i n t i s c o n s i d e r e d t o
r e p r e s e n t t h e p r a c t i c a l y i e l d s t r e n g t h . The h e a t - t r e a t e d s t e e l s do n o t
d i s p l a y t h e s e double y i e l d p o i n t s .
The low carbon s t e e l s are p r e f e r r e d f o r u s e i n c o n s t r u c t i o n

b e c a u s e of t h e i r h i g h d u c t i l i t y . For many y e a r s t h e most common s t e e l
u s e d w a s a low-carbon s t e e l d e s i g n a t e d by ASTM S p e c i f i c a t i o n A 7 . T h i s
w a s t h e predominant s t e e l used i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of b u i l d i n g s . T h i s
s t e e l h a s now been s u p p l a n t e d by ASTM A36 as t h e a l l - p u r p o s e c o n s t r u c t i o n
steel. There are, however, 1 3 ASTM s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s
c u r r e n t l y approved f o r u s e i n b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n (Ref. 7 . 1 ) .
O f these 13, t h o s e most commonly used i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of

b u i l d i n g s a r e ASTM A36, ASTM A529 s t r u c t u r a l carbon s t e e l , ASTM A440
h i g h - s t r e n g t h s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l , ASTM A570 h o t - r o l l e d carbon s t e e l s h e e t
and s t r i p , ASTM A441 and A572 h i g h - s t r e n g t h low-alloy s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s ,
ASTM A242 and A588 c o r r o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t h i g h - s t r e n g t h low-alloy s t r u c t u r a l
s t e e l s , and ASTM A514 quenched and tempered a l l o y s t r u c t u r a l steel p l a t e .
The s t a n d a r d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r J-Series and H - S e r i e s open-web

s t e e l j o i s t s ( R e f . 7.1) states t h a t t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of chord and web
s e c t i o n s s h a l l conform t o one of t h e p r e v i o u s l y mentioned ASTM s p e c i f i c a -
t i o n s o r t o ASTM A611, Type 2 , c o l d - r o l l e d carbon s h e e t . The s t e e l used
f o r J - S e r i e s j o i s t s s h a l l have a minimum y i e l d p o i n t of 36,000 p s i i n
t h e h o t - r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n p r i o r t o forming o r f a b r i c a t i o n . The d e s i g n
o f chord s e c t i o n s f o r H-Series j o i s t s s h a l l b e based on a y i e l d p o i n t
of 50,000 p s i . The d e s i g n of web s e c t i o n s f o r H-Series j o i s t s s h a l l b e
b a s e d on a y i e l d p o i n t o f e i t h e r 36,000 p s i o r 50,000 p s i .
7-5
180
Tungsten Alloy S t e e l
160
e a t - T r e a t e d Nickel
140
120
Lower Y i e l d P o i n t
60
40
20
0
0.004 o .ooa 0.012
Strain, in/in
Figure 7.2. S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves of T y p i c a l

A l l o y S t e e l s and S t r u c t u r a l Aluminum
7- 6
I n t h e reinforcement of c o n c r e t e , ASTM A615 deformed and p l a i n
b i l l e t - s t e e l b a r s a r e used. Grade 40 h a s a minimum y i e l d s t r e n g t h of
40,000 p s i and Grade 60 a minimum y i e l d s t r e n g t h of 60,000 p s i .
Aluminum 6061 combines good s t r e n g t h w i t h r e l a t i v e l y good

d u c t i l i t y . It i s u s u a l l y used i n a h e a t - t r e a t e d c o n d i t i o n d e s i g n a t e d
by T4,with a minimum u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e stress of 30 k s i and T6, w i t h a
minimum t e n s i l e u l t i m a t e stress of 42 k s i .
The minimum s t a t i c t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s f o r b o t h t h e s t r u c t u r a l
s t e e l s and aluminum a r e given i n S e c t i o n 7 . 4 .
7.2.1.2 Dynamic Behavior
Under dynamic l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s o f
many s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s w i l l be a l t e r e d . I n g e n e r a l , t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h s
and u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h s are h i g h e r under t h e high s t r a i n r a t e s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b l a s t l o a d s ( & = 1 t o 100 sec'l) t h a n under slowly a p p l i e d
" s t a t i c " l o a d s . I n view of t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s involved i n determining t h e
b l a s t r e s p o n s e of s t r u c t u r e s , however, g r e a t p r e c i s i o n i n e v a l u a t i o n of
s t r a i n r a t e e f f e c t s i s n o t normally j u s t i f i e d . It i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d
t h a t s t r a i n r a t e e f f e c t s r e s u l t i n g from a i r b l a s t l o a d i n g can be e s t i m a t e d
t o i n c r e a s e t h e s t a t i c t e n s i l e y i e l d s t r e n g t h of s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s by
a minimum of 1 0 p e r c e n t (Ref. 7 . 2 ) . Under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s t h e i n c r e a s e
i n y i e l d s t r e n g t h may be much g r e a t e r . The h i g h e r s t r e n g t h s t e e l s
(ay >60,000 p s i ) , w i t h o u t d e f i n i t e y i e l d p o i n t s and pronounced p l a s t i c
r a n g e s , have n o t been found t o e x h i b i t as h i g h an i n c r e a s e as o t h e r
s t r u c t u r a l steels. Unless t h e a c t u a l s t r a i n rates can b e determined,
i t i s recommended t h a t t h e dynamic y i e l d s t r e n g t h s of h i g h s t r e n g t h
s t e e l s b e t a k e n e q u a l t o t h e i r s t a t i c v a l u e s . S i m i l a r l y , w i t h o u t know-
l e d g e of a c t u a l s t r a i n r a t e s , t h e dynamic u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h s f o r a l l s t e e l s
should b e t a k e n e q u a l t o t h e i r s t a t i c v a l u e s . The dynamic s h e a r y i e l d
s t r e n g t h s for a l l s t e e l s a r e normally t a k e n equal t o 0.55 t i m e s t h e
dynamic t e n s i l e y i e l d s t r e n g t h s . The modulus of e l a s t i c i t y i s e f f e c t i v e l y
unchanged w i t h rate of s t r a i n .
I f t h e a c t u a l s t r a i n . r a t e s i n a s t r u c t u r e can be a c c u r a t e l y
determined, more a c c u r a t e estimates c a n b e made of t h e material s t r e n g t h s
f o r purposes of d e s i g n . To t h i s end, r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e r a t e
o f s t r a i n and t h e s t r e n g t h s of v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s w i l l now b e
given.
A l a r g e amount of h i g h - r a t e t e s t i n g h a s been conducted on low

carbon s t e e l s (Refs. 7 . 3 , 7.4, 7 . 5 , and 7.6) and should b e a p p l i c a b l e
t o many of t h e s t r u c t u r a l steels. A t y p i c a l set of d a t a i s shown i n
F i g u r e 7.3. A review of a l l d a t a on low carbon s t e e l s r e s u l t s i n t h e
7-7
f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e dynamic y i e l d stress and t h e s t r a i n
rate:
(5
= 1.3 + 0.25 l o g E'. ( 1 < E < 100 sec-')* (7.2)
Y
where t h e dynamic y i e l d stress i s denoted by Udy and t h e s t a t i c v a l u e

by uy. T h i s e q u a t i o n i s a c o n s e r v a t i v e estimate of t h e d a t a given i n
Reference 7.5 and r e s u l t s i n y i e l d s t r e n g t h r a t i o s , ad /ay of 1.3 f o r
= 1 sec-l and 1 . 8 f o r i = 100 sec-l. There i s much res, dramatic
e f f e c t on t h e u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between
u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and s t r a i n r a t e may be e x p r e s s e d :
U
- dT
- - 1.10+ 0.1l o g i (1 < i < 100 s e c
-1
(7.3)
U
T
which g i v e s t e n s i l e s t r e n t h r a t i o s , U ~ T / U T , of 1.10 f o r 6 = 1 s e c - l
and 1.30 f o r E = 100 sec- K. I n t h e work by Winlock (Ref. 7.4). t h e t o t a l
d e f o r m a t i o n i n a compression t e s t w a s s e e n t o i n c r e a s e w i t h s t r a i n r a t e .
However, t h i s i n c r e a s e w a s s m a l l and i t i s n o t clear t h a t i t would occur
d u r i n g a t e n s i l e t e s t . For t h e s e r e a s o n s , i t i s recommended t h a t t h e
t o t a l e l o n g a t i o n be assumed independent of s t r a i n r a t e .
These r e l a t i o n s h i p s were developed f o r d a t a of annealed low-

carbon steels and should b e a p p l i c a b l e f o r ASTM A7, A36, A529, A440,
A570, and A615. However, A611 Grade E i s a c o l d - r o l l e d s t e e l w i t h a
minimum y i e l d s t r e n g t h of 80 k s i . Zdsed on s t - d i e s of two s i m i l a r
m a t e r i a l s (Ref. 7.3). a c o n s e r v a t i v e estimate of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r
A611, Grade E may b e w r i t t e n :
U
A =1.0 + 0.1l o g i: (1 < i: < 100 s e c - l ) (7.4)
U
Y
No d a t a were g i v e n on t h e v a r i a t i o n of t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h w i t h s t r a i n r a t e .
Although most of t h e s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s a r e low-carbon s t e e l s ,

s e v e r a l are low-alloy s t e e l s , i n c l u d i n g ASTM A242, A441,, A572, A588,
and A514. Of t h i s group, tests have been conducted on A242 (Ref. 7.3).
I n t h e s e tests, t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h r a t i o was s e e n t o f i t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p f
most c l o s e l y .
U
3
U
= 1.2 + 0.2 l o g E (1 < E < 100 sec-') (7.5)
Y
No d a t a were g i v e n f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n of t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h w i t h s t r a i n rate.
*In t h i s t e x t , l o g A d e n o t e s logl0A.
7-8
U
10-~ io+ lo-' lo-' 1 10' 10' 10'
S t r a i n Rate, sec
-1
Figure 7.3 Stress-Strain Properties of Mild Steel at Various Strain Rates

N o o t h e r d a t a f o r t h e low-alloy s t e e l s have been found. However,
a r e v i e w of t h e l i t e r a t u r e (Ref. 7.7) has shown t h a t a l l o y i n g t e n d s t o
d e c r e a s e t h e r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y of s t e e l , as w a s s e e n f o r A242 r e l a t i v e t o
t h e low-carbon s t e e l s . For t h i s r e a s o n , a c o n s e r v a t i v e e s t i m a t e of t h e
v a r i a t i o n of s t r e n g t h w i t h s t r a i n r a t e must b e used. For A 4 4 1 , A572,
and A588 which have minimum y i e l d stresses v a r y i n g from 42 t o 65 k s i ,
t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h r a t i o w i l l b e assumed t o have t h e form:
U
3 = 1.1 + 0.1l o g i (1 < c < 100 s e c - l ) (7.6)
0
Y
The u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h f o r t h e s e s t e e l s w i l l be assumed independent
of s t r a i n rate. For A514 w i t h a minimum y i e l d s t r e n g t h of 100 k s i , b o t h
s t r e n g t h s should be assumed independent of s t r a i n r a t e .
Because of i t s e x t e n s i v e u s e i n a i r c r a f t and s p a c e c r a f t c o n s t r u c -
t i o n , a g r e a t d e a l of r e s e a r c h h a s been conducted on t h e s t r a i n r a t e
s e n s i t i v i t y of aluminum. E x t e n s i v e work o n ' Aluminum 1100, summarized
i n Reference 7 . 6 , has demonstrated moderate s t r a i n r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y .
S i m i l a r s t u d i e s (Ref. 7.8) of annealed 6061 (-0 c o n d i t i o n ) have demonstrated
a v e r y s l i g h t i n c r e a s e of y i e l d stress f o r s t r a i n r a t e s above 1 s e c - l .
However, f o r s t r u c t u r a l g r a d e s of 6061 (-T4, -T451, -T6, -T651), nuinerous
s t u d i e s (Refs. 7 . 8 , 7 . 9 , and 7.10) have i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y i e l d stress
i n c r e a s e s less t h a n 5 p e r c e n t over t h e r a n g e of s t r a i n r a t e s of 10-4
sec-I t o lo2 sec-l. Thus, p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s e s t r u c t u r a l g r a d e s of
aluminum should b e c o n s i d e r e d independent of s t r a i n r a t e .
7.2.2 P r o p e r t i e s of Concrete and Masonry

,
Concrete may be c o n s i d e r e d t o be a p a r t i c u l a t e r e i n f o r c e d composite
m a t e r i a l made up of f i n e and c o a r s e s t o n e a g g r e g a t e i n a matrix material
made from p o r t l a n d cement and w a t e r . I t s p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s depend
upon many f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g such t h i n g s as t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e cement
and t h e a g g r e g a t e p o r t i o n s of each, t h e s i z e and d i s t r i b u t i o n of aggre-
g a t e , amount of w a t e r u s e d , amount and q u a l i t y of mixing, and a g e . S i n c e
i t i s o f t e n hard t o c o n t r o l each of t h e s e when f a b r i c a t i n g a s t r u c t u r e ,
i t may n o t be p o s s i b l e t o p r e d e t e r m i n e t h e e x a c t p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c o n c r e t e .
I n t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s , t h e d e s i g n e r must assume some r e a l i s t i c v a l u e s
f o r t h e p r o p e r t i e s and make a n e f f o r t t o a s s u r e that t h e d e s i g n p r o p e r t i e s
a r e a t t a i n e d . I n t h e f a b r i c a t i o n p r o c e s s , samples of c o n c r e t e must be
t a k e n t o make t e s t specimens f o r l a t e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a c t u a l s t a t i c
properties.
7-10
The most commonly used p r o p e r t y of c o n c r e t e i s i t s compressive

s t r e n g t h , f i , which i s measured i n compression t e s t s of s t a n d a r d c y l i n d e r s .
S i n c e c o n c r e t e g a i n s s t r e n g t h a s i t a g e s , a time of 28 days h a s been
e s t a b l i s h e d a s t h e s t a n d a r d d u r a t i o n of a g i n g p r i o r t o t e s t . T y p i c a l
d a t a from compression t e s t i n g a r e g i v e n i n F i g u r e 7.4. Maximum compressive
s t r e n g t h i s seen t o occur a t a s t r a i n of about 0 . 2 p e r c e n t , and f a i l u r e
o c c u r s n e a r 0.4 p e r c e n t . The e f f e c t s of a g i n g on t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve
c a n b e s e e n v e r y e x p l i c i t l y i n F i g u r e 7.5.
It should be n o t e d i n F i g u r e 7.4 t h a t t h e s l o p e o f t h e stress-

s t r a i n c u r v e i s c o n t i n u a l l y d e c r e a s i n g from i n i t i a l l o a d i n g up t o t h e
u l t i m a t e stress. Concrete h a s n e i t h e r a d e f i n i t e p r o p o r t i o n a l l i m i t n o r
a n e l a s t i c l i m i t . Thus, v a r i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s have been g i v e n f o r t h e modulus
of e l a s t i c i t y , a s w a s e x p l a i n e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o S e c t i o n 7 . 2 .
Various forms of t h e modulus were d i s p l a y e d i n F i g u r e 7 . l b , i n c l u d i n g t h e
t a n g e n t modulus, t h e s e c a n t modulus, and t h e chord modulus.
I n compression t e s t i n g , t h e o n l y ASTM s t a n d a r d t e s t methods

f o r s t a t i c modulus of e l a s t i c i t y of c o n c r e t e , C469, s t i p u l a t e s t h e u s e
of a chord modulus, w i t h t h e lower p o i n t on t h e c u r v e n e a r t h e o r i g i n
( E = 0.00005) and t h e upper p o i n t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a stress e q u a l l i n g
40 p e r c e n t of t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e c o n c r e t e a t t h e t i m e of l o a d i n g . The
lower p o i n t i s c l o s e t o t h e o r i g i n b u t f a r enough removed t o be f r e e of
p o s s i b l e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e s t r a i n r e a d i n g s caused by s e a t i n g o f t h e
t e s t machine p l o t t e r s and s t r a i n measuring d e v i c e s . The upper p o i n t i s
t a k e n n e a r t h e upper end of t h e working stress range assumed i n d e s i g n .
For c o n c r e t e s commonly employed i n c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e compressive

strength, E', i s normally i n t h e r a n g e of 2,000 t o 5,000 p s i . For
s t r u c t u r a l lightweight c o n c r e t e , t y p i c a l v a l u e s f o r t h e modulus of
e l a s t i c i t y measured i n compression range from 1 t o 3 x l o 6 p s i and f o r n o r r a l
weight c o n c r e t e s , t h e v a l u e s range from 2 t o 5 x l o 6 p s i . A modulus of
e l a s t i c i t y f o r c o n c r e t e w i t h u n i t weight of 90 t o 155 pounds p e r c u b i c
f o o t can b e e s t i m a t e d w i t h t h e e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p (Ref. 7 . 1 2 )
E = 33w1a5 JF C p s i (7.7)
C
3
where w = u n i t weight of c o n c r e t e , l b / f t
f ' = s p e c i f i e d compressive s t r e n g t h of c o n c t e t e , p s i
C
S i n c e s t r u c t u r a l c o n c r e t e i s designed p r i n c i p a l l y t o be loaded
i n compression, v e r y l i t t l e emphasis h a s been placed on d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
r e s p o n s e of c o n c r e t e t o u n i a x i a l t e n s i l e l o a d i n g . There i s no s t a n d a r d
t e s t t e c h n i q u e f o r a t t a i n i n g t h e s e d a t a . The normal t e n s i o n t e s t used
w i t h metals does n o t work w e l l due t o d i f f i c u l t i e s i n holding t h e t e s t
7-11 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1 9 8 1

6
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
Strain, in./in.
Figure 7 . 4 . Typical Stress-Strain Curves for Concrete

(Ref. 7.11)
w 3
>
1
7 14 28 3 6 1 I
Days Months Years
Figure 7.5. Effect of Age on Concrete Compressive

Strength f,: (Ref. 7.11)
7-12
- - ... - - - - -- -..- -- -..- - ..- - - ..... - - ...... - .... . . .. ... . . ... . . . -
specimen, which may r e s u l t i n f a i l u r e a t t h e a t t a c h m e n t s o r a nonuniform

s t a t e of stress i n t h e specimen. The most common method used t o o b t a i n
t e n s i l e d a t a i s t h e t h r e e - p o i n t bend t e s t , from which t h e modulus of
r u p t u r e ( t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h i n f l e x u r e ) i s computed. An e x p l a n a t i o n of
t h e modulus of r u p t u r e i s given i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o S e c t i o n 7 . 2 .
Tests have shown t h a t t h e v a l u e s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e modulus of r u p t u r e are
s u b s t a n t i a l l y l a r g e r t h a n t h o s e o b t a i n e d from u n i a x i a l t e n s i o n t e s t s .
This d i s c r e p a n c y may b e due t o t h e i n c o r r e c t assumption of stress l i n e a r i t y
o v e r t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of t h e beam used i n t h e t h r e e - p o i n t bend
t e s t . A s a r u l e , t h e modulus of r u p t u r e i s roughly 1 0 t o 1 5 p e r c e n t of
t h e compressive s t r e n g t h (Ref. 7.13).
7.2.2.2 Dynamic Behavior
Concrete p o s s e s s e s a r a t h e r high s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e r a t e of
l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n . Thus, t h e p r o p e r t i e s of c o n c r e t e depend s t r o n g l y on
t h e s t r a i n r a t e . For t h o s e cases of d e s i g n f o r which t h e r a t e of
s t r a i n i s n o t known, t h e g e n e r a l l y accepted p r a c t i c e i s t o assume a 25
p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e unconfined compressive s t r e n g t h o f c o n c r e t e due
t o r a p i d l o a d i n g (Ref. 7.13). Similarly, a 10 percent increase is
recommended i n t h e d i r e c t s h e a r s t r e n g t h of members due t o r a p i d l o a d i n g .
It i s recommended t h a t no i n c r e a s e i n d i a g o n a l t e n s i o n o r bond
s t r e n g t h b e allowed f o r r a p i d l o a d i n g . Table 7.1 summarizes dynamic
i n c r e a s e f a c t o r s (DIF) f o r stresses i n c o n c r e t e members f o r r a p i d l o a d i n g .
Table 7 . 1 Dynamic I n c r e a s e F a c t o r s f o r Concrete (Ref. 7.12)
Stress Dynamic I n c r e a s e F a c t o r
Compression 1.25
Tension 1.0
Diagonal Tension 1.0
Direct Shear 1.1
Bond 1.0
I f t h e a c t u a l s t r a i n rates i n t h e s t r u c t u r e can b e a c c u r a t e l y
determined, more a c c u r a t e estimates can b e made of t h e material s t r e n g t h s
f o r purposes of d e s i g n . To t h i s end, a d i s c u s s i o n w i l l now b e p r e s e n t e d
of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e r a t e of s t r a i n and v a r i o u s p r o p e r t i e s
of c o n c r e t e .
7-13
A survey of t h e e f f e c t s of l o a d i n g r a t e on mechanical p r o p e r t i e s
(Ref. 7'.14) found a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n compressive s t r e n g t h , modulus
of e l a s t i c i t y , and modulus of r u p t u r e . F i g u r e 7.6 p r e s e n t s a c o m p i l a t i o n
of d a t a demonstrating t h e increase of compressive s t r e n g t h w i t h r a t e of
stressing.
I I I I I I
0 Hureau of Heclamtion 8 b y 1 6 - i n . Cylinders

0 U u r u a u of Reclaiiiariun b by 1 2 - i n . Cylinders
5M 1.6 - A .lories and Ricltart 6 by 12-in. Cylinders 7 Days
C
A Jones and Richart 6 by 12-111. C y l i i i d r r s 2 8 Uays
.b
v1
Y
0 Guedu 10-cni Cubes
Y
1.4 - ASTM Cormnittee C-1 2 - i n . Cubes
.r(
uv1
l x 1113111ow 1 0 ~ , y 20-cm Cylinders +
Y
e + Evalrs 2 and 3-in. Cubes
6
U
'c)
N
d
1z
0.8 I I I I I I I I
0.1 1.0 10 10 10' 1OS 10: IO6
b t r of S t r e s s i n g , (Log S c a l e ) p s i l s r c
F i g u r e 7.6 I n c r e a s e of Compressive S t r e n g t h , f;, w i t h

Rate of Loading f o r Concrete (Normalized Relative t o a
Loading R a t e of 30 p s i / s e c ) (Reference 7.14)
The work by W a t s t e i n (Ref. 7.15) a p p e a r s t o b e t h e most complete

and i n f o r m a t i v e program conducted on c o n c r e t e . H i s work covered a wide
r a n g e of s t r a i n rates and c o n s i d e r e d s e v e r a l p r o p e r t i e s of c o n c r e t e . I n
h i s s t u d y , W a t s t e i n c o n s i d e r e d two c o n c r e t e s having approximate compressive
s t r e n g t h s of 2500 and 6500 p s i . The maximum r a t i o of dynamic t o s t a t i c
compressive s t r e n g t h s w a s about 1.8 f o r r a t e s of s t r a i n of 10 s e c - l .
The v a l u e s of t h e s e c a n t moduli of e l a s t i c i t y i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h
t h e r a t e of a p p l i c a t i o n of l o a d ; t h e maximum r a t i o of dynamic t o s t a t i c
modulus w a s 1.47 f o r t h e "weak" c o n c r e t e and 1.33 f o r t h e "strong"
c o n c r e t e . R e s i s t a n c e of t h e c o n c r e t e t o impact as measured by i t s a b i l i t y
t o a b s o r b s t r a i n energy a l s o i n c r e a s e d w i t h s t r a i n r a t e . F i g u r e 7.7 i s
a p l o t of compressive s t r e n g t h , fi,
and s e c a n t modulus of e l a s t i c i t y ,
ES *
a s a f u n c t i o n of s t r a i n r a t e . T y p i c a l s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s f o r s t a t i c
and dynamic t e s t s are g i v e n i n F i g u r e s 7.8 and 7.9 ( d a t a r e c o r d i n g ceased
a f t e r t h e compressive s t r e n g t h w a s r e a c h e d ) . I n F i g u r e 7.5, r e s u l t s a r e
g i v e n f o r s t a t i c tests ( s t r a i n r a t e of s e c - l ) and dynamic t e s t s
(10.0 s e c - l ) of t h e "weak" c o n c r e t e and i n F i g u r e 7 . 9 , r e s u l t s are g i v e n
f o r t h e s t a t i c tests s e c - l ) and dynamic tests (6.69 s e c - l ) of t h e
11
s t r o n g " c o n c r e t e . W a t s t e i n a l s o compared t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e s e c a n t
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e i n compressive
s t r e n g t h . These d a t a are p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 7.10. I d a t s t e i n commented
7-14
1.4
U
ri 1.2
U
(d
U
0
v)
1.0
E o "Weak1' Concrete
0 "Strong" Concrete ik
1.6
U
ri
U
(d .1.4
U
v)
1.2
10-1 1 10
-1
Strain-Rate E, sec
Figure 7 . 7 I n c r e a s e of Compressive S t r e n g t h w i t h R a t e
of S t r a i n f o r Concrete (Ref. 7 . 1 5 )
7-15
F i g u r e 7.8. T y p i c a l S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves f o r "Weak"
C o n c r e t e , E' = 10.1 sec'' ( R e f . 7.15)
:t
o DYNAMIC
0 STATIC
Strain, in./in.
F i g u r e 7.9 . T y p i c a l S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves f o r "S t r o n g"
C o n c r e t e , E = 6.7 sec-l ( R e f . 7.15)
7-16
t h a t t h e r e w a s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e manner of f a i l u r e of t h e
c o n c r e t e t e s t specimens i n t h e dynamic and s t a t i c t e s t s .
It i s a p p a r e n t from F i g u r e s 7.8 and 7.9 t h a t maximum stress o c c u r s

a t comparable s t r a i n s f o r both t h e s t a t i c and dynamic tests. The obvious
c o n c l u s i o n from t h i s f a c t i s t h a t t h e s t r a i n energy t o f a i l u r e (area
under t h e stress-strain curve up t o t h e maximum s t r e s s ) i s much g r e a t e r
f o r t h e dynamic c a s e . This p o i n t i s shown i n F i g u r e 7 . 1 1 i n which W a t s t e i n
p l o t s t h e r a t i o of t h e dynamic t o s t a t i c s t r a i n energy, W , v e r s u s t h e r a t i o
of t h e dynamic t o s t a t i c s t r e n g t h r a t i o . I n t h i s f i g u r e , an i n c r e a s e
i n t h e s t r a i n energy on t h e o r d e r of 2 . 2 w a s recorded f o r b o t h t h e high-
s t r e n g t h and low-strength c o n c r e t e s a t s t r a i n r a t e s on t h e o r d e r of 1 0
sec-1.
I n g e n e r a l , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e p r o p e r t i e s of v a r i o u s - s t r e n g t h
c o n c r e t e s are a f f e c t e d s i m i l a r l y by an i n c r e a s e i n s t r a i n r a t e . A good
approximation of t h e i n c r e a s e i n compressive s t r e n g t h w i t h s t r a i n r a t e
c a n be g i v e n by t h e r e l a t i o n :
2
-ffC: '- - 1.5 + 0.2 l o g i < t < 10 sec-l) (7.8)
C
A c o n s e r v a t i v e estimate of t h e i n c r e a s e i n modulus of e l a s t i c i t y can be
o b t a i n e d from t h e r e l a t i o n :
(7.9)
The i n c r e a s e i n s t r a i n energy, W, can be approximated by t h e r e l a t i o n :
d_
' -
W - 1.7 + 0.4 log 6 (1 < i < 100 s e c - l ) (7.10)
A s s t a t e d earlier, it i s very d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n t r u e t e n s i l e
d a t a f o r c o n c r e t e . It i s almost i m p o s s i b l e t o measure t h e dynamic t e n s i l e
p r o p e r t i e s d i r e c t l y . I n i t i a l e f f o r t s t o measure t h e t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s
a r e g i v e n i n Reference 7.16. I n t h i s program, t h e dynamic t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h
w a s o b t a i n e d from impact tests i n which t h e spa11 t h r e s h o l d w a s determined.
The r e p o r t e d dynamic t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h w a s about t e n t i m e s t h e u s u a l
s t a t i c t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h ; t h e dynamic s h e a r and compaction s t r e n g t h s were
about double t h e s t a t i c v a l u e s . The r e s u l t s are somewhat q u e s t i o n a b l e
because of t h e i n h e r e n t assumptions made i n r e d u c i n g t h e d a t a . It i s
recommended t h a t t h e v a l u e s given i n Table 7 . 1 be used u n t i l f u r t h e r
s t u d i e s have been conducted on t h e dynamic t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s of c o n c r e t e .
7-17
1.5 I
W
\
a
14
ul 1.3
-
-
/ -STRONG CONCRETE
wa CONCRETE
12-
LI -
I I I 1 I I
10 14 . 16 1.0 2.0
F i g u r e 7.10. V a r i a t i o n of Dynamic Secant Modulus w i t h

D y n a m i c Compressive S t r e n g t h f o r C o n c r e t e
(Ref. 7.15)
:://
o WEAK CONCRETE
q. ; 1.e
1.4
-
0 STRONG CONCRETE
1.2 -
1.0 -
. I I I I I
F i g u r e 7.11. V a r i a t i o n of Dynamic S t r a i n Energy w i t h

The Dynamic S t r e n g t h for C o n c r e t e
(Ref. 7 . 1 5 )
7-18
-7
Because of t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f dynamic
material p r o p e r t i e s i n g e n e r a l , h i g h s t r a i n r a t e t e s t i n g has been l i m i t e d
t o only a few classes of materials. For t h i s r e a s o n , h i g h s t r a i n r a t e
d a t a do n o t e x i s t f o r such materials as p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e , masonry,
hollow c l a y t i l e b l o c k and b r i c k .
7.2.3 P r o p e r t i e s of Woods
Wood i s used e x t e n s i v e l y i n c o n s t r u c t i o n because of i t s r e l a t i v e

low c o s t , a v a i l a b i l i t y , high s t r e n g t h t o weight, and good i n s u l a t i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I t s u s e i n c o n s t r u c t i o n i s dominated by t h e a n i s o t r o p y
of i t s p r o p e r t i e s ; t h a t i s , i t h a s unique and independent mechanical
p r o p e r t i e s i n t h r e e orthogonal ( p e r p e n d i c u l a r ) directions--longitudinal,
r a d i a l , and t a n g e n t i a l . The l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n i s a l o n g t h e a x i s o f
t h e f i b e r s (along t h e g r a i n ) , t h e r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n i s perpendicular t o
t h e g r a i n i n t h e r a d i a l (outward) d i r e c t i o n , and t h e t a n g e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n
i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e g r a i n and t a n g e n t t o t h e growth r i n g s . These
axes are shown i n F i g u r e 7 . 1 2 .
TANGENTIAL
LONGITUDINAL
Figure 7 . 1 2 . The Three P r i n c i p a l Axes of Wood w i t h Respect t o

Grain D i r e c t i o n and Growth Rings
Mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of woods are o b t a i n e d from t e s t s of small

p i e c e s of wood termed "clear" and " s t r a i g h t g r a i n e d . I ' These specimens
do n o t c o n t a i n "inhomogeneousl' c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as k n o t s , c r o s s g r a i n ,
checks o r s p l i t s . An e x t e n s i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s
of v a r i o u s s p e c i e s of wood i s given i n Reference 7 . 1 7 . This r e f e r e n c e
a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e i n f l u e n c e of growth c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as k n o t s , and
m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t on t h e p r o p e r t i e s .
The material p r o p e r t i e s of wood of most i n t e r e s t t o t h e d e s i g n e r

are t h e compressive s t r e n g t h , t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h ( o r modulus of r u p t u r e ) ,
t h e modulus of e l a s t i c i t y and t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h . S i n c e wood i s an
a n i s o t r o p i c material, t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s v a r y w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n of l o a d i n g .
L.
7-19
The compressive s t r e n g t h of most importance i s o b t a i n e d from compression
p a r a l l e l t o t h e g r a i n ( l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n ) and i s r e p o r t e d i n t e r m s
of t h e maximum c r u s h i n g s t r e n g t h , uc. T h i s p r o p e r t y varies f o r seasoned
woods from 4,000 t o 10,000 p s i . The compressive s t r e n g t h p e r p e n d i c u l a r
t o t h e g r a i n i s r e p o r t e d i n terms of t h e f i b e r stress a t p r o p o r t i o n a l
l i m i t and varies from 300 t o 2000 p s i .
Because of d i f f i c u l t i e s i n measuring t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h s
of wood specimens, as d i s c u s s e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , t h e modulus of
r u p t u r e , R, i s o f t e n s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h i n t h e l o n g i - 4
P
t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n . T h i s p r o p e r t y r e p r e s e n t s t h e maximum l o a d - c a r r y i n g
c a p a c i t y of t h e member and i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e maximummoment borne
by t h e specimen. T y p i c a l v a l u e s f o r seasoned wood range from 6,000 t o
20,000 p s i . When t h e s e v a l u e s are s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h ,
t h e y can b e c o n s i d e r e d as c o n s e r v a t i v e o r low estimates. Of t h e s m a l l
amount of l o n g i t u d i n a l t e n s i l e d a t a which does e x i s t , v a l u e s rm 10 t o
40 p e r c e n t h i g h e r than t h e corresponding modulus of r u p t u r e . The modulus
of e l a s t i c i t y , E, i s a l s o measured i n bending and r a n g e s i n v a l u e from
0.8 t o 2 . 3 m i l l i o n p s i . (Values of t h e modulus of e l a s t i c i t y which are
m e a s u r e d i n b e n d i n g m u s t be i n c r e a s e d by 1 0 p e r c e n t t o c o r r e c t f o r t h e
e f f e c t of s h e a r d e f l e c t i o n . )
It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t many of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of wood,
when measured a l o n g t h e g r a i n a x i s , compared v e r y f a v o r a b l y w i t h a l l
o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l materials, i n c l u d i n g s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l and aluminum.
For example, t h e s t i f f n e s s t o weight of a s t r u c t u r a l member made from
Southern p i n e i s approximately e q u a l t o t h a t of a member made from s t e e l ,
based on t h e r a t i o . o f t h e modulus of e l a s t i c i t y t o t h e d e n s i t y . The
strength-to-weight r a t i o of t h e Southern p i n e i s several t i m e s g r e a t e r
t h a n t h a t of s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l , based on b o t h t h e c r u s h i n g s t r e n g t h and
modulus of r u p t u r e of p i n e r e l a t i v e t o t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of A36
steel.
7.2.3.2 D y n a m i c Behavior
It h a s l o n g been known t h a t t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p
f o r wood i s s e n s i t i v e t o t h e rate of s t r a i n . However, e x c e p t f o r one
r e c e n t s t u d y , t h e p r o p e r t i e s of wood have n o t been s t u d i e d a t t h e r a t e s
of s t r a i n which'occur d u r i n g e x p l o s i o n s . T y p i c a l of p a s t t e s t programs
w a s a n e x t e n s i v e s t u d y conducted by Markwardt and L i s k a (Ref. 7.18) i n
which two softwood and two hardwood s p e c i e s w e r e i n c l u d e d i n i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n s made t o e v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t of "rapid" l o a d i n g on t h e compressive
and f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s of wood. O f most importance were t h e i r
s t u d i e s of S i t k a s p r u c e and maple which t h e y t e s t e d i n compression
p a r a l l e l t o t h e g r a i n . T y p i c a l c u r v e s from t h e s e tests were g i v e n i n
F i g u r e 7 . 1 3 . The s t r a i n r a t e s observed i n t h e s e t e s t s w e r e : (a) S i t k a
s p r u c e , k = 1 . 3 x l(r5sec-l f o r t h e s t a n d a r d compression t e s t , a.nd
7-20
Oo aooi a002 0003 0004 o 05
Strain, in./in.
F i g u r e 7.13a. T y p i c a l S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves f o r
Two Matched S i t k a Spruce Specimens
( R e f . 7. 18)
12000
10000
6 000
4000
2 000
Oo a m am 0006 0008 0010 0012

Strain, in./in.
F i g u r e 7.13b. T y p i c a l S t r e s s - S t r a i n Curves f o r
Two Matched Maple Specimens
(Ref. 7.18)
7-21
i = 3.6 x sec-l f o r t h e "rapid" l o a d i n g t e s t ; and (b) maple,
8 = 1.3 x sec-l and t = 5.6 x l(r3sec-' . Several features
of t h e s e tests can b e s e e n i n F i g u r e 7.13. Althouqhthemodulus of e l a s t i c i t y
v a r i e d l i t t l e w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e i n s t r a i n rate, t h e u l t i m a t e ( c r u s h )
s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a . l l y . S i m i l a r r e s u l t s were found i n t h e bending
tests conducted on Douglas f i r and b i r c h specimens (Ref. 7.18) i n which
a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e modulus of r u p t u r e w a s observed.
Recently, s t u d i e s have been conducted i n A u s t r a l i a by Ferguson

and Yew (Ref. 7.19) a t s t r a i n rates exceeding 100 sec-l . This study
was t h e f i r s t t o b e r e p o r t e d w i t h d a t a u s e f u l f o r d e s i g n of b l a s t -
r e s i s t a n t s t r u c t u r e s . However, t h e woods t e s t e d w e r e from A u s t r a l i a ,
s o t h a t t h e d a t a are n o t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o s t r u c t u r a l woods used i n
t h e United S t a t e s . I n t h i s s t u d y , t h e u l t i m a t e c r u s h s t r e n g t h w a s s e e n
t o i n c r e a s e w i t h s t r a i n r a t e i n a f a s h i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t seen i n F i g u r e s
7.13a and 7.13b.
F i g u r e 7.14 d i s p l a y s d a t a f o r a v a r i e t y of A u s t r a l i a n p i n e t e s t e d
w i t h v a r y i n g m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t . Data f o r s t r a i n r a t e s above i = 1 sec-'
should probably be ignored due t o probable e r r o r s caused by i n e r t i a l
effects during t e s t i n g .
- ,
15'-; to-' lo-' 10-2 lo-' 1 10 0' 10'
S t r a i n R a t e , sec-l
F i g u r e 7.14. V a r i a t i o n of Crush S t r e n g t h w i t h Rate of S t r a i n (Ref. 7.19)
I n F i g u r e 7.15 t h e d a t a from References 7.18 and 7.19 are compiled

f o r comparison. Each specimen has a m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t of 11 t o 1 2 p e r c e n t .
The c u r v e s r e p r e s e n t a b e s t f i t t o t h e d a t a and extend over t h e r a n g e of
s t r a i n rates t e s t e d . It i s e v i d e n t t h a t each of t h e s e c u r v e s can b e
f i t by an e q u a t i o n of t h e form:
7-22
14
10
Kahikatea
LSpruce
0
I I I I
10-1 1
Strain-Rate E, sec
-1
Figure-, 7.15 V a r i a t i o n of Maximum Crush S t r e n g t h of Various

Woods w i t h S t r a i n - R a t e
7-23
(7.11)
. which i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t used e a r l i e r f o r s t e e l and c o n c r e t e .
Because of t h e l i m i t a t i o n of a v a i l a b l e d a t a , t h e d a t a i n F i g u r e
6.15 must be g e n e r a l i z e d t o cover t h e e n t i r e wood f a m i l y . For d e s i g n
p u r p o s e s , t h e upper and lower bound v a l u e s of t h e c r u s h s t r e n g t h should
b e t a k e n as:
0
dc
Lower Bound -
0
= 1.35 + 0.080 l o g (7.12)
C
0
Upper Bound -
0
dc = 1.50 + 0.115 l o g (7.13)
C
These v a l u e s should b e c o n s e r v a t i v e estimates of t h e c r u s h s t r e n g t h f o r

t y p i c a l s t r u c t u r a l woods, such as Douglas f i r and yellow p i n e . The lower
bound r e l a t i o n s h i p should be used when d e s i g n i n g t o p r e v e n t f a i l u r e ,
whereas t h e upper bound r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o u l d b e used when f a i l m - e i s
desired.
A s n o t e d e a r l i e r , t h e r e i s no a p p a r e n t i n c r e a s e i n modulus of
e l a s t i c i t y w i t h s t r a i n r a t e . There are a l s o i n s u f f i c i e n t d a t a a v a i l a b l e
t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h f o r wood.
7.2.4 P r o p e r t i e s of F r a n g i b l e Materials*
I n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e Pantex f a c i l i t y , v a r i o u s f r a n g i b l e
materials have been used. These i n c l u d e roof and w a l l board materials
such as Cemesto, Thermo-Bord, gypsum board (Sheetrock) and i n s u l a t i n g
roof p a n e l s . S i n c e t h e s e materials are o f t e n used i n t h e d e s i g n of
s t r u c t u r e s which may b e s u b j e c t e d t o b l a s t l o a d s , t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e s e
materials t o h i g h rates of l o a d i n g i s of i n t e r e s t . To o u r knowledge, no
s t u d i e s have been conducted on t h e r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e s e materials.
However, some r e l e v a n t comments can b e made f o r f r a n g i b l e materials i n
general.
I n t h e u s e of f r a n g i b l e materials as blow-out p a n e l s , t h e d e s i g n e r
i s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e toughness of t h e material as a measure of i t s
a b i l i t y t o a b s o r b b l a s t energy p r i o r t o f a i l u r e . I n s t a t i c t e s t i n g ,
f r a n g i b l e materials have h i g h s t r e n g t h b u t low d u c t i l i t y , r e s u l t i n g i n
l i t t l e toughness ( o r s t r a i n energy t o f a i l u r e ) . It i s clear t h a t
under h i g h rates of l o a d i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b l a s t . , t h e material s t r e n g t h
may b e i n c r e a s e d w i t h no i n c r e a s e i n d u c t i l i t y . Thus, t h e toughness of
a f r a n g i b l e m a t e r i a l may i n c r e a s e by a f a c t o r of two o r t h r e e . It should
*In t h i s c o n t e x t , f r a n g i b l e materials r e f e r s t o materials used i n f r a n g i b l e

c o n s t r u c t i o n , as d e f i n e d i n t h e g l o s s a r y of TM 5-1300 (Ref. 7 . 1 2 ) .
7-24
b e n o t e d t h a t t h e dynamic toughness, though l a r g e r e l a t i v e t o s t a t i c
toughness, i s s t i l l small r e l a t i v e t o t h a t f o r more d u c t i l e materials.
An example of t h i s t y p e of behavior i s t h e response of g l a s s t o

h i g h s t r a i n rates. It h a s been r e p o r t e d ( f o r example, Ref, 7.20) t h a t
t h e s t r e n g t h of g l a s s may i n c r e a s e by as much as a f a c t o r of t h r e e o r
more under dynamic l o a d s . I n b o t h t h e s t a t i c and dynamic case, t h e
s t r a i n is e s s e n t i a l l y e l a s t i c u n t i l f a i l u r e , implying a similar i n c r e a s e
of t h r e e o r more i n t h e f a i l u r e s t r a i n under dynamic l o a d s . Thus, t h e
toughness of g l a s s at h i g h rates may b e g r e a t e r by a f a c t o r of t e n o r
more. For t y p i c a l g l a s s , t h i s r e s u l t s i n a toughness on t h e o r d e r of 30
t o 3,000 p s i , which i s w e l l below t h a t of t h e more d u c t i l e b u i l d i n g
materials, such as s t e e l , which h a s toughness v a l u e s on t h e o r d e r of 10,000
psi.
For t h i s r e a s o n , t h e i n c r e a s e i n toughness of f r a n g i b l e materials

due t o h i g h rates of l o a d i n g , though l a r g e , i s r e l a t i v e l y unimportant i n
t h e d e s i g n of b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t s t r u c t u r e s , and should b e ignored by t h e
designer.
7.3 ENERGY-ABSORBING PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Impact p r o p e r t i e s of materials and s t r u c t u r e s need n o t b e l i m i t e d

t o t h e i n f l u e n c e of rate of l o a d i n g on t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n s o r
s t r e s s - s t r a i n response. A common o b j e c t i v e i n a l l impact t e s t i n g i s t o
d e t e r m i n e t h e energy absorbed i n f r a c t u r i n g a p a r t i c u l a r t e s t p i e c e
under high-speed l o a d i n g . The energy of r u p t u r e i s c o n s i d e r e d a measure
of t h e impact s t r e n g t h of a material. A c t u a l l y , t h e s t r a i n energy p e r
u n i t volume r e q u i r e d f o r complete r u p t u r e of a material i s termed t h e
11
toughness" and i s given by t h e area under t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve.
As a r e s u l t , a v a r i e t y of t e s t i n g t e c h n i q u e s h a s been developed t o
c h a r a c t e r i z e q u a l i t a t i v e l y t h e response of materials and s t r u c t u r e s t o
impact l o a d i n g .
In t h i s s e c t i o n , a d i s c u s s i o n ' w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d of t h e v a r i o u s test
t e c h n i q u e s used t o assess a material's energy a b s o r p t i o n c a p a b i l i t y . Tests
w i l l b e d e s c r i b e d which are commonly used t o assess steels, woods, p l a s t i c s ,
e t c . T h i s discu.ssion i s o r i e n t e d t o h e l p t h e d e s i g n e r d e t e r m i n e t h e
u s e f u l n e s s of these tests and t h e i r r e s u l t s i n t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s . An
e f f o r t i s a l s o made t o d e s c r i b e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e t o
t h e d e s i g n e r f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a s t r u c t u r e ' s a b i l i t y t o a b s o r b
energy o r t o p r e v e n t fragment p e r f o r a t i o n .
In g e n e r a l , the e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s of an impact t e s t are: (a) a

s u i t a b l e specimen; (b) a s u p p o r t system on which t h e t e s t specimen i s
p l a c e d t o receive t h e blow of a moving mass; ( c ) a moving mass of known
k i n e t i c energy s u f f i c i e n t t o d e f l e c t (and normally t o b r e a k ) t h e specimen
7-25
p l a c e d i n i t s p a t h ; and (d) a d e v i c e t o measure t h e r e s i d u a l energy i n
t h e moving mass. F a l l i n g w e i g h t , Charpy and Izod impact tests are
t y p i c a l of t h i s t y p e of measurement. However, t h e r e are a h o s t of o t h e r
dynamic t e s t i n g d e v i c e s which have been developed f o r c e r t a i n unique
materials, s t r u c t u r e s o r environments.
I n t h e t e n s i l e impact t e s t , e i t h e r a v a r i a b l e speed flywheel o r

a pendulum d e l i v e r s a n impact l o a d i n g t o a smooth specimen similar t o a
t e n s i l e specimen o r t o a similar specimen w i t h a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l notch.
A test o f t h i s n a t u r e p e r m i t s t h e s t u d y of impact s t r e n g t h of a material
u n d e r a u n i a x i a l stress c o n d i t i o n . The specimen shape may be controllckd
t o produce a d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t s . A s h o r t specimen w i l l have a h i g h s t r a i n
r a t e and produce a b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e . Longer gage l e n g t h s a t t h e same
impact v e l o c i t y w i l l r e s u l t i n lower rates of s t r a i n and p o s s i b l y
d u c t i l e f a i l u r e s (Ref. 7.21).
Charpy and Izod tests are c o n s i d e r e d t o b e bending impact tests.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , due t o t h e p r e s e n c e of a stress r a i s i n g n o t c h o r keyway,
t h i s test i s more of a measure of n o t c h s e n s i t i v i t y t h a n material impact
s t r e n g t h o r e n e r g y a b s o r b i n g c a p a b i l i t y . One of t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t
uses of t h e Charpy and Izod impact tests i s i n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e
t r a n s i t i o n temperature. I f t h e mode of f a i l u r e i s observed, t h e t r a n s i t i o n
t e m p e r a t u r e i s t h a t t e m p e r a t u r e where t h e mode of f a i l u r e changes from
ductile to brittle. S i n c e t h i s does n o t occur a b r u p t l y , an a r b i t r a r y
v a l u e (15 f t - l b ) may b e used t o e s t a b l i s h t r a n s i t i o n (Ref. 7.221,. Some
of t h e many o t h e r d e f i n i t i o n s of t r a n s i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e c u r r e n t l y b e i n g
used are: (a) t h e l o w e s t t e m p e r a t u r e a t whicL t h e specimen e x h i b i t s
100 p e r c e n t f i b r o u s f r a c t u r e ; (b) t h e t e m p e r a t u r e where t h e f r a c t u r e shows
a 50 p e r c e n t c r y s t a l l i n e and a 50 p e r c e n t f i b r o u s appearance; and ( c )
t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e energy v a l u e 50 p e r c e n t of t h e
d i f f e r e n c e between v a l u e s o b t a i n e d a t 100 p e r c e n t and 0 p e r c e n t f i b r o u s
f r a c t u r e ( R e f . 7.24). It s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t that t h e e n e r g i e s measured
i n t h e s e impact tests are a c t u a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e f a i l u r e of a p a r t i c u l a r
specimen geometry s u b j e c t e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r c o n d i t i o n of l o a d i n g . There-
f o r e , a l t h o u g h d i f f e r e n t materials are n o t compared t o each o t h e r r e g a r d i n g
their energy-absorbing c a p a b i l i t y , t h e e f f e c t s of h e a t t r e a t m e n t s and
a l l o y i n g e l e m e n t s on a g i v e n material may b e e v a l u a t e d .
The Charpy impact t e s t i s a simply s u p p o r t e d r e c t a n g u l a r o r c i r c u l a r

beam c o n t a i n i n g a backward f a c i n g keyway, V-notch, s l o t o r sawcut (Ref.
7 . 2 3 ) . The s t r i k i n g edge of t h e moving mass i s a t t a c h e d t o a pendulum
and p o s i t i o n e d t o s t r i k e t h e beam d i r e c t l y i n t h e c e n t e r . The procedure
is used n o t o n l y f o r m e t a l l i c materials b u t a l s o p l a s t i c s and e l e c t r i c a l
i n s u l a t i n g materials (Ref. 7 . 2 4 ) .
The I z o d impact t e s t i s a c a n t i l e v e r e d beam w i t h e i t h e r a r e c t a n g u l a r

o r c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n . A v a r i e t y of s t a n d a r d n o t c h e s are used and
may be t e s t e d as e i t h e r forward f a c i n g o r backward f a c i n g depending on
t h e impact r e s i s t a n c e . A s i n t h e case of t h e Charpy t e s t , t h i s i s more
7-26
parallel to perpendicular to the fibers can be approximated using a
Hankinson-type formula:
_N -- 9 /P (7.17)
sinno + Q/P cosnO
in which N represents the impact bending strength at an angle 8 from

the fiber direction, Q is the strength across the grain, P is the strength
parallel to the grain, and n is an empirically determined constant. It
has been found experimentally that the impact bending values fall close
to the curve for Q/P = 0.05 and n = 1.5. This equation is shown in
Figure 7 . 1 7 along with data tabulated in Reference 7 . 1 7 .
Woods are used to form structures such as floors, roofs and

walls. The energy-absorbing characteristics of whole structures may be
evaluated by using the standard testing techniques described in ASTM
E72 (Ref. 7 . 2 6 ) . In this particular test, the initial and residual
energies are used to determine the energy absorbed by a particular
panel, either vertical or horizontal. Unfortunately, the resulting
value of energy absorbed is unique to the particular panel tested and to
the particular technique of loading. Extension of these data for
engineering design is not recommended.
Based on the review just given, it should be apparent thzt the

results from the various impact tests are of questionable value to the
designer. It is recommended that the design be based on established
procedures using the dynamic values of the strength discussed in Sections
7 . 2 and 7 . 4 .
The fragment penetration resiitance of wood is so low that it is

not normally considered in design studies. For this reason, no ballistic
penetration data exist for the various woods. The only data available
have been developed for materials frequently used in the collection of
fragments in arena tests and residual projectiles in ballistic perforation
tests. These include celotex and strawboard, for which empirical
penetration equations are given in Chapter 6 . For design purposes, it
is recommended that the penetration resistance of wood be ignored.
7.3.3 Plastic and Metallic Foams
Cellular structures possess a great capacity for energy absorption

through the collapse of the cells which comprise the structure. The
crush strength, fCr, may be engineered with some precision over a wide
range of values and may be either directional or isotropic. Materials
used in such systems may vary from paper and plastic to metallic-
expanded material or foam. In each case, the objective of the designer
is to produce a medium which will have some desirable force-deflection
characteristics. A constant force versus displacement characteristic
7-31
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
r
0
Angle t o F i b e r D i r e c t i o n 8, degrees
F i g u r e 7.17 Impact Bending S t r e n g t h v e r s u s Wood F i b e r D i r e c t i o n
7-32
of a measure of n o t c h s e n s i t i v i t y and i s commonly used t o i d e n t i f y t h e
t r a n s i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e of a material. The energy v a l u e s determined a r e
q u a n t i t a t i v e comparisons on a s e l e c t e d specimen b u t cannot b e converted
i n t o energy v a l u e s t h a t would serve f o r e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n c a l c u l a t i o n s .
The r e s u l t s from t h i s t y p e of t e s t are s e n s i t i v e t o t h e n o t c h s i z e and
shape, specimen s i z e , t e s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t e m p e r a t u r e ) ,
and t h e v e l o c i t y of s t r a i n i n g .
A s i m i l a r t e s t on block-type i n s u l a t i n g materials u t i l i z e s an
unmatched specimen t o determine t h e "apparent impact s t r e n g t h " (Ref.
7.25). I n t h i s case, however, t h e " e q u i v a l e n t impact s t r e n g t h " i s d e f i n e d
as a u n i t impact s t r e n g t h and can be used t o compare t h e s t r e n g t h s o f
a material when t h e dimensions d i f f e r by a modest amount.
A v a r i e t y of o t h e r impact t e s t s h a s been d e f i n e d by ASTM f o r a

v a r i e t y of s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . Although t h e t e s t i n g of p a n e l s f o r
b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n (Ref. 7.26) i s t y p i c a l , t h e ASTM c u r r e n t l y l i s t s
Standard Methods f o r 1 4 drop t e s t s and over 30 impact tests t o v e r i f y t h e i
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of a v a r i e t y of specimens from f o o t b a l l headgear t o r a i l -
way a x l e s .
7.3.1 S o i l o r Sand F i l l
The a b i l i t y of s o i l o r sand t o absorb energy i s of utmost importance

i n t h e d e s i g n of s t r u c t u r e s t o a b s o r b t h e energy of a b l a s t wave o r t o
s t o p a p e n e t r a t i n g fragment. Design f o r t h e s e cases i s based on v a r i o u s
e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s d e s c r i b e d elsewhere i n t h i s manual. A review
of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i l l now b e p r e s e n t e d a l o n g w i t h t h o s e p r o p e r t i e s
of s o i l which must b e o b t a i n e d f o r u s e i n t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
I n S e c t i o n 6 . 4 , t h e e q u a t i o n s developed by Westine (Ref. 7.27)

f o r p r e d i c t i n g t r a n s i e n t and r e s i d u a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s and v e l o c i t i e s of
p r o j e c t i l e s p e n e t r a t i n g c o h e s i v e s o i l s were p r e s e n t e d . The s o i l proper-
t i e s which must b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e s e e q u a t i o n s are: t h e s o i l mass
d e n s i t y ; t h e c o h e s i v e y i e l d s t r e n g t h of t h e s o i l ; and t h e d e g r e e of
s a t u r a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e ambient atmospheric p r e s s u r e i s r e q u i r e d
t o account f o r the p o r e a i r and water p r e s s u r e s w i t h i n t h e v o i d s between
the soil particles.
Note t h a t g r a n u l a r s o i l s are n o t covered by t h e s e e q u a t i o n s a s

t h e y have a s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e n g t h v a r i a t i o n w i t h d e p t h caused by g r a v i t a -
t i o n a l e f f e c t s and are much more dependent on t h e v o i d r a t i o r e l a t i v e t o
t h e c r i t i c a l v o i d r a t i o (Westine, Ref. 7.27). The c r i t i c a l v o i d r a t i o
i s d e f i n e d as t h e r a t i o a t which no n e t change i n t h e v o i d volume o c c u r s
d u r i n g m i s s i l e p e n e t r a t i o n . The o n l y e x c e p t i o n s would be h o r i z o n t a l
p e n e t r a t i o n through a v e r t i c a l b a r r i c a d e o r p e n e t r a t i o n through a s l o p e d
mound i n which t h e p e n e t r a t i o n p a t h i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u r f a c e . I n
7-27
t h e s e cases, t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l dependence i s e l i m i n a t e d by m a i n t a i n i n g
a c o n s t a n t overburden.
For t h e case of p r o j e c t i l e p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o sand, e q u a t i o n s

have been developed e m p i r i c a l l y assuming t h e form proposed by P o n c e l e t
(Ref. 7.28). P o n c e l e t assumed t h a t t h e r e s i s t i n g f o r c e on a p r o j e c t i l e
is:
2
F = C i- C2v (7.14)
0
where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s C and C a r e f u n c t i o n s of A, t h e p r e s e n t e d area
0 2
(Ref. 7 . 2 7 ) . By s u b s t i t u t i n g Equation (7.14) i n t o Newton's e q u a t i o n of
motion:
8 I/
V
dx = m - dv (7.15)
F
and i n t e g r a t i n g x from t h e s u r f a c e of t h e s o i l a t x = 0 t o t h e maximum
where m = m a s s of p r o j e c t i l e
Vo = impact v e l o c i t y
Co,C2 = empirical constants
This procedure assumes t h a t g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e , t h e mass of t h e s o i l

accompanying t h e p r o j e c t i l e , and t h e p o r e a i r and w a t e r p r e s s u r e s are
n e g l i g i b l e ( R e f . 7.27).
The p e n e t r a t i o n e q u a t i o n f o r sand p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n 6.4 .\

3 111
r e p r e s e n t s an a v e r a g e of t h e P o n c e l e t r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f o r a number of
tests (Ref. 7.28). T h i s a v e r a g e w a s c a l c u l a t e d making t h e f u r t h e r
assumption t h a t d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n is e q u a l t o t h e t o t a l curved l e n g t h
of t h e missile p a t h ( R e f . 7.28). A s a r e s u l t of t h e s e allowances, t h e
e q u a t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n Chapter 6 may b e c o n s i d e r e d c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r s a f e t y
i n v i r t u a l l y e v e r y case, and tests w i t h i n a c a n d i d a t e sand s h o u l d , t h e r e -
f o r e , b e conducted b e f o r e u t i l i z i n g i t as a fragment b a r r i c a d e .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , any u s e of s o i l s o r sands t o absorb t h e energy i n

a b l a s t wave should be bssed on t h e mass of t h e material. Designs based
on t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of t h e material would b e o v e r l y dependent on
the d e g r e e of s a t u r a t i o n , t h e i n t e r n a l a n g l e of f r i c t i o n , g r a i n s i z e ,
compaction, and o t h e r p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s which may v a r y w i t h a g e , weather, ,I< I
and c y l i c l o a d i n g .
7-28
Because of t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of s o i l and sand p r o p e r t i e s w i t h l o c a t i o n
and d e p t h , no p r o p e r t i e s w i l l b e given i n t h i s s e c t i o n . It i s important
t h a t t h e d e s i g n e r o b t a i n p r o p e r t i e s f o r t h e s p e c i f i c material t o b e used.
S e c t i o n 5.2 d i s c u s s e s t h e s o i l mechanics i n more d e t a i l .
7.3.2 -
Wood
The everyday u s e of timber i n i t s m u l t i t u d i n o u s forms h a s l e d t o

t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of s t a n d a r d methods of t e s t i n g s e l e c t e d specimens of
wood. The t e c h n i q u e f o r t e s t i n g i s documented as ASTM D143 (Ref. 7.29)
and t h e r e s u l t s t a b u l a t e d i n t h e Wood Handbook (Ref. 7.17). Two proper-
t i e s of i n t e r e s t which merit d i s c u s s i o n are: ( a ) t h e "work t o maximum
l o a d i n bending"; and (b) t h e "impact bending s t r e n g t h . ' '
The work t o maximum l o a d i s a measure of t h e energy absorbed by a

specimen as i t i s slowly loaded t o f a i l u r e . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , s t a t e
of stress i s n o t uniform and t h e f a i l u r e of t h e specimen w i l l depend
on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of stress. T h c r e f o r e , t h e energy absorbed cannot be
c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a p r o p e r t y of t h e material b u t more of a q u a l i t a t i v e
measure of d i f f e r e n t materials when s u b j e c t e d t o similar forms of s t a t i c
bending.
The impact bending s t r e n g t h i s r e l a t e d t o t h e energy absorbed

when s u b j e c t e d t o a r a p i d o r f a l l i n g l o a d . The d a t a t a k e t h e form of
t h e h e i g h t of drop i n a c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d test o n t o a s t a n d a r d specimen.
Again, t h e r e s u l t s are a q u a l i t a t i v e measure of t h e r e s p o n s e of a
p a r t i c u l a r specimen and cannot be used as a material p r o p e r t y i n engineer-
i n g d e s i g n . The specimen i s 2 x 2 x 30 i n . , supported s o as t o have a
span of 28 i n . and p o s i t i o n e d t o receive a l o a d a t c e n t e r span i n a H a t t -
Turner o r similar impact machine. A 50-lb hammer i s dropped and t h e h e i g h t
t o c a u s e complete f a i l u r e o r a 6-in. d e f l e c t i o n of t h e specimen i s r e c o r d e d .
T h e impact bending s t r e n g t h o b t a i n e d as d e s c r i b e d above has a

" c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n " of 25 p e r c e n t (Ref. 7.17) r e g a r d l e s s of
m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t . T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of wood i s a f u n c t i o n of many
p a r a m e t e r s , b o t h geometric and environmental. The most s i g n i f i c a n t
environmental c o n d i t i o n s are m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t and temperature. For t h i s
r e a s o n , impact bending s t r e n g t h i s t a b u l a t e d under s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s
of 12 p e r c e n t m d i s t u r e c o n t e n t and 68'F. Data are n o t a v a i l a b l e on t h e
v a r i a t i o n of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p r o p e r t y ; however, t h e i n f l u e n c e of m o i s t u r e
and t e m p e r a t u r e on modulus of e l a s t i c i t y i s shown i n F i g u r e 7.16.
S i m i l a r v a r i a t i o n s would b e expected f o r modulus of r u p t u r e and probably
impact bending s t r e n g t h .
The geometric parameter which i s of primary s i g n i f i c a n c e i s t h e

d i r e c t i o n of t h e g r a i n ( o r n a t u r a l axis of t h e f i b e r ) r e l a t i v e t o t h e
d i r e c t i o n of t h e stress. S t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s i n d i r e c t i o n s r a n g i n g from
7-29
bl
a
e
04
Figure 7.16 The Immediate Effect of Temperature on the Modulus of

Elasticity of Wood Relative to the Value at 68'F
7-30
i s v e r y attractive s i n c e i t maximizes t h e energy d i s s i p a t e d f o r a given
r a t e of d e c e l e r a t i o n .
However, a n i n c r e a s i n g f o r c e w i t h displacement
w i l l produce even g r e a t e r energy d i s s i p a t i o n p e r pound of material,
provided d e c e l e r a t i o n rate i s n o t c r i t i c a l .
The d e s i g n of a s u i t a b l e energy-absorbing system i s r e l a t i v e l y

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . The energy t o be absorbed must b e s p e c i f i e d a l o n g
w i t h t h e area and d i s t a n c e a v a i l a b l e t o accomplish t h e e v e n t (Ref. 7.30).
T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is s u f f i c i e n t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e n e c e s s a r y c r u s h s t r e n g t h
of t h e material. I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t "bottoming out" of t h e energy-
a b s o r b i n g system, i t i s customary t o assume t h a t o n l y 70 p e r c e n t of t h e
t h i c k n e s s is a v a i l a b l e f o r energy d i s s i p a t i o n . Standard honeycomb
materials are a v a i l a b l e i n a v a r i e t y of s t r e n g t h s , d e n s i t i e s and c e l l
s i z e s (Ref. 7.31) as shown i n t h e F i g u r e 7.18. Likewise, p l a s t i c s i n
t h e form of low-density r i g i d foams, such as p o l y s t y r e n e , may b e used
as a c o r e material t o form a c e l l u l a r s t r u c t u r e c a p a b l e of energy absorp-
t i o n . The f o r c e e x e r t e d by a r i g i d p l a s t i c foam is l i m i t e d by e i t h e r
t h e c r i t i c a l stress f o r c o l l a p s e of t h e c e l l s o r t h e y i e l d stress of t h e
polymer i t s e l f (Ref. 7.32). A s i n t h e case of expanded honeycombs, t h e
c r u s h s t r e n g t h is a f u n c t i o n of t h e d e n s i t y of t h e foam which i s
determined from t h e d e n s i t y of t h e polymer as w e l l as t h e c e l l s i z e .
For v e r y low-density foams t h i s may be approximated by t h e e x p r e s s i o n :
8$EP (Q -
f - (7.18)
cr 2
6(1-~ ) Q
P
where
Here t h e s u b s c r i p t s f and p r e f e r t o t h e foam and polymer, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,

w h i l e E and v are Young's modulus and P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o . It should b e noted
t h a t Young's modulus of the polymer, EP, is a f u n c t i o n of t h e foam d e n s i t y .
Metal m a t r i x c e l l u l a r materials may a l s o b e used as an energy-

a b s o r b i n g medium. The s i z e , shape and s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e open
c e l l s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e can b e c o n t r o l l e d w i t h p r e c i s i o n and t h e scope
f o r a l l o y select,ion c o v e r s a wide r a n g e of materials. The material i s
manufactured by t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n of a porous s u b s t a n c e w i t h molten metal.
For l i g h t a l l o y s a s u i t a b l y graded a g g r e g a t e of r o c k salt (NaCI1) is
s i n t e r e d i n t o t h e metal. A f t e r s o l i d i f i c a t i o n , t h e s o l u b l e component
i s removed by l e a c h i n g and t h e c e l l u l a r metal s t r u c t u r e remains (Ref.
7.33). Materials manufactured i n t h i s manner have been t e s t e d t o determine
t h e i r energy-absorbing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which are shown i n Table 7.2.
The s p e c i f i c energy, &, may b e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a material p r o p e r t y and
d e f i n e d as:
0.40
(7.19)
7-33
1600
800
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
3
Honeycomb Density p, l b / f t
Figure 7.18 Honeycomb Crush Strength versus Density f o r Standard

Honeycod Material (Reference 7.31)
Table 7.2. P r o p e r t i e s of Energy D i s s i p a t i o n Materials
a t 40 P e r c e n t Deformation (Ref. 7.33)
Material S p e c i f i c Energy
Loading
a t 40% Deformation
Alloy C e l l Structure (f t - l b / l b ) Ratioa
7075-T6 Std d i s t r 7,600 2.06

b
7075-T6 Mixed 3,000 1.66
2024-T6 Std d i s t r 6 ,800 2.15
195-T62 Std d i s t r 5 ,800 2.85

b
195-T62 Mixed 1,750 4.00
220-T4 Std d i s t r 5 ,600 4.00

b
220-T4 Mixed 3,500 4.00
b
122-T6 Mixed 3 ,000 2.00
43c 20 mesh 3 ,000 1.66
AIC 20 mesh 2 ,850 2.30
t o a d (40% Def) /Load ( I n i t i a l Y i e l d i n g )

bEqual p a r t s by weight of 6 , 8, 1 0 , 20, 30, and 48 mesh
C
Kanamite f i l l e d
7-35
I n h e r e n t i n t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s t h e f a c t t h a t bottoming o u t of t h e energy
a b s o r b i n g system o c c u r s f o r d e f l e c t i o n s g r e a t e r t h a n 40 p e r c e n t . (Ref. 7.33).
The most e f f i c i e n t m a t e r i a l shown i s 7075-T6 aluminum a l l o y matrix

with a standard c e l l s t r u c t u r e . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t 7,600 f t - l b i s
achievable with c e l l u l a r aluminum which i s comparable t o t h e e f f i c i e n c y
of commercially a v a i l a b l e aluminum honeycombs.
Design of a c e l l u l a r s t r u c t u r e t o p r e v e n t p e n e t r a t i o n of p r o j e c t i l e s
i s r e l a t i v e l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . I n h e r e n t i n t h e u s e of a c e l l u l a r material
i s t h e f a c t that t h e p r o j e c t e d area of t h e p r o j e c t i l e o n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e
must b e l a r g e r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e l l s i z e . Thus, i t is recommended t h a t
t h e c e l l s i z e chosen f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e be a t least f i v e times smaller
t h a n t h a t of t h e expected p r o j e c t i l e . The t h i c k n e s s of c e l l u l a r material
r e q u i r e d t o s t o p a p r o j e c t i l e may b e c a l c u l a t e d by e q u a t i n g t h e energy
p e r u n i t p r o j e c t e d area of t h e p r o j e c t i l e t o t h e energy a b s o r p t i o n capa-
b i l i t y of t h e c e l l u l a r material p e r u n i t area. For t h e honeycomb
material g i v e n i n F i g u r e 7.18 o r t h e p l a s t i c foam d e s c r i b e d by Equation
(7.18) , t h e energy a b s o r p t i o n , c a p a b i l i t y , Ea, i s simply t h e work r e q u i r e d
t o c r u s h t h e material o v e r t h e a v a i l a b l e t h i c k n e s s , t a , i . e . ,
4.
E = lLaf dt (7.20)
a . cr
For t h e honeycomb materials and t h e p l a s t i c foams, t h e c r u s h s t r e n g t h ,

i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t throvgh t h e c r u s h i n g p r o c e s s , s o t h a t
&&tion (7.20) becomes
(7.21)
If f c r i s g i v e n i n terms of p s i , t h e n t h e Ea i s t h e a v a i l a b l e energy
a b s o r p t i o n c a p a b i l i t y p e r s q u a r e i n c h . Equating t h e k i n e t i c energy of
t h e p r o j e c t i l e to energy a b s o r p t i o n c a p a b i l i t y of t h e c e l l u l a r material
KE
(7.22)
A Ea - f c r ta
P
where A p is t h e p r o j e c t e d area of t h e p r o j e c t i l e o n t o t h e material.
From t h i s r e l a t i o n , t h e r e q u i r e d material t h i c k n e s s c a n b e o b t a i n e d
(7.23)
For t h e metallic foams d i s c u s s e d , t h e energy a b s o r p t i o n c a p a b i l i t y

p e r u n i t area i s o b t a i n e d from t h e r e l a t i o n
7-36
- . . - . . . -. .- . .. .. . .. . - . . .. . - . - . ...
-
Ea = p E t a (7.24)
and t h e r e q u i r e d t h i c k n e s s t o s t o p a p r o j e c t i l e i s
KE
t = (7.25)
a P E A
P
P r e s s u r e a t t e n u a t i o n d a t a are n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e s e materials.
7.3.4 ComDosite Material
Composite c o n s t r u c t i o n s , b o t h i n b u i l d i n g s and i n b a r r i c a d e s ,
a r e o f t e n d e s i g n e d t o a b s o r b e n e r g y and t o p r e v e n t b a l l i s t i c p e r f o r a t i o n .
T h i s d e s i g n p r o c e s s u s e s a c c e p t e d d e s i g n p r a c t i c e s and t h e p r o p e r t i e s
of t h e v a r i o u s c o n s t r u c t i o n materials used. The p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e
m a t e r i a l s most o f t e n used have been d i s c u s s e d i n o t h e r p o r t i o n s of t h i s
s e c t i o n . For t h e s a k e of c o m p l e t e n e s s , w e w i l l b r i e f l y review t h e d e s i g n
o f composite s t r u c t u r e s .
Composite c o n s t r u c t i o n of b u i l d i n g s o r b a r r i c a d e s u t i l i z i n g l a y e r i n g
o f materials ( i . e . , s t e e l - c o n c r e t e - s o i l ) may b e t r e a t e d s e q u e n t i a l l y
t o e v a l u a t e p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e . The p r o c e d u r e r e q u i r e d t h a t a
fragment b e t r a c e d t h r o u g h t h e media, c a l c u l a t i n g i t s r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y
a t e a c h i n t e r f a c e and assuming t h a t t h i s i s t h e s t r i k i n g v e l o c i t y i n t o
t h e n e x t medium. C o n s e r v a t i v e l y , t h e fragment s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d t o
r e m a i n i n t a c t , e x p e r i e n c i n g no l o s s of mass.
C o n t r a r y t o t h e case of fragment p e n e t r a t i o n , d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
t h e e n e r g y a b s o r p t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s of a composite m a t e r i a l must c o n s i d e r
any s y n e r g i s t i c " p r o p e r t i e s " which may d e v e l o p . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
noticeable i n "reinforced earth." R e i n f o r c e d e a r t h i s a composite m a t e r i a l
o f e a r t h and r e i n f o r c e m e n t s , t h e l a t t e r g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t i n g of m e t a l
s t r i p s a r r a n g e d h o r i z o n t a l l y and c a p a b l e of w i t h s t a n d i n g h i g h t e n s i l e
stresses (Ref. 7 . 3 4 ) .
The p r i n c i p a l phenomenon i n r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h i s t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n
o f stresses which d e v e l o p i n t h e e a r t h t o t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t s . The
r e i n f o r c e m e n t s are t h e r e b y p l a c e d i n t e n s i o n , and t h e composite material
d e v e l o p s a pseudocohesive s t r e n g t h which i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t s and a c t s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of
t h e i r p l a c e m e n t s (Ref. 7 . ' 3 5 ) .
The d e s i g n o r a n a l y s i s o f r e i n f o r c e d e a r t h s t r u c t u r e s c o n s i s t s
of c o n s i d e r i n g t h e l o c a l e q u i l i b r i u m between t h e f a c i n g e l e m e n t s and
t h e r e i n f o r c i n g s t r i p s under t h e assumption t h a t t h e r e i n f o r c e d volume
i s i n a s t a t e of l i m i t e q u i l i b r i u m and t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s of
t h e stresses are v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l (Ref. 7 . 3 5 ) . Unlike a r e t a i n i n g
7-37 Change 1 - 1 5 August 1 9 8 1

wall anchored with tie rods, the tensile stress in the layer of reinforce-
ments is not a maximum at the face. The distribution of stresses at a
given level have the following characteristics (Ref. 7 . 3 4 ) :
The traction force on the flexible, vertical face is a fraction

(usually small) of the maximum traction force in the rein-
forcement. Therefore, the face pla.ys only a local mechanical
role.
The points of maximum tension in the different layers of

reinforcement lie on a parabolic curve which separates the
mass into two zones as shown in Figure 7.19: (1) an active
zone located near the face in which the tangential stress
exerted by the earth on the reinforcement is directly toward
the face; and (2) a resistant or passive zone in which the
tangential stress is directed inward. In this zone, the earth
tends to retain the reinforcements, analogous to the anchoring
zone in the case of a tie rod.
The tangential component, T, of the stress exerted by the

earth on each face of a reinforcement is:
(7.26)
where b = length of reinforcement

T = tensile stross in the reinforcement
R = abscissa of the point considered along the reinforce-
ment
It is therby directly proportional to the slope of the curve

of stress distribution in the reinforcement.
The coefficient, f* = T/U, of friction mobilized along a

reinforcement in the active zone is close to the value of the
coefficient of friction, f, between earth and reinforcement.
In the passive zone, its value varies along the reinforcement
and depends primarily on the length of the reinforcement in
this zone. This is called the adherence length: the shorter
it is, the greater the mean friction mobilized. The active
zone, which can be equated to a thrust wedge, is of smaller
dimensions that the thrust wedge which would be mobilized
behind a retaining wall in a nonreinforced fill of the same
geometry and characteristics (Ref. 7 . 3 4 ) .
In general, the use of a composite material as an energy-absorbing

medium will require that model testing and analysis of the structure
be conducted prior to full-scale implementation. Conservatively, the AE
7-38
7-39
may i n i t i a l l y assume t h a t no composite p r o p e r t i e s develop t o enhance t h e
energy-absorbing c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e s t r u c t u r e . However, s i n c e t h e move
t o composite materials i s o f t e n made f o r economy and e f f i c i e n c y , t h i s
approach may b e i n a d e q u a t e t o a c h i e v e a f i n a l d e s i g n .
The p r e s s u r e a t t e n u a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of composite s t r u c t u r e s
are n o t known.
7.3.5 Discussion
A l a r g e number of dynamic impact tests have been developed f o r t h e

materials of i n t e r e s t . However, t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e tests are of l i m i t e d
u s e f u l n e s s t o t h e d e s i g n e r . T h i s i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e s u l t s
of t h e s e t e s t s a r e normally a f u n c t i o n of t h e geometry of t h e specimen
used, t h e s t a t e of stress i n t h e specimen, and t h e d e t a i l s of t h e impact
l o a d . I n g e n e r a l , a d e s i g n e r must conduct a s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s u s i n g
t h e material p r o p e r t i e s given i n Table 7 . 2 i n o r d e r t o determine a
s t r u c t u r e ' s a b i l i t y t o absorb energy. For s o i l and sand, t h e m a t e r i a l
p r o p e r t i e s are s o v a r i a b l e from one l o c a t i o n t o t h e n e x t t h a t t h e y must
be measured for the exact soil o r sand t o be used.
A d i s c u s s i o n was p r e s e n t e d of p r o j e c t i l e p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o s o i l
and sand and p l a s t i c and m e t a l l i c foams. For t h e case of wood, no d a t a
e x i s t f o r p r o j e c t i l e p e n e t r a t i o n , and t h e recommendation w a s made t h a t
t h e p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e of wood b e n e g l e c t e d .
7.4 TABLES OF DYNAMIC MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s , 6061

aluminum, and s t r u c t u r a l woods are p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n . Those
p r o p e r t i e s most u s e f u l t o t h e d e s i g n e r are given, i n c l u d i n g t h o s e v a l u e s
which d i f f e r under h i g h rates of l o a d i n g .
7.4.1 Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of S t r u c t u r a l Metals
T a b l e 7 . 3 l i s t s t h e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of a l l s t r u c t u r a l t y p e s
of s t e e l commonly used i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a n e x p l o s i v e s f a c i l i t y .
All p r o p e r t i e s g i v e n are f o r p l a t e , t h i c k n e s s < 3 / 4 i n . , o r b a r , diameter
-
< 3 / 4 i n . Values f o r o t h e r t h i c k n e s s e s and d i a m e t e r s can b e o b t a i n e d
i n t h e Annual ASTM S t a n d a r d s , P a r t 4 (Ref. 7 . 3 6 ) . The p r o p e r t i e s g i v e n
are t h e minimum v a l u e s d e s i g n a t e d by ASTM.
T a b l e 7 . 4 l i s t s t h e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of 6061 aluminum

(Ref. 7 . 3 7 ) . A s n o t e d i n S e c t i o n 7 . 2 . 1 , t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s a r e assumed
independent of s t r a i n rate.
7-40
T a b l e 7.3. Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of S t e e l (Ref. 7.36, P a r t 4)
Tensile Yield Tensile U 1 t iara te

Stress - CY (Minimum) Stress - r~T o r (Iu (Minimum*) Percent
Y- Elosgation e
-1 -1 -1
ASTM
Static t = 1 sec i = 100 s e c
Static E = 1 sec i = 100 sec-l (Minimum)
me Type S t e e l 103psi 1.03psi
~3psi
1 0 ~ ~ 10 i i ~ ~ ~
103psi ~ i
in 8 in. i n 2 i n .
A7 Low Carbon 33 42.9 59.4

A36 Low Carbon 36 46.8 64.8 58-80 6 3.8-88 .O 75.4-114.4 20 23
A529 Low Carbon 42 54.6 75.6 60-85 66.0-93.5 18.0-110.5 19 -
A440** Low Carbon 50 65.0 90.0 70 11.0 91.0 18 21
A510 30 Low Carbon 30 39.0 54.0 49 53.9 63.1 19 25
33 Low Carbon 33 42.9 59.4 52 51.2 61.6 18 23
36 Low Carbon 36 46.8 64.8 53 58.3 68.9 17 22
40 Low Carbon 40 52.0 12.0 55 60.5 71.5 16 21
45 Low Carbon 45 58.5 81.0 60 66.0 18.0 14 18
50 Lou Carbon 50 65.0 90.0 65 11.5 84.5 12 17
A611 A Low Carbon 25 32.5 45.0 42 46.2 54.6 - 26
B Low Carbon 30 39.0 54.0 45 49.5 58.5 - 24
C Low Carbon 33 42.9 59.4 48 52.8 62.4 - 22
D Low Carbon 40 52.0 12.0 52 51.2 61.6 - 20
E Low Carbon 80 80.0 96.0 82 82.0 96.0 - -
A242 Low Alloy 50 60.0 80.0 70 10.0 70.0 18 -
A441 Low Alloy 50 55.0 65.0 70 10.0 70.0 18 -
A512 42 Low Alloy 42 56.2 54.6 60 60.0 60.0 20 24
45 Low Alloy 45 49.5 58.5 60 60.0 60.0 19 22
50 Low Alloy 59 55.0 65.0 65 65.0 65.0 18 21
55 Low Alloy 55 60.5 11.5 70 10.0 10.0 17 20
60 Low Alloy 60 66.0 18.0 75 15.0 75.0 16 18
65 Low Alloy 65 11.5 84.5 80 80.0 80.0 15 17
A588 Low Alloy 50 55.0 65.0 70 10.0 70.0 18 21
A514 Low Alloy 100 100.0 100.0 110-130 110-130 110-130 - 18
A615 40 Low Carbon 40 52.0 12.0 70 11.0 91.0 12 -
60 Low Carbon 60 78.0 108.0 90 99.0 117.0 9 -
A616 50 Low Carbon 50 65.0 90.0 80 88.0 104.0 6 -
-
~
60 Low Carbon 60 78.0 108.0 90 99.0 111.0 6

A611 40 Low Carbon 40 52.0 12.0 70 17.0 91.0 12 dz
-
60 Low Carbon 60 18.0 108.0 90 99.0 111.0 8 -
*All v a l u e s f o r t e n s i l e u l t i m a t e are minimum v a l u e s e x c e p t A36, A529, and A514 f o r which

t h e a c c e p t a b l e r a n g e of v a l u e s are g i v e n .
**Discontinued i n 1979
Table 7.4. Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of 6061 Aluminum
Alloy S h e e t and P l a t e (Ref. 7.37)
Percent
Condition Thickness Yield S t r e s s Ultimate Stress Elongation
u (minimum) uT (minimum) i n 2 in.
in. psi psi e (minimum)
T4 0.010-0.020 16 30 14
0.021-0.249 16 30 16
T451 0.250-1.000 16 30 18
1.001-2.000 16 30 16
2.001-3.000 16 30 16
T6 0.010-0.020 35 42 8
0.021-0.499 35 42 10
T65 1 0.500-1.000 35 42
1.001-2.000 35 42
2.001-3.000 35 42
3.001-4.000 35 42
4.001-6.000 35 40
6
Modulus of E l a s t i c i t y E = 9.9 x 10 p s i
Density P = 0.098 l b / i n . 3
T4 - Solution heat treated

T451 - Solution heat t r e a t e d and stress r e l i e v e d
T6 - Solution heat t r e a t e d and a r t i f i c i a l l y aged
T651 - Solution heat t r e a t e d , stress r e l i e v e d , and a r t i f i c i a l l y aged
7-42
7.4.2 Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of S t r u c t u r a l Woods
Lumber of any s p e c i e s and s i z e , as i t i s sawed from t h e l o g ,

i s q u i t e v a r i a b l e i n i t s mechanical p r o p e r t i e s . P i e c e s may d i f f e r i n
s t r e n g t h by several hundred p e r c e n t . For s i m p l i c i t y and economy i n
u s e , p i e c e s of lumber of s i m i l a r mechanical p r o p e r t i e s are placed i n ' a
s i n g l e class c a l l e d a stress grade. E x p l a n a t i o n s of t h e stress g r a d i n g
p r o c e s s and t h e d e r i v a t i o n of mechanical p r o p e r t i e s f o r v i s u a l l y graded
lumber a r e g i v e n i n t h e Wood Handbook (Ref. 7 . 1 7 ) .
The d e r i v a t i o n of mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of v i s u a l l y graded

lumber i s based on c l e a r wood p r o p e r t i e s and on t h e lumber c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
allowed by t h e v i s u a l s o r t i n g c r i t e r i a . The i n f l u e n c e of t h e s o r t i n g
c r i t e r i a i s handled w i t h " s t r e n g t h r a t i o s " f o r t h e s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s
of wood and w i t h " q u a l i t y f a c t o r s " f o r t h e modulus of e l a s t i c i t y .
From p i e c e t o p i e c e , t h e r e i s v a r i a t i o n b o t h i n t h e clear wood

p r o p e r t i e s and i n t h e occurrence of t h e property-modifying c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s . The i n f l u e n c e of t h i s v a r i a b i l i t y on lumber p r o p e r t i e s i s handled
d i f f e r e n t l y f o r s t r e n g t h t h a n f o r modulus of e l a s t i c i t y .
Once t h e clear wood p r o p e r t i e s have been modified f o r t h e i n -

f l u e n c e of s o r t i n g c r i t e r i a and v a r i a b i l i t y , a d d i t i o n a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s
f o r s i z e , m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t , and l o a d d u r a t i o n are a p p l i e d . The composite
of t h e s e a d j u s t m e n t s i s an "allowable p r o p e r t y . "
Each s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t y of a p i e c e of lumber i s d e r i v e d from t h e

p r o d u c t of t h e c l e a r wood s t r e n g t h f o r t h e s p e c i e s and t h e l i m i t i n g
s t r e n g t h r a t i o . The s t r e n g t h r a t i o i s t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l r a t i o of t h e
s t r e n g t h of a p i e c e of lumber w i t h v i s i b l e s t r e n g t h - r e d u c i n g charac-
t e r i s t i c s t o its strength i f those characteristics w e r e absent.
Strength ratios f o r all knots, shakes, checks, and splits are

d e r i v e d u s i n g s i m i l a r concepts. S t r e n g t h r a t i o formulas are g i v e n i n
ASTM D-245 (Ref. 7 . 3 6 , P a r t 2 2 ) . The same r e f e r e n c e c o n t a i n s r u l e s f o r
measuring t h e v a r i o u s growth c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
The r a n g e of s t r e n g t h r a t i o s i n a g r a d e , and t h e n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n
i n c l e a r wood s t r e n g t h , g i v e r i s e t o v a r i a t i o n i n s t r e n g t h between p i e c e s
i n t h e g r a d e . To account f o r t h i s v a r i a t i o n , and p r o v i d e f o r s a f e t y
i n d e s i g n , i t i s i n t e n d e d t h a t any s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a
g r a d e be less t h a n t h e a c t u a l s t r e n g t h of a t least 95 p e r c e n t of t h e
p i e c e s i n t h e grade. I n v i s u a l g r a d i n g a c c o r d i n g t o ASTM D-245, t h i s
is handled by u s i n g a near-minimum c l e a r wood s t r e n g t h v a l u e , and
m u l t i p l y i n g i t by t h e minimum s t r e n g t h r a t i o p e r m i t t e d i n t h e g r a d e t o
o b t a i n t h e g r a d e s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t y . The near-minimum v a l u e i s c a l l e d t h e
5 p e r c e n t e x c l u s i o n l i m i t . ASTM D-2555 (Ref. 7 . 3 6 , P a r t 2 2 ) p r o v i d e s
c l e a r wood s t r e n g t h d a t a and g i v e s a method f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e 5 p e r c e n t
exclusion l i m i t .
7-43
I
Table 7.5 Clear Wood Strength Values: Unadjusted for Sorting Criteria
and Variability, Size, Moisture Content, and Load Duration
(ASTM D-2555, Ref. 7.36, Part 22)
Property
Modulus of Rupturea Modulus of Elasticityb Compression Parallel Shear Strength Compression. Specific Gravity
to Grain, crushing Perpendicular
strength, max. to Grain;c F i -
her Stress at
Species or Re- Proportional
t i o n , or Both
Limit
Avg., Varia- Stan- Avg.. Varia- Stan- Avg., Varia- Stan- Avg., Varia- Stan- Avg., Stan- Avg., Varia- Stan-
psi bility dard 1000 psi bility d;rd psi bility dard psi bility dard psi dard psi bility dard
Index Devia- Index Devfa- Index Devia- Index Devia- Devia- Index Devia-
tion. psi t ion, tion, t ion, tion, tio.1
1000 psi PSI psi
psi
Douglas fir
Coast 7665 1.05 1317 1560 1.05 315 3784 1.05 734 904 1.03 131 382 107 0.45 ... 0.057
Interior West 7713 1.03 1322 1513 1.06 324 3872 1.04 799 936 1.02 137 418 117 0.46 ... 0.058
Interior North 7438 1.04 1163 1409 1.04 274 3469 1.04 602 947 1.03 126 356 100 0.45 ... 0.069
Interior South 6784 1.01 908 1162 1.00 200 3113 1-01 489 953 1.00 153 337 96 0.43 ... 0.045
Southern Pine
Loblolly 7300 1.08 1199 1402 1.08 321 3511 1.09 612 863 1.05 112 389 109 0.47 1.06 0.057
Longleaf 8538 1.07 1305 1586 1.07 295 4321 1.07 707 1041 1.05 120 479 134 0.54 1.05 0.069
Shortleaf 7435 1.04 1167 1388 1.04 268 3527 1.05 564 905 1.05 125 353 99 0.47 1.05 0.052
Slash 8692 1.09 1127 1532 1.08 295 3823 1.07 547 964 1.05 128 529 148 0.56 1.09 0.062
-
kodulus of rupture values are applicable to material 2 in. in depth.
bModulus of elasticity values are applicable at a ratio of shear span to depth of 14.
All maximum crushing atrength perpendicular to grain values are based on standard test data only.
The method f o r determining t h e modulus of e l a s t i c i t y of a p i e c e
of wood i s a l s o d e s c r i b e d i n ASTM D-245.
Woods are a l s o stress graded mechanically. Mechanical stress g r a d i n g

i s based on a n observed r e l a t i o n between modulus of e l a s t i c i t y and bending
s t r e n g t h , t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , o r compressive s t r e n g t h p a r a l l e l t o t h e g r a i n .
The modulus of e l a s t i c i t y of lumber t h u s i s t h e s o r t i n g c r i t e r i o n used
i n t h i s method of g r a d i n g , The mechanical p r o p e r t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
lumber q u a l i t y , f o r t h e stress g r a d i n g method, are a d j u s t e d t o g i v e
a l l o w a b l e u n i t stresses and an a l l o w a b l e modulus of e l a s t i c i t y s u i t a b l e
f o r most e n g i n e e r i n g u s e s . Adjustments are made t o each s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t y
t o account f o r t h e e f f e c t s of s i z e , m o i s t u r e , and d u r a t i o n of l o a d .
The s p e c i f i c a d j u s t m e n t s are d e s c r i b e d i n ASTM D-245.
For a given d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n , ASTM D-245 and D-2555 should

b e c o n s u l t e d t o determine t h e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h and e l a s t i c modulus f o r
t h e wood t o b e used. The s t r e n g t h s should b e i n c r e a s e d f o r dynamic
a p p l i c a t i o n s according t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n S e c t i o n 7.2.3. Table 7.5
p r o v i d e s t h e c l e a r wood s t r e n g t h d a t a g i v e n i n ASTM D-2555.
7.4.3 A d d i t i o n a l References
S i n c e t h i s manual i s n o t i n t e n d e d as an independent d e s i g n g u i d e ,
e n g i n e e r s should c o n s u l t t h e v a r i o u s d e s i g n handbooks and manuals f o r f u r t h e r
i n f o r m a t i o n on a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n p r a c t i c e s . References 7.38 - 7.44 cover
most of t h e materials of i n t e r e s t .
7-45
7.5 LIST OF SYMBOLS
A p r o j e c t e d area
P
b l e n g t h of r e i n f o r c e m e n t
cos c2 e m p i r i c a l c o n s t a n t s i n P o n c e l e t ' s Equation
C one-half t h e d e p t h of a span
E modulus of e l a s t i c i t y under n e a r s t a t i c l o a d i n g
energy a b s o r p t i o n c a p a b i l i t y
Ea
EC
chord modulus
dynamic modulus of e l a s t i c i t y under n e a r s t a t i c l o a d i n g

Ed
s e c a n t modulus
Es
t a n g e n t modulus
ET
-
E s p e c i f i c energy
e maximum e l o n g a t i o n
F force
f c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n
s t a t i c u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of a material i n compression ( c r u s h
strength)
f; s t a t i c compressive s t r e n g t h of c o n c r e t e
fd; dynamic compressive s t r e n g t h of c o n c r e t e
I moment of i n e r t i a of a c r o s s s e c t i o n
K, K1, K2 m a t e r i a l c o n s t a n t s f o r wood
R a b s c i s s a of t h e p o i n t c o n s i d e r e d a l o n g t h e reinforcement
M maximum bending moment due t o a l o a d
m mass of p r o j e c t i l e
N impact bending s t r e n g t h of a wood specimen
7-46
n empirically determined constants
P strength parallel to the grain
9 strength across the grain
R modulus of rupture
T tensile stress in reinforcement
ta thickness of material available for crushing (energy absorption)

V velocity
V initial impact velocity

0
W static strain energy of a material
d' dynamic strain energy of a material
a empirical constant
& strain
i rate of strain
e angle rom the fiber direction

V Poisson's ratio
P density
0 stress
U ultimate strength of a material in compression (crush strength)

C
U dynamic crush strength

dc
U dynamic ultimate strength of a material in tension
dT
U dynamic ultimate strength of a material
du
U dynamic yield strength of a material
dY
-1
U strength of a material at a strain rate of 1 sec
0
U static ultimate strength of a material in tension

T
U static ultimate strength of a material
U
7-47
U s t a t i c y i e l d s t r e n g t h of a m a t e r i a l
Y
U lower y i e l d stress
y!L
U upper y i e l d stress
YIl
T t a n g e n t i a l component of stress e x e r t e d on r e i n f o r c e m e n t
7-48
7.6 REFERENCES
7.1 AISC S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e Design, F a b r i c a t i o n and E r e c t i o n of

S t r u c t u r a l S t e e l f o r B u i l d i n g s , American I n s t i t u t e of S t e e l
C o n s t r u c t i o n , New York, NY, February 1969.
7.2 "Suppressive S h i e l d s S t r u c t u r a l Design and A n a l y s i s Handbook,"

U. S . Amy Corps of E n g i n e e r s , H u n t s v i l l e D i v i s i o n , HNDM--l110.-1-2,
November 1977.
7.3 Symonds, P . S . , "Survey of Methods of A n a l y s i s f o r P l a s t i c Deforma-

t i o n of S t r u c t u r e s under Dynamic Loading," F i n a l Report t o Naval
S h i p Research and Development C e n t e r , No. BU/NSRDC/1-67, C o n t r a c t
No. 3248, J u n e 1967.
7.4 Winlock, J . , "The I n f l u e n c e o f t h e Rate of Deformation on t h e

Tensile P r o p e r t i e s of Some P l a i n Carbon S h e e t S t e e l s , T r a n s a c t i o n s ,
AIME, J o u r n a l of Metals, Volume 197, pp. 797-803, J u n e 1953.
7.5 Manjoine, M. J . , " I n f l u e n c e of Rate of S t r a i n and Temperature on

Y i e l d Stresses of Mild S t e e l , " J o u r n a l of Applied Mechanics,
pp. A211-A218, December 1944.
7.6 Lindholm, U . S . and Bessey, R. L . , "A Survey o f Rate Dependent

S t r e n g t h P r o p e r t i e s o f Materials," F i n a l Report t o A i r Force
Materials L a b o r a t o r y , AFML-TR-69-119, A p r i l 1969.
7.7 K r a f t , J . M . , " C o r r e l a t i o n of P l a n e S t r a i n Crack Toughness w i t h

S t r a i n Hardening C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a Low, a Medium, and a High
S t r e n g t h S t e e l , " Applied E l a t e r i a l s Research, Vol. 3 , p . 88, 1964.
7.8 Holt, D. L., Babcock, S . G . , Green, S . J . , and Maiden, C . J . ,

"The Strain-Rate Dependence of the F l o w Stress of Some Aluminum
A l l o y s , " T r a n s a c t i o n s of t h e American S o c i e t y o f Metals, V o l . 60,
p . 1 5 2 , 1967.
7.9 S t e i d e l , R . F. and Makerou, C . E . , "The T e n s i l e P r o p e r t i e s of Some

E n g i n e e r i n g Materials a t Moderate R a t e s of S t r a i n , " ASTM B u l l e t i n ,
pp. 57-64,' J u l y 1960.
7.10 Lindholm, U. S . and Yeakley, L . M . , "High S t r a i n - R a t e T e s t i n g :

Tension and Compression," E x p e r i m e n t a l Mechanics, V o l . 8 , p 1, .
1968.
7.11 "Systems A p p l i c a t i o n s of N u c l e a r Technology: E f f e c t s of A i r B l a s t

C r a t e r i n g , Ground Shock and R a d i a t i o n on Hardened S t r u c t u r e s , "
AFSC Manual 500-8, Department of t h e A i r F o r c e , Chapter 8 , J a n u a r y
1976.
7-49
7.12 Structures to Resist the Effects of Accidental Explosions (1969),
Dept. of the A m y Technical Manual TM 5-1300, Dept. of the Navy
Publication NAVFAC P-397, Dept. of the Air Force Manual AFM 88-22,
Dept. of the A m y , Navy, and Air Force, June 1979.
7.13 American Concrete Institute Building Code Requirements for Rein-

forced Concrete (ACI 318-77) Section 10.2.
7.14 McHenry, D. and Shideler, J. J., "Review of Data on Effect of Speed

in Mechanical Testing of Concrete," Symposium on Speed of Testing
of Non-Metallic Materials, Atlantic City, NJ, (ASTM Special Technical
Publication No. 185), pp. 72-82, June 29, 1955.
7.15 Watstein, D., "Effect of Straining Rate on the Compressive Strength

and Elastic Properties of Concrete," Journal of the American
Concrete Institute, pp. 729-744, April 1953.
7.16 Gupta, Y . M. and Seaman. L., "Local Response of Reinforced Concrete

to Missile Impact,'' EPRI NP-1217, Research Project 393-1, Final
R e p o r t , October 1 9 7 9 .
7.17 U. S. Forest Products Laboratory, Wood Handbook: Wood as an

Engineering Material, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agricul-
ture Handbook No. 72, 1974.
7.18 Markwardt, L. J. and Liska, J. A., "The Influence of Rate of

Loading on the Strength of Wood and Wood-3ase Materials,''
Symposium on Speed of Testing of Non-Metallic Materials, Atlantic
City, NJ (ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 185), pp. 3-17,
June 29, 1955.
7.19 Ferguson, W. G . and Yew, F. K., "The Application of the Rate Theory
of Deformation to the Yield Behavior of Wood," Journal of Materials
Sciences.
7.20 Ritland, H. N., "The Effect of Speed of Testing on Glass," Symposium

on Speed of Testing of Non-Metallic Materials, Atlantic City, NJ
(ASTM Special Tehcnical Publication No. 1 8 5 ) , pp. 19-29, June 29,
1955.
7 . 2 1 Tensile-Impact Energy to Break Plastics and Electrical Insulating

Materials," ANSIJASTM D 1822-68.
7 . 22 Smith, C . O., The Science of Engineering Materials, Second Edition,

Prentice Hall, Inc., p. 187, 1977.
7.23 "Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials, ASTM E23-72.
7-50
7 . 2 4 "Impact Resistance of Plastics and Electrical Insulating Materials,"
ANSIIASTM D256-78.
7 . 25 "Apparent Impact Strength of Preformed Block-Type Insulating

Materials,'' ANSI/ASTM C 589-68, (Reapproved 1 9 7 5 1 ,
7 . 26 "Conducting Strength Tests of Panels for Building Construction,"

ANSI/ASTM E 72-77.
7.27 Westine, P. S., "Prediction of Transient Displacement, Velocity.

and Force on Projectiles Penetrating Cohesive Soils," Journal of
Terramechanics, 12 3 / 4 , pp. 149-170, December 1 9 7 5 .
7.28 Healey, J., Werner, H., Weissman, S., Dobbs, N., Price, P.,
I1
Primary Fragment Characteristics and Impact Effects on Protective
Barriers," Picatinny Arsenal Technical Report No. 4 9 0 3 , Amman and
Whitney, Consulting Engineers, New York, NY, December 1 9 7 5 .
7.29 "Small Clear Specimens of Timber," ASTM D 143-52 (Reapproved 1 9 7 2 ) .
7.30 "Design Data for the Preliminary Selection of Honeycomb Energy

Absorption Systems," TSB 1 2 2 , HEXCEL, 1 9 6 4 .
7.31 "Mechanical Properties of Hexcel Honeycomb Materials," TSB 1 2 0 ,

HEXCEL, Winter 1 9 7 9 Revision.
7.32 Matonis, V. A., "Elastic Behavior of Low-Density Rigid Foams in

Structural Applications," Society of Plastics Engineering Journal,
pp. 1024-1030, September 1 9 6 4 .
7.33 Lipson, S . , "Cellular Aluminum for Use in Energy Dissipation

Systems," NASA CR-93, September 1964.
7.34 "Recent Results in Trench Research on Reinforced Earth," Francois
Schlosser and Nguyen-Thank Long, Journal of the Construction
Division ASCE, September 1 9 7 4 .
7.35 "Tests on the Effects of Explosive Charges on Reinforced Earth

Walls," Victor Elias, Minutes of the Eighteenth Explosives Safety
Seminar, Vol. 1, September 1 9 7 8 .
7.36 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Parts 1 - 4 8 , Race Street, Philadelphia, PA, 1 9 1 0 3 ,
1978.
7-51
7.37 M e t a l l i c Materials and Elements f o r Aerospace Vehicle S t r u c t u r e s :
M i l i t a r y S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n Handbook, MIL-HDBK-5C- 15 September 1976.
7.38 A C I Manual of Concrete P r a c t i c e s , P a r t s 1, 2 , and 3 , American

Concrete I n s t i t u t e , D e t r o i t , M I (Current E d i t i o n ) .
7.39 Aluminum S t a n d a r d s and Data, The Aluminum A s s o c i a t i o n , New York,

NY (Current E d i t i o n ) .
7.40 PCI Design Handbook: P r e c a s t , P r e s t r e s s e d Concrete, P r e s t r e s s e d
Concrete I n s t i t u t e , Chicago, I L (Current E d i t i o n ) .
7.41 S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e Design of Cold Formed S t e e l S t r u c t u r a l

Members, American I r o n and S t e e l I n s t i t u t e , Washington, DC (Current
Edition).
7.42 Standard S p e c i f i c a t i o n s and Load T a b l e s , S t e e l J o i s t I n s t i t u t e ,

A r l i n g t o n , VA (Current E d i t i o n ) .
7.43 Concrete Masonry Handbook, P o r t l a n d C e m e n t A s s o c i a t i o n , Chicago,

I L (Current E d i t i o n ) .
7.44 Masonry Design Manual, Masonry I n d u s t r i a l Advancement Committee,

Masonry I n s t i t u t e of America, Los Angeles, CA (Current E d i t i o n ) .
7-52
CHAPTER 8
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The c o n t e n t s of t h i s Chapter are intended f o r u s e i n understanding d e s i g n .

-philosophy; t h e c o n t e n t s a r e n o t i n t e n d e d t o r e p l a c e e x i s t i n g d e s i g n sour9es.
The purpose of t h i s Chapter i s t o provide g e n e r a l t u i d a n c e i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
of a n a l y s i s methods f o r t h e d e s i g n of s t r u c t u r e s t o resist t h e e f f e c t s of dy-
namic l o a d s . The a i m i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e a n a l y s t ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of dynamic
r e s p o n s e and make him aware of a n a l y s i s methods from which h e can select a
method t h a t i s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r h i s d e s i g n problem.
I n g e n e r a l terms t h e s t e p s t h a t are taken when d e s i g n i n g a b u i l d i n g f o r

b l a s t r e s i s t a n c e are:
1. E s t a b l i s h s i t i n g , g e n e r a l b u i l d i n g l a y o u t , and t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a .
2. S i z e members f o r s t a t f c l o a d s .
3. Determine p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e s of a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s and e s t a b l i s h
t h e i r l o c a t i o n and magnitude.
4. C a l c u l a t e t h e b l a s t l o a d s on t h e b u i l d i n g .
5. Define t h e fragments f o r which t h e b u i l d i n g must b e d e s i g n e d .
6. C a l c u l a t e l o a d i n g from fragment impact.
7. C a l c u l a t e t h e l o a d i n g from e a r t h e j e c t a i f c r a t e r i n g throws e a r t h
against the building.
8. Define t h e ground shock a t t h e b u i l d i n g s i t e .
9. Perform a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s t o s i z e t h e s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e b l a s t
loads.
1 0 . Perform a n a n a l y s i s u s i n g e i t h e r s i m p l i f i e d o r numerical methods.
11. Redesign o r r e s i z e t h e s t r u c t u r e as r e q u i r e d t o meet t h e d e s i g n

criteria.
z
Design of a b u i l d i n g u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s i n t e r a c t i o n between s e v e r a l d i s c i p l i n e s .
An a r c h i t e c t e n g i n e e r (AE) i s u s u a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s i t i n g and g e n e r a l
l a y o u t of t h e b u i l d i n g . The AE may a l s o s i z e s t r u c t u r a l members of t h e b u i l d -
i n g t o resist c o n v e n t i o n a l l o a d s . Conventional l o a d s w i l l i n c l u d e dead weight,
8-1
equipment o p e r a t i n g l o a d s , and l o a d s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n a t u r a l phenomena such
as tornado, f i r e , and earthquake. S a f e t y and p r o c e s s e n g i n e e r s may d e f i n e
s u r e s , fragments, and ground shock f o r which tv

t h e l o c a t i o n and energy of p o t e n t i a l e x p l o s i o n s t h a t w i l l produce overpres-
b u i l d i n g must b e designed.
Using Chapter 4 of t h e handbook, t h e d e s i g n e r can, knowing t h e l o c a t i o n

and energy i n a n e x p l o s i o n , p r e d i c t t h e b l a s t l o a d i n g ( p ( t ) o r P and i) f o r
whjch t h e b u i l d i n g must b e designed. Also, u s i n g Chapters 5 and 6 of t h e
handbook, t h e d e s i g n e r c a n estimate ground shock and fragments t h a t may s t r i k e
the building.
Once t h e b u i l d i n g h a s been designed f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l l o a d s and t h e b l a s t

l o a d s on t h e b u i l d i n g have been e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e a n a l y s t i s ready t o a p p l y
C h a p t e r s 7 and 8 w i t h e x i s t i n g d e s i g n a i d s t o e v a l u a t e t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e
b u i l d i n g f o r t h e s e l o a d s . Chapter 7 g i v e s t h e material p r o p e r t i e s t h a t t h e
d e s i g n e r and a n a l y s t should u s e i n s i z i n g t h e members. Usually some allowance
c a n be taken f o r t h e f a c t t h a t dynamic l o a d i n g w i l l c a u s e t h e b u i l d i n g t o re-
spond w i t h a s t r a i n r a t e t h a t i s h5gh enough t o i n c r e a s e t h e material y i e l d
s t r e n g t h . Using t h e a p p r o p r i a t e material p r o p e r t i e s and l o a d , t h i s c h a p t e r
provides the analyst with guidance on how t o a n a l y z e t h e s t r u c t u r e and s e t
t h e dimensions ( s i z e s ) of s t r u c t u r a l members i n t h e b u i l d i n g . Because ana-
l y t i c a l methods for s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n have a l r e a d y been developed and docu-
mented, t h i s c h a p t e r i d e n t i f i e s a p p l i c a b l e methods and p r o v i d e s some guidance
f o r a c h o i c e of method and f o r i t s a p p l i c a t i o n .
A n a l y s i s methods d e s c r i b e d h e r e have been d i v i d e d i n t o two g e n e r a l cate-

g o r i e s : s i m p l i f i e d methods and numerical methods. I n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n t h e
d e f i n i t i o n s w i l l be: .
S i m p l i f i e d Methods: R e f e r s t o s i n g l e o r two-degree-of-freedom approxi-

m a t i o n s t o t h e dynamic b e h a v i o r of s t r u c t u r a l elements. Most o f t e n t h e
s o l u t i o n is p r e s e n t e d i n g r a p h i c a l o r i n c l o s e d form, b u t numerical i n -
t e g r a t i o n i s used t o o b t a i n s o l u t i o n s i n some c a s e s .
Numerical Methods: R e f e r s t o s o p h i s t i c a t e d multi-degree-of-freedom

s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e r e s p o n s e of s t r u c t u r a l elements o r of complex s t r u c -
t u r a l systems. A d i g i t a l computer is r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s e s o l u t i o n s , and
t h e c o s t can b e h i g h i f p l a s t i c i t y i s i n c l u d e d and a dynamic s o l u t i o n
is obtained.
T y p i c a l " s i m p l i f i e d methods" f o r t h e d e s i g n of s t r u c t u r e s t o resist dy-

n a m i c l o a d s are c o n t a i n e d i n manuals such as TM5-1300, " S t r u c t u r e s t o Resist
t h e E f f e c t s of A c c i d e n t a l Explosions" (Ref. 8 . 1 ) , i n books such as Introduc-
t i o n t o S t r u c t u r a l Dynamics by Biggs (Ref. 8.2), and i n papers such as
"Energy S o l u t i o n s f o r P r e d i c t i n g Deformations i n Blast Loaded S t r u c t u r e s " by
Westine and Baker (Ref. 8 . 3 ) . Numerical methods a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by large
multi-purpose f i n i t e element (F.E.) computer programs such a s ADINA (Ref.' 8 . 4 ) ,
msys (Ref. 8 . 5 ) , MARC (Ref. 8.6), and a l i m i t e d number of s p e c i a l purpose
codes ( b o t h f i n i t e element and f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e ) such as D W A (Ref. 8.7) and
PETROS 4 (Ref. 8.8). A d d i t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n and some comparisons between t h e
v a r i o u s methods are i n c l u d e d i n S e c t i o n s 8.3.1 and 8.3.2.
8.2 ELEMENTS OF DYNAMIC RESPONSE ANALYSIS
8.2.1 T r a n s i e n t and Q u a s i - S t a t i c Loads
By t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e , a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s produce t r a n s i e n t l o a d s on
b u i l d i n g s . To d e s i g n f o r b l a s t r e s i s t a n c e , t h e e f f e c t of t h e s e t r a n s i e n t
l o a d s on t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e b u i l d i n g must b e determined; however, what seems
t o b e v e r y b r i e f t o t h e o b s e r v e r i n real time can b e q u i t e l o n g i n terms o f
t h e v i b r a t i o n p e r i o d s of a s t r u c t u r e so t h a t t h e l o a d s are c l a s s i f i e d as s h o r t
( i m p u l s i v e ) , o r l o n g ( q u a s i - s t a t i c ) r e l a t i v e t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l v i b r a t i o n per-
i o d s . The i n t e r m e d i a t e r e g i o n between impulsive and q u a s i - s t a t i c , where per-
i o d s are a b o u t t h e same as l o a d i n g times, i s c a l l e d t h e p r e s s u r e - t i m e r e g i o n .
The t y p e s of l o a d s c o n s i d e r e d h e r e i n ' t h a t can b e produced on a b u i l d -

i n g by an e x p l o s i o n are:
o v e r p r e s s u r e s produced by t h e b l a s t wave
a l o n g term gas p r e s s u r e i f t h e e x p l o s i o n is confined
ground shock
fragment impact
impact from soil i f c r a t e r i n g o c c u r s
The most i m p o r t a n t l o a d i n d e s i g n is u s u a l l y t h e o v e r p r e s s u r e produced by t h e

b l a s t wave. This l o a d w i l l always o c c u r u n l e s s t h e e x p l o s i o n i s confined and
no v e n t i n g i s produced. Ground shock w i l l a l s o occur unless t h e e x p l o s i o n is
confined and i s o l a t e d from t h e ground; however, ground shock is u s u a l l y of
secondary importance. The i n c r e a s e i n l o n g t e r m p r e s s u r e o c c u r s only when t h e r e
is confinement, and t h e c r e a t i o n of fragments o r s o i l ejecta w i l l depend upon
t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e e x p l o s i o n relative t o t h e ground and a d j a c e n t s t r u c t u r e .
Each of tliese l o a d s c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d as i m p u l s i v e , pressure-time, o r

q u a s i - s t a t i c relative t o a s p e c i f i c s t r u c t u r a l component. I f t h e p e r i o d o f
t h e fundamental v i b r a t i o n of t h e component is v e r y s h o r t , a l l of t h e l o a d s
may be q u a s i - s t a t i c (long d u r a t i o n relative t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l p e r i o d ) . I f
t h e p e r i o d of v i b r a t i o n i s l o n g (low f r e q u e n c y ) , t h e n a l l o f t h e l o a d s may
b e i m p u l s i v e f o r t h a t component. Even so, f o r most b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e s , im-
p a c t l o a d s produced by fragments and e a r t h ejecta are i d e a l i z e d as a n im-
p u l s e o r i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y and t h e gas p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e is u s u a l l y q u a s i -
s t a t i c . It is e a s y t o see t h a t t h e same load may be c l a s s i f i e d d i f f e r e n t l y
f o r d i f f e r e n t components i n a b u i l d i n g .
8-3
The way a l o a d a f f e c t s t h e s t r u c t u r e depends n o t o n l y upon i t s d u r a t i o n
b u t upon i t s r i s e t i m e and g e n e r a l shape as w e l l . An example of t h e e f f e c t of
d i f f e r e n t l o a d p u l s e shapes f o r an e l a s t i c o s c i l l a t o r is given i n F i g u r e 8.1.
T h i s f i g u r e g i v e s t h e dynamic l o a d f a c t o r (DLF) and t h e t i m e (t,,-,) a t which t h e
maximum r e s p o n s e o c c u r s f o r a r e c t a n g u l a r f o r c e , a t r i a n g u l a r f o r c e w i t h z e r o
r i s e t i m e , and a ramp f u n c t i o n t o a c o n s t a n t l o a d . Notice t h a t t h e maximum
DLF i s always a f u n c t i o n o f t h e r a t i o between some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t i m e of t h e
l o a d i n g ( t d o r tr) and t h e fundamental p e r i o d (T) o f t h e one-degree-of-freedom
oscillator. (DLF)-, i s t h e r a t i o of t h e maximum r e s p o n s e of t h e s t r u c t u r e
(maximum d e f l e c t i o n , stress, etc.) relative t o t h e maximum response produced
b y a s t a t i c l o a d of t h e same magnitude. N o t i c e t h a t a l l o f t h e f o r c e s g i v e
about t h e same peak v a l u e o f DLF (approximately 2.0). For t h e r e c t a n g u l a r
and t r i a n g u l a r f o r c e p u l s e s , t h i s o c c u r s when t h e d u r a t i o n i s l o n g ( b o t h have
z e r o r i s e times), and f o r t h e ramp f u n c t i o n t o a c o n s t a n t l o a d i t o c c u r s when
the r i s e t i m e i s s h o r t . These cases a l l e q u a l o r approach t h e DLF f o r a s t e p
f u n c t i o n t o a c o n s t a n t l o a d . It i s w e l l known t h a t DLF = 2.0 f o r a s t e p func-
t i o n w i t h t d / T > 5.0 (Ref. 8.2).
Loading from a b l a s t wave from h i g h e x p l o s i v e (HE) charges can b e

c l o s e l y approximated by t h e t r i a n g u l a r p u l s e w i t h z e r o rise t i m e . I f the
e x p l o s i o n i s produced by vapor o r d u s t c l o u d s , v e r y d i f f e r e n t f o r c i n g func-
t i o n s can o c c u r as e x p l a i n e d i n S e c t i o n 8.2.3. Curve shapes f o r q u a s i - s t a t i c
p r e s s u r e l o a d i n g s are c l o s e l y approximated by t h e ramp f u n c t i o n t o a c o n s t a n t
v a l u e o r , c o n s e r v a t i v e l y , by u s i n g l o n g d u r a t i o n r e c t a n g u l a r o r t r i a n g u l a r
f o r c e p u l s e s with zero rise t i m e .
When t h e f o r c e s on t h e b u i l d i n g are e i t h e r impulsive o r q u a s i - s t a t i c ,

s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n t h e a n a l y s i s are p o s s i b l e . Impulsive l o a d s can b e re-
p l a c e d by a n i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y imparted t o t h e s t r u c t u r e . A s e x p l a i n e d i n
Chapter 4 of Ref. 8.9, t h i s i s done by e q u a t i n g t h e t o t a l impulse t o t h e
change i n momentum of t h e s t r u c t u r e . From t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y , t h e i n i t i a l
k i n e t i c energy i s o b t a i n e d . Equating t h e i n i t i a l k i n e t i c energy t o t h e s t r a i n
energy absorbed by t h e s t r u c t u r e d u r i n g deformation ( e l a s t i c o r p l a s t i c ) w i l l
g i v e t h e i m p u l s i v e asymptote f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e . For many s t r u c t u r a l compo-
n e n t s , e q u a t i o n s c a n b e d e r i v e d t o g i v e t h i s asymptote.
When t h e f o r c e s are q u a s i - s t a t i c then, f o r e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r , a s t a t i c

a n a l y s i s can b e used. T h i s i s s t r i c t l y t r u e o n l y f o r v e r y s l o w l y a p p l i e d
l o a d s ; however, f o r suddenly a p p l i e d c o n s t a n t l o a d s ( s t e p f u n c t i o n ) , t h e re-
sults of t h e s t a t i c a n a l y s i s , m u l t i p l i e d by two, are a l s o v a l i d . I f t h e ma-
t e r i a l deforms p l a s t i c a l l y , t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c asymptote c a n b e o b t a i n e d by
e q u a t i n g t h e work done by t h e l o a d as t h e s t r u c t u r e deforms t o t h e s t r a i n
energy of deformation. As f o r i m p u l s i v e l o a d s , s i m p l e formulas t h a t g i v e
t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c asymptote can be d e r i v e d f o r many s t r u c t u r a l components.
F i g u r e 8.2 from R e f e r e n c e 8.9 g i v e s a P-i (pressure-impulse) diagram f o r
beams. The o r d i n a t e and a b s c i s s a are nondimensional terms so t h a t t h e r e s u l t s
are a p p l i c a b l e t o beams of d i f f e r e n t geometry. I n t h i s example t h e c u r v e s are
f o r d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s o f maximum s t r a i n i n t h e beam. Note t h a t f o u r d i f f e r e n t
boundary c o n d i t i o n s a r e p e r m i t t e d by t h e p r o p e r c h o i c e of t h e c o n s t a n t s $.
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I n F i g u r e 8.2 t h e v e r t i c a l asymptote i s t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c one. I n c r e a s i n g
t h e impulse ( l o a d d u r a t i o n ) a l o n g t h i s asymptote does n o t change t h e r e s u l t .
Only a change i n p r e s s u r e w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e s t r a i n . Likewise, t h e h o r i z o n t a l
asymptote i s f o r impulse. I n c r e a s i n g t h e p r e s s u r e a l o n g t h i s asymptote does
n o t change t h e r e s u l t . The i n t e r m e d i a t e , curved p o r t i o n of t h e c u r v e i s
c a l l e d t h e dynamic realm. Here t h e beam r e s p o n s e i s a f u n c t i o n of both pres-
s u r e and impulse, and t h e problem must b e solved dynamically.
To e n t e r F i g u r e 8.2, t h e nondimensional terms on t h e o r d i n a t e and

a b s c i s s a are e v a l u a t e d from t h e l o a d parameters (p & i ) , t h e beam material
p r o p e r t i e s and t h e beam geometry. These c o o r d i n a t e s w i l l f a l l on o r n e a r a
c u r v e which g i v e s t h e v a l u e of t h e nondimensional group f o r maximum s t r a i n .
From t h i s v a l u e , kxcan b e determined. Using hX, t h e c e n t e r displacement
can b e found from t h e e q u a t i o n i n t h e lower l e f t - h a n d c o r n e r of F i g u r e 8.2.
Ground shock produced by a n e x p l o s i o n i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e f i n e . For

l i n e a r problems i t can b e r e p r e s e n t e d by a response spectrum. Approximate
methods of d e f i n i n g such a spectrum are d i s c u s s e d i n paragraph 5.6.1, Chapter
5 of t h i s manual, and i n Reference 5.36 and Reference 8.2. I n n o n l i n e a r re-
sponse problems, ground shock i s most c o n v e n i e n t l y r e p r e s e n t e d as a d i s p l a c e -
ment-time h i s t o r y t h a t i s a p p l i e d t o t h e b a s e of t h e b u i l d i n g .
8.2.2 Material Behavior
Under dynamic l o a d s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x p l o s i o n s , s t r a i n rates i n mater-

ials w i l l b e i n t h e range o f 1 t o 100 i n . / i n . / s e c . These rates are h i g h enough
t o i n c r e a s e t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h of some s t r u c t u r a l materials above s t a t i c v a l u e s .
Data on s t r a i n r a t e e f f e c t s i n s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s , c o n c r e t e , and o t h e r mater-
i a l s are given i n Chapter 7 .
When u s i n g numerical methods, continuous v a r i a t i o n s i n s t r a i n rate

t h a t occur i n t h e materials can b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s . I n such cases
t h e approximate formulas given i n Chapter 7 t h a t r e l a t e y i e l d stress t o
s t r a i n r a t e are u s e f u l ; however, when u s i n g s i m p l i f i e d methods, a s i m p l e r way
of a c c o u n t i n g f o r s t r a i n r a t e is r e q u i r e d . N o r r i s , e t a l . (Ref. 8 . 1 0 ) , sug-
g e s t s t h a t some average v a l u e b e used which i s based upon t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d
t o r e a c h t h e y i e l d stress. Following t h i s approach, t h e a u t h o r s c i t e aver-
a g e s t r a i n rates of 0.02 t o 0.2 i n . / i n . / s e c , and f o r ASTM A7 s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l
recommend a n i n c r e a s e in t h e y i e l d stress from a b o u t 38,000 p s i t o 41,600
p s i . A s i m i l a r i n c r e a s e i s probably w a r r a n t e d f o r o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s ,
b u t a c h o i c e f o r any material c a n b e made i f t h e s t r a i n rate d a t a are avail-
a b l e and i f 0.2 i n . / i n . / s e c i s a c c e p t e d as a r e a s o n a b l e average f o r s t r u c t u r a l
response t o b l a s t loads.
Numerical r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d b y Cox, e t a l . (Ref. 8 . 1 1 ) , showed t h a t

s t r a i n rate i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r r i n g s t h a t are s u b j e c t e d t o uniform dynamic
i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s . I n c l u d i n g t h e e f f e c t of s t r a i n rate r e d u c e s peak s t r a i n s
t o about one-third. For beams i n the same s t r u c t u r e , s t r a i n rates had v e r y
8- 7
l i t t l e e f f e c t on c a l c u l a t e d peak s t r a i n s , b u t t h e peak s t r a i n s i n t h e beam
w e r e o n l y s l i g h t l y above y i e l d , and i n bending o n l y t h e s u r f a c e e x p e r i e n c e s
t h e maximum s t r a i n rates. For r i n g s , t h e rate o f s t r a i n i n g i s uniform o v e r .
t h e t o t a l c r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e component; h i g h s t r a i n rates s i g n i f i c a n t l y in-
crease t h e t o t a l y i e l d l o a d s and, t h u s , s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduce t h e t o t a l s t r a i n .
S t r a i n r a t e e f f e c t s should b e included i n numerical methods i f i t can

b e done c o n v e n i e n t l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y when membrane a c t i o n ( s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e t c h -
i n g o f t h e material a t t h e n e u t r a l axis) i s predominant i n t h e response. For
s i m p l i f i e d methods, some i n c r e a s e i n t h e y i e l d stress above s t a t i c v a l u e s i s
a l s o w a r r a n t e d . Of c o u r s e , i g n o r i n g s t r a i n rate e n t i r e l y l e a d s t o conserva-
tive r e s u l t s .
Material damping ( t h e h y s t e r e s i s which o c c u r s i n t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a -

gram when a material i s s u b j e c t e d t o c y c l i c l o a d s ) i s s m a l l and can be ignored
i n b l a s t r e l a t e d r e s p o n s e problems. Only t h e f i r s t few c y c l e s of response are
o f i n t e r e s t and t h e e f f e c t o f material damping w i l l b e i n s i g n i f i c a n t . Overall
s t r u c t u r a l damping w i l l b e h i g h e r , b u t i t too w i l l b e small compared t o t h e
damping e f f e c t s of s t r u c t u r a l p l a s t i c i t y . Thus, f o r t r a n s i e n t r e s p o n s e prob-
l e m s i n v o l v i n g material p l a s t i c i t y , i g n o r i n g damping w i l l l e a d t o a s l i g h t l y
c o n s e r v a t i v e result.
8.2.3 S t r u c t u r a l Behavior
This s e c t i o n w i l l g i v e a b r i e f overview of t h e behavior of s t r u c t u r e s

when s u b j e c t e d t o t r a n s i e n t l o a d i n g . It c o v e r s t h e e f f e c t s of such t h i n g s as
p l a s t i c i t y , l o a d h i s t o r y , and damping on s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v i o r and d i s c u s s e s
s i n g l e and m u l t i p l e degree-of-freedom solutions.
8.2.3.1 E l a s t i c - P l a s t i c Behavior
Normal o p e r a t i n g l o a d s f o r a b u i l d i n g are f a r below t h o s e which can

b e produced by a n a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n . Loads from t h e e x p l o s i o n c a n b e
thought of as o v e r l o a d s , and i f t h e b u i l d i n g i s designed f o r e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r
a t t h e s e o v e r l o a d c o n d i t i o n s , t h e n a massive, overdesigned s t r u c t u r e can b e
t h e r e s u l t . It i s a c c e p t a b l e d e s i g n p r a c t i c e t o p e r m i t some permanent defor-
mation i n t h e b u i l d i n g a t o v e r l o a d . I f t h e amount of permanent deformation
i s s m a l l , t h e b u i l d i n g can b e reused a f t e r t h e a c c i d e n t . I f l a r g e permanent
d e f o r m a t i o n o c c u r s , t h e b u i l d i n g cannot b e r e u s e d .
For a one-degree-of-freedom system, the e f f e c t o f p l a s t i c i t y h a s been

demonstrated by Baker, e t . a l . (Ref. 8.9). F i g u r e 8 . 3 compares two systems
w i t h e q u a l s t i f f n e s s , b u t one i s 33 p e r c e n t s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e o t h e r . The d i s -
placement-time h i s t o r y f o r t h e s t r o n g e r system i s n o t shown b u t i t o s c i l l a t e d
a b o u t z e r o w i t h a n amplitude e q u a l t o t h a t given by t h e dashed l i n e l a b e l e d
"elastic s o l u t i o n . " Under e q u a l dynamic l o a d s , t h e s t r o n g s p r i n g i s s t r e s s e d
j u s t t o y i e l d ( e l a s t i c s o l u t i o n ) and t h e weaker s p r i n g y i e l d s , as shown by t h e
d i s p l a c e m e n t s . The s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t is t h a t t h e peak deformation of t h e weak-
e r s p r i n g w a s v e r y n e a r l y t h e same as f o r t h e s t r o n g e r s p r i n g ( e l a s t i c s o l u t i o n ) .
Resistance,
h s is tance-Displacement
Func t i o n
T i m e , Sec.
Figure 8.3 Displacements o f One-Degree-of -Freedom System w i t h a

Bi-Linear R e s i s t a n c e F u n c t i o n (Ref. 8.9)
8-9
T h i s o c c u r s because o n l y a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n deformation i s r e q u i r e d i n t h e
weaker system t o e q u a l t h e s t r a i n energy i n t h e s t r o n g e r system, The d u c t i l -
i t y r a t i o , u, i s a common c r i t e r i o n f o r e v a l u a t i n g p l a s t i c behavior i n s t r u c -
t u r e s (Refs. 8.1, 8.2 and 8 . 3 ) . I t i s t h e t o t a l deformation d i v i d e d by t h e
d e f o r m a t i o n a t which y i e l d i n g o c c u r s . For t h e weak s p r i n g t h i s r a t i o i s
u = 1.35
A d u c t i l i t y r a t i o of t h r e e g e n e r a l l y i s a c c e p t a b l e f o r r e u s a b l e s t r u c t u r e s ,
i f o t h e r c r i t e r i a such as h i n g e r o t a t i o n s and l a t e r a l sway are m e t . [See
Refs. 8 . 1 7 and 8.19 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r s t e e l c o n s t r u c t i o n
and R e f s . 8.1 and 8.10 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r c o n c r e t e con-
s t r u c t i o n . ] Thus, i t is a p p a r e n t t h a t a s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n i n s t r e n g t h
s t i l l produces a n a c c e p t a b l e d e s i g n f o r peak overloads when even modest p l a s -
t i c i t y i s permitted.
The e f f e c t of p l a s t i c i t y on t h e response of a two-degree-of-freedom

model ( s i m u l a t i n g a two-story frame b u i l d i n g ) s u b j e c t e d t o s i n u s o i d a l ground
motions has been demonstrated by B i g g s ( R e f . 8 . 2 ) . I n t h i s e x a m p l e , t h e
s t r e n g t h of t h e b u i l d i n g w a s reduced t o 50 p e r c e n t of t h e peak f o r c e experi-
enced b y t h e s t r u c t u r e f o r e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r . The s t i f f n e s s w a s unchanged.
F i g u r e 8.4 r e p e a t e d from Ref. 8.2 work, shows t h a t t h e peak deformations i n
b o t h t h e f i r s t and second s t o r i e s of the b u i l d i n g are reduced when p l a s t i c i t y
i s p e r m i t t e d . T h i s b e h a v i o r i s somewhat unusual, b u t can o c c u r b e c a u s e p l a s -
t i c i t y p r e v e n t s t h e resonance t h a t c a n o c c u r i n a s t r u c t u r e under s i n u s o i d a l
excitation.
From t h e s e s i m p l e examples, one cannot p r e d i c t what might happen i n

every problem, b u t , i n g e n e r a l , t h e d e s i g n e r w i l l f i n d t h a t economies i n de-
s i g n w i l l r e s u l t when modest p l a s t i c i t y i s p e r m i t t e d , and o n l y small i n c r e a s e s
i n t h e deformation, r e l a t i v e t o a n e l a s t i c system, w i l l o c c u r .
8.2.3.2 E f f e c t of Loading H i s t o r y on S t r u c t u r a l Response
The e f f e c t s of t h r e e d i f f e r e n t l o a d p u l s e s on t h e r e s p o n s e of a s i n g l e -
degree-of-freedom o s c i l l a t o r were shown i n Figure 8.1. These p u l s e shapes
c a n be used t o approximate "conventional" t y p e s of b l a s t l o a d s such as t h a t
produced by shock waves from a h i g h e x p l o s i v e o r a change i n ambient p r e s s u r e
w i t h i n a c o n f i n e d volume. I n t h i s s e c t i o n t h e e f f e c t s of l o a d h i s t o r i e s t h a t
c h a r a c t e r i z e vapor and d u s t e x p l o s i o n s and b u r s t i n g p r e s s u r e vessels are
shown.
a . G a s o r Dust Explosions. G a s and d u s t e x p l o s i o n s are n o t normal-

l y a problem a t Pantex b u t t h e phenomena are d i s c u s s e d h e r e i n f o r complete-
n e s s . The l o a d i n g s on a s t r u c t u r e o r s t r u c t u r a l element caused by a n i n t e r -
n a l gas o r d u s t e x p l o s i o n are i n many c a s e s d i f f e r e n t from t h e l o a d i n g s pro-
duced by condensed e x p l o s i v e s . Overpressures produced by condensed e x p l o s i v e s
8-10
50 psf
b
I = 240 in.
4
I = $000 in.4
'7
u
m
n
0
N
m
4
4
f
I = 450 in.
4
80 psf
I = 50CO in.4
3'
2 5 ' Bent spacing
(a) two story frame
f
M2=0.177 kip-sec 2 / i.n .
M1=0.294 kip-sec 2 /in.

.
( b ) two-degree-of-freedom model
ys t
= u.5 sin 4 rt in.
( c ) support motion
F i g u r e 8.4 E l a s t i c and I n e l a s t i c Responses o f Two S t o r y B u i l d i n g

Frame S u b j e c t e d t o S i n u s o i d a l Support Motions (Ref. 8.2)
8-11
."C
i
x
IN
x
C
0
sec
(d) tcp s t o r y
C
.4
?,
x
I
4
21
r
3
.d
sec
.-
I
x
(a) bottom s t o r y
Figure 8.4 (Continued)
8-12
are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by v e r y s h o r t r i s e t i m e s and e x p o n e n t i a l decay. Often
a t r i a n g u l a r approximation i s assumed. For vapors o r d u s t e x p l o s i o n s , t h e
l o a d i n g is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a f i n i t e rise t i m e and a d i f f e r e n t shape. I n
f a c t , many r e s e a r c h e r s performing g a s o r d u s t e x p l o s i o n experiments g i v e , as
t h e i r r e s u l t s , t h e peak v a l u e o f t h e o v e r p r e s s u r e , Pm, a r a t e of p r e s s u r e
rise, d p / d t , and, i n case of v e n t i n g , some d u r a t i o n , t d , (see F i g u r e 8.5).
I dvldt
t t
r d - t
F i g u r e 8.5 Schematic Overpressure-Time H i s t o r y i n

Confined Gas o r Dust Explosions
The l o a d i n g can b e d e s c r i b e d approximately by t h e f o l l o w i n g formula:
1
p ( t ) = pm t
r
1 t-tl (t-t
\ /
The p r e s s u r e rate d e f i n e d as t h e s l o p e a t t = t r / 2 w i l l t h e n be:
t 2P
-
dP ( t 2)= - m
(8.3)
dt
tr
For t h i s l o a d i n g , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e f i n i t e r i s e t i m e and t h e shape o f t h e

l o a d i n g on s t r u c t u r a l r e s p o n s e were i n v e s t i g a t e d u s i n g a one-degree-of-freedom
e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c mass-spring system as a c a l c u l a t i o n model f o r t h e s t r u c t u r a l
r e s p o n s e . The c a l c u l a t e d P-I diagram i s given i n Figure 8 . 6 . For comparison,
t h e P-I curve f o r e x p o n e n t i a l decay (P = Pmaxe -tT1) i s a l s o shown.
8-13
50 -
- Loading A Loading B
u = - xm*x
-l
X
5.0 - Y
-
1.0
0.5
0.05 I I I C
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
F i g u r e 8.6 Comparison of Zero and F i n i t e Rise T i m e s

on t h e P - i Diagram
8-14
Two i m p o r t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s can be made from t h e s e r e s u l t s :
(1) The p r e s s u r e asymptote f o r a f i n i t e r i s e t i m e l o a d i n g i s 1 . 0

( e q u i v a l e n t t o a s t a t i c l o a d i n g ) , whereas t h e p r e s s u r e asymp-
t o t e f o r a l o a d i n g w i t h z e r o r i s e t i m e i s 0.50 ( e q u i v a l e n t
t o twice t h e s t a t i c l o a d i n g ) .
(2) I n t h e r e g i o n 1.15 < I < 5.5, t h e loading with f i n i t e

xm a X &
r i s e t i m e i s more s e v e r e t h a n t h e l o a d i n g w i t h z e r o r i s e
t i m e . T h i s b e h a v i o r i s produced by resonance between t h e
l o a d i n g r a t e and t h e s t r u c t u r a l frequency.
R e s u l t s d i f f e r o n l y s l i g h t l y i f t h e r a t i o of t r / t d i s s h i f t e d
w i t h i n r e a s o n a b l e l i m i t s . T h i s i s shown i n F i g u r e 8.7 where t h e curve i n Fig-
u r e 8.6 ( t r / t d = 0 . 4 0 ) i s compared t o a l o a d i n g w i d t h of t r / t d = 0 . 2 0 .
I n f l u e n c e o f t h e d u c t i l i t y r a t i o i s shown i n F i g u r e 8.8. Here

t h e l o a d i n g i s i d e n t i c a l t o A i n F i g u r e 8.7, b u t i n one c a s e , t h e s t r u c t u r e
responds e l a s t i c a l l y , and i n t h e o t h e r t h e s t r u c t u r e e x p e r i e n c e s s i g n i f i c a n t
p l a s t i c i t y . The e f f e c t of t h e p l a s t i c i t y i s t o damp t h e dynamic o v e r s h o o t
t h a t o c c u r s e l a s t i c a l l y and t o s h i f t t h e curve t o t h e r i g h t . The s h i f t o c c u r s
because i t t a k e s more energy t o deform t h e s t r u c t u r e p l a s t i c a l l y . Note t h a t
e l a s t i c , p e r f e c t l y p l a s t i c b e h a v i o r w a s assumed.
b . P r e s s u r e Vessel B u r s t . The l o a d i n g on a s t r u c t u r e o r s t r u c t u r a l
element caused by a p r e s s u r e vessel b u r s t i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t from t h a t
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a h i g h e x p l o s i v e (Loading A, F i g u r e 8.6) o r w i t h d u s t o r gas-
eous vapor e x p l o s i o n s (Loading B , F i g u r e 8 . 6 ) . The p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e i s
t h a t a l a r g e , l o n g d u r a t i o n n e g a t i v e p r e s s u r e ( t h e s o - c a l l e d n e g a t i v e phase)
o c c u r s i n vessel b u r s t s , and t h e r e a r e u s u a l l y m u l t i p l e shock waves. F i g u r e
8.9 g i v e s a n a c t u a l rerm-ded pressure-time h i s t o r y from a v e s s e l b u r s t , taken
f r o m Esparza and B a k e r ( R e f . 8 . 1 2 ) .
I n o r d e r t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h i s d i f f e r e n t t y p e of
l o a d i n g , t h e l o a d i n g i s approximated as i n F i g u r e 8.10. Using t h i s schemati-
z a t i o n o f t h e l o a d i n g , t h e d a t a from Ref. 8 . 1 3 are w e l l approximated when a =
0 . 2 4 , B = 0 . 7 6 , y = -0.85, and 6 = 0.8.
The r e s p o n s e o f s t r u c t u r e s t o t h i s k i n d o f l o a d i n g c a n now be
examined and compared t o t h e u s u a l l o a d i n g t y p e s . A s f o r d u s t and vapor ex-
p l o s i o n s , t h i s w a s done by r e p l a c i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e w i t h a one-degree-of-
freedom e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c s p r i n g mass system. R e s u l t s are g i v e n i n F i g u r e 8.11.
A s c a n b e s e e n from t h e graph, t h e r e i s a r e g i o n o f t d l / T where t h e t r i a n g u l a r
approximation b a s e d on t h e f i r s t p o s i t i v e p r e s s u r e p u l s e g r e a t l y u n d e r e s t i -
mates the t r u e l o a d i n g . This r e g i o n i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y bounded by 0.05 < t d l / T
< 10.0, The c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e n e g a t i v e phase o f t h e l o a d i n g i s i m p o r t a n t
i n t h i s r e g i o n , as w e l l a s t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e second p o s i t i v e peak. The con-
t r i b u t i o n of t h e n e g a t i v e p r e s s u r e can b e e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e mass
8-15
A: tr/td = 0.4
L B: tr/td 0.2
0.1 1.0 10.0 100 .o 1000 .o
I
X G
Y
Figure 8 . 7 E f f e c t o f Change i n tr/td For F i n i t e Rise T i m e Loading
8-16
t A
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0

.
I
xy Jkm
F i g u r e 8.8 E f f e c t of P l a s t i c i t y
8-1 7
L
Figure 8.9 Recorded Pressure-Time Histories from Bursting Spheres

(Ref. 8.12)
Figure 8.10 Schematic of Blast Loading from Vessel Burst
8-18
I f #
0.8P
100.0 \ td2
10.0
1.0
I n
0.5
0.1 I I I I
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0
Figure 8.11 Effects of Loading which Characterize a Bursting Vessel
8-19
h a s a n e g a t i v e v e l o c i t y , a c c e l e r a t i o n o r b o t h a t t h e t i m e t h e n e g a t i v e load-
i n g phase starts. Assuming t h e f i r s t r e s p o n s e t o b e impulsive, i t a p p e a r s
that:
velocity v < 0
acceleration a < 0
- ___t
t -
> T/4
t -
> T/8
both < 0 ___f < t -

T/4 - < T/2
We conclude from t h e s e v a l u e s and t h e P-I diagram t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e

n e g a t i v e phase i s t h e w o r s t when 1 / 4 < t d l / T < 1 / 2 f o r t h e s t a t e d v a l u e s of
a, f3, y and 6, and o n l y f o r t h e extremes i n t d l / T c a n t h e b l a s t l o a d i n g from
a vessel b u r s t b e a c c u r a t e l y modeled by s i n g l e t r i a n g u l a r p r e s s u r e p u l s e .
8.2.3.3 S t r u c t u r a l Response t o Ground Shock
The r e s p o n s e of a two-story b u i l d i n g frame t o ground d i s p l a c e m e n t , a s

g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 8.2.3.2, shows t h e e f f e c t of p l a s t i c i t y on b u i l d i n g d i s p l a c e -
ments when t h e b a s e is e x c i t e d by two c y c l e s of s i n u s o i d a l motion. Displace-
ments were o b t a i n e d by numerical i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e two-degree-of-freedom
model i n F i g u r e 8.4. This i s t h e o n l y p r a c t i c a l approach. f o r s o l v i n g non-
l i n e a r problems w i t h ground motion. G r a p h i c a l s o l u t i o n s , such as t h o s e ob-
t a i n e d f o r t h e e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c b e h a v i o r o f simple systems under d i r e c t l o a d i n g
(See S e c t i o n 8.2.3.8), have n o t been developed f o r ground shock. For s i m p l e
models, t h e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n procedure i n Ref. 8.2 c a n b e followed. For
more complex problems , multi-degree-of-freedom numerical methods t h a t have
p r o v i s i o n s f o r time-displacement boundary c o n d i t i o n s are a v a i l a b l e (See Sec-
t i o n 8.3.2).
With e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r , t h e dynamic load f a c t o r s , DLF, such as pre-

s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n 8.2.1, c a n b e used i f t h e ground shock i s s p e c i f i e d as a
time-dependent a c c e l e r a t i o n . For one-degree-of-freedom models, t h e f o r c i n g
f u n c t i o n i s simply t h e mass m u l t i p l i e d by t h e b a s e a c c e l e r a t i o n . Note t h a t
t h e time h i s t o r y of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n must match t h a t o f t h e f o r c e i n o r d e r t o
u s e t h e DLF. All o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s are unchanged. I n a multi-degree-of-
freedom model, t h e modal c o n t r i b u t i o n s c a n b e found from t h e DLF's and c o w
bined as e x p l a i n e d i n S e c t i o n 8.3.3.6. T h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o u s i n g a shock
spectrum t o o b t a i n t h e modal c o n t r i b u t i o n s . Many of t h e n u m e r i c a l methods
d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 8.3.2 have p r o v i s i o n s f o r e l a s t i c s o l u t i o n s t o shock
s p e c t r a by modal s u p e r p o s i t i o n .
8.2.3.4 E f f e c t of Damping
The e f f e c t of material damping w a s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 8 . 2 . 1 . For

i n e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r , i t w a s concluded t h a t material damping and even t o t a l
s t r u c t u r a l damping c a n b e i g n o r e d w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t i n g t h e re-
s u l t s . For e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r , damping is more s i g n i f i c a n t . Baker, e t a l .
(Ref. 8.9), show t h a t f o r a s i m p l e e l a s t i c o s c i l l a t o r , e x c i t e d by a s h o r t
8-20
d u r a t i o n t r a n s i e n t l o a d , 1 0 p e r c e n t c r i t i c a l damping a t t e n u a t e s t h e peak
response by 14 p e r c e n t and rebound by 37 p e r c e n t . T y p i c a l l y , shock s p e c t r a
and earthquake s p e c t r a are g i v e n f o r d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of damping, and 2
t o 5 p e r c e n t of c r i t i c a l damping i s a r e a s o n a b l e range t o u s e f o r most
a s t - r e s i s t a n t b u i l d i n g s . When damping i s i g n o r e d , a c o n s e r v a t i v e r e s u l t
8.2.3.5 Coupling i n Multi-Degree-Of-Freedom Systems
When a s i m p l e model i s used t o r e p r e s e n t a complex s t r u c t u r e , some

c o u p l i n g t h a t c a n occur i n t h e s t r u c t u r e i s u s u a l l y i g n o r e d . For example,
when a roof j o i s t i s analyzed, t h e l o a d i n g i s a p p l i e d t o t h e j o i s t through
f l e x i b l e r o o f i n g and t h e j o i s t i s supported by a f l e x i b l e beam t h a t rests o n
beam columns. Each of t h e s e systems i s coupled t o g e t h e r , and f o r dynamic con-
d i t i o n s , t h i s c o u p l i n g can a f f e c t t h e l o a d t r a n s f e r through t h e s t r u c t u r e and
t h e r e s p o n s e o f each component. Conceptually, multi-degree-of-freedom numeri-
c a l methods can t r e a t t h i s problem w i t h s u f f i c i e n t accuracy t o a c c o u n t f o r a l l
of t h e c o u p l i n g t h a t o c c u r s ; however, p r a c t i c a l l y i t may n o t b e economical t o
perform such a n a n a l y s i s . C e r t a i n l y when one-degree-of-freedom approximations
f o r v a r i o u s components are used, t h e n t h e coupling must b e i g n o r e d . For t h i s
c a s e , one u s u a l l y assumes t h a t t h e load i s t r a n s f e r r e d , undiminished, through
t h e s t r u c t u r e and t h a t each component i s r i g i d l y s u p p o r t e d .
Baker, e t a l . (Ref. 8 . 9 ) , g i v e an example t h a t i l l u s t r a t e s t h e e f -

f e c t t h a t c o u p l i n g c a n have on S t r u c t u r a l response. Using s i m p l e models, t h e
e f f e c t of t h e s u p p o r t on t h e response o f t h e supported s t r u c t u r e and a l s o t h e
e f f e c t of t h e supported s t r u c t u r e upon t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e s u p p o r t are shown.
The r e s u l t s , given i n F i g u r e s 8.12a and 8.12b w e r e o b t a i n e d u s i n g s p r i n g mass
systems i n which t h e s p r i n g c o n s t a n t s w e r e v a r i e d t o change t h e p e r i o d r a t i o s .
Masses were c o n s t a n t a t 16 l b - s e c 2 / i n . I n F i g u r e s 8.12a and 8.12b, K2 w a s
140,000 l b / i n and K 1 w a s v a r i e d . A t r i a n g u l a r f o r c e p u l s e w i t h zero r i s e t i m e
and a d u r a t i o n of w a s used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s . T i and T2 a r e t h e un-
c o u p l e d f r e q u e n c i e s o f t h e systems.
R e s u l t s i n F i g u r e 8.12a show t h a t as t h e support: s t i f f n e s s i n c r e a s e s ,

t h e response of t h e supported s t r u c t u r e approaches t h a t which i s o b t a i n e d when
r i g i d s u p p o r t i s assumed, i . e . , t h e displacement r a t i o approaches 1. The d i p
a t T2/T1 = 0.8 corresponds t o a 3 t o 1 r a t i o o f t h e f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e coupled
system. F i g u r e 8.12b shows t h a t t h e l o a d t r a n s f e r is a maximum o v e r a range
t h a t bounds T2/T1 = 1.0. It a l s o shows t h a t t h e l o a d t r a n s f e r i s h i g h e r
f o r long d u r a t i o n l o a d s and t h a t t h e l o a d can b e "amplified," b u t t h i s e f f e c t
is s m a l l .
These r e s u l t s are n o t g e n e r a l , b u t t h e y do g i v e some guidance when

t r e a t i n g single-degree-of-freedom approximations. G e n e r a l l y , i t w i l l b e con-
servative t o n e g l e c t f l e x i b i l i t y i n t h e s u p p o r t when a n a l y z i n g secondary
s t r u c t u r e and t o assume f u l l u n d i s t o r t e d l o a d t r a n s f e r from secondary s t r u c -
t u r e when a n a l y z i n g t h e s u p p o r t s .
8-21
1.1 I 1 1 I I
-e
=L = 0.30
1.0
0.8
- I
0
d
2 F (t)
Y
C
0.4
0
4
P
m
d
P
0.2
Period R a t i o T2/TL
Figure 8 . 1 2 ~ 1 E f f e c t o f Support S t i f f n e s s o n
Maximum Displacements (Kef 8.9 ) .
8-22
1.1
1.0
0.8 42 max
X
xll
0.6 I-
0.4
F(t)
k
1
0.2
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
Period Ratio T2/T1
Figure 8.12b Load Transfer Through Flexible

Structure (Ref. 8 . 9 )
8- 23
8.2.3.6 Approximate Modal S o l u t i o n s
Approximate modal s o l u t i o n s provide good estimates of peak r e s p o n s e

when o n l y e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r i s c o n s i d e r e d . This method p e r m i t s t h e a n a l y s t t o
u s e a shock spectrum o r dynamic l o a d f a c t o r s t o make response c a l c u l a t i o n s
f o r multi-degree-of-freedom models. T h i s method i s p o s s i b l e because i n mode
s u p e r p o s i t i o n a n a l y s i s , each normal mode responds t o t h e l o a d i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y
as a one-degree-of-freedom system. The g e n e r a l procedure f o r a n a p p l i e d f o r c e
i s given i n Reference 8.2.
8.2.3.7 One-Degree-Of-Freedom Equivalent System
To d e r i v e one-degree-of-freedom e q u i v a l e n t systems f o r what are

normally regarded as multi-degree-of-freedom s t r u c t u r a l elements, d e f o r m a t i o n
p a t t e r n s must b e assumed f o r t h e elements. With this assumption, d i s p l a c e -
ments, v e l o c i t i e s , and a c c e l e r a t i o n s a t a l l p o i n t s i n t h e s t r u c t u r a l element
c a n b e d e f i n e d i n terms of t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t , a t a s i n g l e p o i n t . Various
c h o i c e s f o r t h e deformation p a t t e r n can b e made, e.g., t h e fundamental mode
shape, t h e s t a t i c deformed shape f o r t h e l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e dynamic
l o a d i n g , o r simply some approximate shape which resembles t h e fundamental
mode o r s t a t i c deformed shape and matches t h e a p p r o p r i a t e boundary c o n d i t i o n s .
One-degree-of-freedom approximations have been d e r i v e d f o r many d i f -

f e r e n t s t r u c t u r a l elements and f o r d i f f e r e n t l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s . For example,
i n Reference 8.1, 8 . 2 , 8.10, and8.16 approximations c a n b e found f o r
0 simply s u p p o r t e d beams
0 clamped beams
0 propped c a n t i l e v e r s
0 one-and two-way s l a b s
two-way s l a b s w i t h i n t e r i o r column s u p p o r t s
Because t h e one-degree-of-freedom approximations have been d e r i v e d on t h e

b a s i s of k i n e t i c s i m i l a r i t y , t h e maximum d i s p l a c e m e n t computed by t h i s method
i s a c c u r a t e . Moments, s h e a r s and s t r a i n s , which depend upon d e r i v a t i v e s of
t h e assumed deformation p a t t e r n , a r e less a c c u r a t e . Reference 8.10 g i v e s
some comparisons between one-degree-of-freedom r e s u l t s and mu1 ti-degree-of-
freedom r e s u l t s f o r a simply s u p p o r t e d beam. To o b t a i n b e t t e r approximations,
p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r s t r a i n s and s h e a r s , r e q u i r e s t h e u s e of multi-degree-of-
freedom models.
8.2.3.8 Transient Solutions
T r a n s i e n t s o l u t i o n s f o r one-degree-of-freedom e q u i v a l e n t systems c a n
b e o b t a i n e d by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e e q u a t i o n s of motion n u m e r i c a l l y , o r by s e e k i n g
8-24
closed-form s o l u t i o n s i f t h e behavior i s elastic. I f n o n l i n e a r i t i e s are pre-
s e n t , t h e n numerical i n t e g r a t i o n i s p r e f e r r e d . For a one-degree-of-freedom
system t h e numerical i n t e g r a t i o n i s v e r y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d (as e x p l a i n e d i n
Refs. 8.2 and 8.9) and can b e done e a s i l y by hand c a l c u l a t i o n s o r s o l v e d on
any programmable c a l c u l a t o r . Equations f o r one-degree-of-freedom approxima-
t i o n s have been s o l v e d and t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d g r a p h i c a l l y i n References
8.1, 8.2, 8.10, 8.16, and 8.18; however, because t h e s e g r a p h i c a l s o l u t i o n s
a p p l y t o b o t h e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c behavior f o r many d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r a l
components, a f u r t h e r approximation i s i n t r o d u c e d when b o t h e l a s t i c and p l a s -
t i c b e h a v i o r occurs. For t h i s case t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f a c t o r s which d e f i n e
the onedegree-of-freedom approximation must b e chosen as some a v e r a g e of
t h o s e g i v e n f o r e l a s t i c behavior and t h o s e g i v e n f o r p l a s t i c b e h a v i o r . The
o n l y advantage t o a transient s o l u t i o n f o r the one-degree-of-freedom equiva-
l e n t system is t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f a c t o r s do n o t have t o b e approximated
when both e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c b e h a v i o r i s o c c u r r i n g .
For multi-degree-of-freedom systems w i t h dynamic l o a d s and n o n l i n e a r

b e h a v i o r , a t r a n s i e n t s o l u t i o n i s r e q u i r e d . These s o l u t i o n s are performed
i n much t h e same way as f o r a one-degree-of-freedom system; however, t h e
s o l u t i o n t i m e i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y as t h e number of d e g r e e s of freedom i n c r e a s e s .
Many of t h e numerical methods d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 8.3.2 have p r o v i s i o n s for
s o l v i n g t h e e q u a t i o n s f o r n o n l i n e a r t r a n s i e n t b e h a v i o r . R e s u l t s from t h e s e
c a l c u l a t i o n s w i l l b e d i s p l a c e m e n t s , s t r a i n s , and r e a c t i o n s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e s
a t many p o i n t s i n t i m e d u r i n g t h e t r a n s i e n t s o l u t i o n .
8.3 AVAILABLE METHODS FOR DYNAMIC RESPONSE
8.3.1 S i m p l i f i e d Methods
The b a s i s f o r a l l s i m p l i f i e d methods i s a n assumption a b o u t how t h e

s t r u c t u r e w i l l deform when s u b j e c t e d t o b l a s t l o a d i n g . Two b a s i c approaches
have been t a k e n i n t h e development o f t h e s e methods. One approach, d e s c r i b e d
i n S e c t i o n 8 . 2 . 3 . 7 , i s based upon t h e d e r i v a t i o n of a one-degree-of-freedom
approximation which i s k i n e t i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e real s t r u c t u r e . T h i s
e q u i v a l e n t system i s t h e n s o l v e d ( n u m e r i c a l l y o r i n c l o s e d form) t o g i v e t h e
t i m e - h i s t o r y o f t h e displacement. From such s o l u t i o n s , graphs have been de-
veloped t h a t g i v e peak d i s p l a c e m e n t s f o r s e l e c t e d f o r c e p u l s e s . These s o l u -
t i o n s i n c l u d e b o t h e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c b e h a v i o r and a p p l y f o r any one-degree-
of-freedom e q u i v a l e n t system. Some a d d i t i o n a l approximation i s i n v o l v e d i n
t h e u s e of t h e graphs. This approximation arises because changes i n t h e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f a c t o r s when y i e l d i n g o c c u r s are d i f f e r e n t f o r d i f f e r e n t com-
ponents, y e t t h e graphs are a p p l i e d t o a l l components.
Once t h e peak displacement h a s been o b t a i n e d , s t r a i n s can be calcu-

l a t e d from t h i s displacement and t h e assumed deformation p a t t e r n . S t r a i n s
i n v o l v e t h e second d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e deformation p a t t e r n and are much less
a c c u r a t e t h a n d i s p l a c e m e n t s . Note a l s o t h a t s h e a r s c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d f o r
e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r by t a k i n g t h e t h i r d d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s , b u t ,
8-25
a g a i n , accuracy i s poor. S e p a r a t e e x p r e s s i o n s ( d e r i v e d from a free body
diagram) are given f o r t h e peak r e a c t i o n s which o c c u r . These e x p r e s s i o n s pro-
v i d e r e a s o n a b l e a c c u r a c y when t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e l o a d i n g is greater t h a n t h e
fundamental p e r i o d o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . For s h o r t d u r a t i o n l o a d s , t h e e r r o r i s
h i g h . This approach t o b l a s t r e s i s t a n t d e s i g n i s used i n References 8.1, 8.2,
8.10, and 8.15 through 8.20. S p e c i f i c comments on s e l e c t e d r e f e r e n c e s are
given i n t h e a n n o t a t e d b i b l i o g r a p h y .
The o t h e r approach used t o d e r i v e s i m p l i f i e d methods i s based upon t h e

development o f P-i (pressure-impulse) diagrams f o r t h e s t r u c t u r a l component.
As shown i n References 8.3 and 8.19, f a i r l y s i m p l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s c a n b e ob-
t a i n e d t o d e f i n e t h e p r e s s u r e and i m p u l s i v e asymptotes of t h e s t r u c t u r e . Be-
h a v i o r i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e (dynamic) r e a l m between t h e two asymptotes i s
approximated or determined n u m e r i c a l l y as e x p l a i n e d by Baker, e t a l . , i n Ref.
8.9. An example of t h i s t y p e o f s o l u t i o n was g i v e n i n F i g u r e 8.2.
Often i t i s unnecessary t o d e t e r m i n e t h e complete P-i diagram. I f t h e

l o a d i n g i s impulsive, t h e n o n l y t h e i m p u l s i v e asymptote i s r e q u i r e d . Simi-
l a r l y , i f t h e l o a d i n g i s q u a s i - s t a t i c , o n l y t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c asymptote i s
needed. Combinations o f impulsive and q u a s i - s t a t i c l o a d s , a p p l i e d s i m u l t a n e -
o u s l y , can a l s o b e t r e a t e d i n t h i s way. Equations which i n c l u d e i m p u l s i v e
p l u s q u a s i - s t a t i c l o a d s are g i v e n i n Refs. 8.11 and 8.16.
Using t h i s approach t o develop one-degree-of-freedom approximations,

t h e displacement h i s t o r y i s n o t o b t a i n e d . The peak displacement is g i v e n d i -
r e c t l y o r , i n a P-i diagram, a f a i l / n o - f a i l r e s u l t c a n b e o b t a i n e d . As i n
t h e o t h e r approach, s t r a i n s and s h e a r s ( f o r e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r ) c a n be calcu-
l a t e d from t h e peak d i s p l a c e m e n t s and assumed d e f o r m a t i o n s p a t t e r n s . Again,
accuracy o f t h e s e v a l u e s i s poor. A p p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s approach f o r b l a s t
r e s i s t a n t d e s i g n are e x p l a i n e d i n References 8.3, 8 . 9 , 8.11, and 8.21
through 8.23. Comments on s e l e c t e d r e f e r e n c e s are g i v e n i n t h e a n n o t a t e d
bibliography.
Two-degree-of-freedom methods have a l s o been d e r i v e d u s i n g each of

t h e s e two approaches. Westine h a s d e r i v e d two-degree-of-freedom equivalent
systems f o r t h e e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r of two-story frames (Ref. 8.11) and f o r t h e
e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r o f p l a t e s s u p p o r t e d by beams (Ref. 8 . 2 4 ) . Because t h e s e
methods are f o r e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r o n l y , i t s u s e i s l i m i t e d f o r b l a s t r e s i s t a n t
d e s i g n . A two-degree-of-freedom s o l u t i o n f o r r i g i d - p l a s t i c b e h a v i o r i s a l s o
g i v e n by Cox, e t a l . (Ref. 8.11) and a p p l i e d t o t h e problems of beams sup-
p o r t e d by r i n g s and p l a t e s s u p p o r t e d by beams. These r i g i d - p l a s t i c s o l u t i o n s
were compared t o e x p e r i m e n t a l and f i n i t e element r e s u l t s and were found t o
g i v e good estimates of r e s i d u a l s t r a i n s .
4
8.3.2 Numerical Methods
Numerical methods d e s c r i b e d h e r e r e f e r t o computer programs t h a t u t i -

l i z e f i n i t e element methods, f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e methods, o r some combination of
8-26
.. .... . .. ... ..... .. ..- - -- -
t h e two. Most f i n i t e element programs use f i n i t e e l e m e n t s f o r s p a t i a l r e p r e -

s e n t a t i o n of t h e s t r u c t u r e and f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t i m e . F i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e
codes u s e f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n both s p a c e and time.
A v e r y l a r g e number o f s t r u c t u r a l mechanics computer programs e x i s t , as

evidenced i n t h e summaries by Fenves, e t a l . (Ref. 8 . 2 5 ) , P i l k e y , e t a l . (Ref.
8.26) , and by Perrone and P i l k e y (Refs. 8.27 and 8 . 2 8 ) . Here, o n l y t h e most
g e n e r a l and r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e computer programs w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d a l o n g w i t h
a few programs t h a t appear t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l s u i t e d t o b l a s t r e s i s t a n t
design.
Fourteen widely used f i n i t e element computer programs t h a t i n c l u d e pro-

v i s i o n s f o r s t a t i c and dynamic s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v i o r a r e l i s t e d i n Table 8.1.
Of t h e s e , t h e f i r s t seven permit metal p l a s t i c i t y and f i v e of t h e s e permit a
n o n l i n e a r t r a n s i e n t s o l u t i o n t o b e performed. T h i s i s t h e t y p e o f a n a l y s i s
t h a t i s needed f o r t h e most g e n e r a l t y p e of c a l c u l a t i o n f o r b l a s t loaded
s t r u c t u r e s . Three of t h e codes t h a t permit a n o n l i n e a r t r a n s i e n t s o l u t i o n al-
so permit t i m e dependent boundary displacements. This f e a t u r e is r e q u i r e d f o r
t h e n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s of s t r u c t u r e s s u b j e c t e d t o ground shock. Thus, t h e s e
t h r e e codes permit a n o n l i n e a r c a l c u l a t i o n t o b e performed f o r combined b l a s t
l o a d i n g , fragment impact, and ground shock.
A d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e f o u r most g e n e r a l programs , ADINA, ANSYS,

MARC, and NASTRAN, are given i n Table 8 . 2 . A d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s e
f o u r codes i s found i n References 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, and 8.29.
Four o t h e r programs, which o f f e r unique c a p a b i l i t i e s f o r n o n l i n e a r

a n a l y s i s , a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s review. These programs were developed s p e c i f -
i c a l l y f o r n o n l i n e a r b e h a v i o r , b u t t h e y are n o t a s w e l l known and w i d e l y d i s -
t r i b u t e d as the codes above. The f o u r codes are:
0 AGGIE I
0 DEPROSS
0 DYNFA
0 PETROS 4
Of t h e s e f o u r codes, AGGIE I i s t h e most g e n e r a l . The o t h e r codes w e r e devel-

oped f o r t h e response of p p e c i f i c t y p e s o f s t r u c t u r e s t o t r a n s i e n t l o a d s .
AGGIE I (Refs. 8.30 and 8.31). This f i n i t e element code is a n exten-

s i o n t o t h e SAP and NONSAP codes i n c l u d e d i n Table 8.1. It i n c l u d e s Provi-
s i o n s f o r a nonlinear t r a n s i e n t s o l u t i o n w i t h a l l elements. N o n l i n e a r i t i e s
i n c l u d e material and l a r g e d i s p l a c e m e n t s . Element t y p e s i n c l u d e a t h r e e -
dimensional t r u s s , two-dimensional i s o p a r a m e t r i c s o l i d , and a three-dimension-
a l i s o p a r a m e t r i c s o l i d . The three-dimensional i s o p a r a m e t r i c s o l i d c a n r e p r e -
s e n t a t h i c k s h e l l . Time dependent d i s p l a c e m e n t s are n o t now p e r m i t t e d .
8-27
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8-28
Ta'sle 8 . 2 A d d i t i o n a l F e a t u r e s of t h e ?lost S u i t a b l e P r o g r a x f o r Elas t i c - P l a s t i c 3enavior
~~~
ANSYS AD INA HclRC NEFSAP

OF PROGRAM
ELEMENT LIBRARY GENERAL GENERAL GENERAL CMERAL

MATERIAL TREAl?lENT GENERAL MODERATELY GENERAL GENERAL GENERAL
ISOTROPIC HARDENING,
PLASTICITY THMRY KINEHATIC HARDDIING. ISOTROPIC HARDENING, ISOTROPIC HARDENING, ISOTROPIC HARDENING,
RAHBBRC-OSGOOD OR ANY K I N M A T I C HARDENING KINEMATIC HARDENING KINEHATIC HARDENING
OTHER POUER-LAW REPRESMTATION
METllOD OF SOLVING
LINEAR EQUATIONS WAVE' FRONT PARTITIONING CAUSIAN ELIHINATION SKYLINE
EASE OF USE MSY EASY MODERATE MIODERATE

DOCWENUTION EXTENSIVE EXmSIVE EXTENSIVE LMITED
X RESTART
I X X X X
rG
W SURSIRUCNRING X X 0 0
" U L T I P O I N T COHSTRAINTS
X X X
(TYING HODES)
PRE- AND FOST-PROCESSORS X X X
EQUILIBRIUM CHECKS 0 X X
m T H O D OF 3-D CRACK SINCUURITY E L M E N T SIllCUURITY ELEMENT
ANALYSIS FURMRATION 0
VORIIUUTIOH
AUT@HATIC MESH GMERAlURS X X X

NODE NUMBERING W E S NOT RENWBER REQUIRES PRE-PROCESSOR
NODES INTERMLLY
COST OF RUN AVERAGE AVERAGE EXPENSIVE AVERAGE

PROPRIETARY X X X X
I: AVAIIABLE OR YES
0: W T AVAILABLE OR NO
DEPROSS (Ref. 8 . 3 2 ) . These programs c a l c u l a t e t h e e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c re-
S'ponse of i m p u l s i v e l y loaded, simple s t r u c t u r e s . The s t r u c t u r e s are repre-
S ented by d i s c r e t e masses connected by massless ' l e n g t h s . E x t e n s i o n a l deforma-
t i o n i s d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e l e n g t h s , and bending deformation i s c o n c e n t r a t e d
a t t h e j o i n t s (mass p o i n t s ) . The beam c r o s s s e c t i o n s are f u r t h e r i d e a l i z e d
by a number of f l a n g e s s e p a r a t e d by material t h a t c a r r i e s o n l y s h e a r and no
a x i a l stresses. The e q u a t i o n s of motions of t h e mass p o i n t s are c a s t i n fi-
n i t e d i f f e r e n c e form, and t h e t i m e h i s t o r y of t h e r e s p o n s e i s found by a s t e p -
w i s e i n t e g r a t i o n p r o c e s s . Material b e h a v i o r i s i n e l a s t i c s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g ,
and s t r a i n r a t e e f f e c t s can b e i n c l u d e d . B r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e t h r e e pro-
grams a r e given below.
DEPROSS 1 - This program calculates t h e dynamic r e s p o n s e of beams and

c i r c u l a r r i n g s t h a t are s u b j e c t e d t o axisymmetric impulsive l o a d i n g . Beams
c a n be simply supported o r clamped and r i n g s clamped o r f r e e . The program re-
q u i r e s t h a t t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n s b e r e c t a n g u l a r and uniform.
DEPROSS 2 - The dynamic response o f unbonded, c o n c e n t r i c c i r c u l a r r i n g s

i s c a l c u l a t e d by t h i s program. A s f o r DEPROSS 1 t h e r i n g s e c t i o n must b e rec-
t a n g u l a r and uniform, and t h e impulse l o a d i n g must b e axisymmetric. The con-
c e n t r i c r i n g s may c o n s i s t of d i f f e r e n t materials and have d i f f e r e n t t h i c k -
n e s s e s b u t must b e t h e same w i d t h . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e two r i n g s must b e i n i -
t i a l l y concentric but not necessarily i n contact.
DEPROSS 3 - T h i s program i s s i m i l a r t o DEPROSS 1 b u t a p p l i e s t o circu-

l a r p l a t e s and s p h e r i c a l s h e l l s . P l a t e s c a n b e simply s u p p o r t e d and clamped.
S h e l l s must b e clamped. Again t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e p l a t e s o r s h e l l s must b e
uniform, and t h e impulse l o a d i n g must b e axisymmetric.
DYNFA (Ref. 8 . 7 ) . This program w a s designed s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t h e a n a l -

y s i s of frame s t r u c t u r e s s u b j e c t e d t o b l a s t l o a d i n g . The program i s b a s e d
upon s t a n d a r d m a t r i x methods o f s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s and a lumped parameter
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e frame. Numerical i n t e g r a t i o n by t h e l i n e a r a c c e l e r a t i o n
method i s used t o s o l v e f o r frame displacements. I n e l a s t i c behavior of t h e
frame members i s i n c l u d e d by t h e formation of p l a s t i c h i n g e s a t t h e nodes
whenever t h e combined a x i a l l o a d and bending moment c a p a c i t y o f a member i s
exceeded. The recommended modeling procedure i s t o i n c l u d e nodes a t t h e quar-
t e r p o i n t s o f a beam o r column member, r e s u l t i n g i n f i v e nodes and f o u r ele-
ments p e r member. Although t h e program is l i m i t e d t o two-dimensional frames,
t h e use of f o u r elements p e r member c a n r e s u l t i n a f a i r l y l a r g e number of
elements and degrees-of-freedom, even f o r f a i r l y s i m p l e frames; however, such
a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o s t u d y t h e combined e f f e c t of l o c a l
beam and column r e s p o n s e ( t o l o c a l h a n d l i n g ) and gross frame motions. I n
a d d i t i o n t o metal p l a s t i c i t y , n o n l i n e a r e f f e c t s which are accounted f o r i n
t h e program i n c l u d e t h e P-A e f f e c t produced by l a r g e sway of a x i a l l y loaded
members. This e f f e c t i s accounted f o r by t h e a d d i t i o n of a s h e a r couple t o
t h e loading.
8- 3,O
PETROS 4 (Ref. 8.8). The PETROS 4 program w a s developed t o p r e d i c t
t h e a r b i t r a r i l y l a r g e d e f l e c t i o n , e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c t r a n s i e n t responses o f a r b i -
t r a r y i n i t i a l shape, t h i n , m u l t i l a y e r , v a r i a b l e t h i c k n e s s s h e l l s , w i t h t e m p
e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s , undergoing v a r i o u s t y p e s of d e f o r m a t i o n i n r e s p o n s e t o
a r b i t r a r y i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s , t r a n s i e n t l o a d s , and t e m p e r a t u r e
h i s t o r i e s . S t r a i n - h a r d e n i n g and s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v e material b e h a v i o r are
taken i n t o a c c o u n t .
The program i s based upon a f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e s o l u t i o n t o t h e govern-

i n g s h e l l e q u a t i o n s . Displacement boundary c o n d i t i o n s c a n b e v e r y g e n e r a l and
i n c l u d e time-dependent t r a n s l a t i o n s . Applied f o r c e s c a n v a r y a r b i t r a r i l y i n
b o t h s p a c e and t i m e . Up t o n i n e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of s h e l l s c a n b e analyzed b y
PETROS 4 , i n c l u d i n g s h e l l s w i t h v a r i a b l e t h i c k n e s s , m u l t i l a y e r , m u l t i m a t e r i a l
s h e l l s , w i t h hard o r s o f t bonding, and s h e l l s whose t h i c k n e s s e s v a r y w i t h t i m e .
8.4 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN PROCEDURES
There are many s t e p s i n t h e procedure which must b e followed t o d e s i g n

b u i l d i n g s for b l a s t r e s i s t a n c e . The s t e p s c a n b e l o o s e l y d i v i d e d i n t o f i v e
major areas:
1. Design requirements
2. Structural configuration
3. P r e l i m i n a r y s i z i n g f o r dynamic l o a d s
4. Dynamic a n a l y s i s
5. Design i t e r a t i o n s
The important p o i n t s t o c o n s i d e r i n each of t h e s e f i v e areas are d e s c r i b e d i n

t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s ; however, t h e emphasis of t h i s chapter is o n t h e anal-
y s i s of s t r u c t u r e s f o r b l a s t l o a d i n g and n o t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of d e s i g n re-
q u i r e m e n t s , t h e l a y o u t and s i t i n g of a b u i l d i n g , o r t h e d e s i g n for s t a t i c
l o a d s . Results of t h e s e t a s k s are provided as i n p u t t o t h e a n a l y s t , O f
c o u r s e , i n t e r a c t i o n s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e between a l l p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e
b u i l d i n g d e s i g n . I n t e r a c t i o n e a r l y i n t h e d e s i g n s t a g e may a l t e r t h e b u i l d -
i n g l o c a t i o n , o r i e n t a t i o n , and s t r u c t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n ways t h a t improve
its b l a s t r e s i s t a n c e .
Flow c h a r t s are provided i n S e c t i o n 8 . 4 . 6 t h a t show t h e i m p o r t a n t s t e p s

i n t h e d e s i g n / a n a l y s i s procedure. These s t e p s cover a l l i m p o r t a n t areas i n
t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s , b u t they are n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y keyed t o t h e f i v e major
areas l i s t e d above. The flow c h a r t s are s u b s t a n t i a l l y more d e t a i l e d i n some
of t h e areas t h a n i n o t h e r s . An e x p l a n a t i o n of each b l o c k i n t h e c h a r t s is
a l s o given.
8-31
8.4.1 Design Requirements
Design requirements f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e are u s u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e

s a f e t y engineer, a r c h i t e c t u r a l e n g i n e e r , o r by some p r o c u r i n g agency. Often
very extensive f a c i l i t y design r e q u i r e m e n t s are e s t a b l i s h e d . A s a minimum,
t h e d e s i g n requirements s h o u l d include:
0 A complete d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n f o r which t h e
s t r u c t u r e i s t o b e designed. T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n must b e i n s u f f i -
c i e n t d e t a i l so t h a t b l a s t wave o v e r p r e s s u r e s , fragment impacts,
e a r t h e j e c t a , and ground shock t h a t affect t h e b u i l d i n g can b e
determined. A l t e r n a t e l y , t h e d e s i g n l o a d s ( p r e s s u r e s , impulse,
fragment impacts, etc.) can j u s t b e s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e a n a l y s t .
0 The l e v e l of p r o t e c t i o n and s e r v i c e a b i l i t y of t h e b u i l d i n g a f t e r
t h e d e s i g n a c c i d e n t must b e s p e c i f i e d . This i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l
a l l o w t h e a n a l y s t t o determine whether o r n o t
- g l a s s breakage i s p e r m i t t e d
- s i d i n g o r s h e a t h i n g must remain in p l a c e
- fragment p e n e t r a t i o n i s p e r m i t t e d
- t h e primary s t r u c t u r e i s t o b e r e u s a b l e a f t e r t h e "design"
accident
8.'4.2 S t r u c t u r a l Configuration
For many b u i l d i n g s , t h e l o c a t i o n , o r i e n t a t i o n , and b a s i c s t r u c t u r a l

c o n f i g u r a t i o n w i l l b e set b y t h e o p e r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s t h a t i t must perform.
These w i l l b e d i c t a t e d p r i n c i p a l l y by a r c h i t e c t s and p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l .
I n c e r t a i n cases, such as f o r containment vessels, t h e primary f u n c t i o n i s
b l a s t containment, and h e r e t h e d e s i g n c o n f i g u r a t i o n may b e d i c t a t e d by t h e
d e s i g n e r / a n a l y s t . Regardless o f whether t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s provided by
o t h e r s o r i s determined by t h e a n a l y s t , i t s h o u l d i n c l u d e :
0 b u i l d i n g l o c a t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n
0 i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of s u r r o u n d i n g t e r r a i n and n e i g h b o r i n g s t r u c t u r e s
0 t y p e o f s t r u c t u r e , i . e . , above ground, b u r i e d , s t e e l p a n e l and frame,

steel s h e l l , reinforced concrete
0 general building layout
0 d e t a i l s of primary and secondary s t r u c t u r a l members designed f o r

static loads
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8.4.3 P r e l i m i n a r y S i z i n g f o r Dynamic Loads
Before d e t a i l e d a n a l y s e s are performed on t h e s t r u c t u r e , i t i s u s u a l l y

advantageous t o e s t a b l i s h p r e l i m i n a r y s i z e s of t h e main s t r u c t u r a l members f o r
t h e dynamic l o a d s . For frame s t r u c t u r e s , t h i s i s most e a s i l y done by perform-
i n g a two-dimensional mechanism a n a l y s i s .
A mechanism a n a l y s i s r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e dynamic l o a d f a c t o r b e e s t i m a t e d
f o r t h e l o a d s a c t i n g on t h e b u i l d i n g . Usually o n l y t h e a i r b l a s t l o a d s ( t h e
primary l o a d s ) are considered because dynamic l o a d f a c t o r s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o
e s t a b l i s h f o r ground shock o r fragment impact. Once t h e e q u i v a l e n t l o a d h a s
been determined, d i f f e r e n t c o l l a p s e mechanisms a r e checked t o f i n d t h e one
t h a t governs t h e d e s i g n o f t h e frame. I n t h e a n a l y s i s , work of t h e external
l o a d s (product of f o r c e and d i s t a n c e ) i s equated t o s t r a i n energy ( p r o d u c t s
of t h e p l a s t i c moments and h i n g e r o t a t i o n s ) . The p r o c e d u r e s f o r mechanism
a n a l y s i s , such as given i n Ref. 8 . 7 , provide guidance f o r t h e c h o i c e o f a
mechanism t h a t w i l l produce an economical d e s i g n . A mechanism a n a l y s i s w i l l
e s t a b l i s h t h e minimum r e q u i r e d p l a s t i c y i e l d moment i n t h e frame members from
which t h e member dimensions c a n be e s t a b l i s h e d .
Mechanism a n a l y s e s f o r dynamic l o a d s are u s u a l l y l i m i t e d t o s i n g l e -

s t o r y frames. The r e a s o n i s t h a t an e q u i v a l e n t s t a t i c l o a d i n g i s d i f f i c u l t
t o e s t a b l i s h f o r two-story b u i l d i n g s . Mechanism a n a l y s e s f o r two-story frames
under s t a t i c l o a d s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n Ref. 8 . 3 4 .
A f t e r a mechanism a n a l y s i s h a s been performed, dynamic one-degree-of-

freedom a n a l y s e s and/or numerical methods can b e used t o check and r e f i n e t h e
s t r u c t u r a l members. I f numerical methods are used, i t i s recommended t h a t t h e
members' s i z e s f i r s t b e determined a s a c c u r a t e l y as p o s s i b l e u s i n g s i m p l i f i e d
methods. This i n c l u d e s t h e u s e of a mechanism a n a l y s i s , one-degree-of-freedom
dynamic a n a l y s e s , and even small multi-degree-of-freedom numerical models.
The purpose i s t o reduce t h e d e s i g n i t e r a t i o n s (number of a n a l y s e s ) r e q u i r e d
w i t h the m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d numerical model. These a n a l y s e s a r e v e r y c o s t l y ,
and t h e number of cases run should b e minimized.
Before a non-linear t r a n s i e n t a n a l y s i s i s performed, i t i s s u g g e s t e d

t h a t an estimate of t h e c o s t f o r such a c a l c u l a t i o n b e made. A good s o u r c e
of c o s t i n f o r m a t i o n i s t h e code d e v e l o p e r . The d e v e l o p e r i s u s u a l l y aware
of s i m i l a r problems which have been solved w i t h t h e code ( a l t h o u g h n o n l i n e a r
t r a n s i e n t s o l u t i o n s a r e n o t common p l a c e ) and h e knows t h e code o p e r a t i o n s
which a r e r e q u i r e d f o r a s o l u t i o n . Thus, a f t e r t h e a n a l y s t h a s s e l e c t e d a
code t o b e used f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s and h a s formulated t h e problem i n s p e c i -
f i c terms, h e should c o n t a c t t h e code developer f o r d a t a on which t o b a s e t h e
estimate. It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e d e v e l o p e r can p u t t h e r n a l y s t i n
touch w i t h u s e r s who have solved similar problems, even though t h e d e v e l o p e r
c a n seldom release i n f o r m a t i o n d i r e c t l y . W e f u r t h e r s u g g e s t t h a t a small
t e s t problem, with o n l y a few degrees-of-freedom b u t which u s e s a l l of t h e
code f e a t u r e s which w i l l b e r e q u i r e d i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s , f i r s t b e s o l v e d
t o check t h e c o s t - e s t i m a t i n g procedure and confirm t h e estimate.
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8.4.4 D y n a m i c Analysis
Both s i m p l i f i e d methods and more s o p h i s t i c a t e d numerical methods f o r

performing n o n l i n e a r dynamic a n a l y s e s were d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 8 . 3 . With
numerical methods, t h e a n a l y s t c a n u s u a l l y t r e a t a l l l o a d s and even secondary
e f f e c t s r e a d i l y . With s i m p l i f i e d methods, secondary e f f e c t s must b e approxi-
mated o r i g n o r e d , and i t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o t r e a t m u l t i p l e l o a d s simul-
taneously.
Some q u e s t i o n s t h a t must b e c o n s i d e r e d when a n a l y z i n g b u i l d i n g s f o r

b l a s t l o a d s are:
How a r e dead l o a d s t r e a t e d ?
What i s t h e e f f e c t of combined a x i a l and bending l o a d s i n beam-columns?
Is i t good p r a c t i c e t o u s e s h e a r w a l l s and b r a c i n g i n b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t
design?
The answers t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s depend t o a l a r g e e x t e n t upon t h e t y p e o f a n a l -

y s i s performed; however, some g e n e r a l g u i d e l i n e s c a n b e given.
8.4.4.1 Dead Loads
Dead l o a d s are o f t e n i g n o r e d i n b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t d e s i g n . There are

t h r e e main r e a s o n s f o r n e g l e c t i n g t h e i r e f f e c t s . One i s t h a t t h e dead l o a d s
are u s u a l l y small r e l a t i v e t o t h e l o a d s produced by a n e x p l o s i o n . Thus, i f
t h e dead l o a d s do reduce t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e s t r u c t u r e , t h e p e r c e n t a g e reduc-
t i o n w i l l b e s m a l l . Another r e a s o n is t h a t dead l o a d s are almost always
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h mass t h a t i s placed on o r i n t h e b u i l d i n g . T h i s a d d i t i o n a l
mass can b e b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e s t r u c t u r e f o r dynamic l o a d s i f i t i s w e l l
a t t a c h e d . This e f f e c t t e n d s t o o f f s e t i n i t i a l stresses a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r
weight. The t h i r d r e a s o n i s t h a t i f t h e mass i s n o t a t t a c h e d , b u t i s f r e e t o
move, i t s t r u e e f f e c t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o e v a l u a t e .
I f dead l o a d s are i m p o r t a n t i n t h e b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t d e s i g n , and t h e y can

b e f o r m u l t i - s t o r y b u i l d i n g s o r b u i l d i n g s d e s i g n e d f o r low o v e r p r e s s u r e s , t h e n
t h e i r e f f e c t should b e i n c l u d e d . For s i m p l i f i e d a n a l y s e s , t h e common way o f
t r e a t i n g dead l o a d s i s t o account f o r t h e i r e f f e c t on t h e bending c a p a c i t y of
t h e s t r u c t u r a l members. This i s done by r e d u c i n g t h e a l l o w a b l e p l a s t i c mo-
ments because of t h e i n i t i a l s t a t i c moments and a x i a l l o a d s . I f numerical
methods are b e i n g used, t h e n t h e dead l o a d s should b e i n c l u d e d as added
masses o r c o n c e n t r a t e d f o r c e s . I f masses, r e p r e s e n t i n g equipment, e t c . , are
f r e e t o move r e l a t i v e t o t h e b u i l d i n g , t h e n t h e y c a n b e approximated by
f i x e d ( o r moving f o r c e s ) and t h e i r mass i g n o r e d i n t h e r e s p o n s e c a l c u l a t i o n s .
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8.4.4.2 E f f e c t of Axial Loads
As d i s c u s s e d above, s t a t i c a x i a l l o a d s w i l l reduce t h e a l l o w a b l e
p l a s t i c moments i n beam-columns. Because t h e dead l o a d s a r e u s u a l l y small,
t h i s e f f e c t should b e small a l s o , b u t i t is sometimes used as a c o n v e n i e n t way
o f i n c l u d i n g t h e e f f e c t of dead l o a d s i n s i m p l i f i e d a n a l y s e s . I n n o n l i n e a r
numerical a n a l y s e s , t h e e f f e c t o f axial l o a d s is i n c l u d e d d i r e c t l y b e c a u s e a
stress c r i t e r i o n is used t o p r e d i c t t h e o n s e t of y i e l d i n g .
Dynamic a x i a l l o a d s w i l l also o c c u r i n t h e members. This e f f e c t i e

ignored i n s i m p l i f i e d a n a l y s e s . Because t h e a x i a l r e s p o n s e of beam-columns
u s u a l l y o c c u r s a t much h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s t h a n t h e l a t e r a l o r bending r e s p o n s e ,
n e g l e c t i n g t h e e f f e c t of dynamic a x i a l l o a d s is j u s t i f i e d . I n n o n l i n e a r nu-
m e r i c a l methods t h e e f f e c t o f dynamic a x i a l f o r c e s on t h e members is automati-
c a l l y i n c l u d e d u n l e s s t h i s mode of b e h a v i o r is e l i m i n a t e d (by node c o u p l i n g ,
e t c .).
8.4.4.3 B r a c i n g and Shear Walls
Shear walls and b r a c i n g , when p r o p e r l y used, c a n r e s u l t i n e f f i c i e n t

s t r u c t u r e s f o r r e s i s t i n g b l a s t l o a d s ; however, t h e r e a r e two p r i n c i p a l objec-
t i o n s t o t h e s e components t h a t keep them from b e i n g used f r e q u e n t l y . One ob-
j e c t i o n i s t h a t they can b e s u b j e c t e d t o l a t e r a l l o a d s ( b r a c e s a r e o f t e n com-
b i n e d with a w a l l p a n e l ) t h a t may c a u s e premature f a i l u r e o r a t l e a s t reduce
t h e "in-plane" s t r e n g t h . Another o b j e c t i o n is t h a t , when t h e s e components
f a i l , t h e f a i l u r e t e n d s t o be sudden and c a t a s t r o p h i c , n o t g r a d u a l and pro-
g r e s s i v e . I f t h e s e components a r e u s e d , t h e d e s i g n e r must t a k e c a r e t o a s s u r e
t h a t t h e s e components do n o t f a i l .
When d e s i c p i n g w i t h s h e a r w a l l s o r c r o s s b r a c i n g , t h e d e s i g n e r l a n a l -
y s t m u s t r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e s e components are v e r y s t i f f r e l a t i v e t o most o t h e r
components i n t h e b u i l d i n g f o r l o a d s a p p l i e d i n t h e i r p l a n e . Thus, a l l
l a t e r a l l o a d s on t h e b u i l d i n g , which act p a r a l l e l t o t h e s h e a r wall o r p l a n e
of t h e b r a c i n g , tend t o b e r e a c t e d by t h e s e components. This c o n c e n t r a t e s
t h e l o a d s on t h e component and upon c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e remainder of t h e s t r u c -
t u r e . The d e s i g n e r must a s s u r e t h a t t h e s e components and t h e a t t a c h m e n t s can
r e a c t t h e t o t a l l a t e r a l l o a d s w i t h a h i g h margin of s a f e t y and a l s o t a k e s t e p s
t o p r o t e c t them from b l a s t l o a d s normal t o t h e i r s u r f a c e .
The d e s i g n e r l a n a l y s t s h o u l d a l s o be aware t h a t b u i l d i n g s w i t h s h e a r
w a l l s o r b r a c i n g are d i f f i c u l t t o t r e a t w i t h s i m p l i f i e d methods. The main
d i f f i c u l t y is i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f v i b r a t i o n p e r i o d s . Formulas are n o t
a v a i l a b l e f o r e s t i m a t i n g f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e p l a n e of t h e s e components, and
numerical methods are r e q u i r e d f o r a c c u r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n . Thus, n u m e r i c a l
methods are needed f o r good d e s i g n c a l c u l a t i o n s . I f s i m p l i f i e d methods must
b e used, t h e n a c o n s e r v a t i v e approach would b e t o d e s i g n t h e b r a c e d p a n e l s
o r s h e a r w a l l s f o r t w i c e t h e t o t a l l o a d on t h e b u i l d i n g o r bay as a p p r o p r i a t e ;
however, because of t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n l o a d t r a n s f e r through t h e s t r u c t u r e , a
multi-degrec-of-freedom model is recommended.
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8.4.5 Design I t e r a t i o n
I n o r d e r t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e d e s i g n requirements a r e met, t h e d e s i g n e r /
a n a l y s t must set c r i t e r i a o r d e s i g n a l l o w a b l e s f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e . These cri-
teria may i n c l u d e maximum a l l o w a b l e stress, s t r a i n , deformation, o r j o i n t
r o t a t i o n . Recommended c r i t e r i a f o r b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t d e s i g n are g i v e n i n Refer-
e n c e s 8.1, 8.7, and 8.9. The c r i t e r i a are seldom m e t on t h e f i r s t a t t e m p t ,
and so d e s i g n i t e r a t i o n s are r e q u i r e d . I t e r a t i o n s should b e performed u s i n g
s i m p l i f i e d methods such as a mechanism a n a l y s i s o r one-degree-of-freedom equi-
v a l e n t system. Design i t e r a t i o n s w i t h complex numerical methods should b e
a v o i d e d , i f p o s s i b l e . Guidance f o r changing t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s t r u c t u r e
must b e o b t a i n e d by examining t h e r e s u l t s o f p r e v i o u s r e s p o n s e c a l c u l a t i o n s .
8.4.6 Flow C h a r t s
The flow c h a r t s i n F i g u r e s 8.13 and 8.14 o u t l i n e procedures f o r t h e

b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t d e s i g n o f a b u i l d i n g o r s t r u c t u r e . F i g u r e 8.13 a p p l i e s t o
b u i l d i n g s t h a t a r e s u b j e c t e d t o e x t e r n a l l o a d s . F i g u r e 8.14 a p p l i e s t o b u i l d -
i n g s t h a t are s u b j e c t e d t o i n t e r n a l loads. Information in these flow charts
is i n t e n d e d t o g i v e t h e AE guidance i n t h e d e s i g n of b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t s t r u c -
t u r e s and n o t t o s u p p l a n t o t h e r d e s i g n manuals.
As noted e a r l i e r , e x t e r n a l l o a d s t h a t can b e produced from a n acci-

d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n are:
o v e r p r e s s u r e s from t h e b l a s t wave
0 ground shock
0 impact from s o i l i f c r a t e r i n g o c c u r s
0 impacts from fragments
When t h e e x p l o s i o n o c c u r s i n t e r n a l l y , a d d i t i o n a l l o a d s are produced by a n in-

crease i n t h e ambient p r e s s u r e , b u t ground shock and c r a t e r i n g are n o t u s u a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d s . All of t h e s e l o a d s may a c t i n d e p e n d e n t l y o r t h e y may o c c u r
i n combination, depending upon t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a c c i d e n t and t h e p o s i t i o n of
t h e b u i l d i n g r e l a t i v e t o t h e e x p l o s i o n . Treatment o f m u l t i p l e l o a d s a c t i n g
on t h e s t r u c t u r e is covered i n t h e procedure.
Nomenclature used i n F i g u r e s 8.13 and 8.14 is e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o

s t e e l frame and r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s .Dashed l i n e s are used t o
s u g g e s t o p t i o n a l feedback l o o p s o r i n f o r m a t i o n exchange t h a t s h o u l d o c c u r .
Phantom l i n e s e n c l o s e b l o c k s t h a t are n o t a c t i v e t a s k s , b u t t h a t c o n t a i n com-
ments, i n s t r u c t i o n s , o r c o n c l u s i o n s .
Each block i n t h e flow c h a r t s is i d e n t i f i e d and s p e c i f i c comments on

each b l o c k are g i v e n i n S e c t i o n s 8.4.6.1 and 8.4.6.2. When i t is suggested
t h a t a n a n a l y s i s b e performed u s i n g numerical methods, a n o n l i n e a r t r a n s i e n t
*
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I-----
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TIMES AND DURATICHS
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WADS
WADS ACTING ON NO LESS MAN THREE

TEE BUILDING AT TMes THE RMDA-
NO AP?ROXIUAIELY IN
PHASE YIlW IRE
SHOCX ACT IN
aRQINATION YITB YES
F i g u r e 8.13 Design f o r E x t e r n a l Explosions
8-37
S I M P L I F I E D METHODS NUMERICAL METHODS
- I
I
0
STRUCTURE
-SIDING a 8
--i
-ROOFING
i---I---
-ROOFING
i- - I
-DOORS
-WINDOWS
' -DOORS
-WINDOWS
6
r--
I
CHECK PRIMARY STRUCTURE
FOR LOCAL LOADING
-EXTERIOR WALL COLUMNS
I
PRIMARY STRUCTURE
' -ROOF BEAMS

-BUCKLING O F I N T E R I O R COLUMNS
L--T-
I+
z kSBI DUEI L DSWAY "1
I N G FOR ;
a
i
ONLY BLAST YES
NO
r_ OPTION 1
9
OPTION 2
LOAD FACTOR THE
+
BUILDING I N LATERAL
I 1 SWAY I
m + rn I
DONE O R GO PERFORM A MECHANISM
TO @ ANALYSIS
F i g u r e 8.13 Design f o r External E x p l o s i o n s (Con't)
8-38
R E V I S E STRUCTURE
TO INCREASE THE
RESISTANCE
-
-
I
COMPONENT A S A ONE
DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM
CRITERIA:
I
F I N D MAXIMUM
DISPLACEMENT FROM
DESIGN CHARTS OR BY
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION
DISPLACEMENTS?
J O I N T ROTATIONS?
STRAINS?
I
,m I
I
R E V I S E STRUCTURE
TO INCREASE THE
RESISTANCE
,
I
El
U
II
-
Q
I D E A L I Z E THE STRUCTURE
A S A MULTI-DEGREE-OF
+
CALCULATE F ( t )
A T A P P R O P R I A T E NODAL
P O I N T S I N THE STRUCTURE
APPLY PROPER BOUNDARY

CONDITIONS- DISPLACEMENT
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS MAY
BE REQUIRED FOR GROUND
SHOCK
II
CALCULATE BY NUMERICAL
INTEGRATION:
I
I
NO -DISPLACEMENTS
-STRAINS
-STRESSES
' IS
L,,
SATISFACTORY 1
U COMPARE CALCULATED
RESULTS TO F A I L U R E
CRITERIA
THE D E S I G N
OR END CRITERIA
F i g u r e 8.13 Design f o r External E x p l o s i o n s ( C o n ' t )
8-39
ARCHITECTURAL DEPT./ PRODUCTION DEPT./
SAFETY ENGINEER
DETERMINE LOCATION
AND MCNITUDE O F
SPECIFICATIONS AND
CENEML LAYOUT SOURCES
m CALCULATE THE PEAK

PRESSURE AND S P E C I F I C
+
CALCULATE MASS, VELOCITY
AND DIRECTION OF
IMPULSE OR P ( t ) ON FRAGMENTS WHICH WILL
SURFACES EXPOSED TO BE C!UlATED BY THE
THE BLAST WAVE EXPLOSION
L
CH. 6
BLOW-OUT WALLS FOR

THE BUILDING
cn. 4
. El
COMPUTE QUASI-
S I Z E CONTAINMENT
WALLS TO PREVENT
STATIC PRESSURE LOADING ON THE SHIELDS
BUILD-UP AND AS AN I N I T I A L FRAGMENT PENETRATION
DECAY IMPULSE CH. 6
CH. 4 b
Y
IDEALIZE ON THE
LOADINGTHE FRAGMENT
CONTAINMENT WALLS AS
THE BLAST AND ON I N I T I A L I W U L S E
CH. 6
c4 I
BOUNMRY FOR THE
BLAST WAVE OVERPRESSURES.
F i g u r e 8.14 Design f o r I n t e r n a l E x p l o s i o n s
8-40
type o f c a l c u l a t i o n i s i n t e n d e d . S i m p l i f i e d methods c a n be n o n l i n e a r t r a n -
s i e n t s o r o t h e r types of approximations.
8.4.6.1 Design f o r E x t e r n a l Loads ( F i g u r e 8.13)
IAl] These two b l o c k s are considered as b a s i c i n p u t t o t h e a n a l y s t

o r d e s i g n e r / a n a l y s t who w i l l b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a s s u r i n g t h a t t h e b u i l d i n g
meets t h e requirements f o r b l a s t r e s i s t a n c e t h a t have been placed upon i t .
Although t h e s o u r c e of t h e s e i n p u t d a t a w i l l v a r y w i t h i n each o r g a n i z a t i o n , f o r
purposes o f t h e flow c h a r t i t h a s been assumed t h a t i t i s provided by t h e
a r c h i t e c t u r a l and p r o d u c t i o n departments i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e s a f e t y engi-
n e e r . Within some companies, a s i n g l e d e s i g n department may perform t h e en-
t i r e j o b , b u t t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g work and t h e p r e d i c t i o n of prob-
a b l e a c c i d e n t s a r e n o t covered i n t h i s handbook. Data provided t o t h e a n a l y s t
should i n c l u d e :
0 p o s i t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e b u i l d i n g r e l a t i v e t o o t h e r
facilities
b u i l d i n g p l a n and e l e v a t i o n drawings t h a t g i v e e x t e r i o r dimensions
0 d e t a i l drawings g i v i n g t h e primary and secondary s t r u c t u r a l members

t h a t have been s i z e d t o meet t h e s t a t i c d e s i g n l o a d s
0 l o c a t i o n and magnitude o f t h e energy release i n p o s t u l a t e d a c c i -

d e n t s which t h e b u i l d i n g must b e designed t o w i t h s t a n d
0 l e v e l of p r o t e c t i o n and p o s t - a c c i d e n t s e r v i c e t h a t t h e b u i l d i n g
must p r o v i d e
I T ] Overpressures and s p e c i f i c impulse on t h e b u i l d i n g c a n b e c a l -

c u l a t e d by knowing t h e energy release i n t h e a c c i d e n t , whether d e t o n a t i o n o r
d e f l a g r a t i o n o c c u r s , and t h e d i s t a n c e from the a c c i d e n t t o t h e loaded f a c e of
t h e b u i l d i n g . Ground r e f l e c t i o n a t t h e a c c i d e n t l o c a t i o n and l o c a l b l a s t wave
r e f l e c t i o n on t h e b u i l d i n g must b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s . Note t h a t
each s u r f a c e of t h e b u i l d i n g may have a d i f f e r e n t p ( t ) and t h a t b o t h t h e re-
f l e c t e d shock wave and t h e "wind" behind t h e shock w i l l impart l o a d s t o t h e
building.
1 7 1 Procedures f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and energy i n f r a g -

ments t h a t may o c c u r i n an a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n are covered i n Chapter 6 . To
a v o i d p e n e t r a t i o n , t h e "worst case" fragment t h a t c a n s t r i k e t h e b u i l d i n g must
be determined. To account f o r t h e l o a d i n g on t h e b u i l d i n g , i . e . , t h e f o r c e -
t i m e o r impulse t h a t t h e fragments can i m p a r t t o t h e b u i l d i n g , t h e t o t a l ener-
gy i n t h e fragments (mass, v e l o c i t y , and number) t h a t s t r i k e t h e b u i l d i n g must
b e known. U s u a l l y t h e energy imparted t o a b u i l d i n g by fragments i s small
r e l a t i v e t o t h e energy imparted t o t h e b u i l d i n g by o v e r p r e s s u r e s ; however, f o r
i n d i v i d u a l b u i l d i n g components i t may b e a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of t h e a p p l i e d
load.
8-4 1
A nearby e x p l o s i o n a t o r below ground l e v e l c a n c a u s e e a r t h
e j e c t a t o b e thrown a g a i n s t t h e b u i l d i n g . This l o a d i n g c a n b e a s i g n i f i c a n t
p a r t o f t h e t o t a l l o a d on t h e b u i l d i n g and perhaps t h e major l o a d f o r some
b u i l d i n g components. I n t h i s case, i n d i v i d u a l f r a g m e n t s a r e u s u a l l y n o t i m -
p o r t a n t , b u t t h e t o t a l m a s s and v e l o c i t y of t h e s o i l impacting t h e b u i l d i n g
must b e known. Means of e s t i m a t i n g t h e l o a d i n g produced by e a r t h e j e c t a from
c r a t e r i n g are p r o v i d e d i n Chapter 5 .
Ground shock o c c u r s i n e v e r y explosion, whether i t i s above o r

below t h e ground s u r f a c e , b u t u s u a l l y t h e e f f e c t of t h e shock i s small com-
p a r e d t o t h e e f f e c t of t h e a i r b l a s t ; however, f o r some e x p l o s i o n s t h i s w i l l
n o t b e t h e case, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r s u b s u r f a c e ones. A l s o , some b u i l d i n g s may
b e underground and o n l y s u b j e c t e d t o t h e ground s h o c k l o a d s .
1
x
1 S i t i n g and o r i e n t a t i o n i n f l u e n c e t h e l o a d s on t h e b u i l d i n g and,
i f p o s s i b l e , t h e s e two f a c t o r s s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d t o r e d u c e t h e l o a d s o n t h e
b u i l d i n g t o some minimum v a l u e . Feedback between l o a d estimates and t h e
b u i l d i n g placement and o r i e n t a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y t o accomplish t h i s o b j e c t i v e .
1 7 1 From t h e o v e r p r e s s u r e and s p e c i f i c impulse, t h e t o t a l f o r c e s

and i m p u l s e s on t h e d i f f e r e n t f a c e s o f t h e b u i l d i n g and .for v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l
components c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d . For l a t e r a l sway o f t h e b u i l d i n g , i t i s cus-
tomary t o n e g l e c t t h e p r e s s u r e s on t h e s i d e o f t h e b u i l d i n g o p p o s i t e t h e ex-
p l o s i o n , b u t t h e s e p r e s s u r e s c a n e a s i l y b e i n c l u d e d when u s i n g n u m e r i c a l
methods. Depending upon t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e b u i l d i n g and t h e
a r r i v a l t i m e s of t h e l o a d s , t h e back s i d e p r e s s u r e c a n i n c r e a s e , b u t i t
u s u a l l y decreases, t h e response.
1 7 1 Loading from b o t h t h e fragment impects and t h e e a r t h e j e c t a

thrown a g a i n s t t h e b u i l d i n g c a n b e i d e a l i z e d as a n impulse o r a s a n i n i t i a l
v e l o c i t y imparted t o t h e b u i l d i n g . These estimates a r e based upon change i n
momentum, and when p e n e t r a t i o n o c c u r s , r e s i d u a l fragment v e l o c i t i e s c a n be
t a k e n as t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y i f t h e fragment does n o t s t r i k e a n o t h e r p a r t o f
t h e b u i l d i n g . I t i s c o n s e r v a t i v e and customary t o n e g l e c t t h e r e s i d u a l
velocity .
1 7 1 It i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t , d ( t ) , o r
a c c e l e r a t i o n , a ( t ) , produced a t t h e b u i l d i n g by ground shock. When t h e s e
v a l u e s a r e n o t w e l l known, a good a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f a shock s p e c t r u m c a n s t i l l
b e o b t a i n e d as e x p l a i n e d i n R e f e r e n c e 8 . 2 . A shock s p e c t r u m i s a d e q u a t e f o r
c a l c u l a t i n g t h e e l a s t i c r e s p o n s e of t h e b u i l d i n g u s i n g mode s u p e r p o s i t i o n ;
however, f o r a n o n l i n e a r dynamic a n a l y s i s , t h e ground d i s p l a c e m e n t must b e
applied.
Im A s i n g l e a c c i d e n t w i l l v e r y l i k e l y produce a i r b l a s t , f r a g -
ments, and ground shock, a l l of which c a n e x c i t e t h e s t r u c t u r e . I t i s neces-
s a r y t o c o n s i d e r m u l t i p l e l o a d s from e i t h e r a s i n g l e o r m u l t i p l e e x p l o s i o n
and t o d e c i d e how t h e y must b e a p p l i e d t o t h e s t r u c t u r e f o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s .
Change 1 - 15 August 1981 8-4 2

*
1
x1Arrival t i m e s and d u r a t i o n s of t h e d i f f e r e n t l o a d s t h a t a c t on
t h e b u i l d i n g must b e determined. Data are r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e t o make t h i s c a l -
c u l a t i o n f o r a i r b l a s t , b u t o n l y Fstimates a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r ground shock and
f r a g m e n t s . Because fragment l o a d s a r e t r e a t e d as a n i n i t i a l i m p u l s e , t h e i r
duration i s zero.
To d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t of m u l t i p l e l o a d s o n t h e b u i l d i n g , t h e
fundamental p e r i o d o f v i b r a t i o n must be e s t i m a t e d f o r t h e b u i l d i n g i n l a t e r a l
sway and f o r b u i l d i n g components t h a t are s u b j e c t e d t o m u l t i p l e l o a d s . Refer-
e n c e s 8 . 1 , 8 . 2 , 8.14, and any v i b r a t i o n t e x t b o o k c o n t a i n formulas f o r comput-
i n g fundamental p e r i o d s o f v i b r a t i o n f o r s t r u c t u r a l components.
I T ] If m u l t i p l e l o a d s a c t o n t h e b u i l d i n g a t t h e same t i m e , t h e n
s i m p l i f i e d methods may n o t b e a p p r o p r i a t e . Because impact l o a d s a r e r e p r e -
s e n t e d as a n impulse, t h e y have no d u r a t i o n . . I f t h e a r r i v a l t i m e s o f two
s e p a r a t e l o a d s , one o f which i s a n impact l o a d , a r e w i t h i n one h a l f - p e r i o d
of t h e fundamental mode o f v i b r a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , t h e n t h e l o a d s s h o u l d
b e t r e a t e d as a c t i n g a t the same t i m e .
I f m u l t i p l e l o a d s are a & i n g a t t h e same t i m e ,and t h e a r r i v a l

t i m e s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n phase w i t h t h e fundamental p e r i o d s o f v i b r a t i o n ,
t h e n t h e l o a d i n g can be i d e a l i z e d as a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f o r purposes of
performing a s i m p l i f i e d a n a l y s i s ( s e e Chapter 4 ) . I f they a r e n o t approxi-
mately i n phase, t h e n n u m 4 i c a l methods must b e a p p l i e d t o compute t h e s t r u c -
t u r a l r e s p o n s e o f t h e b u i l d i n g ( s e e Ref. 8 . 2 ) .
k3
mi Even i f t h e 1 o a d s " a c t t o g e t h e r and t h e a r r i v a l t i m e s are approx-
i m a t e l y i n phase w i t h t h e v i b r a t i o n p e r i o d o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , t h e r e i s no s i m p l e
method of combining ground shock and fragment o r a i r b l a s t l o a d i n g . For t h i s
combination of l o a d s , numerical methods a r e a g a i n recommended (we know of no
s t r u c t u r e s d e s i g n e d f o r t h e s e combined l o a d s t o d a t e ) .
Even i f t h e l o a d s are n o t a c t i n g a t t h e same t i m e , t h e l o a d s

should b e t r e a t e d t o g e t h e r i f l o a d s a f t e r t h e f i r s t a r e a p p l i e d w h i l e t h e
s t r u c t u r e i s s t i l l v i b r a t i n g . A s e p a r a t i o n t i m e of t h r e e times t h e fundament-
a l v i b r a t i o n p e r i o d h a s been chosen as a c r i t e r i o n f o r d e c i d i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t
t o treat t h e loads together o r s e p a r a t e l y . A f t e r t h r e e periods of v i b r a t i o n
h a v e passed, damping h a s reduced t h e a m p l i t u d e s u b s t a n t i a l l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f
p l a s t i c s t r a i n i n g h a s o c c u r r e d , and t r e a t i n g t h e l o a d s s e p a r a t e l y w i l l p e r m i t
a s i m p l i f i e d a n a l y s i s t o b e performed and s h o u l d g i v e a good estimate of t h e
maximum r e s p o n s e .
Q
1 A17 ]At: t h i s p o i n t i t h a s been d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e l o a d s do n o t a c t
together; y e t loads a f t e r the first are applied within a t i m e equal t o three
times t h e fundamental v i b r a t i o n p e r i o d o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . I f t h e a r r i v a l t i m e s
a r e approximately i n phase w i t h t h e p e r i o d o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , t h e n t h e l o a d s
s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o g e t h e r . For t h i s case n u m e r i c a l methods are recp'
so t h a t p r o p e r p h a s i n g of t h e l o a d s c a n b e accounted f o r . I f t h e
times are n o t i n phase w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r a l p e r i o d , t h e n i t is u s u a l l y s a f e t o
8-4 3
t r e a t t h e l o a d s i n d e p e n d e n t l y and u s e s i m p l i f i e d methods of a n a l y s i s ( s e e
Cliaptcr 4 and Refs. 8 . 2 and 8 . 1 8 ) .
S i m p l i f i-e d Methods. When u s i n g s i m p l i f i e d methods, i n d i v i d u a l

components o f t h e b u i l d i n g and t h e b u i l d i n g i t s e l f a r e i d e a l i z e d as a one- (c)r
p o s s i b l y two-) degree-of-freedom s y s t e m . The r e s p o n s e o f each one-degree-of-
freedom s y s t e m i s then found Tor t h e assumption t h a t c o u p l i n g between t h e var-
i o u s parts of t h e s t r u c t u r e d o e s n o t o c c u r , i . e . , t h e s u p p o r t f o r each compo-
n e n t i s t r e a t e d a s r i g i d and no a l t e r a t i o n of t h e l o a d i n g o c c u r s as i t p a s s e s
through t h e s t r u c t u r e . 'Illis approach u s u a l l y y i e l d s c o n s e r v a t i v e r e s u l t s .
Because tlic procedure of i d e a l i z i n g t h e p a r t s of t h e s t r u c t u r e

as ii one-degree-of-frcedom i s r e p e a t e d many times f o r d i l f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e
b u i l d i n g , i t h a s been t r e a t e d i n ;i s e p a r a t e [low diagram and r e f e r r e d t o as
m. 'fliis p a r t o f t h e flow c h a r t f u n c t i o n s as a s u b r o u t i n e t h a t i s e n t e r e d
m.
and used, a n d i t tlicn r e t u r n s c o n t r o l back t o t h e l o c a t i o n from which i t was
c n t e r e d . Con t e n t s are d e s c r i b e d undcr S u b r o u t i n e
[T] As t h e f i r s t s t e p i n t h e s i m p l i f i e d a n a l y s i s o f a b u i l d i n g , t h e
seconciary s t r u c - t u r e is a n a l y z e d and s i z e d f o r b l a s t and fragment loads. De-
s i g n of secondary s t r u c t u r e i s performed f i r s t b e c a u s e i t s mass m u s t b e i n -
cluded i n frcqucncy c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r t h c primary s t r u c t u r e . Only s i g n i f i c m t
changes, such as changes i n frame s p a c i n g , which miy o c c u r s u b s e q u e n t l y d u r i n g
t h e a n a l y s i s o f tlie primary s t r u c t u r e , w i l l r e q u i r e r e d e s i g n of t h e secondary
s t r u c t u r c . When t h e secondary s t r u c t u r e i s a n a l y z e d f i r s t , i t i s a l s o pos--
s i b l e t o compute boundary r e a c t i o n s and a p p l y them a s l o a d s t o t h e primary
s t r u c t u r e . This approach i s n o t recommended f o r s i m p l i f i e d a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e
t h e boundary r e a c t i o n s caniiot b e determined a c c u r a t e l y .
Secondary s t r u c t u r e i n c l u d e s w a l l p a n e l s , r o o f i n g , windows, and

doors. Wall p a n e l s a r e u s u a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h s i d i n g , g i r t s , and p u r l i n s .
Each component m u s t b e analyzed f o r t h e a p p l i e d l o a d s . Roofing i n c l u d e s b o t h
tlic decking and roof j o i s t s , and each o f t h e s e components must b e checked a l -
s o . Doors and windows t h a t a r e b l a s t r e s i s t a n t r e q u i r e s t r o n g s u p p o r t s s o t h e
frames n l s o m u s t b e checked f o r adequate s t r e n g t h .
1
82)AFter t h e secondary s t r u c t u r e h a s been d e s i g n e d , t h e primary
s t r u c ture sliould .be (.llclc-kcd For l o c a l l o a d s . T h i s i n c l u d e s :
0 e x t e r i o r col limns
0 i n t e r i o r columns
0 roof beams
0 w a l l p a n e l s t h a t a r e p a r t o f t h e primary s t r u c t u r e
I f t h e b u i l d i n g i s f i r s t designed f o r adequate s t r e n g t h i n l a t e r a l sway, t h e n

any i n c r e a s e i n t h e above members f o r l o c a l l o a d i n g w i l l r e s u l t i n some over-
8-4 4
d e s i g n of t h e b u i l d i n g . However, i f t h e above members a r e f i r s t s i z e d f o r
l o c a l l o a d s , t h e n any a d d i t i o n a l s t r e n g t h t h a t may b e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s e l o a d s
w i l l a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e b u i l d i n g i n l a t e r a l sway.
A t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e a n a l y s i s , t h e b u i l d i n g i s checked f o r s i d e
sway. I f one a x i s o f t h e b u i l d i n g i s o r i e n t e d a l o n g t h e d i r e c t i o n from t h e
b u i l d i n g t o t h e e x p l o s i o n , t h e n s i d e sway i n o n l y one d i r e c t i o n may need t o bc
checked. I f t h i s i s n o t t h e case o r i f t h e b u i l d i n g i s i r r e g u l a r i n s h a p e ,
t h e n s i d e sway must b e checked i n two p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n s . When b i a x i a l
bending o f t h e columns o c c u r , t h e bending c a p a c i t y i n e a c h d i r e c t i o n m u s t bc
reduced a c c o r d i n g l y . R e f e r e n c e 8 . 7 g i v e s ormulas f o r t h e r e d u c t i o n of bend-
i n g c a p a c i t y under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s . Columns can a l s o b e s u b j c c t e d t o com-
b i n e d a x i a l and l a t e r a l l o a d s ; however, t h e frequency of t h e coliimn response
i n compression i s much h i g h e r t h a n t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e b u i l d i n g i n l a t e r a l
sway so c o u p l i n g f o r t h e s e l o a d s c a n b e n e g l e c t e d . Even s o , Reference 8 . 7
g i v e s f o r m u l a s f o r r e d u c i n g t h e a l l o w a b l e f u l l y p l a s t i c bending monicnt for (:om-
bined bending and a x i a l l o a d s .
I f o n l y a i r b l a s t l o a d s are a c t i n g o n t h e b u i l d i n g , s i d e sway
c a n b e checked u s i n g e i t h e r a mechanism a n a l y s i s o r by one-degree-of-f recdom
methods. Impulsive l o a d s from fragment impact cannot b e e a s i l y t r e a t e d i n a
mechanism a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e i t r e q u i r e s t h a t a dynamic 'load f a c t o r be c s t a b -
l i s h e d f o r t h e a p p l i e d l o a d . Such a l o a d f a c t o r i s d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n f o r
impact l o a d i n g .
Option 1 is t o use one-degree-of-freedom methods and pro-

ceed t o Option 2 i s t o perform a mechanism a n a l y s i s . A mechanism a n a l -
y s i s i s a l s o a n i t e r a t i v e p r o c e s s , b u t t h i s i s i n h e r e n t i n t h e method and s o
no l o o p i n g t o i n c r e a s e t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s shown. As t h e f i r s t s t e p i n t h e nnal-
y s i s , dynamic l o a d f a c t o r s must b e determined f o r t h e r o o f l o a d s and f o r I a t -
era1 l o a d s . These l o a d s are a f u n c t i o n of t h e s t r u c t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s and t h e
n a t u r e of t h e l o a d i n g . Reference 8 . 7 g i v e s guidance f o r d e t e r m i n i n g the dyna-
m i c l o a d f a c t o r s and f o r performing t h e mechanism a n a l y s i s .
IT] I f o n l y s i m p l i f i e d methods a r e b e i n g used, t h e n t h c a n a l y s i s i s

complete. I f numerical methods w i l l a l s o b e used t o c o n i r m o r r c E i n e t h e
d e s i g n , then t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from t h e a m p l i f i e d methods w i l l b e u s c d * I S
i n p u t f o r t h e more e x a c t a n a l y s e s . P r e l i m i n a r y s i z i n g by s i m p l i f i e d methods
is always recommended b e f o r e u n d e r t a k i n g a more complex and e x p e n s i v e niimer i-
tal a n a l y s i s .
u)
Numerical Methods. The flow c h a r t f o r n u m e r i c a l methods i n -
c l u d e s a s e c t i o n ( i d e n t i f i e d as t h a t i s u t i l i z e d more t h a n once, and s o
i t h a s been s e p a r a t e d from t h e main f l o w diagram. S e c t i o n IE] o u t l i n e s , i n
g e n e r a l terms, t h e p r o c e s s of performing a multi-degree-of-freedom a n a l y s i s
of a s t r u c t u r e o r s t r u c t u r a l component. T h i s s e c t i o n is r e f e r r e d t o t w i c e
because i t i s suggested i n t h e flow diagram t h a t t h e primary and secondary
s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e b u i l d i n g b e a n a l y z e d s e p a r a t e l y . The r e a s o n f o r performing
s e p a r a t e a n a l y s e s i s t o minimize t h e degree-of-reedom t h a t must b e i n c l u d e d
8-4 5
i n t h e model. I f one aktempts t o a n a l y z e an e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e w i t h one model,
t h e model s i z e (degree-of-freedom, number of e l e m e n t s , etc.) would b e l a r g e
and t h e a n a l y s i s might n o t b e economically f e a s i b l e . The primary s t r u c t u r e
a l o n e can b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y a model o f . r e a s o n a b l e s i z e . Models of i n d i v i d u a l
components would be used t o a n a l y z e t h e secondary s t r u c t u r e . A l t e r n a t e l y , some
combination of numerical and s i m p l i f i e d methods c a n b e used. For example, the
primary s t r u c t u r e c a n b e analyzed w i t h n u m e r i c a l methods and secondary s t r u c -
t u r e w i t h s i m p l i f i e d methods. R e g a r d l e s s of which approach i s used, i t is
recommended t h a t , b e f o r e numerical methods are used t o a n a l y z e a s t r u c t u r e o r
s t r u c t u r a l component, p r e l i m i n a r y s i z i n g of t h e s t r u c t u r e b e made u s i n g s i m p l i -
.
f i e d methods
F\A s f o r s i m p l i f i e d methods, a n a l y s i s and s i z i n g of secondary

s t r u c t u r e have been p l a c e d ahead of the a n a l y s i s of t h e primary s t r u c t u r e .
Secondary s t r u c t u r e i s analyzed f i r s t so t h a t t h e mass o f t h e s e components
w i l l b e known and so t h a t t h e boundary r e a c t i o n s c a n b e used as t h e a p p l i e d
l o a d s f o r t h e primary s t r u c t u r e . This approach h a s m e r i t when n u m e r i c a l meth-
ods are used because t h e boundary r e a c t i o n s are more a c c u r a t e t h a n t h o s e ob-
t a i n e d w i t h s i m p l i f i e d methods; however, even w i t h numerical methods t h e re-
a c t i o n s are s t i l l approximate because f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e primary s t r u c t u r e i s
n e g l e c t e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s . Thus, t h i s approach i s o p t i o n a l and t h e approach
t a k e n w i t h s i m p l i f i e d methods can b e used, whereby f l e x i b i l i t y of t h e secon-
R e f e r t o paragraph /&
d a r y s t r u c t u r e is i o r e d when l o a d s f o r t h e primary s t r u c t u r e are computed.
under S i m p l i f i e d Methods f o r a d d i t i o n a l colmnents. The
a.
s t e p s i n s e t t i n g up a multi-degree-of-freedom model and computing t h e t r a n s -
i e n t r e s p o n s e o f a s t r u c t u r e are covered i n S u b s e c t i o n
IC21 Primary s t r u c t u r e of t h e b u i l d i n g c a n b e a n a l y z e d i n t o t a l
u s i n g multi-degree-of-freedom methods o r it c a n b e a n a l y z e d i n p a r t s . How t h e
s t r u c t u r e i s analyzed will depend upon t h e s t r u c t u r a l symmetry and t h e sym-
metry o f t h e l o a d i n g . For example, a multi-frame s t r u c t u r e w i t h a l o a d i n g
d i r e c t i o n p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e of t h e framework can b e a n a l y z e d b y t r e a t i n g
i n d i v i d u a l frames. T h i s assumes t h a t t h e frames are i d e n t i c a l e x c e p t f o r t h e
o u t s i d e ones, o r have small v a r i a t i o n s . For non-symmetric s t r u c t u r e s w i t h
l o a d i n g from a r b i t r a r y d i r e c t i o n s , a three-dimensional a n a l y s i s i s r e q u i r e d .
Loading on t h e primary s t r u c t u r e i s o f t e n t r a n s f e r r e d through secondary s t r u c -
t u r e . The e x c e p t i o n s are c o n c r e t e s l a b o r c y l i n d r i c a l s t r u c t u r e s where t h e
w a l l s provide t h e s t r e n g t h and t h e c o v e r i n g . When t h e l o a d i n g i s t r a n s f e r r e d
through secondary s t r u c t u r e , t h e a n a l y s t h a s t h r e e c h o i c e s : (1) a n a l y z e t h e
coupled problem ( i n c l u d e primary and secondary s t r u c t u r e i n t h e model), (2)
u s e s u p p o r t r e a c t i o n s from s e p a r a t e a n a l y s e s of t h e secondary s t r u c t u r e , o r
( 3 ) assume t h a t t h e l o a d i n g i s u n a l t e r e d b y t h e secondary s t r u c t u r e . The
s i m p l e s t choice i s (3) and i t most o f t e n r e s u l t s i n c o n s e r v a t i v e r e s u l t s ( s e e
F i g u r e 8.12). I n t h e most g e n e r a l case, t h e l o a d i n g on t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l
n o t b e uniform o r simultaneous. V a r i a t i o n s i n t h e magnitude, a r r i v a l t i m e ,
and d u r a t i o n o f t h e l o a d s can b e readiily t r e a t e d w i t h numerical methods b u t
computing t h e l o a d i n g a t m u l t i p l e p o i n t s on t h e s t r u c t u r e is t e d i o u s . Note
t h a t when t h e t h i r d approach i s used, t h e secondary s t r u c t u r e is r e p r e s e n t e d
as a n added mass on t h e primary s t r u c t u r e . When t h e second approach i s
chosen, t h e mass of t h e secondary s t r u c t u r e i s i g n o r e d i n t h e model.
b
One Degree-of-Freedom A n a l y s i s . T h i s p a r t of t h e f l o w c h a r t
f u n c t i o n s l i k e a s u b r o u t i n e i n a FORTRAN program i n t h a t i t i s e n t e r e d from
d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e f l o w chart and r e t u r n s c o n t r o l t o t h e p o s i t i o n from
which i t was e n t e r e d . This p a r t of t h e f l o w c h a r t i s e n t e r e d f r o m m , S i m p l i -
f i e d Methods ( F i g u r e 8.13) and from F i g u r e 8.14.
( r b References 8.1, 8.2, 8.10, and 8.15 through 8.18 c o n t a i n

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f a c t o r s f o r d e r i v i n g one-degree-of-freedom approximations f o r
d i s t r i b u t e d systems. F a c t o r s are g e n e r a l l y g i v e n f o r beams and p l a t e s w i t h
d i f f e r e n t boundary c o n d i t i o n s and d i f f e r e n t l o a d s . S o l u t i o n s f o r e l a s t i c -
p l a s t i c b e h a v i o r are c o n t a i n e d i n d e s i g n c h a r t s such as F i g u r e 2.25 of Refer-
ence 8.2 o r t h e y c a n be o b t a i n e d by n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s t h a t are
o u t l i n e d f o r t a b u l a r s o l u t i o n i n References 8 . 2 , 8.16, and o t h e r s . D e r i v a t i o n
of t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f a c t o r s is e x p l a i n e d b r i e f l y i n S e c t i o n 8.2.3.7 and de-
s c r i b e d more f u l l y i n Reference 8.9.
References 8 . 2 1 through 8.23 u s e a s i m i l a r , b u t s l i g h t l y

d i f f e r e n t approach f o r f i n d i n g a one-degree-of-freedom solution. This
approach g i v e s s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e asymptotes of t h e r e s p o n s e f o r q u a s i - s t a t i c
and i m p u l s i v e l o a d s and a l s o g i v e s p r o c e d u r e s f o r approximating t h e i n t e r -
mediate (dynamic) r e g i o n o f r e s p o n s e . The r e s u l t is a P-i ( p r e s s u r e - i m p u l s e )
diagram f o r t h e one-degree-of-freedom system. I f t h e d e f o r m a t i o n p a t t e r n
( o r f a i l u r e mode) assumed is t h e same f o r t h e two methods, v e r y similar re-
s u l t s are o b t a i n e d . Asymptotes o t h e r e s p o n s e are e x p r e s s e d i n e q u a t i o n
form so t h a t g r a p h i c a l o r n u m e r i c a l methods are n o t r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n a s o l u -
t i o n ; however, as a consequence, no i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t r a n s i e n t n a t u r e of t h e
r e s p o n s e is o b t a i n e d . S o l u t i o n s f o r t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s a p p l i c a t i o n of a long
d u r a t i o n p r e s s u r e p u l s e and an impulse a r e g i v e n i n R e f e r e n c e s 8 . 1 1 and 8.16.
One-degree-of -freedom e q u i v a l e n t systems are developed t o g i v e

d i s p l a c e m e n t s t h a t are t h e same as t h e maximum d i s p l a c e m e n t i n t h e d i s t r i b u t e d
system. Thus, t h e most r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t can be o b t a i n e d i s t h e d i s -
placement. This d i s p l a c e m e n t c a n be compared t o t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t a t which
y i e l d i n g o c c u r s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e and a v a l u e f o r t h e d u c t i l i t y r a t i o , u,
which is t h e r a t i o of t h e maximum d e f l e c t i o n t o t h e d e f l e c t i o n a t y i e l d , can
be computed. This is one s u i t a b l e c r i t e r i o n f o r d e s i g n , and recommended de-
s i g n v a l u e s are g i v e n i n R e f e r e n c e s 8.1 and 8.9. From t h e assumed d e f o r m a t i o n
p a t t e r n and t h e maximum d i s p l a c e m e n t , a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n can be o b t a i n e d ,
such as t h e maximum s t r a i n and j o i n t r o t a t i o n s . These t o o c a n be used as de-
s i g n c r i t e r i a , b u t t h e v a l u e s o b t a i n e d from t h e one-degree-of-freedom approxi-
mation are less r e l i a b l e t h a n t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s .
Accurate v a l u e s f o r t h e maximum r e a c t i o n s a t s u p p o r t s are d i f -

f i c u l t t o o b t a i n from t h e s e s i m p l e methods; however, estimates are g i v e n i n
References 8.2 and 8.15 f o r t h e maximum r e a c t i o n a t t h e s u p p o r t as a f u n c t i o n
of t h e a p p l i e d l o a d and t h e system r e s i s t a n c e . These estimates are good f o r
8-4 7
.
l o a d s of - l o n g d u r a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e fundamental p e r i o d of t h e s t r u c t u r e ,
b u t can b e n o n c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r l o a d s of v e r y s h o r t d u r a t i o n and h i g h i n t e n -
sity.
(D4( I f t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a are n o t s a t i s f i e d a t t h i s s t a g e , t h e n
d e s i g n m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e i s n e c e s s a r y . A l o g i c a l s t e p i s t o in-
crease t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s t r u c t u r e . A l t e r n a t i v e s t o i n c r e a s i n g t h e re-
s i s t a n c e would b e t o r e d u c e t h e l o a d i n g o r r e l a x t h e c r i t e r i a , b u t i t i s
assumed a t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e d e s i g n t h a t t h e s e v a l u e s are s e t .
I n c r e a s i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s t r u c t u r e t o s a t i s f y t h e de-
?
s i g n c r i t e r i a is a n i t e r a t i v e p r o c e s s ; however, t h e p r e v i o u s c a l c u l a t i o n and
response c h a r t s ( i f t h e y are b e i n g used) p r o v i d e guidance f o r s e l e c t i n g a new
r e s i s t a n c e . Because t h e frequency changes w i t h changes t o t h e s t r u c t u r e ,
estimates of t h e proper r e s i s t a n c e to p r o v i d e a g i v e n d u c t i l i t y r a t i o are o n l y
approximate, b u t do p r o v i d e good estimates. From t h e r e s i s t a n c e chosen,
v a l u e s of t h e y i e l d moment, etc., and t h u s t h e s i z e of t h e s t r u c t u r a l member,
can be o b t a i n e d .
m, When t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a are m e t , t h e d e s i g n i s satis-

f a c t o r y and, i f t h e analyses of a l l components have b e e n completed, t h e job
i s ended; o t h e r w i s e , t h e - a n a l y s t r e t u r n s t o t h e p o s i t i o n i n t h e flaw diagrams
from which t h e s u b r o u t i n e w a s e n t e r e d .
Multi-Degree-Of-Freedom A n a l y s i s . T h i s p a r t of t h e flow c h a r t
i s e n t e r e d r e p e a t e d l y from d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s i n F i g u r e s 8.13 and 8.14. R e t u r n
i s t o t h e p o i n t i n t h e flow c h a r t from which i t w a s e n t e r e d . It o u t l i n e s t h e
s t e p s i n s e t t i n g up and performing a multi-degree-of-freedom analysis.
To perform a multi-degree-of-freedom numerical a n a l y s i s , t h e

s t r u c t u r e o r component t o b e analyzed m u s t f i r s t be r e p r e s e n t e d by an a n a l y t -
i c a l model, j u s t as f o r s i m p l i f i e d methods. I n t h i s case t h e model can b e
much more d e t a i l e d and r e p r e s e n t t h e s t r u c t u r e mre a c c u r a t e l y . Every model
w i l l b e a compromise between accuracy and c o s t . When d e s i g n i n g s t r u c t u r e s t o i
resist a c c i d e n t a l e x p l o s i o n s , p l a s t i c i t y is u s u a l l y p e r m i t t e d (so t h a t a more
e f f i c i e n t s t r u c t u r e i s o b t a i n e d ) , and, because t h e l o a d i n g i s dynamic, a non-
l i n e a r t r a n s i e n t s o l u t i o n i s r e q u i r e d . T h i s t y p e o f a n a l y s i s is v e r y c o s t l y
i n terms of computer t i m e , and s o i t i s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t l a r g e models
b e avoided. Also, a d e t a i l e d ( f i n e mesh) model should b e avoided f o r t h i s
type of a n a l y s i s because flow r u l e s f o r metal p l a s t i c i t y are n o t exact, and
u n c e r t a i n t y e x i s t s i n t h e l o a d s which are a p p l i e d t o t h e s t r u c t u r e .
Modeling s t r u c t u r e s f o r multi-degree-of-f reedom a n a l y s e s must

b e l e a r n e d by e x p e r i e n c e . To keep t h e model small, t h e a n a l y s t m u s t t a k e
advantage of symmetry i n t h e s t r u c t u r e and i n t h e l o a d i n g . I f one p l a n e of
symmetry e x i s t s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e and i f t h e l o a d i n g is a l s o symmetric about
t h i s p l a n e , t h e n o n l y one-half of t h e s t r u c t u r e need b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e model.
I f t h i s same c o n d i t i o n e x i s t s f o r two p l a n e s of symmetry, t h e n o n l y one-
f o u r t h o f t h e s t r u c t u r e need b e modeled. This c o n d i t i o n can e a s i l y o c c u r f o r
s t r u c t u r e s loaded i n t e r n a l l y , b u t w i l l seldom occur f o r e x t e r n a l l o a d s .
8-48
Because of t h e complexity and expense a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n o n l i n -
ear dynamic a n a l y s i s , three-dimensional problems are o f t e n t r e a t e d i n o n l y two
dimensions. Reference 8.7 provides guidance f o r t h e modeling o f frame t y p e
s t r u c t u r e s i n two dimensions when u s i n g t h e program DYNFA. T h i s program is
s u i t a b l e for,two-dimensional frame s t r u c t u r e s a c t e d on by a g e n e r a l b l a s t load-
i n g . F i n i t e element programs, such as MARC (Ref.' 8.6) and ANSYS (Ref. 8.5),
can b e use'd f o r modeling mre g e n e r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s and f o r three-dimensional
problems. Example problems have been solved u s i n g t h e s e programs, and t h e
problem m a n u a l s should b e c o n s u l t e d b e f o r e a t t e m p t i n g t o p r e p a r e a model f o r
e i t h e r code. The u s e r is a g a i n c a u t i o n e d t o keep models as small a s p r a c t i c a l
and a l s o t o s o l v e a very small sample problem f i r s t , u s i n g t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e
program t h a t w i l l b e r e q u i r e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s , b e f o r e a t t e m p t i n g t o s o l v e t h e
a c t u a l problem.
a The a p p l i e d f o r c e s , which w i l l b e a f u n c t i o n o f time, must b e

c a l c u l a t e d and a p p l i e d a t s e l e c t e d nodal p o i n t s on t h e model. I f the blast
wave t r a v e l s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the w a l l , normal r e f l e c t i o n w i l l o c c u r and re-
f l e c t e d v a l u e s of p r e s s u r e a n d / o r impulse must b e used when computing t h e
f o r c e s . For s u r f a c e s loaded by normal b l a s t waves, t h e l o a d i n g i s a p p l i e d
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o a l l nodes and w i l l have t h e same d u r a t i o n . For s u r f a c e s
loaded by o b l i q u e b l a s t waves o r side-on b l a s t waves t h a t sweep a c r o s s t h e
s u r f a c e (such as t h e r o o f ) , t h e l o a d s arrive a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a t d i f f e r e n t
nodes. These l o a d s w i l l a l s o have s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t magnitudes and dura-
t i o n s . An adequate approximation i s t o assume a l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n of a r r i v a l
' t i m e s , d u r a t i o n s , and p r e s s u r e magnitudes over t h e b u i l d i n g s u r f a c e s . Chap-
ter 4 p r o v i d e s t h e a n a l y s t w i t h s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n t o c a l c u l a t e side-on
and r e f l e c t e d v a l u e s of p r e c s u r e and impulse, a r r i v a l times, d u r a t i o n s , and
t h e d r a g phase o f t h e l o a d i n g .
Impulsive l o a d s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h fragment o r s o i l i m p a c t should

b e a p p l i e d as a n i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o r as a n impulse. An a l t e r n a t i v e way of
a p p l y i n g a n impulse is with a v e r y s h o r t d u r a t i o n , b u t h i g h i n t e n s i t y l o a d .
The l o a d d u r a t i o n should b e s h o r t e r t h a n about one-fourth of the s h o r t e s t
p e r i o d i n t h e model. Shock l o a d s w i l l b e a p p l i e d as a displacement-time h i s -
t o r y a t t h e b a s e of t h e b u i l d i n g f o r a. n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s .
IE3-( Normal boundary c o n d i t i o n s are s p e c i f i e d b y s e t t i n g t o z e r o

t h o s e displacements on t h e model t h a t are f i x e d (do n o t move) i n t h e b u i l d i n g
or s t r u c t u r a l component. These w i l l u s u a l l y b e p o i n t s where t h e b u i l d i n g i s
a t t a c h e d t o t h e foundation. I f t h e f o u n d a t i o n is i n c l u d e d i n t h e model, t h e n
some p o i n t s on t h e f o u n d a t i o n m u s t e i t h e r b e f i x e d o r i t m u s t b e a t t a c h e d t o
p o i n t s i n t h e s o i l which are i n t u r n a t t a c h e d a t some p o i n t i n t h e model. As
a minimum, s u f f i c i e n t d i s p l a c e m e n t s must b e s e t t o z e r o t o p r e v e n t r i g i d body
motions of t h e model i n t r a n s l a t i o n and r o t a t i o n .
When p l a n e s of symmetry i n t h e s t r u c t u r e ( r e f e r t o are I)

used t o reduce t h e s i z e of t h e model, t h e n t h e symmetry boundary c o n d i t i o n s
i 8-49
d
m u s t b e a p p l i e d a t t h e s e model b o u n d a r i e s . A s a n example, i f t h e p l a n e of
symmetry i s t h e X-Y p l a n e , t h e n t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t no
t r a n s l a t i o n s occur i n t h e Z - d i r e c t i o n and no r o t a t i o n s occur a b o u t the X- and
Y-axes.
Ground shock i s a p p l i e d t o t h e model as a displacement-time

h i s t o r y a t p o i n t s corresponding t o t h e b u i l d i n g f o u n d a t i o n . These w i l l b e
v e r t i c a l o r l a t e r a l displacements o r a combination of b o t h . Without ground
shock, t h e s e p o i n t s would normally b e f i x e d p o i n t s in t h e s t r u c t u r e .
When a n a l y z i n g s t r u c t u r e s w i t h numerical methods, a computer

program i s used t h a t s o l v e s t h e a n a l y t i c a l model based upon the i n p u t d a t a
provided. With such a code, d e t a i l e d procedures are followed i n t h e prepara-
t i o n and coding of i n p u t d a t a f o r t h e multi-degree-of-freedom model developed
in ml I n s t r u c t i o n s are provided i n t h e u s e r ' s manual f o r t h e program.
Once t h e i n p u t d a t a have been coded, t h e l o a d case i s r u n t o

o b t a i n d i s p l a c e m e n t s , strains, and stresses. To o b t a i n t h e s o l u t i o n f o r a
n o n l i n e a r t r a n s i e n t problem, a numerical i n t e g r a t i o n i n t i m e is performed
w i t h a s p e c i f i e d t i m e s t e p , and, when y i e l d i n g o c c u r s , i t e r a t i o n s t o o b t a i n
convergence are sometimes r e q u i r e d within t h e t i m e s t e p . These e l a b o r a t e
i n t e g r a t i o n and convergence procedures r e q u i r e s u b s t a n t i a l computation t i m e .
S p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i n t e g r a t i o n t i m e s t e p i s t h e c h o i c e of t h e user, b u t
guidance is provided i n t h e u s e r ' s manual. Again, some compromise between
a c c u r a c y and c o s t is o f t e n sought. I f t h e i n t e g r a t i o n time s t e p is too l a r g e ,
e x c e s s i v e numerical damping o r i n s t a b i l i t y can result. I f t h e i n t e g r a t i o n
t i m e s t e p i s t o o small, c o s t s c a n b e excessive. A few t r i a l r u n s w i t h d i f f e r -
e n t t i m e s t e p s may b e r e q u i r e d b e f o r e t h e c o r r e c t c h o i c e can b e made. Because
each program uses a somewhat d i f f e r e n t approach t o numerical i n t e g r a t i o n ,
recommendations i n t h e u s e r ' s manual s h o u l d b e followed.
From t h e numerical r e s u l t s , d i s p l a c e m e n t s , s t r a i n , and stresses

are o b t a i n e d a t p o i n t s w i t h i n elements o r a n o d a l p o i n t i n t h e model. Many
programs o f f e r g r a p h i c a l o u t p u t of d a t a t h a t are v e r y v a l u a b l e i n e v a l u a t i n g
t h e r e s u l t s , which are o f t e n voluminous.
Results from t h e numerical s o l u t i o n are compared t o p r e s e t

c r i t e r i a t o determine whether o r n o t t h e d e s i g n i s s a t i s f a c t o r y . For elastic-
p l a s t i c s t r u c t u r e s , t h e s e w i l l u s u a l l y b e maximum a l l o w a b l e strains, t r a n s l a -
t i o n s , r o t a t i o n s , o r boundary r e a c t i o n s a t p o i n t s o f a t t a c h m e n t .
1
x
1 I f t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a are n o t s a t i s f i e d , t h e n an i t e r a t i o n i s
r e q u i r e d w i t h a modified d e s i g n .
I f t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a are n o t s a t i s f i e d , i t is n e c e s s a r y t o
i n c r e a s e t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s t r u c t u r e , a l t e r t h e l o a d i n g o r change t h e de-
s i g n c r i t e r i a . It i s assumed t h a t the l a t t e r two p o s s i b i l i t i e s have been
p r o p e r l y t r e a t e d e a r l i e r i n t h e s o l u t i o n and are n o t c o n s i d e r e d h e r e . In-
c r e a s i n g t h e s t r e n g t h o r r e s i s t a n c e a l s o changes s t i f f n e s s and frequency.
8-50
For e l a s t i c s t r u c t u r e s , i n c r e a s i n g frequency w i l l sometimes o f f s e t a n i n c r e a s e
i n s t r e n g t h because t h e l o a d a m p l i f i c a t i o n i s i n c r e a s e d by t h e i n c r e a s e i n
frequency. For e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c behavior, t h i s f a c t o r i s n o t s o i m p o r t a n t be-
cause of t h e s u b s t a n t i a l damping produced by s t r u c t u r a l y i e l d i n g . L i t t l e
guidance can b e o f f e r e d t h e a n a l y s t i n s e l e c t i n g ways t o i n c r e a s e t h e resis-
t a n c e . It depends upon t h e t y p e o f s t r u c t u r e and t h e t y p e of " f a i l u r e . " The
a n a l y s t must depend upon t h e results of t h e previous a n a l y s i s i n o r d e r t o
s e l e c t t h e b e s t a l t e r a t i o n t o i n c r e a s e t h e s t r u c t u r a l r e s i s t a n c e . I n some
s i t u a t i o n s (with simple models), i t may b e h e l p f u l t o c o n s i d e r t h e a d d i t i o n a l
energy t h a t must b e absorbed w i t h i n a s p e c i f i e d s t r a i n o r displacement i n o r -
d e r t o determine how much t h e r e s i s t a n c e should b e i n c r e a s e d .
m,m] When t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a have been s a t i s f i e d , t h e n t h e
p o i n t from which a
d e s i g n i s s a t i s f a c t o r y and c o n t r o l i s r e t u r n e d t o t h e main flow diagram a t t h e
w a s e n t e r e d . I f t h e primary s t r u c t u r e h a s been a n a l y z e d ,
t h e n t h e d e s i g n f o r b l a s t r e s i s t a n c e i s complete.
8.4.6.2 Design f o r I n t e r n a l Explosions
The flow diagram of F i g u r e 8.14 p e r t a i n s p r i m a r i l y t o containment

type s t r u c t u r e s . It r e f e r e n c e s p a r t s of t h e flow c h a r t .in Figure 8.13. In
t h i s d e s i g n procedure, i t is assumed t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e i s designed t o c o n t a i n
fragments t h a t may be generated b y t h e a c c i d e n t ; however, t h i s may n o t always
b e t h e c a s e f o r s t r u c t u r e s w i t h blow-out w a l l s . It i s a l s o assumed t h a t t h e
f o u n d a t i o n w i l l b e designed t o c o n t a i n t h e e x p l o s i o n and p r e v e n t c r a t e r i n g .
N o r e f e r e n c e i s made t o secondary and primary s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e d e s i g n f o r
i n t e r n a l e x p l o s i o n s . A l l s t r u c t u r e i n t h e containment boundary i s c o n s i d e r e d
t o b e primary s t r u c t u r e .
1F1-L mF
2) It i s assumed t h a t g e n e r a l b u i l d i n g l a y o u t and d e s i g n
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s have been provided t h e AE. I f a f a c t o r of s a f e t y i s t o b e i n -
c l u d e d i n t h e d e s i g n of the b u i l d i n g , i t w i l l b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e Design C r i -
teria.
171 I f t h e e x p l o s i o n i n v o l v e s h i g h e x p l o s i v e s , then d a t a are r e a d i -

l y a v a i l a b l e f o r determining ' t h e peak p r e s s u r e s , s p e c i f i c impulse, and a r r i v a l
t i m e s , b o t h a t s t a n d a r d atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s and f o r reduced p r e s s u r e s . It
i s o n l y n e c e s s a r y t o know t h e energy release, t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e e x p l o s i o n ,
t h e a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e of t h e s u r f a c e exposed t o t h e b l a s t wave, and t h e am-
b i e n t p r e s s u r e . I f t h e e x p l o s i o n is n o t produced by a h i g h e x p l o s i v e , t h e
HE d a t a can s t i l l b e used once a n e q u i v a l e n t amount of HE i s d e f i n e d f o r t h e
a c c i d e n t . For vapors o r d u s t s , d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t i n s i d e t h e d u s t o r
vapor cloud. Chapter 4 e x p l a i n s haw t h e o v e r p r e s s u r e s and impulses are de-
termined f o r vapor and d u s t e x p l o s i o n s . I f d e t o n a t i o n does n o t o c c u r , then
o n l y a low i n t e n s i t y shock o r none a t a l l may o c c u r . I n t h i s case a quasi-
s t a t i c p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p can s t i l l o c c u r from t h e .burning process.
1
x
1 Fragments may b e c r e a t e d by t h e a c c i d e n t i f machines o r o t h e r
s t r u c t u r e s are l o c a t e d n e a r t h e e x p l o s i o n . C h a p t e r 6 g i v e s guidance and
8-51
i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o determine t h e mass, v e l o c i t y , d i r e c t i o n s , and d i s t r i -
b u t i o n of t h e s e fragments.
time
1x1 I f venting occurs i n t h e
and peak v a l u e o f t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c
s t r u c t u r e , i t w i l l a f f e c t t h e decay
p r e s s u r e produced i n t h e e n c l o s u r e .
P r e d i c t i o n s f o r v e n t e d gas p r e s s u r e s , w i t h and w i t h o u t v e n t c l o s u r e s , are
given i n Chapter 4 .
IF61 I f v e n t i n g does o c c u r , t h e n t h e v e n t areas and blow-out w a l l s

must b e p r o p e r l y designed. The r a t e a t which t h e v e n t opens ( f o r blow-out
w a l l s ) and t h e t o t a l e f f e c t i v e v e n t area are t h e i m p o r t a n t parameters, and
are covered i n Chapter 4 . Venting is most e f f e c t i v e f o r d e f l a g r a t i o n
p r o c e s s e s such as w i t h burning p r o p e l l a n t . For t h e s e r e l a t i v e l y slow
p r o c e s s e s , b o t h t h e peak p r e s s u r e produced i n t h e e n c l o s u r e and t h e decay
t i m e can be s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced. For h i g h e x p l o s i v e s , t h e chemical
r e a c t i o n s are v e r y f a s t and v e r y l a r g e v e n t areas, w i t h o u t c o v e r s , are
r e q u i r e d t o a t t e n u a t e t h e peak p r e s s u r e . The decay time can b e s h o r t e n e d ,
however, and t h i s c a n b e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e d e s i g n of some t y p e s of s t r u c t u r e s .
I n g e n e r a l , i n i t i a l shock and peak q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e l o a d s on t h e
s t r u c t u r e cannot be s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced by v e n t i n g when t h e e x p l o s i o n is
produced by a h i g h e x p l o s i v e charge.
The q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n a c o n f i n e d volume i s produced b y

t h e h e a t i n g of t h e a i r and t h e release of e x p l o s i v e p r o d u c t s . It i s a f f e c t e d
by v e n t i n g and by t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of s u f f i c i e n t oxygen f o r complete combus-
t i o n . Graphical s o l u t i o n s a r e provided i n Chapter 4 f o r t h e maximum p r e s s u r e
and t h e decay t i m e f o r HE e x p l o s i o n s i n e n c l o s u r e s with small v e n t s . For
o t h e r e x p l o s i v e s , t h e maximum p r e s s u r e i s e s t i m a t e d from t h e p r o d u c t s of t h e
chemical r e a c t i o n . G r a p h i c a l s o l u t i o n s are a l s o provided f o r v e n t t i m e s w i t h
and w i t h o u t blow-out walls. These d a t a were g e n e r a t e d by a computer program
t h a t i s d e s c r i b e d and documented.
I F 8 1 Sometimes i t is more economical t o p r o v i d e fragment s h i e l d s i n

some l o c a t i o n s than t o d e s i g n a l a r g e containment boundary t o a v o i d fragment
p e n e t r a t i o n . Also, some t y p e s o f containment s t r u c t u r e s should n o t b e used
t o both c o n t a i n t h e e x p l o s i v e and s t o p t h e fragments. T h i s a p p l i e s p r i m a r i l y
t o s i n g l e s k i n s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s where stress risers produced by fragment im-
p a c t c a n cause fr,acture of t h e s t r e s s e d steel s k i n a t lower t h a n normal de-
s i g n stresses. Reinforced c o n c r e t e , l a y e r e d s t e e l , o r frame and p a n e l con-
s t r u c t i o n i s recommended when t h e primary containment boundary must resist
both t h e b l a s t l o a d s and fragment impacts.
IT] Loading on t h e s h i e l d s from fragment impacts can b e i d e a l i z e d

a s an i n i t i a l impulse f o r d e s i g n purposes. When t h e fragments are stopped b y
t h e s h i e l d , t h e i r momentum i s c o n v e r t e d t o a n impulse on t h e s t r u c t u r e . This
approach assumes t h e i n e l a s t i c impact o c c u r s and t h a t t h e fragment is f u l l y
a r r e s t e d by t h e s h i e l d . I f t h e fragment imbeds i n t h e s h i e l d , t h e n i t s mass
should b e i n c l u d e d when computing t h e i n i t i a l s h i e l d v e l o c i t y . I f fragment
rebound o c c u r s , t h e n a n i n i t i a l s h i e l d v e l o c i t y c a n b e e s t i m a t e d by c o n s i d e r i n g
e l a s t i c impact w i t h a low c o e f f i c i e n t of r e s t i t u t i o n .
8-5 2
[=]The s h i e l d s must b e designed, n o t o n l y t o a v o i d p e n e t r a t i o n ,
b u t a l s o t o remain i n p l a c e when t h e e x p l o s i o n o c c u r s . (They must n o t become
fragments themselves.) Thus, t h e p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s h i e l d s must
be designed f o r t h e w o r s t case fragment and t h e s h i e l d s u p p o r t must b e de-
s i g n e d t o resist t h e b l a s t and fragment l o a d s . E i t h e r s i m p l i f i e d methods o r
numerical methods can b e used f o r t h i s d e s i g n a n a l y s i s .
IJ I f s h i e l d i n g i s n o t used and i f t h e fragments a r e t o b e con-

t a i n e d , t h e n i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s i z e t h e w a l l s and c e i l i n g of t h e s t r u c t u r e
t o p r e v e n t fragment p e n e t r a t i o n . The t h i c k n e s s r e q u i r e d t o p r e v e n t p e n e t r a -
t i o n can b e c a l c u l a t e d f o r v a r i o u s materials from t h e e q u a t i o n s i n Chapter 6 .
The t h i c k n e s s s e t by p e n e t r a t i o n requirements may b e l a r g e r o r smaller t h a n
t h a t r e q u i r e d t o resist t h e b l a s t and fragment l o a d i n g .
1 x 1 As f o r t h e s h i e l d s , t h e fragment l o a d s on t h e w a l l s and c e i l -
i n g are i d e a l i z e d as a n i n i t i a l impulse f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s of i n e l a s t i c impact
and no r e s i d u a l fragment v e l o c i t y .
IT] Once t h e fragment p e n e t r a t i o n c r i t e r i a have been s a t i s f i e d ,

t h e primary containment boundary i s designed t o w i t h s t a n d t h e b l a s t l o a d i n g
( p r e s s u r e and impulses from t h e b l a s t wave and t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e ) and
t h e fragment l o a d s . For i n t e r n a l e x p l o s i o n s , m u l t i p l e r e f l e c t i o n s of t h e
b l a s t wave are u s u a l l y assumed as e x p l a i n e d i n Chapter 4 . For HE c h a r g e s ,
t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r e a c h e s i t s peak very q u i c k l y and c a n b e assumed t o
occur s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e b l a s t wave. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y convenient
f o r s i m p l i f i e d a n a l y s i s . For numerical a n a l y s e s t h i s assumption i s n o t neces-
s a r y . Dead l o a d s are u s u a l l y small r e l a t i v e t o t h e b l a s t l o a d i n g and c a n b e
omitted i n t h e a n a l y s i s .
Arrival times of t h e b l a s t wave and fragments c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d

t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r phasing; however, i t i s a c c e p t a b l e f o r s i m p l i f i e d a n a l y s e s
t o a p p l y them s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . I t is o f t e n found t h a t t h e fragment l o a d s are
s m a l l r e l a t i v e t o t h e b l a s t and q u a s i - s t a t i c l o a d s and can b e n e g l e c t e d .
E i t h e r s i m p l i f i e d o r numerical methods c a n be used t o a n a l y z e

t h e s t r u c t u r e . Symmetric s h e l l and c o n c r e t e s l a b s t r u c t u r e s c a n u s u a l l y b e
analyzed c o n v e n i e n t l y w i t h one-degree-of-freedom models. The a n a l y s i s o f
p e n e t r a t i o n s through t h e boundary o f s h e l l s t r u c t u r e s c a n b e d i f f i c u l t , and
o f f - t h e - s h e l f door d e s i g n s s h o u l d b e used when p o s s i b l e ( i f i t h a s been e s t a b -
l i s h e d t h a t t h e y c a n w i t h s t a n d t h e a p p l i e d l o a d s ) . P e n e t r a t i o n s through t h e
boundary are more s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d f o r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e o r frame and p a n e l
construction.
8-53
8.5 LIST OF SYMBOLS
A beam cross-sectional area
b beam width
DLF, (DLF)MA, dynamic load factor, maximum dynamic load factor
E elastic modulus
magnitude of the total load applied to the structural

F1 component
time-dependent force
H beam depth
I moment of inertia of the beam cross-sectional area
i specific impulse
spring stiffness
beam length
mass of single-degree-of-freedom system; total mass

of the structural component
P,P peak pressure ,
R resistance of the structural component
resistance of the equivalent system

Re
R maximum resistance of the structural component

m
T fundamental period of elastic vibration
t time
duration of the applied load

td
time at which the maximum displacement is reached
tm
t rise time of the applied load

r
8-54
....- . ... .. . ...... . . . . .. ... ..
.. - -. - . .. . .. . .. . . ..- -
W l a t e r a l displacement
W l a t e r a l displacement a t some l o c a t i o n on t h e s t r u c t u r a l
0
component, u s u a l l y a t t h e p o i n t of maximum displacement
X p o s i t i o n a l o n g t h e beam
d i s p l a c e m e n t s of single-degree-of-freedom systems
x1* x2
maximum displacements of systems 1 and 2
X displacement a t which y i e l d i n g o c c u r s
Y
Y displacement of a s t r u c t u r a l component o r single-degree-

of-freedom system
displacement a t which y i e l d i n g o c c u r s
'e1
maximum displacement
ymax
2 p l a s t i c s e c t i o n modulus of a beam
c o n s t a n t s used t o c h a r a c t e r i z e b l a s t waves from b u r s t i n g

p r e s s u r e vessels
maximum s t r a i n i n t h e beam
MAX
1.I ductility ratio (y /y )

MAX e l
P mass d e n s i t y
U y i e l d stress
Y
IJICIJIJI c o n s t a n t s d e f i n e d f o r beams w i t h d i f f e r e n t boundary

" i' " wo conditions
8-55
8.6 ANNOTATED REFERENCES
0 Design of S t r u c t u r e . . . U. S. Army Corps of Engineers

(Ref. 8.15)
T h i s volume of a multi-volume d e s i g n manual w a s one of t h e f i r s t t o

p r e s e n t s i m p l i f i e d dynamic d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s f o r p l a s t i c a l l y deforming
s t r u c t u r e s . It w a s prepared by s t a f f a t MIT. The methods r e p o r t e d i n
t h i s manual r e a p p e a r i n many later manuals, w i t h no o r minimal change.
0 N o r r i s , e t a l . (Ref. 8.10)
This book f i r s t appeared as a set of c o u r s e n o t e s f o r a s h o r t c o u r s e

t a u g h t by MIT s t a f f . Procedures c a r r y o v e r d i r e c t l y from an earlier
U . S. Army Corps of Engineers manual. As w i t h t h e Army manual, t h e s e
methods r e a p p e a r i n many later manuale.
0 Biggs (Ref. 8.2)
This is an e x c e l l e n t introductory text for any engineer engaged i n

dynamic s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n . Biggs is one of t h e a u t h o r s of t h e earlier
Army Corps of Engineers manual, and N o r r i s , e t al. (Ref. 8.10). This
book draws h e a v i l y on t h e earlier work, b u t adds c o n s i d e r a b l e material.
P r e s e n t a t i o n i s v e r y clear and u n d e r s t a n d a b l e .
0 S t r u c t u r e s t o Resist.... TM 5-1300 (Ref. 8.1)
This d e s i g n manual i s t h e "Bible" f o r most s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r s in-

volved i n b l a s t - r e s i s t a n t d e s i g n i n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e . Its s t r e n g t h s
are i n p r e s e n t a t i o n of d e t a i l e d p r o c e d u r e s f o r e s t i m a t i n g b l a s t l o a d i n g
f o r i n t e r n a l e x p l o s i o n s , f a i l u r e modes f o r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , s t r u c -
t u r a l elements, and d e s i g n of r e i n f o r c i n g . Some of t h e b l a s t l o a d i n g
and fragment impact d a t a i n t h i s manual are, however, now o u t d a t e d and
should b e s u p p l a n t e d by l a t e r i n f o r m a t i o n . B a s i c s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n
procedures are i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e p r e s e n t e d earlier by MIT a u t h o r s .
0 Suppressive Shields.. .. (Ref. 8.18)
Chapter 5 i n t h i s manual i s d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y t o s i m p l i f i e d methods

f o r dynamic e l a s t i c and e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c d e s i g n of steel s t r u c t u r e s
s u b j e c t e d t o i n t e r n a l b l a s t l o a d i n g . The primary methods are t h o s e
p r e v i o u s l y developed by t h e MIT s t a f f and by Newmark, b u t s p e c i a l
a t t e n t i o n i s p a i d t o r e s p o n s e t o l o a d i n g p u l s e s f o r i n i t i a l shock l o a d s
and gas v e n t i n g p r e s s u r e s f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e s w i t h s m a l l o r no v e n t i n g
which t y p i f y s u p p r e s s i v e s h i e l d s . More s o p h i s t i c a t e d dynamic d e s i g n
methods a r e i d e n t i f i e d , b u t n o t used.
8-56
.Baker (Ref. 8.35), Baker (Ref. 8.36), L e e & M a r t i n (Ref. 8.371,
K a l i s z k y (Ref. 8 . 3 8 ) , Symonds (Ref. 8.391, Symonds Chon (Ref. 8 - 4 0 ) ,
Symonds & Chon (Ref. 8.41)
These are a l l s u r v e y papers t h a t d i s c u s s approximate methods f o r dynam-

i c p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n s of i m p u l s i v e l y l o a d e d s t r u c t u r e s . The methods
are n o t always a p p l i c a b l e t o b l a s t - l o a d e d s t r u c t u r e s b e c a u s e n o t a l l
such s t r u c t u r e s respond i m p u l s i v e l y . But, t h e s e p a p e r s s h o u l d g i v e t h e
r e a d e r a good g r a s p of the open l i t e r a t u r e on t h i s t o p i c , throughout
t h e world.
~ G r e e n s p o n(Ref. 8.23), Westine & Baker ( R e f s . 8.42 and 8.43), Westine

& Cox (Ref. 8.21)
A number of dynamic s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n e q u a t i o n s and g r a p h s f o r q u i c k

e s t i m a t i o n o f r e s p o n s e t o b l a s t l o a d s have been developed i n r e c e n t
y e a r s . The r e f e r e n c e d r e p o r t s are t h e p r i n c i p a l o r i g i n a l r e f e r e n c e s .
A l l u s e t h e s c a l e d P-i (pressure-impulse) concept f o r r e l a t i n g re-
sponse t o l o a d i n g and g i v e p r e d i c t i o n s f o r beams, p l a t e s , s h e l l s , and
o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l elements. Many of t h e results are c o l l e c t e d and d i s -
c u s s e d i n Baker, Cox, e t a l . (Ref. 8 . 9 ) , which a l s o c o v e r s Biggs/New-
mark's s i m p l i f i e d methods for s t r u c t u r a l r e s p o n s e .
8-5 7
8.7 REFERENCES
8.1 S t r u c t u r e s t o Resist t h e E f f e c t s of A c c i d e n t a l Explosions, Department of

t h e Army Technical Manual TM5-1300, Department o f t h e Navy P u b l i c a t i o n
NAVFAC P-397, Department of t h e A i r Force Manual AFM 88-22, June 1969.
8.2 Biggs, J . M., I n t r o d u c t i o n t o S t r u c t u r a l Dynamics, M c G r a w - H i l l Book Com-

pany, New York, 1964.
8.3 Westine, P. S . and Baker, W. E . , "Energy S o l u t i o n s f o r P r e d i c t i n g Defor-

mations i n Blast Loaded S t r u c t u r e s , " Minutes o f 1 6 t h Annual Explosion
S a f e t y Seminar, Department of Defense S a f e t y Board, 1974.
8.4 Bathe, K. J . , "ADINA, A F i n i t e Element Program f o r Automatic Dynamic

Incremental Nonlinear A n a l y s i s , Report 82448-1, A c o u s t i c s and V i b r a t i o n
Lab, Med. Eng. Dept., MIT, 1976.
8.5 DeSalvo, G. J. and Swanson, J. A . , ANSYS Engineering A n a l y s i s S y s t e m ,

User ' s Manual, Swanson A n a l y s i s S y s t e m , Inc., Houston, PA, 1979.
8.6 Nonlinear F i n i t e Element A n a l y s i s Program Volume I : User8 Information

Manual, MARC A n a l y s i s C o r p o r a t i o n and C o n t r o l Data C o r p o r a t i o n , 1975.
8.7 Stea, W . , Tseng, G., Kossover, D . , P r i c e , P . , and C a l t a g i r o n e , Jr., "Non-

l i n e a r A n a l y s i s of Frame S t r u c t u r e s Subjected t o Blast O v e r p r e s s u r e s , "
C o n t r a c t o r Report ARLCD-CR-77008, U. S . Army Armament Research 61 Develop-
ment Command, Large C a l i b e r Weapon Systems L a b o r a t o r y , Dover, N J , May
1977.
8.8 P i r o t i n , S . D . , Berg, B . A., and W i t m e r , E. A., "PETROS 4 : New Develop-

ments and Program Manual f o r t h e F i n i t e - D i f f e r e n c e C a l c u l a t i o n of Large
E l a s t i c - P l a s t i c , a n d / o r V i s c o e l a s t i c T r a n s i e n t Deformations of M u l t i l a y e r
Variable-Thickness (1) Hard-Bonded, (2) Moderately-Thick Hard-Bonded, o r
(3) Thin Soft-Bonded S h e l l s , " BRI, C o n t r a c t Report No. 316, MIT, September
1976.
8.9 Baker, W. E , , Cox, P. A , , Westine, P. S . , Kulesz, J . J . , and Strehlow,

R . A . , A Short Course on Explosion Hazards E v a l u a t i o n , Southwest Research
I n s t i t u t e , San Antonio, TX, 1978.
8.10 N o r r i s , C . H . , Hansen, R. J . , H o l l e y , M. J . , J r . , Biggs, J. M . , Namyet,

S., and Minami, J . K., S t r u c t u r a l Design f o r Dynamic Loads, M c G r a w - H i l l
Book Company, New York, 1959.
8- 58
8.11 Cox, P. A., Weetine, P. S., Kulesz, J. J . , and Esparza, E. D., "Analyeis
and E v a l u a t i o n of S u p p r e s s i v e S h i e l d s , I' F i n a l Technical Report, Edgewood
A r s e n a l C o n t r a c t o r Report, ARCF'L-CR-77028, Report No. 1 0 , January 1978.
8.12 Esparza, E. D. and Baker, W. E., "Measurement o f Blast Waves from Burst-
i n g F r a n g i b l e Spheres P r e s s u r i z e d w i t h Flash-Evaporating Vapor o r
L i q u i d , " NASA C o n t r a c t o r Report 2811, C o n t r a c t NSG-3008, N a t i o n a l Aero-
n a u t i c s and Space A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , November 1977.
8.13 Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Regulation Guide 1.92.
8.14 Den Hartog, J. P., Mechanical V i b r a t i o n s , 3rd M i t i o n , M c G r a w - H i l l Book

Company, N e w York, 1947.
8.15 Design of S t r u c t u r e s t o Resist t h e E f f e c t s o f Atomic Weapons, TM 5-856,

1 through 9 , Department of t h e Army, U. S. Army AG P u b l i c a t i o n s C e n t e r ,
1655 Woodson Road, S t . Louis, MO 63114, March 1965. [This is a n updated
v e r s i o n of t h e U. S. Army COE.Manua1 EMl10-345-415, March 1957.1
8.16 " S h e l t e r Design and A n a l y s i s , Volume 4, P r o t e c t i v e C o n s t r u c t i o n f o r Shel-

ters," Defense C i v i l Preparedness Agency, TR-20, (Reviewer's D r a f t ) , J u l y
1972.
8.17 Crawford, R. E., Hlggins, C., J., and Bultmann, E. H., Tile Air Force
Manual f o r Derlgn and Aaalysir o f hardened S t r u c t u r e s , Am-TR-75-102,
A i r Force Weapons Lab., K i r t l a n d AFB, NM; October 1974.
8.18 Suppressive S h i e l d s S t r u c t u r a l Design and A n a l y s i s Handbook, HNDM-1110-

1-2, U. S . Army Corps of S n g i n e e r s , H u n t s v i l l e D i v i s i o n , November 1977.
8.19 Healey, J., Ammar, A., V e l l o z z i , J., Pecone, G., Weissman, S., Dobbs, N . ,
and P r i c e , P., "Design of S t e e l S t r u c t u r e s t o R e s i s t t h e E f f e c t s o f HE
Explosions," Technical Report 4837, P i c a t i n n y A r s e n a l , Dover, N J , August
1975.
8.20 Tseng, G . , Weissman, S., Dobbs, N., ant1 P r i c e , P., "Design C h a r t s for
Cold-Formed S t e e l P a n e l s and Wide-Flange Beams Subjected t o Blast Load-
i n g , " T e c h n i c a l Report 4838, P i c a t i n n y Areenal, Dover, N J , August 1975.
8 . 2 1 W e s t i n e , P. S. and Cox, P. A., "Additional Energy S o l u t i o n s f o r P r e d i c t -

i n g S t r u c t u r a l Deformations, '' Edgewood A r s e n a l C o n t r a c t o r Report EM-CR-
76031, Report No. 4 , Southwest Research I n s t l i u t e , Noverhber 1975.
8.22 Westine, P. S., "R-W P l a n e A n a l y s i s f o r V u l n e r a b i l i t y o f T a r n e t s t o Air

I
Blast," The Shock 6, V i b r a t i o n B u l l e t i n , B u l l e t i n 4 2 , - P a r t 5, pp. 173-183,

January 19 72.
8.23 Greenspon, 3. E., "Energy Approaches t o S t r u c t u r a l V u l n e r a b i l i t y w i t h

A p p l i c a t i o n of t h e New Bell S t r e s s - S t r a i n Laws," BRL C o n t r a c t Report No,
291, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, March 1976.
8-59
8.24 Baker, W . E . , Cox, P. A., E s p a r z a , E . D . , and Westine, P. S . , "Design
Study o f a S u p p r e s s i v e S t r u c t u r e f o r a Melt Loading O p e r a t i o n , " Edge-
wood A r s e n a l C o n t r a c t o r R e p o r t EM-CR-76043, Report No. 9 , December 1975.
8.25 Fenves, S . J . , P e r r o n e , N . , Robinson, A. R., and Schnobrich, W . C .

( E d i t o r s ) , Numerical and Computer Methods i n S t r u c t u r a l Mecllanics, Aca-
demic P r e s s , New York, 1973.
8.26 P i l k e y , W . , S a c z a l s k i , K . , and S c h a e f f e r , H . ( E d i t o r s ) , S t r u c t u r a l
___-
Mechanics Computer Programs, U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s of V i r g i n i a , C h a r l o t t e s -
v i l l e , VA, 1974.
8.27 P e r r o n e , N . and P i l k e y , W. ( E d i t o r s ) , S t r u c t u r a l Mechanics S o f t w a r e

S e r i e s , Volume I , U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s o f V i r g i n i a , C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e , .ix,
1977.
8.28 P e r r o n e , N. and P i l k e y , W. ( E d i t o r s ) , S t r u c t u r a l Mechanics S o f t w a r e

Series, Volume 11, U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s o f V i r g i n i a , C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e , VA,
1978.
8.29 McCormick, C . W . ( E d i t o r ) , "MSC/NASTRAN User's Manual,'' MSR-39, The Mac-

Neal-Schwendler C o r p o r a t i o n , 7442 North Figueroa S t r e e t , Los Angeles, CA,
May 1976.
8.30 Haisler, W. E . , "AGGIE I - A F i n i t e Element Program f o r N o n l i n e a r S t r u c -

t u r a l A n a l y s i s , " Report TEES-3275-77-1, Aerospace E n g i n e e r i n g Department,
Texas A&M U n i v e r s i t y , June 1977.
8.31 H a i s l e r , W. E . , " S t a t u s Report o f A G G I E I Computer Program," T e c h n i c a l

Report No. 3275-78-2, Aerospace E n g i n e e r i n g Department, Texas A&M Univer-
s i t y , A p r i l 1978.
8.32 Wu, R. W-H and W i t m e r , E . A . , " F i n i t e Element A n a l y s i s o f Large T r a n s i e n t

E l a s t i c - P l a s t i c Deformations o f Simple S t r u c t u r e s , w i t h A p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e
Engine Rotor Fragment C o n t a i n m e n t / D e f l e c t i o n Program," NASA CR-120886,
ASRL TR 154-4, A e r o e l a s t i c and Striic t u r e s Research L a b o r a t o r y , MIT, Cam-
b r i d g e , MA, J a n u a r y 1972.
8 . 3 3 Neal, B . G . ,
P-
l a-
s t i c Methods o f S t r u c t u r a l A n a l y s i s , Chapman & H a l l ,
London, England, 1977.
8.34 Baker, W . E . , "Approximate Techniques f o r P l a s t i c Deformation of S t r u c -

t u r e s Under Impulsive Loading," Shock and V i b r a t i o n D i E e s t , -
7, ( 7 ) , pp.
107-117, 1975.
8 - 3 5 Baker, W . E . , "Approximate Techniques f o r P l a s t i c Deformation o f S t r u c -

11, ( 7 ) ,
t u r e s IJnder Impulsive Loading, 11," Shock and V i b r a t i o n D i g e s t , -
pp. 19-24, 1979.
8-60
___ ..._......._..
. ~ ....
. ~ ...... . . . ....... . .. . ... ...... . . -.
8.36 Lee, L. S. S. and M a r t i n , J . B . , "Approximate S o l u t i o n s o f I m p u l s i v e l y

Loaded S t r u c t u r e s o f a Rate S e n s i t i v e Material," Z . Agnew. Math. Phys.,
21, pp. 1011-1032, 1970.
8.37 K a l i s z k y , S . , "Approximate S o l u t i o n s f o r I m p u l s i v e l y Loaded I n e l a s t i c

S t r u c t u r e s and Continua," I n t l . J . Nonlin. Mech., 5 , pp. 143-158, 1970.
8.38 Symonds, P. S., "Approximation Techniques f o r I m p u l s i v e l y Loaded S t r u c -

t u r e s o f Rate S e n s i t i v e P l a s t i c Behavior," SIAM J . Appl. Math., 25, ( 3 ) ,
pp. 462-473, 1973.
8.39 Symonds, P. S . and Chon, C . T . , "Bounds f o r F i n i t e - D e f l e c t i o n s of Impul-

s i v e l y Loaded S t r u c t u r e s w i t h Time-Dependent P l a s t i c B e h a v i o r , " I n t l . J.
S o l i d s S t r u c . , 11, pp. 403-425, 1975.
8.40 Symonds, P . S . and Chon, C . T., "Approximation Techniques f o r I m p u l s i v e

Loading o f S t r u c t u r e s o f Time-Dependent P l a s t i c Behavior w i t h F i n i t e -
D e f l e c t i o n s , " Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s a t High Rates o f S t r a i n , J. Harding,
Ed., I n s t . P h y s i c s (London), Conf. S e r . No. 21, pp. 299-316, 1974.

m a t i o n s i n Blast-Loaded S t r u c t u r e s , " Edgewood A r s e n a l C o n t r a c t o r Report
EM-CR-76027, Report No. 6 , Southwest Research I n s t i t u t e , November 1975.

m a t i o n s i n B l a s t Loaded S t r u c t u r e s , " Minutes o f 1 6 t h Annual E x p l o s i o n
S a f e t y Seminar, Department of Defense S a f e t y Board, 1974.
8-61
APPENDIX A
PROPERTIES OF EXPLOSIVES
'Illis appendix i n c l u d e s v a r i o u s p r o p e r t i e s o f e x p l o s i v e s which are o r

could b e p r e s e n t o r used i n v a r i o u s f a c i l i t i e s of t h e Pantex P l a n t . Sepa-
r a t e t a b l e s a r e given f o r :
0 Physical P r o p e r t i e s o f Explosives
0 Chemical P r o p e r t i e s of E x p l o s i v e s
S e n s i t i v i t y of Explosives
0 Hugoniots f o r Unreacted HE'S
0 Thermal P r o p e r t i e s of E x p l o s i v e s
0 Performance o f E x p l o s i v e s
Blanks i n t h e t a b l e s i n d i c a t e t h a t w e were unable t o f i n d t h e s p e c i f i c

p r o p e r t y f o r t h e l i s t e d e x p l o s i v e . Common a b b r e v i a t i o n s o r c o n t r a c t i o n s
a r e used t o i d e n t i f y each e x p l o s i v e . Explosives are l i s t e d i n a l p h a -
bet i c n l o r d e r i n each t a b l e .
1. _ -
I'rcgwrties
_-- ~o f Chemical
~ - -- Explosives and E x p l o s i v e S i m u l a n t s , B r i g i t t a
M. Dobratz, 1974.
2. E-_
ng-i n--e e__
r i .n g Des-1 Handbook; Explosives S e r i e s ; P r o p e r t i e s o f EX&)- __
s i w s
- - . - -_-
o f M i
.-- -
l i t a r y -Interest,
- 1971.
A-1
T a b l e l ( a > Physical Properties of Explosivesa
CHRIICAL NAME PHYSICAL STATE TIIEORFXTCAL HAXTFIIIM

SPECIFIC UElGllT
I I 3 3
Mglm lblin HRIm Ihlln
RARATnL TWT - 262 Solld 2 .63 9 .sn x io-' 2.60 - 2.61 9 . 3 9 x in-2 -
Ra(N0,)2 - 76% 9 . 4 2 X IO-2
FORACITOL TNT - bo% Solld 1.52 5.69 x 1.53 - 1.54 5.53 x -

R n r l c ~ c l d- 60% 5.56 x 10-2
RTF Bii Ff Solid 1.901 6.87 X IOW2 1.87 6.76 X lo-'

c6 Nhn6
cow R m x - 6nz Yrllnw- Sol t d 1 .74 6.29 X IO-' 1.71 6.18 X

lNT - 40% nrwn
Cnw c-4 RDX - 911 Varies P u t tv-li ke 1 .59 5.74 x lo-2

Flastlcizpr - 9% Ycllow.
Vhitr
RDX - 752 Yellowh Solid 1.77 6.39 x 1.75 - 1.76 6.32 X -

TNT - 25Z Buff 6.16 x in-2
b
Dinmino CHNO Yellow Crystal 1 .a37 6.64 X 1.79 6.47 x
Trinitr-hrn?rne 6 5 5 6
7.3' -
fliamino- c 1 2 H6 N8 O1 2 Solid 1.79 6.bl x
2.2'. ' 8 . 4 ' . 6.6' -
Hrxanl t r oh i rhenv 1
PNPA 2 . 2 ' - Dinltro- orf- So 1 id 1.47 5.3) x in-'

Frnprl g r r y l n t e Vhlte
FPNF fthvl - 4.6' - CIf N!l Yellow Liguld 1.ZR 4.67 x

7 12 2 6
Pi nttrnrpntanoate
FrFO PIP (2.2' - Straw Liquid 1 .6n7 5.RI X IO-'

nlnltrn - 2 -
Flntlro-Etlivl)
IRIX (:v r 1n t r I T a m e t h r I- Whlte %lid 1 .on 6.Rh X 1 .R9

Fnr Let ran t trarnl nc
?.2'. L.4'. 6.6' - C H N O OrnnEe So1 i d 1.799 h.50 X

12 6 8 12
Hexanl trnazobenienc
2.2'. 4.6'. 6 . 6 ' - cI 4 l 6l Nh 0 1 2 Yellow So1 i d 1.76 6.29 x 1.72

Ilernni t m e t 1 lhonc
Table l ( a ) P h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s of Explosivesa (Con't)
COHION NAME FORFIIIIAT ION COLOR TIIEORETICAL H A X J F ~ NOHlNAI. S P E C I F I C

S P E C I F I C WEIGHT
- UEICIiT
3
-HRllU lh/ln
3
Hglm
3
1b/ ln3
ix-ni m- 51.7% Clear Llquid 1.2'1 4.44 x 10-2

T" - 33.22
1 - Nitrnpropnnc -
15.1%
LX-02-1 PElN - 73.52 Duff P u t ty - l l k e lo-' - -
B u t v l Rubber - Sol I d
1.44 5.20 X 1.43 1.44 5.17 X lo-'
5.20 x 10-2
17.6%
A r e t y l t r lhut y l
Citrate - 6.9%
cm-n-sii 2 % -
u-04 tHx -
R5% Yell w Soltd 1.889 6.82 X lo-' 1.86 - 6 . 7 2 X lo-' -
Wton A 15% - 1.81
6 . 7 6 x 10-2
LX-07 HMX - 90% Orange
Viton A - 10%
So1.id 1.892 6.R4 X IO-' 1.86 - 1.81 6 . 7 2 x in-' -
6.76 X 10-2
I.X-08 PERi - 63.7% B1 ue Putty-like 1.439 5.20 X lo-' -> 1 . 4 2 5 . 1 . 3 x in-'
Sylgard - 36.3%
CAB-O-Si1 - 2%
LX-09-0 "X -
93% Fiir p 1e Solid 1.867 6.74 X lo-' 1.837 - 1.84 -
PDNPA -
4.6% 6.64 X IO-'
-
FEFO 2 . 4 % 6.67 X 10-2
1Ro( - 95%
1.x- 10-0
V i t o n A - 5%
Oltic- Sol i d 1.896 6.85 x 10-2 1.858- 1 . M lo-' -
6 . 7 15 Xx 10-2
Green
Spots
on
White
LX-1J lalx - 80% White Solid I.R7 - 1.R71 6.76 x -
V i t o n A - 20%
6.78 x in-2
LX-14 iux - 95.51 Violct Solld 1.A49 6 . 6 8 X lo-'
? s t n n r 5702 F-I - Spo t 8
. .8 311 6.62 X lo-'
i.5% on
White
* 2 , 3 - Clear Ltqiiid 1.59 5.74 x in-'

'ropnnetriol-
'rinitrate
W If tropinnldine :,1I4N4O2 UhiLf Solid I .72 5.21 x 10-2 .55 5.60 x in-*
-
a
Table l(a) P h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s of Explosives (Cont)
FOR).KIIATION CO1,OR PHYSICAL STATE TIIF,ORETICAI, FlAXIMUH NOH1NAI. SPEC1 F7 C

CCWION NAME CHFAICAL NNIE
SPECIFIC WEICtlT WElCIiT
3 3 3 3
lhlin
-
tklm lhlin ng/m
KT01. 75/25 IRIX - 75% Ruff Sol Id 1.83 6.61 X lo- 1.80 - 1.82 ,.so x -
t.57 x 10-2
TNT - 25%
Rnx - 90% Whlte Solld 1.697 6.13 X lo- 1.66 i.00 x

PRX-9007
Rosin - 0 . 4 2 or
polystyrene 9.1% - Gray
D1-2-Ethylexyl-
phthalate 0.5%-
RDX - 90% Whlte Solid 1.822 6.58 X IO- I . 789 5.46 X lo-*
PRX-9010
KEL F 10%-
RDX - 90% 01t- Solid 1.795 6.48 x 1.770 6.39 x
PRX-9011
Estnnr - 10% White
Rnx 92%- White Solid 1.72 6.21 X lo- 1.68 6.07 X lo-
PRX-9205
Polystyrene 6% -
Di-2-Ethylhexyl-
phthalate 2% -
x - 94% White Solid 1.865 6.74 X lo- 1.831 - 1.844 6.61 X lo- -
PBX-9404
NC - 32 or
Blue
6.66 X
T r is-8-Chloro-
ethylphosphate -
3%
PBX-9407 IMX - 94% White Sol i d 1.81 6.54 X lo- 1.60 - 1.62 5.78 x -
Exon 461 - 6% or 5.85 x 10-2
Black
HKX - 95% Ullte Soljd 1.a55 6.70 X lo- L.843 6.73 x in-
P8X-9501
Estane - 2.5%
BnNPA - 1.25%
BDWF - 1.25%
PENTOLITE Sol50 PETN 50% - Solid 1.71 6.1R X lo- 1.67 6 . 0 3 X IO-
TNT - 50%
White Solid 1.77 6.39 X lo- 1.76 6.36 X lo-

PETN Pentaerythritol
C5H8(W3 4
Tetrani t r n t e
RDX Cyclotrimcthylene Wli t C Solid 1.R06 6.52 X lo-*

T r i n i tramine
Table l ( a ) P h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s of Explosives a (Con' t )
CIIEFIICAL NAME COLOR PIIYSICAI. STATE NOMINAL SPECIFIC

WE ICHT
nglm 3 lblin
3
HRh
3
TATU 1, 3 , 5 - C I I N O Yellow Solld 1.94 7.01 x IO-' 1.88 6.79 X IO-'

Trlnmino - 6 6 6 6
2, I , 6 -
Trlnitrobenzene
TETRYl, Trinitrophenyl- Yell- Sol i d 1.73 6.25 X 1.71 6.1.8 x

Hetliylnitramine
TNETB 2, 2. 2 - Calor- Cryfital 1.7Eb 6.43 X lo-'

Trlnitrnethyl - leso
4, 6 , 4 -
h l n i trobutycate
TNT Trinitrotoluene Buff Sol i d 1.654 5.98 x Cast CRSt

C7H5N306
1.55 5.60 X lo-'
Pressed Pressed
1.635 5.91 X
a . Taken from P r o p e r t i e s of Chemical f%plosives and E x p l o s i v e Sirnulants b y B r l g i t t a H. Dobrnty, 1974, u n l e s s o t h e r v i s e i n d i c a t e d .
b . Taken from E n g i n e e r i n g Design Handbook; Explosives S e r l c s ; P r o p e r t i e s o f E x p l o s l v e s of M i l i t a r y Int-. 1971.
c. Molecular v e i R h t of m i x t u r e c a l c r l l n t e d based on:
v h e r e HUT * total m l e c u l a r weight oE mixtiire:
MIN - molecular weight of ,th c o n s t l t u e n t ; and
a,, = weight p e r c e n t a g e nf t h r +-
th
con-tltuent.
* (:nIciilatcd Values
O'ZW < 0'05Z <
sasdwoiaa bJSOdWOJJ(1 01 x ti-9 ,0* 162 0-0 I- X I
SZ-
0'9CZ 0'08Z
sarodwoaao sabodUroJaa 0-6O-x1
O'ILZ 2'7YZ
- O'SE1 - 0'621
6 asodwoaaa sasodwoJaa S2- 01 X 8L'C .0'8ZZ 80-XI
0.187 < O'OSZ <
sasodwoaaU sasodwoJJ(1 S Z - 01 x 7L.9 -,E ' 5 8 2 LO-XI
U'Z89 c U'OSZ <
sJsodwo 3 4 sasodwoaaa 01 x 9 9 - 9 ,8 * 6L Z 90-X.I
SZ-
I-LO-X'1
D'LL . I-oI x T9'S X L8'C 2.59 0' 7s- IO-X?
D'ZlZ 01 X ( 6 ' 1 01 x cc-I 9'265 O'EIC 01 x 17'L C'OSt SNtl
t- L- 52-
D'ZIZ 6-01 X C 6 ' 1 OT x EC.1 8'029 - 0'619 0'9TZ - O'SIZ 01 x 1s-1 12-259 UVNH
S- 62-
D' ZlZ ,-Or X OB'S ol x 00'9 9'87s - O'S9G 0'182 - O'SBZ 01 X 26'9 2'962 Wt
L- SI -
U'LL y-OI x 7 1 ' 7 KBZO'O ZZ'SS - K'ZS 6-21 - E.11 sz-or x JE'S I' OZE 0243 4
2-12 0' 9- OT x 99'C L'OZZ dNa3
52-
sz-O1 X 6E'E 1. to2 Vd NU
Z'61S 0' 70E sL-OI x 7S'L I'9S9 HVdIU
0'9S.5 - 8'995 0'062 - O'WL EO'? O'EtZ uva/uaiva
sz- 01 x
O'ZTZ 01 X (6.1 C'EI 0'911 - Z'9LT 0'08 - 0'61 SL- 01 x 1 1 - c ,9'EZZ SZISL I O l O ~ ~ J
E-
S2-01 X 69'C ,o. 2 2 2% 7-3 61403
0'9LT -q7'z11 0'08 - 0'81 OT x ZL'E ,O"rZZ a dim
SL-
O'26C - 7'88C 0'0OZ - 0'861 OI x 01'7 I'ZSZ 1l.a
52-
0'911 - 2'911 0'08 - 0'61 01 X 76'1 .O'LI1 101131Mo(L
52-
O'ZIZ 01 X E6'1 C-CI 0'9L1 - 2'9LC O'W - 0'6L 01 X 0 2 ' 7 ,O'tSZ 1aLww
E- 52-
1. 2ylq1 d. 3. 91 IIUV
-
Table l ( b ) P h y s i c a l Properties of Explosives a (Cont)
~
t40l.6ClJI.AR WEIGIIT MELTING POINT VAPOR PRESSURE MXlC I T Y

-
Amii F lh/id C r:
1I
I,%- 2 7 4 .bC 6.56 De r om (m s pq Decompnsrs
> 250.0 > hRZ.0
LX- 14 Derompnse s Dccr.nposea

> 270.0 > 518.0
NC. 221.1 3.77 x 13.2 55.76 0.2 1.60 x 20 6R.0 Very Hlpli
Ncl 104 . I 1.73 Dcromposes necnmposes SI t R l l t

246.0 - 2h7.0 h74.8 -
476.6
OCTOL 75/25 275.5 6.57 x 79.0 - 80.0 174.2 - 176.0 13.3 1.93 X lo- 1on 212.0
rnx-9007 Decomposes Dprnmpnscs

> 200.0 > 392.0
rnx-90 io 211.5 7.51 x Decomposes Decomposes

> 200.0 > 392.0
PRX-9011 Drcompo ses Deromposefi

> 250.0 > 482.0
PRX-9205 kcomposes Decomposrs

> 200.0 > 392.0
rnx-9404 Decomposes Derompses

> 250.0 > 4RZ.Q
rnx-9407 341.3 5.67 x Decomposes Decomposes

> 200.0 > 392.0
PRX-9501 Decomposes Decomposes

> 240.0 > 464.0
PENTOLITE 50/50 211.7 4.51 X d5 76.0 lh8.8 13.3 in0 212.0
PEIN 316.2 5.25 x 139.0 - 142.0 282.2 - 287.6 1.10 x lo-) 100 212.0 IIlph
RDX 222 . I 3.69 x 205 .0 401 .0 0.87 111 231 .R Slight
TA TR 25R. 2 4.n x Dccomposrs Decomposes

> 325.0 > 617.0
TETRYL 2Rl .0 4.77 x 130.0 266 .0

b
TNRTn 386 .Ob 6.41 x 93.0 199.4 3.07 4.65 x lo-; 100 212.0
18.h 2.70 x tn- 1zn 2 4 R .0
-
N
?
-
h
P-
Y
5
Y
C Y
.r(
W C
y:
c
J
r:
c.
c
0
-
E
X
Y
e
SI
Yk
Y 0 W
rc
2 Y f
c
w Y
+
b i
0
m
f W
ec
3
W
t
-
Y
x
Y
m
3
- Y
rj
C
P
U
h
*
U
G
E r. I
I
-E
N
N
L
Y
C
w
c
Y m
u
z 4
0
OD 0
Y
.il 3
CI I1
It
* zI^l 7
3 1
c
(L
z
U I, *
W
i
i
4
.c
P -
?
3
L
A-8
Table 2 Chemical P r o p e r t i e s of Explosivesa
COHHON NMIR NEAT OF MRHATION IIEAT OF DETONATION HFAT OF COPIBUSTION

(SEE NOTE 1 ) (SEE NOTE 2)
-
kIlks ft-lh/lh MJfke f t- 1bl1 b H.l/kg f t-lh/l h
-
X IO3 6
RAR ATOL -2.952 -9.876 X IO5 3.11) 1.04 x 10
ROR AC ITOL -1.076 X 10' -3.hOO x IO6 1.67 5.59 x lo5

BTF 2.399 x lo3 8.026 x IO' 7.07 2.31 X IO6
COFW B 5.7R x 10' I .94 x inb 6.44 2.15 X 10' 1.17 X Id b 3.91 X IOh h
coir c-4 4 6
1.39 X IO2 6.65 X 10 6.65 2.22 x 10
4
CYCLOTOL 75/25 1.38 X lo2 4.62 X 10 6.57 2.20 x IO6 1.10 X Id b 3.68 X 10' b
DATR~DATNR -5.03 ;'lo2 -1.68 x lo5 6
5.27 1.76 X 10
o irm -1.85' x IO2 -6.19 X lo4 5.65 1.R9 X lo6

3 6
ONPA -2.255 X 10 -7.544 x 10~ b.44 1 . 4 8 X 10
EDNP -2.660 x lo3 -8 .e99 5.15 1.72 X I O 6
FEPO -2.320 x lo3 5

-7.762 X 10 6.07 2.03 X 10'
HMX 2
2.53 X 10 R.46 X IO6 6.7R 2.27 x IO6 9.88 b 1.31 X I O 6 b
IINAB 5.35 x in2 1.79 x 6.15 2.06 x 106
6
HNS 1.29 X lo2 6.32 X 10 5.94 1.99 X 106
LX-01 -1.152 x -3.854 x io5 7.20 6

2.41 X 10
LX-02-1 -2.053 x lo3 -6.R69 X IO5 5.94 1.99 X lo6

LX-04 -9.01 x lo2 -3.01 X IO5 5.94 1.99 x IO6
LX-07 -5.17 X lo2 -1.73 x IOS 6.23 2.08 X lo6
LX-08 x lo3 6
-1.859 -6.219 X 10' 8.27 2.11 x 10
6
LX-09-0 7.61 X 10' 2.55 X lo4 6.69 2.24 X 10
LX-10-0 2 4
-1.31 X 10 -6.38 X 10 6.49 2.17 X I O 6
3 6
Lx-11 -1.286 x 10 -4.302 x lo5 5 .?7 1.72 X 10
4
LX-I4 6.28 X 10' 2.10 x 10 6.59 2.20 x lo6
Table 2 Chemical P r o p e r t i e s of Explosivesa (Con't)
II=,
COIMON NAME IIFAT OF DETONATION
(SEE NOTE 2)
- ~~ . ~~ ~
k.Ilkp. f t-1 h l l h n.T/kp f t-1 h l l h HJlkg ft-lh/Ih
6
-1.673 x in3 -5.597 x lo5 6 .h5 2.22 x in6 6.76 2.26 x IO
6
-9.49 x lo2 -3.17 x lo5 4.44 1.49 X 10' h 11.35 2.79 x in
4 1 6
0CTOL 70/30 1.19 X lo2 3.98 X 10 6.57 2.20 x IOh 1.14 x in b 3.81 X lfl h
2 4
P I I X - ~ ~ 2.98 X 10 9.97 x in 6.53 2.18 x inh
2
rnx-mo -3.29 X 10 -1.10 x 6.15 2.06 X lo6
4 6
rRx-901 I -1.70 X io2 -S.69 x 10 6.40 2.14 x in
FRX-9205 2.43 x in2 n.13 x i n4 6.11 2.04 x IO6
PBX-9404 3.31 1.11 x lo3 6.53 2 . 1 ~x io6
5
FBX-9407 4.84 X lo2 1.62 x 10 6.69 2.24 x lo6
3.19 X 106 2.22 x 106
PRX-9501 9.54 X 10' 6.65
PEN?UI.ITE 5fll50 -9.937 x in 2

-3.32 X 10
5
6.40
2.14 x i nh
FETN -1.702 X IOJ -5.69 X 10
5
6.90 2.31 X 10
6
8.20 b 2.70 x i n6 t,
4 6 6
KDX 2.771 X I O L 9.27 X 10 6.78 2.27 x 10 9.56 b 3.20 X 10 b
2.23 X 104 6 6
TETRYL h.66 X lo1 6.32 2.11 x 10 1.22 X IO1 b 4.08 X 10 b
6
TNETB -1.28 x lo3 -4.28 X 10' b 6.99 h 2.34 X 10 h
4 6
TNT -2.R4 X IOL -9.50 x in 5.70 1.97 x in6 1.51 X 10' b 5.05 X 10 b
-
a. S e e 'fnhle 1 .
h. S r e TahlP 1 .
MITE 1 : Meat of formation valtir+ taken rrnm t h e Engineering D e s i g n llnndhook E x p l o s i v e S e r i e s P r o p e r t i e s oC E x p l o s l v e s ha- e h r e n

c o n v r n t l o n t h a t Allf f s negative h e n t h e r e a c t l o n is exothermic.
m n l t l p l t e d by ( - 1 ) t o r e t n f n tlic ~ l p n
NOTE 2: Hrnt o f d e t o n a t i o n vnluen n r n r a l r u l n t e d miximitin valurs Tor r e a c t i o n s rndinp i n liquld phnse uatpr. For a m r e romplrl-
d r s r r i p t f o n , s r e Dohratr, 1974.
Y
r
w
z
Y
I6
-
P
W
, c I
I
P3
O C
L
UIn
- 4
UIn
C Y
urn
3 .-
.n
N
3
A A
h h
A
C
H
-
?
3
i
-
9
3
c
I-
"
m m
9 n 9I
I n 9m m5 9
In 9
In 9
trim9 9 9 ? ?
01
0:
I n t n g . 7 4
I
i
A-11
A-12
\D
N rc
rl
C
9 9
-
Y
I 0 0
I I
0
3 2 El
9 ? 2
u" 0 0 N
I I
uI uI v u 1,
N
I0 0
1
I 22 33 2
x x x x Y
- 0 urc
9'9
4 -
Y?
NU
8
I.
8
3
m
0
1 YI
N
m o -I
4
3
C
0 -4
a
O
9
u o
N
'9
0
N
rD
I.
n
N
A-13
COFMON NAME
LX-09-0
LX-10-0
LX-11
-
EXP1,OSION TMPEMNRE
*C
( 5 SEC)
Table 3(b)
*F
Sensitivity of Explosivesa (Con't)
F1.E BULLET IIIPACT TEST
'ARTIAL
(X )
-
kdwc
0. O N
0.037
0.053
SUSAN TEST
THRESIIOLD VEL.
[tlsec
110.0
12n.n
174 .n
'RODABILITY
IF REACTION
Iltgl1
Hip.h
LOV
.91
.70
LOO
!.49
..09
1.70
x
m
x 10-3
x
x
x
x in-2
CAP TEST
10-3
- .075
.O79
1.043
in
-
0.106
0.098
- 0.669
0.048 158.0 Low 1.50 x 1.059 - 0.079

LX- 14 1.01 x 10-3
Explodes :xplndes 100

N(:
222 431.6
Decompnsrs )econposrs
NO
275 527.0
1RO .O High 5.60 X . 3.022 - 0.028
0.055
OCTQL 75/25 Flames :lames 7.10 x 10-4
Erra t i c n l l y kraticall
335 635.0
1.09 x 0.043 - 0.055
PRX-9007 1.40 x 10-3
0.034 110.0 High 1.91 x 0.075 - 0.094

p~x-9010 2.39. x 10-3
0.050 165.0 LW 1.40 IO-^ 0.055 - 0.071

PBX-9011 1.80 x 10-3
0.037 120.0 tbderate 6.35 x in-' 0.025 - 0.035

PRX-9 205 8.89 X lo-'
105.0 High 2 . 2 1 x IO-) 0.087 - 0.106

0.032
PRX-9406 2.69 X 1 0 - o
2.31 x 0.091 - 0.122

3.10 x 111-3
0.061 200 .n High 1.30 x IO-) 0.051 - 0.m

1.80 x 10-3
Table 3(b) Sensitivity of Explosivesa (Con't)
COFfiDN NAME E X P I D S I O N TDIPERA'rURE HIP1.F. RULLET IIIPACT TEST SUSAN TEST CAP TEST
( 5 SEC)
nlRESHOLn VEL. PROMRILITY

OF REACTION
'C . OF
kmf s e c f tlnec m in
Decompose Decompofies 12 20
220 428.0 Cast Cas L
7 . 6 2 X IO-' - 0.0~1 0.03~ -
9 . 6 5 x 10-4
Hot Pressed [lot Pressed
2.70 X 10-3
3 . 6 1 x 10-3
- 0.106 -
0.142
rEm Decompouei Decomposes 100
225 637.0
RDX Decomposei Decomposes 100
260 500.0
TATll
1 .ooo > 3281.0 5.00 x - 2.320 - 0.100
2.00 x 10-4
TETRYL Ignites Ignites 13 54 10

257 494.6 b
TNETR 225 437.0
TNT Decompoue s
4 75
Decomposes
087 .O
40 0.072 235 .O 2.12 x 10-4 - 7.90 x IO-) -
I .10 x 10-4 1.60 x 10-2
-
a. See Table 1.
b. See Table 1 .
0
9
3
U
0
U
I
A-16
Table 4 Hugoniots for Unreacted HES (Cont)
IIUCONIOT DATA
S OENSlTY RANGE
3
Iklm lhlin km/scc f t leer kmlser ftlsec
1.X-07-2
Lx-08
1.x-n9-1 h 1
2.90 1.839 0.066 2.43 1.97 X 10
I.X-10-0
1.x- 1-0
LX- 4
NC
NO
OCTOL 70130 1.7Zb 1.8 0.065 3.01 3.R8 x 10)

2.51 1 .RO3 0.065 3.24 5 us 5 4 . 9 1 2.31 1 . 5 ~x 103
2.64 1.79 0.065 4 . 1 0 5 ua 5 6.10 3452 5 5 20014 2.22 1.28 x 1.0)
PRX-9205
YRX-9406 1.57
2.09
1.72
1 .A4
0 .ob2
0.066
2.40 5 u
2.90 5 u
* -<< b.70
J.70 1874 5 u
9515 5
P -
< 12140
5 21983
1 .R9 i.201 x IO
2.49 l . t 8 x 10)
-
rla
a -
2.77 I .Ab 0 .Oh6 uI ) - e 3.20 u < 10499 2.31 e 2.31
2.48 1.84 0 .Oh6 2.45 5 (I
a -
< 6.05 0 3 8 .<_
a
us 5 19850
--
2.45 co - 2.60
1.58 X L0?0=7579
1.04 X 10%o=R531
PRX-9407 1.99 1.60 0 .058 2.11 5 u < 3.18 6923 5 5 I0434
L(-
81- 1.33 L.36 x 10)
PRX-9501
FENTOI,ITl? SO/M
1.91
1.91
1.844
1.67
. 0.067
0.060
2.90
4.52
2. tiI) 5
2 us 5 5.25
14436 9515 5 11.
l h A 0 J- u
5 14bW
< 17725
2.68
2.83
3 . 0 x I0 3
1.29 X 10
n -
3.20 L .676 0.061 0 .R9 r.90 x 10)
.
D:
v.
Y
L
-
.
u
0
*
E
x
c
a
d
4 s
c t -
a
Table 5(a) Thermal P r o p e r t i e s of Explosives
L___c_1
-
-
~ W l O NNA"E
ulm-K
ft-lb/hr-f t-'F
__cc
2 0.495
2.227 X 10
RAMI.
RACIML
'F
IW 8
0.260
17 X 10'
C-4
3 ~ p
~ C L O ~75/25
L
n .251
.L3 X lo2
AlB/DAm
)lFA~
DNPA
EDND
FEFO 28 e -65.2' + 165.2.
IMX 44.44
"A8 51 .I1
HNS
1.x-01
LX-02-1
2 0.31
1.14 X 10
13-04
1
I_
2 0.3
1.79
LX-07
X 10
I
--on
2
1 . 9 6 3 X 10
LX-09-0
2
1.943 X 10
1.x-10-0
Table 5(a) Thermal P r o p e r t i e s of Explosivesa (Con't)
___ ~
C(*IMON NAME nimw, CONDUCTIVITY I.INtAt7 THERUAI. EXPANSION COKFFlCIENT
f t-lb/hr-ft-'F W/n-K in/in-*F)
1.x-I 1 1.633 X lo2 0.363 31-11 @ - 6 5 . P + -11.2O 56.00 @ -5h0+ -24.

46.11 @ 10.4O-c 165.2' 83.00 @ -1P+ 74'
1.X-14 26.94 @ < -29.2' 48.50 @ < - 3 4 .

31.00 Q > -29.2. 5 5 . 8 0 Q > -34"
Nc.
NQ
CCTOL 70130
PBX-9007
1
FBX-9010 9.6b7 X 10 0.215 36.67 66 .OO
r~x-9011 1.88 x loL 0.41R 18.72 e -65.zb+ -40- 51.70 @ -54'+ -40"
37.28 @ -31.0"+ 165.2' 67.10 @ -35'+ 74'
PBX-9205
PRX-9404 1.900 X lo2 0.422 28.11 @ -65.2"- -31' 50.60 @ -54O-r -35'
32.20 @ -1l.p-r165.2. 58.00 @ -24e-r 74O
PBX-9407
PBX-9501 2.032 X 10' 0.452 30.61 @ -79.6'+ 159.8. 55.10 Q - 6 P - 71'
PENTOLITE Sol50
PERl 62.5 - 49.9 83 .O
( - 2 0 . T - 194.) (-23' - 90')
RDX
1.300 X lo6 p-1.263 Hg/m 3
0,289 35.33 e 68' 63.6 C 20'
1.313 X lo6 pa1.533 H g l d 0.292
TAT8
TETRYL 6
1 . 0 9 3 X 10 p-1.394 Hg/m
3
0.243
1.2R5 X 106 ~ " 1 . 5 2 8 Flgln3 0.2M
I'NETB
TNT
6 3 54 .OO -40" 60e
1 . 0 5 3 X 10 p-1.54 k@/m 0.234 m.00 @ -40.0.4 140. b (a +
1.166 X I O 6 p-1.6 Hg/d 0.260

2.297 X l@ p-1 .67 tl*/n3 0.511
Table 5(b) Thermal P r o p e r t i e s of E x p l o s i v e s a
.
CWINON WE VOLlRlE THERNAL EXPANSlON COEFFICIENT S P E C I F I C MEAT TIIERMAL STMILIfl
ft-lb/lb / * I
-- OF *C in
3
a t STP m3 a t STP
RARAmL
122.09
156.31
657 86 30 .00092 - .0012
86 1 122 50
313.40 1.69 158 70
149 .31 80 3 181-212 A3-lM
BORACIloL
.0147 - .0245
nw
2.6 X lo-' - 4.0 X
COW B 182.75 b 983 -103 -75 .00312 5.1 X lo-'
171.09 9 20 32 0
194.42 1046 71 25
292.40 1573 167 75
242.63 1305 212 100
CONP e-4
.00159 2.6 X lo-'
CYCu)FoL 75/25 171.09 9 20 -103 -75 .000857 - .MI245 1.4 X lo-' - .o x lo-'
174.97 96 1 32 0
197.53 1063 77 25
273.74 1473 167 75
272.96 1469 212 100
DATB/DATNB
: .001R4 : 3.015 X lo-'
DIPAH
DNPA
,00245 - .00367 1.015 X lo4 - 6.014 X IO-'
EDND
FEFO 194.42
279.957
1046
1506
-99.4
77
-73 00245 - .006124 -015 X lo-' - 1.006 X l0-I
25
365.500 1966 260.6 127
HI(x
162.50 @ -UT+ 70" 177.31 9 54 32 b 0 : .0006124 1.004 x
206.86 1113 122 50
229.41 1234 212 100
244 -96 1318 302 150
imn
IINS
311.06 1674 60 20 000612 .003 x 10-8
1.x-01
101 9 176' .eo x loL6 @ 80'
- -
Table 5 ( b ) Thermal P r o p e r t i e s of Explosivesa ( C o n ' t )
__ __ ~
C M N NhHE VOJ,VIIE THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICIENT s r E c I ~ i cHFAT TtIF.RM1. SMRII.ITY
3
(10-6 ,.3/ca3-~C) Ilkg/"K "P
-OC In a t STP
-
m3 n t STP
LX-02-1 113.89 @ - 2 2 . 0 * + 158' 385.00 @ -IOo* 70. 225.52 I213 M .OM - .037 3.0 x - 6.0 x 10-l
U-06 126.78 @ -18.4*+ 163.4. 228.20 @ -IOa+ 70. 233.w) 1255 20 .00612 - .0024 1.003 X lo-' - 4 .O X lo-'
LX-07 101.61 @ -20.2*+ 158. 182.90 @ -29'+ 10. 225.52 1213 20
LX-08 313.89 565.00 217.74 1172 20
LX-09-0 209.97 1130 68 20 .0018 - .0024 3.0 X lo-' - 7.0 X
Lx-10-0 211.74 1172 68 20 .00122 1.999 X lov8

LX-11 241.08 1297 68 20 .00612 - .00294 1.0 X lo-' - 4.0 X
LX-14 209.97 1130 68 20 .00122 2.0 x 10-*

M: 276.85 1490 95-392 35- 20
NQ .00122 - .00306 2.0 X lo-' - 5.0 X
OCrnL 70130 209.97 urn 68 20
PIX-9007 217.75 1172 68 20 ,0018 - .0043 3.0 X lo-' - 7.0 X
PBX-9010 209.97 1130 68 20 .OOCZ - .0024 2.0 X - 4.0 X lo-'

PBX-9011 209.97 1130 68 20 .00147 2.409 x
PBX-9205 217.15 1172 68 20 .OO153 2.507 X lo-'
~nx-94~4 209.97 1130 68 20 .022 - .0245 3.605 X - 4 . 0 1 5 X lo-'
PRX-9407 209.97 1130 68 20 . o x 7 6 .0
PBX-9 501 209.97 1130 68 20 .Ob29 7.030 X LO-'
PENTOLITE sots0 202.19 1088 68 20
PEIN 138.45 @ -22.0'+ 158' 249.19 @ -W)'+ 10. 202.19 1088 68 20 .006iz4-.00~57 1.004 X lo-' - 1.404 X lo-'
RDX 106.11 e 6R0 191.00 @ 20' 213.08 1146 68 20 .on122 - .mi53 2.0 X lo-' - 2.50 X
221.64 1192 122 50
224.15 1209 158 70
227.M 1226 212 110
TATR
--
Table 5 ( b ) Thermal P r o p e r t i e s of Explosivesa (Con't)
~~
VOLUME TIIERNAI. EXXPANSIM C O E F F I C l E M THERt(AL STAEII.ITY
f t - l b l l b 1F J/kRl'U OF
3
in a t STP n1 a t SIT
TETRYL 1ss.512 017 -58 h -so

164 .n64 887 32 0
17J.418 933 122 50
183.S28 987 140 100
240. 30 lt93 32 0
255.07 1372 68 20
274.51 1b71 122 so
290.85 1565 176 80
-
a. Sce Table 1.
?
N
w
Table 6 Performance of Explosivesa
-
TNT EQUIVALENT C R l T l C A L ENERGY
CiIA PW\N- JOllC ET
DETONATION PRESSURE WEIGHT*
2
t-lblft
ftlsec kdscr lh/in2
~
4
4 .R7 !.nl x 10' .4n x I O 0.525
BARATOL 15.978
BORACITOL 15.945 .
h P.6 0.283
BTF 27,Rl8 8.68 !.26 x inh* .94 x 10"* 1.198

6
6 1.95 x in4 1.092 1.01 X lo5 1.50 x 1.e
7.99 i . 2 8 x 10
mr B 26,214
6 !.57 x 104 3 1.129
26.378 6.04 3.71 X 10 *
COHP c - 4
4
R .30 4.58 X 1
0
' 1.15 X 10 1.115
CYCI.OTUL 7 5 / 2 5 27.231
6 4
6.85 3.76 X 10 !.59 x 10 0.893
DATR/ DATNB 24,672
0.959
nmbi 24,278 7.52
0.752
DNl'A 20,013 * 6.10*
* 6.30 t
0.874
EDNP 20,669
7.2n*
1.149
FEFO 23,622
h 4 1.042
29.eRR 9.11 5.61 X 10 3.R7 X 10
"X
1.044
"AR 24,934 7.60
4 6
1.009 9.73 x in 1.42 x 10
HNS 22,966 7 .oo @ p=1.555 @ p=1.555
6 4 1.222
LX-0 1 22,441 6 .R4 2.26 x 10 1.5h X 10
1.009
LX-02-1 26,lRO 7.37
6
6 1.007 7.47 x IO4 1.09 x 10
27,lSh 8.46 4.08 X 10
IX-04
6 1.058
28,346 8.64 5 . 0 2 X 10
LX-07
1.406
LX-08 21,522 6.56
1 5
h
x
1 1.136 6.59 x 10 9.62 X 10
LX-09- 213,904 8.R1 5.47 10 x 3.17 10
6 1 1.101
8.81 5.64 X 10 3.75 x 10
Ls-in-0 28.737
6 1 0.874
LX-11-0 27,296 8.32 4.50 x io 3.10 X 10
6 1.119
28,992 8.84 5.17 x 10 3.70 X 10'
LX-14
"Values arc based on calculated hrats nf drtonnlinn

Table 6 Performance of Explosivesa (Con't)
COMMON NNlE
INT EQUIVALENT CRITICAL KNERCY
WEIClIT t
f t Isev 2
-ma
- rt-lhlf t
~
j1"12
NC 25.2'2 7.70 3.h7 x IO' 2.53 x I O ~ 1.136
NQ 25.099 7.65 0.752
ccmL 70130 27.821 8.68 4.9' x In6 3.42 x 10
4
1.113
l.RX-YOO7 26,542 R .09 x 106 4
3.84 7.65 x in 1.108
PBX-9010 27,460 8.37 4.76 x in' 3.28 X 10" 1.044
PBX-9011 27,887 P .50 4.71) X IO6 3.20 X IO4 1.087
POX- 9 205 26,804 4
8.17 4.18 X 106 2.88 x in . 1.037
PRX-9404 28,871 8.80 5.44 X 10' 3.75 x in(' 1.108
r~x-9m7 25,951 7.91 x in6
4.16 7.87 x lo4 1.136
PBX-9501 2R.970 8.83 1.129
PENTOLlTE Sol50 24, SO8 7.47 4.06 x 10' 2.80 x IO"* 1.085
PCTN 27,099 8.26 x 4
4.93 106 3.40 x lo4 1.169 ' ~ 1 . 1 4 X 10 1.67 x lo5
RDX 28.543 x in' 4
8.70 4.90 x io
1
3.m 1.149
TATR
6.10 X lo5 9.50 X 10'
TETRYL 25,154 x 4
7.85 3.77 in6 2.60 x tn4 1.071 2 . 8 8 x 10 4.20 x IO5
(? p 1 . 6 5 5
TNETB 22.736 1.90 X 10'
TNT 27,198
1.n 2.88 x i n4 4.20 X 10'
Car; t Cast
9.71 x in/' 1.42 x IO6
Frrnsed Pressed
a. See T a b l e 1.
* Calculated
t Values are based on c a l c u l a t e d heats o f d e t o n a t j o n

APPENDIX B
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d i n t h i s appendix were a c q u i r e d from a number of

s o u r c e s . J o u r n a l a r t i c l e s were u s u a l l y copied from t h e j o u r n a l s i n a
t e c h n i c a l l i b r a r y . The m a j o r i t y of t h e r e f e r e n c e s were U. S. Government
t e c h n i c a l r e p o r t s , and t h e s e w e r e o r d e r e d from N a t i o n a l T e c h n i c a l Informa-
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I n some i n s t a n c e s , t h e a c c e s s i o n numbers are m i s s i n g from o u r c i t a t i o n s
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p r o p e r t i e s , and codes w e r e o b t a i n e d from t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n d u s t r i a l asso-
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t a c t s w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e European l a b o r a t o r y o r agency.
I f a n AE needs t o o b t a i n s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s from t h e B i b l i o g r a p h y ,
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B-1
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of Buried Corrugated-Steel Arch S t r u c t u r e s and A s s o c i a t e d Components, O p e r a t i o n
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-'
n e e r s Vol. 95, No. ST11, November 1969, pp 2449-2462.
B-2
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B-51
APPENDIX C
UNIT CONVERSION TABLES
Conversions are given from English (customary)

units to SI. To convert from SI to English,
divide by conversion factors, rather than
multiply. Dinensions in a mass, length, angle,
time (M, L, 0, T) system are also given, as
are common abbreviations. Exponential nota-
tion is used, e.g., E -02 means multiply by
10-2.
c-1
Acceleration
To Convert From To Mu1t i p ly by
Angular (e/T2) :
degree p e r second r a d i a n p e r second 1.745 329 E-02
squared squared ( r a d / s 2 )
r e v o l u t i o n p e r minute r a d i a n p e r second 1.745 329 E-03
squared (r /min2 ) squared ( r a d / s 2 )
r e v o l u t i o n p e r second r a d i a n p e r second 6.283 185
squared ( r / s 2 ) squared ( r a d / s 2 )
Linear (L/T~)
:
centimeter p e r second meter p e r second *l.000 E-02
squared (cm/s2) squared (m/s2)
f o o t p e r second squared meter p e r second *3.04a E-01
(ft/s2) squared (m/s2>
g r a v i t y , standard f r e e meter p e r second *9.806 650
f a l l (G o r g) squared (m/s2)
inch p e r second squared meter p e r second *2.540 E-02
(ids2) squared (m/s2)
Area (L2)
square c e n t i m e t e r (an21 square meter (m2) *l.000 E-04

square f o o t tu.S. survey1 square meter (m2) 9.290 341 E-02
Ut2)
square i n c h ( i n 2 ) square meter (m2) *6.451 600 E-04
square kilometer ( l a 2 ) square meter (m2) *l.000 E+O 6
square yard (yd2) square meter (m2) 8.361 274 E-01
~~
* Exact conversion
C- 2
Density (M/L3)
To Convert From To Multiply by
gram p e r c u b i c centimeter kilogram p e r cubic *l.000 E+03

(g/cm3) meter (kg/m3)
pound p e r c u b i c i n c h kilogram p e r c u b i c 2.767 990 E+04
(l b / i n 3, meter (kg/m3)
pound p e r c u b i c f o o t kilogram p e r c u b i c 1.601 846 E+O1
(lb/ft3) meter (kg/m3)
s l u g p e r cubic foot kilogram p e r cubic 5.153 788 E+O2
(slug/f t3) meter (kg/m3)
Energy: Work - Thermal - Electrical (ML/T2)
B r i t i s h thermal u n i t [mean] j o u l e (J) 1.055 870 E+03

(BtuJ
c a l o r i e [IT] (calIT) j o u l e (J) *4.186 800
erg j o u l e (J) *1.000 E-07

foot-pound f o r c e ( f t - l b f ) j o u l e (J) 1.355 818
foot-poundal ( f t - p d l ) j o u l e (J) 4.214 011 E-02
k i l o w a t t hour (kW-h) j o u l e (J) *3.600 E+O 6
ton [TNT e q u i v a l e n t ] j o u l e (J) 4.184 e+09
w a t t hour (W-h) j o u l e (J) *3.600 E+03
w a t t second (W-s) j o u l e (J) *l.000
Force (ML/T2)
dyne (dyn) newton (N) .

*l 000 E-05
kilogram f o r c e (kgf) newton (N) *9.806 650
kilopond newton (N) k9.806 650
kip newton (N) 4.448 222 E+03
pound f o r c e ( l b f ) newton (N) 4.448 222
poundal ( p d l ) newton (N) 1.382 550 E-01
ton f o r c e newton (N) 8.896 444 E+03
* Exact conversion
c-3
Inertia
To Convert From To Multiply by
Area (L4):
inch4 (in4) meter4 (m4) 4.162 314 E-08
foot4 (ft4) meter4 (m4) 8.630 975 E-03
millimeter" (m4) meter4 (m4) *1.000 E-12
Line ( ~ 3 ) :
inch cubed ( i n 3 ) meter cubed (m3) 1.638 706 E-05
foot cubed (ft3) meter cubed (m3) 2.831 685 E-02
millimeter cubed (m3) meter cubed (m3) *I. 000 E-09
Mass (ML2):
pound foot squared kilogram meter squared 4.214 011 E-02
(lb-ft2) ( k g 4
pound inch squared kilogram meter squared 2.926 397 E-04
(lb in2) (kg .In2 1
slug foot squared kilogram meter squared 1.355 818
(slug.ft2) (kg*m2>
Length (L)
centimeter (cm) meter (m) *l.000 E-02

foot [international] (ft) meter (m) *3.048 E-01
inch (in) meter (m) *2.540 E-02
kilometer (km) meter (m) *l.000 E+03
microinch (pin) meter (m) *2.540 E-08
micrometer (pm) meter (m) *1.000 E-06
micron [obsolete, replaced
by micrometer] meter (m) *l. 000 E-06
m i l (mil) meter (m) *2.540 E-05
mile [international] (mi) meter (m) 1.609 344 E+03
* Exact conversion
c-4
Mass (M)
To Convert From To M u l t i p l y by
grain kilogram (kg) 6.479 891 E-05

gram (8) kilogram (kg) *l.000 E-03
kilogram force-second
squared p e r meter
(kgf s2/m) kilogram [kg) *9.806 650
megagrm ( M g ) kilogram (kg) *l.000 E+03
metric ton ( t ) kilogram (kg) *l.000 E+03
m i l l i g r a m (mg) kilogram (kg) *l.000 E-03
pound [ a v o i r d u p o i s ] ( l b ) kilogram (kg) 4.535 924 E-01
slug kilogram (kg) 1.459 390 EM1
ton [ s h o r t ] kilogram (kg) 9.071 847 EM2
tonne ( t ) kilogram (kg) *l.000 E+03
Pressure - Stress (M/LT~)
atmosphere [ s t a n d a r d ] (am) p a s c a l (Pa) 1.013 250 EM5

bar p a s c a l (Pa) *l.000 EM5
dyne p e r s q u a r e c e n t i m e t e r
(dyn/ an21 p a s c a l (Pa) *l.000 E-01
f o o t of water [4OC] p a s c a l (Pa) 2.988 980 E+03
gram f o r c e p e r square
centimeter ( gf/ cm2) pascal (Pa) *9.806 650 EM1
i n c h of mercury [ O O C ] p a s c a l (Pa) 3.386 380 E+03
i n c h o f mercury [16OC] p a s c a l (Pa) 3.376 850 EM3
i n c h o f water [4"C] p a s c a l (Pa) 2.490 817 E+02
i n c h of water [16OC] p a s c a l (Pa) 2.488 400 EM2
k i p p e r s q x a r e inch ( k i p / i n 2 ) p a s c a l (Pa) 6.894 757 E+06
kip p e r square f o o t (kip/ft2) p a s c a l (Pa) 4.788 026 EM4
megapascal (ma) p a s c a l (Pa) *l.000 E+06
millimeter of mercury IOCl p a s c a l (Pa) 1.333 220 E+02
(mm (Hg) 1
* Exact conversion
c-5
Pressure - Stress ( M / L T ~ ) (Continued)
To Convert From To h l t i p l y by
m i l l i m e t e r o f water [4'C] p a s c a l (Pa) 9.806 365

(mpr(Hp0) 1
newton p e r square meter (N/m2) p a s c a l (Pa) *l.000
pound p e r s q u a r e meter ( l b / f t 2 ) pas& (Pa) 4.788 026 E+O1
pound p e r s q u a r e Inch ( l b / i n 2 ) p a s c a l (Pa) 6.894 757 E+03
poundal p e r s q u a r e f o o t ( p d l / f t 2 ) p a s c a l (Pa) 1.488 164
Velocity - Speed
Anuglar (8/T) :
degree p e r ' s e c o n d radian per secard 1.745 329 E-02
(rad I s )
r e v o l u t i o n p e r minute r a d i a n p e r second 1.047 198 E-01
(f/min) (rad/s)
r e v o l u t i o n p e r second r a d i a n p e r second 6.283 185
(r/s) (rad/s)
Linear (L/T):
f o o t p e r second (ft/s) meter p e r second (m/s) *3.048 t-01
i n c h p e r second ( i d s ) meter p e r second (m/s) *2.540 E-02
k i l o m e t e r p e r hour (km/h) meter p e r second (m/s) 2.777 778 E-01
knot [ n a u t i c a l miles p e r
hour] (kn) meter p e r second ( m / s ) 5.144 444 E-01
m i l p e r hour (mi/h) meter p e r second ( m / s ) 4.470 400 E-01
Volume - Capacity ( ~ 3 )
c u b i c centimeter (m3j c u b i c meter (m3) *l.000 E-06

cubic f o o t ( f t 3 ) c u b i c meter (m3) 2.831 685 E-02
c u b i c i n c h (in3) c u b i c meter (m3) 1.638 706 E-05
l i t e r (L) c u b i c meter (m3) *l.000 E- 03
q u a r t [U.S., liquid] c u b i c meter (m3) 9.463 529 E-04
* Exact conversion
C- 6

A Manual For The Prediction of Blast and Fragment Loadings On Structures. DOE-TIC-11268 (1981)

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A Manual For The Prediction of Blast and Fragment Loadings On Structures. DOE-TIC-11268 (1981)

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A MANUAL FOR THE

ALBUQUERQUE OPERATIONS OFFICE

AMARILLO AREA OFFICE

Change 1,'- 15 August 1981 \ \

1. REPORT DATE 3. DATES COVERED

6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER

5e. TASK NUMBER

5f. WORK UNIT NUMBER

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION

11. SPONSOR/MONITORS REPORT

12. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Standard Form 298 (Rev. 8-98)

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an

Portions of this document may be illegible in

Page /I Change Page II Change

T o t a l number of pages i n t h i s manual i s 7 6 8 . c o n s i s t i n g of t h e f o l l o w i n g :

Page I/ Change Page # Change

Title .................... 1 - 1 5 Aug 8 1 4-90 .................1 - 1 5 Aug 8 1

# Zero i n t h e No . column i n d i c a t e s a n o r i g i n a l page .

LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES (Cont'd)

8-43 ..................... 1 - 1 5 Aug 81

The purpose of t h i s manual i s t o provide Architect-Engineer (AE)

The manual i s complementary t o e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n manuals

Although t h e manual i s s p e c i f i c f o r t h e Pantex P l a n t , most predic-

This manual w a s prepared f o r t h e Department of Energy, Amarillo

Comments f o r c o r r e c t i o n s and improvements a r e i n v i t e d from i n d i v i -

Phone : 806 1335-1581, Ext . 2161

This manual was sponsored by the U. S . Department of Energy (DOE),

At the request of the DOE Amarillo Area Office, the U. S. Army

Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), San Antonio, Texas, was

Mason 61 Hanger-Silas Mason Co., Inc. the Operating Contractor for

This manual h a s been prepared by t h e s t a f f of Southwest Research

Chapters 1, 2 , 3 , and 4 D r . Wilfred E . Baker

Chapter 6 M r . James J. Kulesz

Chapter 7 D r . James S . Wilbeck

Chapter 8 M r . Phineas A. Cox

Other s t a f f members who c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e s e a r c h ,

Throughout t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e manual, t h e a u t h o r s were a i d e d by

M r . C h a r l e s Huang, U. S. Army Engineer D i v i s i o n , H u n t s v i l l e

M r . Murray B u r n e t t e , U. S. Army Engineer D i v i s i o n , H u n t s v i l l e

M r . Lawrence M. Paradee, A m a r i l l o Area O f f i c e , DOE

M r . Bob L. S l a t e r , Amarillo Area O f f i c e , DOE

D r . C h e s t e r E. Canada, Mason and Hanger-Silas Mason Company

M r . A. G. Papp, Mason and Hanger-Silas Mason Company

3 EXPLOSIVES AND DAMAGE MECHANISMS 3- 1

4.2.1 Classes o f Explosions Considered 4- 2

4.7 Recommended Tests o r Analyses 4-182

5 CRATERING AND GROUND SHOCK 5- 1

6.4.3 Impacts on I n t e r i o r Walls 6-117

6.4.5.1 Cohesive S o i l P e n e t r a t i o n 6-123

6.5 Hazards t o P e r s o n n e l from Fragments 6-144

6.7.1 I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Assumptions and Un-

6.8 P r o c e d u r e f o r Performing a Fragmentation A n a l y s i s 6-171

6.10 References 6-183

7 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 7- 1

7.2.3 P r o p e r t i e s o f Woods 7-19

8.3 A v a i l a b l e Methods f o r D y n a m i c Response 8-25

8.4.6.1 Design f o r E x t e r n a l Loads 8- 4 1

4.6 Normally R e f l e c t e d Blast Wave P r o p e r t i e s f o r Bare,

4.22 R a t i o , E q u i v a l e n t S p h e r i c a l Mass t o C y l i n d e r Mass,

5.3 Schematic I l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e Waves Propagated from an