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Book 1 Module 4 SEMI CONDUCTORS DIODES Licence By Post Licence By Post © conte 8 EASASS 41.1 ISSUE 04 0910 © Licence By Post, ‘No part ofthis study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by fan means, or stored in a data ase or retrieval sytem In whole or in part without Dror written permission liom Licence By Post Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated re-written to keep pace withthe changing {echinlogy, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for stady training purposes only ‘When carrying out a procedure /work on aireraft/aircraft equipment you MUST alway's refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook, ‘You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK} and laid down company policy ax regards local proceduses, recording, report writing, documentation etc For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities ‘and national governments, aye Brose PIO IQA UKE mek fp aspo1z96 871 Fax fraq}ola9e 200697 Emit er laicncebypostcom ‘ebuie! Naw leenoebypse com conTENTs Semi conductor materials ‘The P-N junction ‘The diode Diode characteristics Application of P-N junetion diodes ‘Series and parallel connection ‘Single phase half wave rectifier ingle phase fall wave rectifier The bridge rectifier ‘Three phase half wave rectification Three phase full wave rectification Clipping or iting Clamping Voltage doubler Voltage tipler Flywheel diode ‘The Zener diode ‘The silicon controlled rectifier (thyristor) ‘The TRIAC ‘The light emitting diode (LED) ‘The Schottky diode ‘The Varactot diode ‘The Varister The photoconductive diode ‘The Gunn diode ‘esting diodes Page 10 10 n i 12 13 14 15 20 26 27 28 29 31 33 34 36 a7 38 59 40 a1 HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK “This book is written to level 2 module 4 of the CAA BASA Part 66 syllabus for the 1B1/B2 person, For the B2 person the level of study is level 2, for the B1 person, most of the subjects should be studied to level 1 and some parts of the book are not required at all (sce Below). There is no requirement for the A line mechanie to study this module at al In general terms, the BI person should check the syllabus and should have a good kknowiedge of the following: Book Subject/s 1 Semi conductor materials to three phase fll wave rectification. Flywheel diodes to photo-diodes (not Triacs, Shottkys or Gunn diodes). Note ~ itis rot necessary to know how the diodes work, 2 Transistors (as an amplifier ~ basic operation onl), symbols and construction, Properties of amplifier circuits. Common emitter, common base, common collector, push-pull amplifier. Classes of amplifiers. Types and uses of multiibrators (not the operation). FETS ~ basic appreciation, Appreciation of feedback in amplifiers. Transistors as a switch. Logic frcuits {not TTL and CMOS or flip-flops. Integrated circuits. Basic appreciation of Op-Amps. PCBS. 3 Servo mechanism principles up to Phase Advance Damping. Servo mechanisms, Components (servo motors ete - basic appreciation) For most people the subject matter will have to be read through more than once to get ‘But given careful study and a kite time the material can be learnt and [Note that we have used standard drawing symbols where-cver possible but ‘annotations have been varied In some drawings subscripts are used (eg Cs) (capacitor 4) and in others no subscripts are used (eg C4). The reason for this is that some books /manuals use them and some do not and it gets the reader used to working with Doth, In each case the annotations correlate with descriptions in the text. ‘Books in this series ‘SEMICONDUCTOR MATSRIALS ‘The molecular structure and properties of insulators, conductors and semiconductors is dealt with in EASA module 3. However, to revise the theory on semiconductors and, for those that have yet to study module 3, some background material is covered here. Remember that electrical conductors have free electrons and will conduet electricity casily insulators have tightly bound electrons and will not conduct electricity easily, fand semi conductors will conduct readily under certain conditions and will not ‘conduct under others. Figure 1 shows the structure of the germanium and silicon atoms, two important tlements in the manufacture of diodes and transistors. The drawings show the ‘orbiting electrons around the nucleus in two dimensions. In reality the orbits are three dimensional and not equally spaced as shown. Fig. 1 THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE - EXAMPLES It-can be scen that each atom has four electrons in its outer shell, these electrons are called VALENCE ELECTRONS, they are farthest from the nucleus and therefore are Teast tightly bound to it (amall attractive force. It is these valence electrons that play the active part in electrical conduction. Silicon and germanium are crystalline substances and the valence electrons of each individual atom link up and arrange themselves with the valence electrons in adjacent atoms to form CO-VALENT BONDS, Each atom then has a half-share in eight valence tleetrons. This gives a stable arrangement of a regularly repeating three dimensional structure called a crystal lattice. Figure 2 shows the two dimensional effect of the covalent bonding. Pure silicon and germanium are very good insulators, At room temperature the atoms are vibrating sufficiently in the lattice fora few bonds to break, setting free some valence clectrons, leaving a ‘hole where the electron was. Free electrons are attracted to the hole as the atom, short of an electron is now positively charged oe= PERO OS CL Fig. 2 CO-VALENT BONDS Ifa battery is placed across a pure semiconductor, electrons are attracted to the positive terminal, These free electrons travel through the semiconduetor ‘hopping’ from ‘he hole to another, and it therefore appears that the positive holes are moving, towards the negative terminal. ‘This eurrent flow is very small and is called INTRINSIC conbUcTION, ‘To understand the concept of electrons moving one way and holes moving the other is, not easy but it can be likened to an empty seat at the end of a row of seats in a Cinema, Assume the vacant seat fo be at the right hand end of the row (when facing, the cinema sercen). I the first person next (othe seat moves into it, then he/she has tnoved to the right, but the vacant seat has moved one place tothe left If each person in the row does the same (ie moves to the empty seat to his/her right) as soon as it becomes empty, the vacant seat (hole) appears to have moved along the row to the left jnone direction while the occupants electrons) have move in the opposite direction (to the right Ifthe temperature is raised more bonds break down and conduction increases ie, resistance decreases, this means more heat is generated, and more conduction occurs, Tesistance decreases further, more heat is generated ~ and so on. This is called thermal runaway (a from of positive feedback) and will eventually destroy the crystal ‘Semiconductors have a negative temperature coefiient. In other words their resistance decreases with an increase in temperature, ‘A basic insulator can be changed into a conductor by mixing (doping) a small quantity fa selected impurity atom into the semiconductor material (typically 1 part in 10°. ‘The material now becomes an extrinsic semiconductor “There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors: N-type (negative type) semi-conductor inaterial and P-type (positive type) semi-conductor material N-type Semi-conductor Material Doping impurities such as phosphorus or arsenic are used. These have five (pentavalent) electrons in the outermost orbit. When introduced into the basic fPateral, four ofthe electrons join up with the existing co-valent bonding, whilst one Clectron is left ree’. (The number offee electrons can be strictly controlied by this oping). ‘The free electrons can migrate through the inter-atomic space and can therefore act current carriers when a (very smal) voltage is applied. So when a small voltage is applied the free electrons move from negative (0 positive (majority carrier) and holes move in the opposite direction (minority carrie} Fig. 3. N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR Note, Although extra clectrans have been inserted, it must be remembered that each {impurity atom is itself neutral and 90 the whole of the N-type material is also neutral 80: MAJORITY CARRIER » ELECTRONS (NEGATIVE) [N = N-TYPE] MINORITY CARRIER = HOLES (due to intrinsic conduction) abtt else commer Sioned TBD aes, vaperrounee 2020202 SEE TEER arr a Fig. 4 ELECTRON FLOW IN AN N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR P-type Semi-conductor Material In this material, impurities such as indium or Aluminium are used. These have three (trivalent) electrons in the outermost arbit. When introduced into the basic material, all three electrons link into the crystal structure but this leaves a ‘hole’ in the Structure where the forth one should be. This hole is looking for an electron to fill it land so it is a form of positive current carrer. Ifa (very small) voltage is applied, tlectrons will move to fill-in the holes but this forms fresh holes and so there is a fgeneral drift of oles through the material from positive to negative (in the opposite Sense to the electron flow in the N-type material). Again, the material itself is neutral ‘Serondvtor mater! doped with ame iminium Fig. S P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR In this case: MAJORITY CARRIER = HOLES (POSITIVE) [P= P-TYPE] MINORITY CARRIER = ELECTRONS (due to intrinsic conduction) Bee ae vase Sy2= Te Rhee sneer Tac Sttmen ELECTRON ee aye AR je sucoisro Sve a Fig. 6 ELECTRON FLOW IN A P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR ‘THE P.N JUNCTION Imagine a piece of N-type material being brought into contact with a piece of P-type ‘material. Both pieces are, up to the instant of contact, neutral [Remembering that the holes are looking for electrons to complete the lattice network, itean be seen that electrons will migrate across the junction to fil in the holes as soon fas the two materials are brought together. 4 aHOL = sFREEELECTRON Fig. 7 THE P.N JUNCTION BEFORE CONTACT ‘As electrons leave the N-type material, it will become positively charged. As electrons fil holes in the P-type material, ie will become negatively charged, This will cause @ BARRIER POTENTIAL to built up at the boundary, forming what is known as the DEPLETION LAYER (figure 8}. This build-up in potential will eventually be strong. ‘enough {o stop further migration of electrons across the junction, ‘The barrier potential is approximately 0.2V for Germanium and 0.6V for Silicon and is Sometimes represented in drawings as a cell connected negative to P and postive to N (figure 8). I must be remembered that the barrier potential is always present at a P-N junction, even ift is not connected to any circuit (sitting ina storage bag on a shelf Tor example) ae cA Fig. @ PN JUNCTION fan external de supply is connected #ve to the P-type material and ~ve to the N-type, ‘it will oppose the barrier potential. IFthe voltage is bigger than the barrier potential, the barrier potential will be overcome and current will ow, electrons moving from ‘supply negative to positive and holes moving in the opposite direction, as shown in figure 9, Ths is known as FORWARD BIASING the junction yo 1 -arzerReN FLOW Fig. 9 FORWARD BIAS P.N JUNCTION ‘The intrinsic conduction, (covalent bonds breaking down at normal temperature) produces minority carriers and thas a small eurrent flows in the same digection as the ‘majority carriers ie, it add to it aneotie i ig. 10 REVERSE BIAS P.N JUNCTION If the external supply is connected in the other sense, *ve to the N-type and ~ve to the Patype, it will reinforce and increase the barrier potential and therefore no current wil ow, except for some slight leakage current (see below). The depletion layer will be ‘enlarged as shown in Sgure 10. This is known as REVERSE BIASING the junction, ‘At first sight it might appear that there is no current flow. However, due to intrinsic Conduction, which produces minority carriers, there is a tiny current flow across the junction which is known as the LEAKAGE CURRENT. Raising the temperature ofthe P-N junction causes a rapid increase in the generation ‘of minority carriers, and therefore leakage current increases. At room temperature ‘each 10°C rive in temperature approximately doubles the rate of generation for fermanium for example. For silicon the doubling rate is every 5°C. It might appear from this that germanium ‘would be used for higher temperature conditions, however, although the rate of Increase is greater for silicon, ite actual value is less than that of germanium, so silicon fs used where high temperatures are encountered. ‘THE DIODE A rectifier changes ac into de and diodes can be used to perform this function, Ian ac supply is applied to a P-N junction then when ‘Pig made positive to N" the positive half cycle will flow through the junction as itis forward biased. On the negative half eyele ofthe ac ie made negative to V. ‘This is the reversed bias mode and the junction will not conduct on this half of the Cycle, The junction passes current through R {figure 11) when the P material is positive and when it is negative no current flows, Therefore an output voltage is only produced on the positive input half eyete Fig. 11 ACTION OF A DIODE Fig. 12 DIODE SYMBOL ee a iC) (@) ) Fig. 13 DIODES ‘The output may be Tumpy” but circuits can be designed to smooth the peaks out and produce a steady de supply from the ac input ‘The P-N junction is acting as a rectifier and is known as a SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE. ‘The aymbol is as shown in figure 12 (and 13), It's important to note that the arrow points in the direction of conventional current flow and the two connections are known as the ANODE (A) and CATHODE (K). The cathode (negative end) is oflen marked with a band as shown in figure 13. DIODE CHARACTERISTICS, various values of voltage are applied across a diode (rom positive values to negative values) and the current ouput measured then a graph is produced called a diode Characteristic eurve, Two stich curves (or graphs) are shown in figure 14. These relate ta slican and germanium diodes tested at 25°C, ‘When forward biased, a voltage is required to overcome the barrier voltage before the diode current increases; this is typically 0.2V for germanium and 0.6V for silicon. [After this, current rises rapidly as the applied voltage is increased (Cop right hand ‘quadrant of the curves), Fig. 14 DIODE CHARACTERISTIC CURVES ‘To the left of the origin ofthe characteristic curve is where the voltage is reversed, ie reverse biased. As can be seen from figure 14 (bottom left hand quadrant) the current is small and is the leakage current due to the movement of minority carriers Note that the voltage scale is not linear, with the larger divisions on the negative axes of the graph, As the voltage is increased, at @ certain point the current increases rapidly to a high ‘Value. This 1s known as AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN and will cause permanent damage to the diode iit is allowed to occur. I accurs because as the reverse voltage becomes too great, the minority carriers are faccelerated to.a point where they heat up the diode and collide with atoms in the ‘depletion layer. This will dislodge further electrons, thus creating more minority ccafriers and this effect ‘avalanches’ to cause a rapid rise in current ‘The breakcown voltage can be any value ftom a few volts up to 1000V for silicon and 100V for germanium depending on the constraction of the diode and the level of doping. Diode Parameters Diodes are manufactured in a wide range of voltage and current ratings. These must bbe taken into accotint when designers choose a diode for a particular circuit. Typical parameters to be considered are: + Maximum forward voltage (Vi. Often related to the maximum forward current and ideally the volts drop would be very ow. + Maximum surge (forward) current (fru). Peak current when in forward Dias. Related to Vs as the limit is related to the heal energy generated land this is calculate as V xl, The more heat the junction can withstand fand/or the better itis cooled the better. + Maximum average forward current (i). See Inu above, * Peale reverse voltage (Vs). May’ be called Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) or Peake Reverse Voltage (PRV]. The maximum reverse voltage (de) the diode ‘ean take on a continual bass, + Maximum repetitive reverse voltage (Visa. Related to frequency andl is ‘he maximum voltage the diode can take in reverse mode in repeated pulses, + Maximum reverse current (i). Sometimes called leakage current. tis the current through the diode at maximum reverse voltage (Vs. + Maximum operating temperature [Ty] or Operating junction temperature (1). The maximum junction temperature quoted in degrees C. When Dperating the unit must be kept below this value as any overheating will {destroy the diode. The maximum forward current is 60 chosen that this temperature is not exoceded in the worst combination of circumstances when the diode is operating normally. The maximum forward current will falso depend on the ambient temperature at which the diode is operating. ‘The maximum forward current is usually quoted at two oF more ambient temperatures (as the temperature rises, the leakage current increases land doubles in value for each 10°C rise in temperature) * Storage temperature range (Teo). Top temperature often the same as Tw/Ts + Maximum total dissipation (Py). The total power in watts (power = IV or PR) dissipated by the diode. The diode has a small forward resistance ‘when itis conducting, so power must be dissipated as it conducts. This power dissipation catlses heat at the junction, this local heating must be kept low, as excessive leakage current will occur. There is therefore a ‘maximum forward current #0 that the temperature isnot reached which ‘will cause deterioration ofthe structure ofthe diode. + Thermal resistance (R6). The temperature difference between the outside air and the junction or between the junction and the leads for a given power dissipation (°C/W). This shoulA be as low as possible. A high thermal resistance means that heat generated cannot be transferred to the outside air and the unit is liable to overheat. + Function capacitance (C,). The amount of capacitance intrinsic in the Junction due to the anode and cathode acting as a dielectric. This is ‘small and measured in picofarads (pF + Reverse recovery time (Ty). The time taken forthe diode to turn off when the voltage across it changes from forward bias the reverse bias polarity. Ideally this should be zero but in reality does take a finite time from a few microseconds to as fast as afew nanoseconds. [Because most of these parameters are temperature related itis not possible to state a set of parameters for a particular diode so manufactures state the parameters as a function of temperature, This means that most parameters are provided in graphical form with each graph plotting a particular parameter against a temperature range. APPLICATION OF P-N JUNCTION DIODES Diodes may be connected in series or in parallel and used for rectification of ac to de (half wave rectification ~ full wave rectification ~ part wave rectification ~ single phase fac= three phase ae~ clipping circuits ~ clamping circuits etc. any other parameters effect diode performance then these are also shown in eraphieal form, Series and Parallel Connection ‘When connected in series to load the current will be the same for each diode (the ‘same as esistors} and the maximum forward current must net be exceeded for each ‘iode, Because each diode has a small forward resistance there will be a volts drop facross each diode, which will depend on each diode's characteristics. These individual Yolts drops are suimmed and will subtract from the supply voltage to leave acertain voltage aeross the load (see later notes). Fig. 16 DIODES IN PARALLEL 10- ‘Where current supplied by one rectifier would exceed its maximum forward current, or exceed its maximum operating temperature, its possible to connect two or more ‘des in parallel. The current, therefore, willbe divided between the diodes. ‘The voltage across each diode will be the same and the current distribution between the diodes will depend on the characteristics of each diode. So the voltage drop is the ‘Same forall the diodes in parallel but their currents may be different with all their {individual currents equal to the total current Single Phase Half Wave Rectifier With reference to the circuit in Sgure 17, When supplied with an ac supply the supply coil induces an ac voltage into the coil connected to diode Dy. When A end of the transformer is positive with respect to B end the diode conducts and causes a current to flow around the circuit (as shown) and a voltage Will be developed across R.. When the input polarity reverses (during the other half ofthe ac eycle) end A will become ‘negative with respect to B and the diode will switch off erg ae Fig. 17 SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION ‘The voltage developed across R. is half-sine-wave value with the output as shown in the wavelorm (figure 17). The circuit is known as a half wave rectifier - the output, being de, albeit variable. The average output value being half that of the supply, ie pealex 0.918 [assuming no losses), The de output ‘ripples’ have a frequency equal to ‘he impint frequency of the ae supply, ie ripple frequency = supply frequency. Electively the diode is acting as a one-way valve or check-valve, Single Phase Full Wave Rectifier As the name implies this uses both half cycles of the input wave-form and uses two diodes in series. Figure 18 shows the circuit using diodes D; and Ds together with a transformer, which is centre tapped at C. The point C can be considered as neutral ‘with terminals A and B swinging alternately positive and negative about C. When A is positive to C, diode D; conducts with D» switched off. On the other ball cycle, Bis positive to C and D; conducts with D; switched off. The output is therefore ‘undirectional, with both diodes alternately conducting, giving a full wave output ‘across R. and switching off. The average output voltage is 0.637 x peak supply {assuming no losses) (gure 18 waveform), ne _ AN o x hme Fig. 18 SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION ‘The output de ‘ripple’ is twice the input supply frequency and twice the frequency of the single wave rectifier (assuming the same input ac). Using the double winding on the transformer makes this component more bulky and more expensive but the output is smoother than the single wave rectifier. [A point to note about this circuit is that when Ds is conducting, the voltage across the Toad resistor Ris the peak voltage. With D, cutoff the voltage across C-B is in series ‘with this voltage, so these two voltages combine to give a total of twice the peake voltage, “This will act as a reverse voltage across Ds $0 the peak inverse voltage forthe diodes must be twice the peale voltage on either half of the secondary of the transformer. ‘The Bridge Rectitier ‘This is algo a single phase full wave rectifier, and has advantages over the previous circuit in that the transformer does nat need to produce twice the voltage required and the secondary is in use al the time Unlike the previous circuit where only half the secondary winding was used at any one Figure 19 shows a bridge recifer consisting of four diodes arranged as a bridge and taking its supply from a transformer, The transformer is supplied with single phase fc. Assume the top of the secondary winding ofthe transformer to be positive (positive half cycle), trace the current flow through the load using the arrows shown (A to B to oad to € to D to transformer). You ean see that with A positive, current will low to B and then through the load, — I iC: bE Ke ~) Fig. 19 BRIDGE RECTIFIER - FIRST HALF CYCLE -12- — | Fig. 20 BRIDGE RECTIFIER - SECOND HALF CYCLE n the next half eycle (igure 20) taking the bottom of the secondary as positive, trace the cireuit through to the load following the arrows (secondary winding to D to B to Toad to C to A ta secondary), Note the direction of current through the load isthe same during each half eyee, ie its de Note that in this cirouit the two non-conducting diodes have twice the supply voltage ‘cross them, (load/supply voltage * supply voltage ~ twice supply voltage). However, this voltage is shared between the two non-conducting diodes in series, therefore the peal inverse voltage per diode is the supply voltage. As before the ripple frequency is fovice the supply frequency. Typically all four diodes are available in one package, So far we have been dealing with single phase ac. When three-phase is considered a ‘much flatter output is achieved ‘Three Phase Half Wave Rectification Im order to obtain three-phase hall wave rectification a diode must be inserted into teach of the supply lines fo the load and the return from the load to the supply must be to the star point of the three-phase system, ‘Therefore this form of rectification can only be used where there is a star connection using a neutral line and a three phase supply, Assume this star connection is the secondary ofa three phase (DELTA-STAR} transformer as shown in figure 21. Figure 22 shows the waveform of the three-phase output and the resultant supply voltage to the load {yr js 4 Fig. 21 DELTA STAR TRANSFORMER 213. a somes Fig. 22 WAVEFORMS - THREE PHASE HALF WAVE RECTIFIER Notes 1. The ripple frequency of this rectifer output is three times the supply frequency, with three de output voltage ‘lips for one Hertz ofthe three- phase ac supply. So the ripple frequency is getting better. 2. The three phases are shown in figure 22 as three sine waves with phase 1 drawn as a continuous line, phase 2 shown as a close dotted line and phase 3 as an open dotted line. The output load is shown as a Continuous ‘pple’ line along the peaks. 3. On some drawings the phases my be indicated by leters (A, B, C) or as ‘numbers (1, 2, 3) or as colours (Vi red phase, Vp = blue phase, V yellow phase} ‘Tee Phase Full Wave Rectification ‘This form of connection does not require a neutral line, so can be used on either Star or Delta connected systems. Figure 23 shows the diode circuit diagram. Fig. 23 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT ‘The arrows show the time in the three phase cycle when phase A is maximum and passing peak current to the load (say 10 amps). After passing through the load, the Current splits into two, ofS amps each, to retura via the B and C lines back to the supply. oa ‘The output ripple frequency to the load has improved to six times the supply frequency as shown in igure 24. Figure 24 shows the phases numbered 1, 2, 3and also as letters Vs, Vo, Ve. Drawings will usually indicate the phases using just one coding system, Fig. 24. THREE PHASE FULL WAVE WAVEFORM. ‘We shall now look at some other uses for diodes. CLIPPING OR LIMITING [As the name implies this is the limiting’ or ‘clipping off of part of the voltage waveform that lies above or below a certain chosen level. This level is called the bias, or reference level. Some examples are shown in figure 25, Note that the wavy line in B (Vin) is noise (unwanted signal} Fig. 26 SERIES NEGATIVE LIMITER Figure 26 shows the circuit for a series negative limiter. Taking the input (Vs) as a sinewave of (say) +20V to -20V peak to peak. When the diode is conducting (assuming healipible resistance) the voltage across the diode is negligible and the output voltage {Wun will be equal to Vin. When the diode is cut-off all the voltage will be dropped lactose the diode and the output voltage will be practically zero, The cireuit therefore clips the portion of the waveform, which goes negative (igure 27). Ifthe diode was to be turned round we then have a series positive limiter and the diode ‘only conducts on the negative part of the eyele and so the positive part of the input ‘wavetorm is clipped, Fig. 27 WAVEFORM OF SERIES NEGATIVE LIMITER ‘The resistance R must be some valli intermediate between the two diode extremes of resistance. This means R is large compared to the conducting resistance (almost zero (ohms) and small compared with the cut-off resistance (which is almost infinite). A typical value for Rin practice will be between 10k0 and 100K0, Figure 28 shows a shunt positive limiter with the diode in shunt (parallel) with the component (Vour) and the resistor in series, Fig. 28 SHUNT POSITIVE LIMITER -16- During the positive half cycles, with the diode conducting the voltage developed across itis practically 2ero, so output voltage is zero, When the diode is cut-off on the negative half-eyele, practically the whole of the input voltage is aeross the diode and therefore Vour = Vi. This circuit therefore clips the portion ofthe input waveform ‘which goes positive (Bgure 29), me ‘ouTBuTWaVEFORN Fig. 29 WAVEFORM OF POSITIVE LIMITER we wish to remove the negative cycles of the waveform all that is required us to turn the diode around; the cireuit now becomes a shunt negative limiter The cireuits so far have all ‘clipped’ or limited the waveform above/below zero volts In practice it is often necessary to clip some portion ofthe waveform above of below some reference voltage other than zero. This ean be done using modified versions of the basic limiting citcults, Figure 30 shows a shunt negative limiter biased (0 ~10V. Fig. 30 SHUNT NEGATIVE BIASED LIMITER “The waveform may be limited to any positive or negative value by holding the appropriate electrode ofthe diode at the required bias or reference level (On one half cycle (positive hal) ofthe input, the diode is cut-off and practically the ‘whole of the imput voltage appears as Vowr. On the other half eycle the diode is cut-off Until it reaches above the bias level, up to this point Vy = Vour, when the diode ‘conducts the Vour is equal to the bias level and clips the negative half eyele as shown in igure 31 oT. vin ime w w Vout ° Fig. 31 WAVEFORM OF SHUNT BIASED NEGATIVE LIMITER If the polarity ofthe bias was turned around the other way then the output would be as shown in figure 32, Fig. 22 WAVEFORM OF REVERSE POLARITY SHUNT. ‘NEGATIVE LIMITER ‘The same principle can be applied to series limiters. Figure 33 shows a series positive limiter to “OV and figure $4 shows its waveform, If the bias potential was reversed then the output waveform would be as shown in figure 35, ce Fig. 33 POSITIVE LIMITER a Vout 9 ~ Fig. 95. WAVEFORM OF SERIES POSITIVE LIMITER WITH "REVERSE POLARITY POTENTIAL C ‘Again ifthe diodes were turned around the reverse outputs will occur. Figure 36 shows the circuit where the two are combined. This ‘combined limiter’ can be tsed to take a slice’ out of an input waveform, as shown in figure 37. sgrovans op sous Fig. 36 COMBINED LIMITER -19- Fig. 37 WAVEFORM OF COMBINED LIMITER Im practice, reference or bias levels are provided by a potentiometer connected across & de supply line, In some circuit drawings they may be represented as a battery CLAMPING ‘These cirits are used in radar and communications equipment to change the reference level ofa waveform tithout reducing its amplitude. Circuits which move ‘wavelorms up or down in this way are known as Clamping Circuits or Signal Level Shifters because their elfect is to fx or clamp the top or bottom level of the waveform tand move it complete up oF down. Figure 38 shows {in picture form) the difference between a limiter/clipping circuit and a clamping circuit ‘The limiter circuit simply ‘cuts off a part of the waveform, whilst a clamping circuit moves the whole waveform up or down TT T . A t Awermewos J 1 | q f Fig. 38 COMPARISON OF LIMITING & CLAMPING =20- ‘The simplest form of clamping circuit is a diode circuit that consists of a capacitor and a resistor, forming a long CR circuit to the input waveform, sr 2 Fig. 39 CLAMPING CIRCUIT The voltage to which the bottom ends ofthe resistor or diode are returned ig again known as the bias level, reference level or clamping level. It may be of either polarity (positive or negative) including OV. “The circuit is clamped to this bias level, In figure 39 the output waveform is clamped to-2er0 volts, The two types of clamping circuits are: 1, Positive clamping - the bottom of the output waveform is clamped to the bias voltage in such way so the output wavelorm is positive tothe bias level. 2. Negative clamping - the top of the waveform is clamped to the bias voltage in ‘such a way’ so the output wavelorm is negative to the bias level, Figure 40 shows a circuit with positive clamping to zero volts and figure 41 shows the waveforms. o— 7 cs —— i Fig. 40 POSITIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT sate LCR sratony Fig. 41 WAVEFORM - POSITIVE CLAMPING With reference to figure 40, since R and the diode are in parallel the output voltage always equals the voltage developed across R. In any CR eizeuit the input voltage Vis = Vor Ve at all tintes, The description of the waveforms (igure 41) is, AwB Btoc ctoD De BtoF follows ‘The input rises to 100V from zero. The capacitor is intially uncharged land cannot charge immediately. Vs therelore rises instantly to TOV and since this voltage is applied to the cathode of the diode, the diode is cut off With the diode cut-off, C charges on a long time constant CR seconds and Ve (voltage across the capacitor) rises by a small amount. Thus Vx falls by the same amount. ‘The input falls by 100V to 2er0 and since Ve cannot change immediately Vealso falls by 100V to a small negative potential which causes the diode toconduct. ‘With the diode conducting, C discharges on a short rime constant CRo seconds (Ro is diode resistance). Both Ve and Vs quickly return to zero volts and the diode is cut-off ‘The input rises again by 100V and the eycle is repeated, Except for small negative ‘pips’ the output Vs is clamped to a base level of zero volts land is positive going from this level A similar action takes place with @ negative going square wave, Figure 42 shows a negative clamping circuit and figure 43 shows the waveforms. -22- ot Fig. 42 NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT TO ZERO VOLTS R kvou sev ww Fig. 43 WAVEFORM OF NEGATIVE CLAMPING ‘CIRCUIT TO ZERO VOLTS. Aseuming @ square input wave of OV and +100V (figuce 43). Prior to point A the ‘capacitor is initially uncharged and since Viv equals zero volts, Voin equals zero volt, AwoB Bw cup DwE “The input voltage rises from zer0, and since capacitor C cannot change ite state of charge instantaneously, the rise appears in full across R. [our S to). Since Ve isthe samme as the voltage across the diode the diode conducts ‘Capacitor C and the conducting diode form a short CR circuit and so the capacitor quicldy charges to +100V, Vour falls to zero volts (Tt U ww. Va changes from +100V to zera volts and this step appears in full actose R. Thus Ve becomes -100V {V to WI, the diode is non ‘conducting or off and Ve is unchanged ‘The circuit is now a long CR and capacitor C discharges slowly, Ve rises slowly towards zero volts, in a very long CR circuit the change W to X is a very small proportion of the input waveform amplitude}. -23 EtoF Alter F Vp becomes LOOV again, and this rise causes Vs to jump from (say) “28V to +2V which eauses the diode to conduct Capacitor C quickly charges back to +100V on the short CR circuit land the process repeats itself. ‘Thus after the intial spike is over, the waveform Vour is avery slighty distorted version of the input waveform, but negatively clamped to zero volts In the examples shown the output waveform is clamped, either positively or negatively to zero volts, Init wae necessary, asin some radar circuits to clamp to a level other than zero, then the bias voltage is placed in the resistor rectifier line as shown in. Figures 44, 46 and 48. The waveforms produced are shown in figures 45, 47 and 49 respectively, Note that all the drawings referring to clamping use square waveforms as examples, Dut the process of clamping can apply equally to any input waveform including sine | ast | Fig. 44. NEGATIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS (-25V) Fig. 45 WAVEFORM OF NEGATIVE CLAMPING "TO -25V BIAS vin veut Fig. 46 POSITIVE CLAMPING TO POSITIVE BIAS (+50V) +1000 (Clamping level Fig. 47 WAVEFORM OF POSITIVE CLAMPING ‘TO POSITIVE (+50V) BIAS Fig. 48 POSITIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS (-30V) 25 Clamping evel Fig. 49 WAVEFORM OF POSITIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE (-20V) BIAS VOLTAGE DOUBLER Another application of a diode isin a voltage doubler circuit, which is typically used in a High Energy ignition Unit (EIU) used in jet engine ignition eircuits. Figures 50 Shows the basic principle ofa double czcuit, + née q) ee output 2Vy Fig. 50 VOLTAGE DOUBLING CIRCUIT - 1 On one half cycle ofthe supply, capacitor C, will charge up to V volts, on the other hha cycle C: will charge up to V volts, As the two eapacitors are in series then the ‘output is approximately 2 x V volts. Vs ‘input Lo Fig. 51 VOLTAGE DOUBLING CIRCUIT - 2 With reference to figure SI (another type of doubler circuit), Cs is charged to V volts during the negative half eycle of the supply voltage with D3 being forward biased {conventional current for the half cycle shown as ly in the drawing). The potential between Cy now acts as a battery in series with the supply and holding a value of V volts peak with its left end being at ground (the bottom negative line in the drawing). During the following positive half eycle, D3 is reversed biased and will not pass current and input voltage V will add to C3 voltage V to produce 2 x V at D4 which will be forward biased. Cy is charged to a voltage equal to the sum ofthe peak supply voltage and the vollage across Cs, ie approximately 2x V. ‘This action continues cyele by cycle with C3 being fly charged to V volts on each negative half eyele then charging Cs to approximately 2 x V on the subsequent positive half eyele (i will not quite get to 2x V) It should be noted + There isa small voltage drop across each diode on forward bias. + Anyload on the circuit wil draw some current from C. all the time thus producing some discharge with Cy re-charging Cs to nearly 2x Vat each positive half cyele, + Current capacity is about half that of @ normal rectifier and any attempt (0 increase current capacity wil reduce the voltage output, + By connecting the output of one multiplying ereuit onto the input ofthe next (cascading) the de voltage output can be made nearly four times the ac input, VOLTAGE TRIPLER Figure 52 shows a rearranged circuit called a Voltage Tripler to produce a voltage 3 times the transformer secondary voltage (the ac input voltage to the system) ‘The frst two sections (C1 - D1 and C2 D2) operate as a doubler as described above, ‘The next section (C3 ~ D3) provides an additional boost to the voltage. iy reansrotwen E ‘ourrur a Fig. 52 VOLTAGE TRIPLER CIRCUIT (on the negative half eycle DI is forward biased and DS is forward biased by the ‘Voltage on €2, C2 and C3 are connected in parallel with D2 reverse biased and non Conducting, This means that C2 shares its charge with C3 and both capacitors get ‘charged to nearly 2x V. (on the positive half eycle D1 and D3 are cut off and D2 is on. This allows C2 to charge fom C1 whilst C1 and C3 are in series allowing the output voltage to increase above the 2x V value, Once all capacitors are fully charged the output is (approximately) + Negative halfeycle ax + Positive half eyele axv average xv ‘The output is quite lumpy” but with a suitable Stering circuit a steady de voltage of about 3 V can be achieved. “The process of modifying the double circuit to produce a tripler circuit can be extended to produce a quadrupler eicuit and while the voltage will be quadrupled the current will be quartered, Thus the total power out is not greater than the total power {nin fact itis less due to losses such as the voltage drop across the diodes and capacitor charge loss, [Atypical use of this type of circuit is the operation of lash tubes (for flash photography) A small battery (or batteries) (3 to 9 volts) is used to supply a trembler br osellator circuit which eflectively inverts the de to ac (when operating sometimes ‘causes an auidible whine). The ae output from the oscillator is put through a multiplier Circuit and when triggered will provide a high de voltage to operate the flashtube. The System will needa few seconds to re-charge for the next flash LY-WHEEL DIODE, Sometimes a diode is connected across a relay col (figure 59} to help prevent arcing. When the supply is switched off the collapse of current causes a selinduced emf in the coll which by Lenz's Law tries to keep the current flowing and may cause arcing across the control switch contacts. The diode allows a path for the dissipation ofthis ‘oltage and prevents this possible arcing. This may also be called a free-wheel diode. 28- Fig. S92 FLY-WHEEL OR FREE-WHEEL DIODE ‘THE ZENER DIODE ‘This is similar to an ordinary diode except that itis designed to breakdown on reverse bine and pass current without damage tothe diode. ‘You will remember that, with @ P-N diode under reverse bias conditions, the only current flowing is due to the minority carriers passing across the depletion layer ‘As can be seen ftom the graph (figure 54) ifthe reverse bias is increased, there is Ite feffect on the flow ofthe minority carriers, ifthe reverse bias is increased to the point of ‘breakdown the current increases rapidly. In the rectifier diodes discussed so far the designers make sure that the eystem gets nowhere near this value of reverse voltage Dbecauise the diode would be destroyed. However, the Zener diode makes use ofthis, brealdown or avalanche condition, (on forward bias the Zener diode acts the same as an ordinary diode and with a voltage ‘00,3 9 0.7V allows current to low freely. On reverse bias, initially the diode will be ‘off but as the reverse voltage increases beyond a certain level the unit will breakdown ‘and an avalanche current wil result. Fig. 54 ZENER DIODE - GRAPH OF VOLTAGE AGAINST CURRENT -29- ‘To look at the breakdown mechanism in @ litle more detail. As the reverse bias increases the acceleration ofthe electrons increases and they dislodge other electrons a they collide with the atoms. More electrons are now created to cause more Collisions, This continues until a situation is reached which is uncontrollable, an avalanche current is produced and the diode could be damaged. However, ifa resistor (of a suitable value is placed in series with the diode the current can be limited which ensures no overheating and no damage. ‘The Zener diode is always connected in REVERSE BIAS, ie cathode to positive, anode to negative, At the required breakdown voltage, determined by the doping levels, the Zener will breakdown, but if the reverse voltage Is reduced then the Zener will again ‘become a blocking diode. “Looking at the graph again you can see that the voltage across the diode remains virtually constant atthe breakdown voltage vale even though the current through it hhas increased. The Zener is therefore a CONSTANT VOLTAGE, VARIABLE CURRENT device. They are made in a wide range of breakdown voltages (2 to 200V being typical) land algo a wide range of power ratings from half a Watt to many Watts. The Zener diode symbol is shown in figure 55, Pi = Fig. 55 ZENER DIODE SYMBOL ‘The Zener diode can be used as a voltage stabilizer, ie to keep the voltage constant across a circuit irrespective of load current or suppy voltage variations. With reference to figure 56: (a) Ifthe load current i: increases, the Zener current decreases by the same ‘amount, and if decreases the Zener current increases by the same amount thts maintaining constant voltage across the load at all times. (©) Ifthe supply voltage should increase, then the current through the Zener {increases while the increase in voltage appears across Ro not across the Zener. The Zener voltage remains at breakdown value irrespective of the {nerease in current through it.I the input voltage falls, Zener current decreases and the voltage across Ro falls, but again the voltage across the Zener and the load remains constant Fig. 56 VOLTAGE STABILISER CIRCUIT -30- “The property of the Zener means it can also be used as a reverse voltage switch, ie it can be arranged to breakdown at a certain reverse voltage to activate a switch, as used {in transistorized regulators and protection systems, ‘THE SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (THYRISTOR} ‘The SCR is a P-N-P-N semiconductor switching device, which has three terminals ANODE, CATHODE and GATE. {An explanation of the operation of the SCR can be carried out using the two transistor fanalogy. Transistors are covered in Book 2 in this series {module 4) and you may wish to read through their operation now and come back to this section, If the two centre regions of the SCR are regarded as being split diagonally as shown in figure 58B, it becomes two interconnected transistors TRI and TR2 (igure S&C}. stot. oe 0) cvs NS sanction? care LP | saetens nel Exo" 9) N Fig. 87 SCR SYMBOL & CONSTRUCTION Fig. 58 SCR OPERATION ‘TRL is aP-N-P transistor and TR2 is an N-P-N transistor. With the anode (A) postive to the eathode (K), the base collector junctions (J2) are reverse biased and apart from ‘small leakage current no current flows. Ia pulse of current is injected into the gate terminal this turns TR2 on, this base current produces a larger collector current in TR2 which also forms the conduction path for the base current of TRI, which increases its collector eurrent and forms the base current of TR2, sie ‘The SCR is now self-sustaining and the gate supply (G} can be removed. Typically a few microseconds of a small current applied to the gate wil turn the SCR ‘ON. ‘The device will eemain in its conducting state until: 1 The device is reverse biased, i positive to cathode, negative to anode. 2 The supply is removed, 3 The voltage across the device is reduced so that the current falls below its holding value’ (see Characteristic Graph figure 59). cme lanevense cue Fig. 59 GRAPH OF SCR CHARACTERISTICS Figure 59 shows a graph of the characteristics for an SCR for different values of gate voltage. The points a, b and c represent values at which the junction reverse bias is bvercome and the SCR conducts, known as breakover' voltages. a’ represents the lowest voltage and ‘c'the highest gate voltage (a toc effectively give a range of break over voltages the unit will work on}. Once the SCR is conducting the voltage across it is typically 1V. ‘The SCR can be made to carry a wide range of currents from 1A to 100A, Figure 60 shows diflerent rypes of SCR 1m aircraft aystems, the SCR would be typically used in frewire control, windscreen heating control ete. In windscreen heat control, the SCR can be gated at the beginning for at any point through-out the half eycle. The earlier itis gated then more eurrent will flow to the windscreen, the later itis gated then less current will fo, ‘The basic SCR, when fed with ac, will switch off ater one half eycle asthe other half cycle will reverse bias the SCR. So it only allows half power through. Bo f\ eH VIVTV Fig. 61 GRAPHS OF SCR INPUTS & OUTPUTS ‘THE TRIAC ATRIAC consists of two SCR’s connected in parallel but in opposition and controlled by the same gate, Its triggered on both half eycies and therefore one SCR conducts fon one half eycle and the other one conducts on the other halfcyele. Figure 62 shows the symbol and figure 63 shows the circuit ure ° wt Fig. 62 TRIAC SYMBOL wz — [| wr Fig. 63: TRIAC CIRCUIT ‘The TRIAC is used in windscreen heat control and as a lamp dimamer or motor speed control for such things as electric drills, Because ican conduct either way the terminals are not shown as + or~ but as NTI and MT2 (Main Terminal 1 and Main Terminal 2} 33. ‘THE LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED) |An LED consists of junction diode made from the semiconductor compound such as falliam arsenide phosphide (depending on colour ~ see below). emits light when. forward biased, the amount of light emitted is in direct proportion to the current flow. escocenr woe] fy Fig. 64 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE & SYMBOL ‘The LED consists of a PLN junction. When switched ON itis forward biased and lectrons move across the junetion from the N side (cathode) to the P side anode) where they recombine with holes near the junction. The same occurs with holes going [cross the junction from the P side, Every recombination of an electron and a hole ‘Causes the electron to fall into a lower energy fevel and results jn the release of a ‘certain amount of energy, causing, in most semiconductors, a temperature rise. In the LED the material used causes most of that energy’to be emitted as light. Bach re-combination catises a photon of light to be admitted , the process being called Electroluminescence. The photon flight) gets out of the LED Because the junction is formed very close tothe surface of the material. The colour ofthe light emitted depends on its wavelength and this depends on the band-gap energy of the materials forming the P-N junction. Fig. 65 SECTION OF A TYPICAL LED Im silicon and germanium diodes the electrons and holes re-combine by a nom radiative process and produce no optical emission. This is because of the use of indirect band-gap materials, In LEDs direct band-gap materials are used. Most LEDs use about 50 milliwatts (mW) of power and have an efficiency (lumens per ‘watt (m/W) sighificandy higher than the standard incandescent lamp. -34- ‘The colour ofthe light emission depends on the composition and impurity content of the compound sed. Table 1 shows some of the compounds used and there are many alternatives (there should be no need to commit the table to memory} coLouR COMPOUND Intoroo Salm asoise ee Salm aeoif hose Grange Gall phospnae etow ‘mim gum inn shop Seon ‘Suma gti pose Vie ‘rr gate io Pore ‘tse mtn purl pare package ‘TABLE 1 LED COMPOUNDS An LED can be made to produce more than one colour, for example: + Bi-colour LED. This uses two LEDs in the one package connected in parallel, ‘opposition. Current flow in ane direction produces one colour (eg green) and current flow in the other produces another colour (eg red) + Tri-colour LED. This uses two diodes connected in series opposition with their cathodes connected together. There are three connections. Number 1 going to the anode of diode 1, number 2 going to the anode of diode 2 and the third longest) going to the common cathode, When diode | is ON it will emit red, when diode 2is ON it will emit green and when both are ON the two colours will ‘combine to produce yellow. + RGB LED. Contains red, green and blue diodes with up te 4 wire connectors, mn airerah they can be used for indicators, dot matrix displays, seven segment displays, starburst displays and iimination (ighting LEDs using up to SW of power ~ ‘which is large for LEDS) mooet LSE Fig. 66 SEVEN SEGMENT LED DISPLAY In the 7-segment display starburst display for numerical indication, as shown in figures 66 and 67, each segment is an LED mounted within a reflective cavity with plastic overlay, -35- Nw VN Fig. 67 STARBURST DISPLAY When used with an ae supply the LED should be protected against reverse breakdown, this can be done with a conventional diode connected in shunt across the LED. On reverse voltage the diode will conduct at about O.4V protecting the LED which would breakdown at about 3V reverse voltage “The voltage drop across a conducting LED is approximately 1.7V and it will have an ‘external resistor connected in series to limit the forward current (typically 10m) External Resistor When used on its own the LED must have an external resistor in series with it to limit the forward current, which typically would be 10mA (0.014). Ifthe voltage drop across S conducting LED Is approximately 1,6v the value of the external resistor can be ccaleulated, eg: External resistor(R} «~~ supply voltage = L6V 0.014 I supply voltage is OV then R Parad Oo1A = 7400 ‘Testing ‘Never connect an LED directly across a battery or any de supply as the surge of Current will destroy the LED, There must always be a resistor connected in series with the battery to limit the current, To test an LED use a special tester or make up a circuit with a resister (typical value Ik} in series with a supply of 12Vde or less, ‘Connecting the test circuit positive to anode, negative to cathode and the LED should ‘emit. ‘THE SCHOTTKY DIODE Also known as a Hot Carrier Diode and named after the German physicist Walter Schottky. ‘This diode has a rectifying metal to semiconductor junction (as opposed to most other diodes which are semiconductor to semiconductor junctions) which means it very fast switching, Several metals may be used, including gold and aluminum, which are fused directly to a semiconductor material 36- Since the mobility of electrons is greater than holes an N-type semi-conductor is used Current flow in this diode differs from current flow in conventional P-N junction diodes in that the minority carriers do not take any part in the process. ‘The diode has very low capacitance and high switching speeds (in the region of 100 pico seconds ~ although faster ones have been developed). It produces less noise and hhas a smaller forward conducting voltage (0.15 to 0.45¥) than conventional silicon P-N diodes (normally between 0.6 and 1,7V). ae Fig. 68 SCHOTTKY DIODE SYMBOL ‘The basic constriction isa piece of aluminum fused to an N-type semiconductor. Some of the aluminum atoms diffuse into the silicon because altrsinum has @ valency (of 3. This malkes for a very small P region. The custent carver is almost 100% electrons due t the fre electrons in the N-type semiconductor and the metal ‘The Schottky diode is used in the making of logic gates as switching time is fast. ‘THE VARACTOR DIODE May be called the Varicap diode, Variable Capacitance diode, Variable Reactance diode, or a Tuning diode Under reverse bias conditions (remember, no current flows}, any junction diode can be regarded as a parallel plate capacitor having two plates (the P and N regions) that are Separated by a dielectric (the depletion layer), This property is.an unwanted side effect in most diodes but the Varactor diode is designed to exploit this property. The capacitance will vary depending on the area and width of the depletion layer. A narrow ‘depletion layer gives a higher capacitance than a wider depletion layer, Lf thie reverse bias voltage can be varied then we have a variable capacitor typically between 2-1Opf. The depletion layer thickness (T) depends on the square root of the voltage (V) and the thiclmess governs the eapacitance ofthe unit. Capacitance (C) is. inversely proportional to depletion layer thickness (C « T) and therefore C «VV. Fig. 69 SYMBOL - VARACTOR DIODE 37. “These diodes are used to tune TV and radio frequencies in special circuits, which allow the set to loclon to the desired station automatically. They are placed in parallel with fan inductor to form a resonant frequency circuit. Figure 69 shows the symbol and in ‘Some drawings the arrow might be omitted. So by changing the reverse bias voltage the capacitance can be controlled s0 ‘controlling frequencies/ phases, ‘THe VARISTOR ‘The Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) is a semiconductor resistor made of zinc oxide semiconductor exystals. When the voltage across this specialised resistor becomes, fo high, the resistor breaks down and becomes a conductor. The action of the ‘Varistor can be compared to a pair of Zener diodes wired back to back in series. Fig. 70 TYPICAL MOV VOLT-AMPERE ‘CHARACTERISTIC GRAPH ‘They are used for transient voltage suppression, voltage stabilisation and switch ‘contact protection. Figure 71 shows the symbol used in drawings and figure 72 shows how a varistor reduces noise spikes in an ac voltage T Fig. 71. MOV SYMBOL ‘The varistor is connected across the secondary of the transformer and at normal voltage levels has a high resistance and takes very litle current. However, when the voltage exceeds the brealedown voltage, i will conduct. In figure 72 it is used to reduce noise (an-wanted signal/oueput) in the output of the transformer and clips off the noise spikes. -38- ‘The varistor switches very fas, unlike Zener diodes that are slow. The principle described here could also be used for switch contact protection. Wen] Fig. 72 VARISTOR NOISE SPIKE CLIPPING ACTION ‘THE PHOTO CONDUCTIVE DIODE ‘The photodiode is a P-N junction that is reversed biased in normal operation and its cease has a transparent window through which light can enter, {As it operates in reverse bins there will be leakage current (minority carriers) which inereases in proportion to the amount of light falling on the junction. The light energy breaks the bonding in the erystal lattice of the semiconductor and produces electrons ‘and holes to increase the leakage current. Figure 73 shows the drawing symbol and figure 74 shows a graph of the characteristics of the photodiode. ‘yf Fig. 73. SYMBOL - PHOTO CONDUCTIVE DIODE, -39- oe CURE) oe voerce y coe vote) Fig. 74 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHOTODIODE, ‘Typically silicon diodes are used, as their leakage current with no light (dark current) ig much lower than germanium, The sensitivity ies between 10mA/Im to about 50mA/lm (Im = lumen which is the amount of light emitted from a light source 1 fandela strong) and the spectral response covers the visible range to the infrared ange. Photodiodes used with laser aystems can operate at very high frequencies. They fre fast operating and are used in laser gyros and as an optical receiver for laser systems, ‘THE GUNN DIODE, “These are used for generating microwave radio signals at very high ffequencies up to 35,000 MHz eg microwave oscillators ALA Fig. 75 GUNN DIODE CONSTRUCTION ‘Gunn diodes do not have a deliberate P-N junction like other diodes and make very poor ‘one-way valves”. They are simply a piece of N-type gallium arsenide (GaAs) Semiconductor with two leads attached. -40- |When very high voltages (500 volts per mm of semiconductor) are applied across the diode, electrons are transferred to a high energy state where they lose their mobility, ie they are no longer able to conduct through the material so the resistance of the semiconductor mereases as the voltage across it increases. The diode has a negative resistance region, Be Fig. 76 VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS FOR A GUNN, ‘As can be seen from the graph (igure 76}, the diode is biased with hundreds of volts land lange currents flowing through i. I is usually pulsed intermittently to prevent it from burning up but sill needs to be kept cool with a refrigeration process. ‘TESTING DIODES Its essential the diode is connected the correct way round in a circuit, so a coloured band or spot usually marks the cathode (k) end. itis necessary to verily the connections in the absence of any marking then a test meter is used. Using an analogue test meter such as the AVO-meter it should be Femembered that the BLACK (NEGATIVE) terminal becomes the positive lead and RED [POSITIVE] terminal the negative lead. When a digital test meter is used such as a "FLUKE! it has a switch selection for testing diodes. “The meter shown in figure 77 displays the forward voltage drop (Ve) up to 2V and beeps briefly for one diode drop (Vs « 0.7y) for the forward bias test (a) For reverse Dias or open circuit the meter displays OL (b, and if there is a short circuit the meter ‘emits a continuows tone () -41- © |] rs Fig. 77 TESTING OF DIODES For digital multi-meters the procedure is: 1, Select meter to ‘test diode’ range. 2. Connect red (ve lead to anode and black (ve) lead to cathode. The diode ‘should conduct and the meter wil display the voltage érop in mV, Forward bias. The test meter in igure 77a also gives a beep. 3. Reverse the connections {reverse bias). The diode should NOT conduct and the meter will display ‘off scale’ or similar, For analogue multi-meters: 1, Set range to alow value resistance (say x 109) 2, Connect black lead (ve) to the anode and red lead (-e) to the eathode. The fiode should conduct and the resistance value should be low (exact figure not felevant), NOTE. The polarity ofthe leads are reversed in the resistance range fo the black lead becomes POSITIVE and the red lead becomes NEGATIVE, 3, Reverse the connections, The diode should NOT conduct and the resistance value should show ‘infinite: ae

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