(*

 &)
 ($

 "%
  &'
  "%

 
 
 
 
 $
 "#

 
  
  ! 


  
  
 


Heavy Oil Reservoirs

Birol M.R. Demiral

NExT, Director of Reservoir Engineering Curriculum
 What is Heavy Oil ?
  (*
High specific gravity and viscosity  &)
 ($

 '"%
Low hydrogen-to-carbon ratios  
 &
  

"%
Small percentages of volatile andeasily    

distillable hydrocarbons       $ 

  and  "#
High content of asphaltenes 
 
significant
   !
quantities of oxygen-, 
nitrogen-,
 and sulfur-
bearing compounds   

Heavy metals    are also frequently minor


components of these oils

There are many types of heavy oil in many types of

reservoirs 1
 Crude Oil Types
  (*
 &)
 ($

 "%
API Gravity Sp. Gr.  &'Viscosity* (cp)
 
  "%


Light Oil > 31.1  
<
 
0.87 
< 100
 $

Medium Oil 22.3 - 31.1 " #
0.87 0.92 < 100
    

Heavy Oil   !

10
-22.3 0.92 1.00 100 10,000

  

Extra Heavy Oil    < 10 > 1.00 100 10,000 Denser

  
 than
Bitumen  < 10 > 1.00 > 10,000 water

Source: 12th World Petroleum Congress2

* Dead oil viscosity at reservoir temperature (WPC), 1987
Gravities & Viscosities of Hydrocarbons & Other Fluids
Viscosity


API Gravity API sp.gr. @ 60F
(cp)
 (*
 &)
(15.5C)
 70( $ 

   "%
 0.7022

 & 60
' 
0.7389

  "
%
 
50 0.7796

 
 $
40 0.8251

  "# 31.1 0.8702

 
 

  !  25 0.9042


   22.3 0.9200

   20 0.9340
 
 15 0.9659

  10 1.0000
8 1.0143
10 22.3
141.5
API o
131.5
< 10 sp.gr. 3
 Formation of Heavy Oil
When originally generated by petroleum   (*
  &)
 "%( $ 
source rock, crude oil is not heavy as 
 &'
geochemists generally agree that nearly "% 
all crude oils start out with API gravity 
 
 
  

between 30 and 40   $

  "#
Oil becomes heavy only after  substantial


!


 
degradation duringmigration  
and after
entrapment 



Degradationoccurs
  through a variety of
biological, chemical and physical
processes
4
Formation of Heavy Oil Degradation of Crude Oil
  (*
Bacteria borne by surface water metabolize paraffinic,  
 ( $  &)
naphthenic and

 '"% biodegradation
aromatic hydrocarbons into heavier molecules bacterial
    &
Formation water also remove hydrocarbons
by  "solution,
% washing away
lower molecular-weight hydrocarbons,   
which 

  are more soluble in water


water washing  $

  "#
Crude oil also degrades by    
volatilization when a poor-quality seal allows

 and escape
! 
lighter molecules to separate 

 

 leaky
 
But this (trap integrity,
 seal, etc.) will not necessarily lead to accumulation of
 the
heavy oil without 
 degradation mechanism

Gravity-drivenphase-fractionation
Incomplete cracking of hydrocarbons may also lead to heavy oil formation.
In this case, lighter fractions are not generated in the first place due to
incomplete cracking
5
 Global View Heavy Oil Resources
  (*
Total World Crude Oil Resources: 9 13 trillion   &)barrels
 "%( $ 

 
 &'

Heavy "%


  Oil

 15% 
 $
Conventional   "#
   
   !
oil
 Extra Heavy



30% 

  Oil


25%
 Bitumen &

 Oil Sands
30%

Source: IEA, Alberta TRA, S. Holditch/OFS Marketing

6
 Global View Heavy Oil Resources
  (*
 &)  ($
Heavy oil typically is found in geological youngformations
  &'  " %
Pleistocene, Pliocene and Miocene  
 "%


Heavy oil reservoirs, especially for  
extra heavy oil and bitumen, tend
 $


 "# seals, exposing them to
to be shallow and have less effective
   
 ! heavy oil
conditions conducive toforming

   
Over one-half of 
extra


 heavy and bitumen deposits are < 500 m deep






7
 Global Heavy
Heavy Oil
Oil API API Range
Range

Canada
  (*
 &)
Venezuela

 ($
Mexico
Neutral Zone

 "%
 &'
Brazil
Indonesia

 
USA
UK

 "%
 
China
 
Egypt
 
 
 $
Columbia
Italy

 "#
Iraq
Oman
Cuba 
 
  
Australia

 
Turkey
! 

Trinidad & Tabago


 
Ecuador

 
India


Surinam
Gabon
Yemen  
Guatemala


Congo
Cameroon
Albania

Nigeria
Argentina
Peru

0 5 10 15 20 25
API Range
Source: http://www.HeavyOilinfo.com 8
Global Crude Oil Recoverable Resources
  (*
 &)
 ($

 "%
  &'
  "%

 
 
 
 
 $
 "#

 
  
  ! 


  
  
 



Heavy Oil

Source: IEA World Energy Outlook 9

Source: http://www.HeavyOilinfo.com
 Producing Heavy Oil
  (*
  &)
 "projects

Generally, there is no exploration phase for heavyoil 
( $ in the
conventional sense. The main challenge in heavy   oil '
 %
   is not in finding
 &

 " % 
resources, but in the ability for an oil company    to extract, produce, and
sell heavy crudes within (often changing)   $economic guidelines.
  "#
   
   !

 
Under stable market conditions,
 heavy oil assets have the potential to
of
  
generate manyyears 
steady cash flow. Typically, these fields produce

for more than50 years. However, when the energy ratio needed to produce
 

and upgrade a barrel of heavy oil can be as high as 40%, the trick is to
ensure balanced economics throughout the entire length of the workflow.
10
 Heavy Oil Challenges
  (*
Heavy oil extraction  
 ( $  &)
Upstream  
challenges 
  due ' "%to
Challenges
   &
geographical

"% constraints,

  depth
  

 $
Heavy Oil reservoir

 "#
Challenges  
  
   !

 
  Challenges presented by the

Fluid

heavy oil fluid characteristics

  Challenges (e.g., viscosity) leading to

mobility and flow assurance
problems during production and
processing
11
Heavy Oil Upstream Challenges: Reservoir Type
  (*
Deep Sandstone Deposits Carbonates  &)
 ($

 "%
Application of steam based    &' characteristics
Complex reservoir
processes at depth > 1,000 m   "%
 
reservoir
Reactive
 


 $
Lifting problems

 #
  "
   !

  
  
  
 


 

Liaohe Oil Field, China 12

 Heavy Oil Upstream Challenges: Location
  (areas
Offshore  &) *
Environmentally sensitive
 ($

 "%

 &' 
Reduced available working space
 
 "%
Rainforests
Low ocean water temperature (lifting problems)


 Footprint
High operating costs   
 $


 #
  "
   !

  
  
  
 




13
 Heavy Oil Upstream Challenges: Environment Impact
  (*
 &)
 ($
Land / Rainforest - Surface footprint 
 '"%
Air - Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions  
 &
  

"%
Water - Water usage and disposal    

  $
  #
  "
   !

 
  
  
 




California, USA Ecuador 14

 Wide Variance in Rock Types and Properties
Porosity
min
  (*
max Indonesia
(%)  &)
 ($
Unconsolidate 
 "%
Sand
  &' Permeability
40
  
"%
(Darcy)

35 North Sea

 
Mexico Fractured 30 Unconsolidated  
Vuggy Dolomite 25 Sand/Sandstone
 
 
Indonesia

 $
20 Unconsolidate


15 Sand

10
5

USA   #
"Mexico
10
North Sea
 Vuggy Dolomite

Kuwait Fractured Fractured

  1 Unconsolidated

0 Unconsolidated

!
Carbonate

 
Sand/Sandstone
0.1
Sand/Sandstone

  
  0.01


USA
China
   Canada Kuwait Fractured
Sandstone/Dolom
  Unconsolidated Carbonate
0.001 Unconsolidated
ites
 Sand/Sandstone Sand/Sandstone

Venezuela
Sandstone China Canada min
Sandstone/Dolo Unconsolidated
mites Sand/Sandstone max
Venezuela
Sandstone
15
Variety of Heavy Oil Rock Types
  (*
 &)
 ($

 "%
  &'
  "%

 
 
 
 
 $
 "#

 
  
  ! 


  
  
 




16
 Heavy Oil Fluid Challenges
  (*
 &)
 ($
Mobility 

 '"%
 
 &
Upgrading   "%

 
 
Commercialization  
  $
Environmental   "#
   
   !
Recovery factor 
  
  
Flow assurance

Evaluation and
 modelling

Political and logistics

17
 Mobility of Crude Oil
ko P kkro P   (*
qo A A  &)
 ($
o x o x 
 "%
  &'
  "%

 
 
where:  
 
A: cross-section area, (L2)
 "# $
k: 
 media,
absolute permeability of porous 
(L2)    !
ko:
permeability to oil (L
 

2), 
  
kro:  to oil, (L )
relative permeability 2

P: oil pressure,(ML
 -1T-2)

qo: oil flow rate, (L3T-1)
x: distance, (L) Intrinsic properties of porous
Mobility of Oil
o: oil viscosity, (ML-1T-1) medium

18
 Mobility of Heavy Oil
Heavy oil are characterized by a high value of their   viscosities
(*

 ($ & )
and hence, low mobility compared to lightoil 
 '"%
   &
Typical oil viscosity in a mobile heavy
oil  "%
reservoir, namely, the

    

reservoir is capable of production  

  under$ its own driving energy, is
 
  " #
in the order of 1,000 cp  !   

  
Typical oil viscosity 
inan
  immobile extra heavy oil and bitumen
  
  
reservoir is ranging

 from 10,000 to 10 6 cp


The most important physical property in
heavy oil production processes is its
viscosity
19
 Mobility Reduction of Heavy Oil
Reduction of oil viscosity is essential   (* Viscosity
  &)
 "%( $  Reduction
in heavy oil production by 
  &'
adding heat   "%


adding solvent   
 $


 "#
10,000,000
 
  
1,000,000
   !

 
 
Viscosity (cp)

100,000

 
10,000 
 
1,000 

100 
10

1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Temperature (C) 20
 Heavy Oil Transportation
Heavy oil is highly Transportation Flow Enhancement
viscous   (* Methods
Due to its high viscosity,  )
 $&
  "%  (
Presence of wax and heavy oil cannot be
  &' Convert to a more fluid
sand increases the pumped through a
  "% material by chemical
conventional pipeline  

problem
For onshore  
production,    transformation
Water droplets can
heavy   
oil could  $
 Dilute with a solvent such
# be

increase or decrease the  "
   in trucks or
transported  
as condensate and
transport by pipeline
viscosity 
 trains !
Small droplets
   Pump with water through
  For offshore production, it

increase the viscosity   presents a huge problem
a pipeline under conditions

Big droplets decrease to the producers. Requires
that allow the water to flow
  as an annulus surrounding
the viscosity 
 flow enhancement a oil core
mechanisms Emulsify in water and
transport the mixture by
pipeline

21
 Variety of Viscous Oils
10,000,000 
Viscosity Reduction
US &)(*
Canada
($
1,000,000
Bitumen (Add Heat or Solvent)

 "%  
  &'
Viscosity (cp) at reservoir T

  
"%
Venezuela/Colombia
100,000

 
  China
 
 
 $
India/Indonesia
10,000
  "# US
1,000
 
 
Canada

  ! 


Primary
 
100 
Extra  
Production;

Oil  Water Flooding;

 
10 Heavy  EOR

 Heavy Oil
1

0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Source: OGJ EOR Survey (April 2004)

API Gravity 22
 EOR/IOR Methodologies for heavy oil reservoirs
  (*
 &)
 ($
In-Situ Heavy Oil/Bitumen Recovery Processes 
 '"%
 
 &
Cold Production   

"%
 
 
Cold Heavy Oil Production with Sands  
 $(CHOPS)
 
 #

Water Flooding   "
   !
Chemical Flooding
 
  
VAPEX  

 
Thermal and Newly Developed Recovery Processes

23
 Water Flooding
  (*
Commercially successful recovery  &)
 ($
technology 
 "%
  &'
  
"%
Usually applied as secondary

 
 
recovery methods after primary $  
  # 
Feasibility based on economic   oil
"
production rate priorto water !


breakthrough  
 


  
More suitablefor
  conventional

heavy oil (order of 102 cp)


Favourable mobility ratio between

water and oil
Source: http://www.HeavyOilinfo.com
 Water Flooding (Mobility Ratio)
  (*
Mobility Factors: Mobility Ratio:   &)
 "%( $ 

'k /
  
krw kro 
M
"w% w w
&
w and o 

w o   o ko / o
  $
 Displacement
 "
# efficiency is best
where: 
 !
kro Oil relative permeability  
 
under conditions of so-called stable

 

replacing or when M = 1
krw 
 
Water relative permeability

  The nearer the value for M is to 1,
M Mobility ratio
  the better are the chances of a
o 
 factor
Oil mobility
w Water mobility factor
flooding project
o Oil viscosity Unfavorable mobility ratio is when
w Water viscosity M >> 1 (e.g., water displaces heavy
oil) 25
 Water Flooding Fractional Flows
 (*
fw
qw

krw / w    ($

 &)
 "% f o 1 f w


qw qo krw / w kro / o %&
and
' 

 

"

where: 
  
   $
fo Oil fractional flow   "# Oil and water fractional flows
Water fractional flow  !     
fw
   can be calculated from oil and
kro Oil relative permeability
 
 
water mobility factors

permeability
 
krw Water relative
 

qo Oil flow rate    Water fractional flow

qw Water flow rate increases with water
o Oil viscosity saturation
w Water viscosity
 Water Flooding Fractional Flows
1
  (*
Rel. Perm.  &)
 ($
kro 
 "%
  &'
  
"%

 
 
 
 
 $
 " #
fw
0.5 
 
  
  ! 


  
  
 



krw

Fractional Flow
0
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
Water Saturation, Sw Water Saturation, Sw
Variety of Heavy Oil/Bitumen Recovery Processes

 &)(* Mining
Recovery Processes Surface
 ($

 "%
  &'
Primary Thermal   "%

 
  Non-Thermal
 
 
Cold Production  $  Water Flooding

Steam Based Non-Steam Based
"  #
CHOPS CSS
   Fire Flooding Chemical Flooding

 
Flooding!
 
THAI VAPEX




SAGD EM Heating

 





CHOPS Cold Heavy Oil Production with Sands

CSS Cyclic Steam Stimulation
Steam-Solvent Based Hybrid
EM Heating Electromagnetic Heating
SAGD Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage
Processes
THAI Toe-to-Heel Air Injection 28
VAPEX Vapour Extraction
 Heavy Oil/Bitumen Recovery Technology Status
  (*
 &)
 ($
1980s 
 "%
  &'
  "%

 
Horizontal  
 
 
 $
wells
  "#
 
 

 CSS,
! 
Vertical 
Steam
Cold Production,

  
Flooding CHOPS &
& In-Situ Combustion Water Flooding
wells 



Thermal Non-thermal

30
In-Situ Heavy Oil/Bitumen Recovery Technology Status
  (*
 &) ($
Today 
 '"%
 
 &
  

"%
 Cold Production &
 
CSS, SAGD&
 $
Horizontal
wells 
Steam-Solvent
Hybrid
Water Flooding
 
  
Based   "# with Multi-laterals
   !

  
  
    CSS, Cold Production,
 
Vertical 

wells   Steam Flooding CHOPS &
 
 & In-Situ Combustion Water Flooding

Thermal Non-thermal
31
 Technology Evolution Trends
 (*
Horizontal Drilling & Workovers ...


 &)
  ($
  "%
 Production
Horizontal
CSS, SAGD, 
Cold
Steam-Solvent Water
 & '
 Flooding
&
%
wells 
 
 "
with

 
Based Hybrid,  Multi-laterals,
 &$THAI
  
EM heating

 VAPEX, CHOPS
 #
 CSS,
  " Cold Production,
Vertical  Steam  
   ! Flooding CHOPS,

wells
 & In-Situ Combustion
 

   Water Flooding,

 

 Thermal Non-thermal


Better Pumps, Waste Management... 32

Recovery Factors for Heavy Oil/Bitumen Recovery
Recovery Processes  Factor (%)
Recovery
 &)(*

 ($
0
Cold Production CHOPS   "%
CSS   &' 10
$ $$  


20
$$$  "%
   
   30

$$$ $
Follow-Up Processes
  "# 40
(Add heat or Solvent)   Flooding
Steam



50
!

   SAGD
 
60
In-fill Drilling
$$$    70
 
 $$$ $$$$


80
Most global heavy
 oil recoveries are from shallow unconsolidated 90
sandstone reservoirs 100
Steam based processes are most extensively used
It is very important to plan ahead 33
 Overview of Heavy Oil Workflow
Field   (*
 &)
 ($
Preliminary
Development Construction Operations
Evaluation
   '"%
 &
Plan

 "%
 Well   
Target Selection Reservoir,
    Operational
Productionand   $ 
 #  Placement Optimization
Reservoir Facilities   " and
   !
Evaluation 
Design Construction Downstream


 


  Optimization
Market 
  Downstream Transport
 Project
Evaluation  Plan and Facilities

Construction Evaluation
Project Plan
Evaluation Evaluation
34
 Field
Preliminary
Heavy Oil Workflow Evaluation
Development
Plan
Construction Operations


Reservoir Market Project
 ( (*
Evaluation Evaluation
 
  $&
)Evaluation

Delineate Data acquisition


 &'"
Determineupstream
%
Design pilot to
  "%
 
 options
extent of and downstream thoroughly test the

reservoir Detailed rock and

processing
fluid property analysis $
selected production
 #Estimate
methodology from the

Estimate   " value sand face to the point of
   versus processing
Building of detailed  
model
hydrocarbon sale:
!
volume 


geological  and and transportation Engineering
 model
 
reservoir cost Wells and facilities
Preliminary    
analysis of fluid  Determine


possible Economic and risk
construction
Completions and
 
characteristics  recovery mechanisms analysis artificial lift
Viscosity Production monitoring
API Gravity Predict recovery rates Select production
option which will Lengthy phase as
deliver the highest concepts are being
value per barrel tested and proven or
35
adjusted
 Field
Preliminary
Development Construction Operations
Heavy Oil Workflow Evaluation
Plan

  (*
Reservoir, Production
  )
 (
Downstream Plan Plan $  &Evaluation
and Facilities Design
  "%

 & ' 
 "% Conduct a full technical
Run design concurrently Create marketing plan



with the pilot 
  
and commercial
Determine   
appropriate
$
viability review of the
  system 
  for design using inputs
 oiland/or
Extend detailed transport  #
"
reservoir model to the
  
heavy from ongoing pilot
scale of development 
 refined

! products


 
area  Make necessary
   Contract discussions changes to the design
 
Determine production  and initiation
  Initiate construction
profiles and 
 plan
infrastructure loading

Determine final well

design and completions
program, surface
36
facilities design
 Field
Preliminary
Heavy Oil Workflow Evaluation
Development
Plan
Construction Operations

  (*
Well Placement and Transport and Facilities  Project
 ($
&) Evaluation
Construction Construction 
 "%
  &'
Determine Construct required basic    "% Validation of progress

 
 
placement of various
 
facilities and additional vs. plan
well types:  on
facilities based
 $
chosen
producers, injectors

production "technique:
# Ensure objectives are
 Water
e.g., 

and monitors.

 steam
! 
handling and/or met, including
  generation and
Critical logistics and 
 transportation
adherence to planned

   Emulsion treatment and capital expenditures
procurement
  
decisions 

sand handling facilities


Pipeline construction with
heating and blending facilities

Upgrading facilities
37
Commissioning of facilities
 Field
Preliminary
Heavy Oil Workflow Evaluation
Development
Plan
Construction Operations

  (*
Operational  &)
 ($ Evaluation
Project

 "%
Optimization
  &'
 
 "
%
Ensure long term Monitor

 final
Perform regular project
  
 auditing and reviews
 $
optimum production rate transportation of 
to maximize the asset products 
 "facilities
and Implement
NPV 
upgrading 
#
   facilities
performance
Refine production
  !
Perform improvement plans


 audits through systems of
processes

  Audit contracts to
Manage the production  change
and recovery of oil ensure best return
Plan and drill new 

wells on investment over

 are
as existing wells life of field
shut-in
Optimize data
management systems

38
 Heavy Oil Development Cycle
Primary Evaluation
  (*
Reservoir Model
  ($
& )
Reservoir Simulation 
 " %
 
Characterization
  &'
Data Review and   
"%
Performance Expectations

 
 
 
 
 $
 "#
Review & Analysis 
  Development Plan
  
  ! 


   Maximize

Reservoir, Production Design

  Well Design

  Facility Design



Production & Reservoir

Production Construction Facility and Well
Monitoring Optimization Construction
39
 Reservoir Characterization & Development Plan
  (*
Geophysics  &)
 ($

 "%
Land and marine seismic acquisition, interpretation   &'
   "%
Petrophysics

 
 
 
 $ the reservoir properties

Wide variety of wireline technologies tomeasure
 #

Testing
  "
  ! analysis
Core and mechanical rock property

 
Formation samplingand reservoir
 fluid characterization


Petrotechnical Engineering

 planning, optimization, geomechanics
Field development


Information Management
Modeling and simulation software

40
 Well Construction & Operation Optimization
  (*
Drilling & Measurements  ($  &)

 "%

Directional, geosteering and logging while drilling (LWD)
 "%
&
' 
Drilling Fluids



 
Drilling & completion fluid systems, waste management  solutions

  $  
Cementing 
 "#

Flexible and thermal cement, wellbore 
  integrity
   !
Completions

 
 reservoir
Sand control, screens,  monitoring and flow control
     
Artificial Lift  

Conventional
 and hotline ESPs
Testing
Multiphase metering, sampling

41
 Integrated Development
Regardless of technical issues, requirements or scale,   an(* integrated
  &)
the $ 
(
deployment
approach will maximize the value recognized   
in " % of
    & '
technologies to develop a given

 "opportunity
%
  
 $
 #
  "
   !

  
  
  
 




42