Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Refraction
Theory, Acquisition, and Interpretation
Craig Lippus
Manager, Seismic Products
Geometrics, Inc.
December 3, 2007
Geometrics, Inc.
Owned by Oyo Corporation,
Japan
In business since 1969
Seismographs, magnetometers,
EM systems
Land, airborne, and marine
80 employees
Located in San Jose,
California
Fundamentals of Seismic
Waves
4
K+
Vp = 3
Vs =
A. It doesnt.
Fluids do not carry shear waves. This
knowledge, combined with earthquake
observations, is what lead to the
discovery that the earths outer core is
a liquid rather than a solid shear
wave shadow.
p-wave velocity vs. s-
wave velocity
p-wave velocity must always
be greater than s-wave
velocity. Why?
4
K+
3
Vp 2 K 4
= = +
Vs 2
3
Seismic Wavefront
Ray
Huygens Principle
Snells Law
Reciprocity
Q. What is a seismic
wavefront?
Q. What is a seismic
wavefront?
A. Surface of constant phase, like
ripples on a pond, but in three
dimensions.
Q. What is a seismic
wavefront?
The speed at which a wavefront
travels is the seismic velocity of
the material, and depends on the
materials elastic properties. In a
homogenious medium, a
wavefront is spherical, and its
shape is distorted by changes in
the seismic velocity.
Seismic wavefront
Q. What is a ray?
Q. What is a ray?
sin(ic ) V 1
=
sin 90 V 2
V1
sin(ic ) = (2)
V2
V1 (3)
ic = sin 1
V2
Snells Law
Critical Refraction
ac cd df
T2 = + +
V1 V 2 V1
h
ac = df =
cos(ic )
bc = de = h tan(ic )
cd = x bc de = x 2h tan(ic )
2h x 2h tan(ic )
T2 = +
V 1 cos(ic ) V2
2h 2h tan(ic ) x
T2 = +
V 1 cos(ic ) V2 V2
1 sin(ic ) x
T 2 = 2 h +
V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 cos(ic ) V 2
V2 V 1 sin(ic ) x
T 2 = 2h +
V 1V 2 cos(ic ) V 1V 2 cos(ic ) V 2
V 2 V 1 sin(ic ) x
T 2 = 2h +
V 1V 2 cos(ic ) V 2
V2
sin(ic )
x
T 2 = 2hV 1 V 1 +
V 1V 2 cos(ic ) V 2
V1
sin ic = (Snells Law)
V2
1
sin(ic )
T 2 = 2hV 1
sin(ic ) + x
V 1V 2 cos(ic ) V 2
1 sin 2 (ic ) x
T 2 = 2hV 1 +
V 1V 2 sin(ic ) cos(ic ) V 2
cos 2 (ic ) x
T 2 = 2hV 1 +
V 1V 2 sin(ic ) cos(ic ) V 2
cos(ic ) x
T 2 = 2h +
V 2 sin(ic ) V 2
V 1 = V 2 sin(ic )
2h cos(ic ) x
T2 = + (4)
V1 V2
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Xc V 2 V 1
Depth = (5)
2 V 2 +V1
{
Depth
Using Seismic Refraction
to Map the Subsurface
Xc V 2 V 1 T iV 1
Depth = = (6)
2 V 2 +V1 V11
2 cos(sin )
For layer parallel to
V 2
surface
{
Depth
Summary of Important
Equations
For refractor
sin i V 1 parallel to surface
= (1) Snells Law
sin r V 2
2h cos(ic ) x
T2 = + (4)
V1 V2
V1
sin(ic ) = (2)
V2 Xc V 2 V 1
h= (5)
2 V 2 +V1
V1
ic = sin 1 (3)
V2 Ti V 1
h=
1 V 1 (6)
2 cos sin
V 2
Ti 2V 1
h1 =
V1
2 cos(sin 1 )
V2
cos(sin 1 V 1 / V 3)
Ti 3 Ti 2 V 2
cos(sin 1 V 1 / V 2)
h2 = + h1
1
2 cos(sin V 2 / V 3)
cos(sin 1 V 1 / V 4) 2h 2 cos(sin 1 2 / V 4)
Ti 4 Ti 2 cos(sin 1 V 1 / V 2) V2 V3
h3 = + h1 + h 2
2 cos(sin 1 V 3 / V 4)
Crossover Distance vs.
Depth
Depth/Xc vs. Velocity
Contrast
Important Rule of Thumb
The Length of the Geophone
Spread Should be 4-5 times
the depth of interest.
Dipping Layer
Defined as Velocity Boundary
that is not Parallel to Ground Surface
V 1mu = sin(ic )
ic + = sin 1 V 1md
ic = sin 1 V 1mu
1
ic = (sin 1 V 1md + sin 1 V 1mu )
2
1
= (sin 1 V 1md sin 1 V 1mu )
2
Dipping Layer
From Snells Law,
V1
V2 =
sin(ic )
V 1Tiu
2 cos(ic )
Du =
cos
V 1Tid
2 cos(ic )
Dd =
cos
Dipping Layer
The true velocity V2 can also be calculated
by multiplying the harmonic mean of the up-
dip and down-dip velocities by the cosine of
the dip.
2V 2UV 2 D
V2 = cos
V 2U + V 2 D
What if V2 < V1?
What if V2 < V1?
sin i V 1
Snells Law =
sin r V 2
What if V2 < V1?
sin i V 1
Snells Law =
sin r V 2
What if V2 < V1?
If V1>V2, then as i increases, r
increases, but not as fast.
If V2<V1, the energy
refracts toward the
normal.
V1
V2
Delay
x
Time Method
V1
V2
hA AB hA tan(ic ) hB tan(ic ) hB
TAB + +
V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 V2 V2 V 1 cos(ic )
Delay
x
Time Method
V1
V2
hA AB hA tan(ic ) hB tan(ic ) hB
TAB + +
V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 V2 V2 V 1 cos(ic )
hA AP hA tan(ic ) hP tan(ic ) hP
TAP + +
V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 V2 V2 V 1 cos(ic )
Delay
x
Time Method
V1
V2
hA AB hA tan(ic ) hB tan(ic ) hB
TAB + +
V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 V2 V2 V 1 cos(ic )
hA AP hA tan(ic ) hP tan(ic ) hP
TAP + +
V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 V2 V2 V 1 cos(ic )
hB BP hB tan(ic ) hP tan(ic ) hP
TBP + +
V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 V2 V2 V 1 cos(ic )
Delay
x
Time Method
V1
V2
Definition:
t0 = T AP + T BP T AB (7)
t 0 = TAP + TBP TAB
hA AP hA tan(ic ) hP tan(ic ) hP h B BP hB tan(ic ) hP tan(ic ) hP
t0 = + + +
+ +
V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 V 2 V 2 V 1 cos(ic )
V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 V 2 V 2 V 1 cos(ic )
hA AB hA tan(ic ) hB tan(ic ) hB
+ +
V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 V 2 V 2 V 1 cos(ic )
AP + BP AB 2 hp 2hP tan(ic )
t0 = +
V2 V 1 cos(ic ) V2
But from figure above, AB = AP + BP. Substituting, we get
AP + BP AP BP 2 hp 2hP tan(ic )
t0 = +
V2 V 1 cos(ic ) V2
or
V2 V 1 sin(ic )
t 0 = 2hp
V 1V 2 cos(ic ) V 1V 2 cos(ic )
V2
V sin( i c )
t 0 = 2hpV 1
1
V 1V 2 cos(ic ) V 1V 2 cos(ic )
1
sin
i sin( i c )
t 0 = 2hpV 1
c
V 1V 2 cos(ic ) V 1V 2 cos(ic )
1
sin ic sin( i c )
t 0 = 2hpV 1
V 1V 2 cos(ic ) V 1V 2 cos(ic )
cos 2 (ic )
t 0 = 2hpV 1
V 1V 2 sin(ic ) cos(ic )
cos(ic )
t 0 = 2h p
V 2 sin(ic )
cos(ic )
t 0 = 2h p
V 2 sin(ic )
Substituting from Snells Law,
V1
sin i c =
V 2
We get
2hp cos(ic )
t0 = (8)
V1
to 2hp cos(ic ) hp cos(ic )
Delay time at point P = DTP = = = (9)
2 2V 1 V1
Reduced Traveltimes
x
Definition:
TAP = Reduced Traveltime at point P for a source at A
TAP=TAP
From the above figure, TAP is also equal to TAP minus the
Delay Time. From equation 9, we then get
to
T ' AP = TAP DTP = TAP
2
Reduced Traveltimes
x
Earlier, we defined to as
t0 = T AP + T BP T AB (7)
Substituting, we get
T AB (T AP T BP )
T ' AP = + (11)
2 2
The above equation allows a graphical determination of the T
curve. TAB is called the reciprocal time.
Reduced Traveltimes
T AB (T AP T BP )
T ' AP = +
2 2
The first term is represented by the dotted line below:
Reduced Traveltimes
T AB (T AP T BP )
T ' AP = +
2 2
The numerator of the second term is just the difference in the
traveltimes from points A to P and B to P.
Reduced Traveltimes
T AB (T AP T BP )
T ' AP = +
2 2
Important: The second term only applies to refracted arrivals. It
does not apply outside the zone of overlap, shown in yellow
below.
Reduced Traveltimes
T AB (T AP T BP )
T ' AP = +
2 2
The T (reduced traveltime) curve can now be determined graphically
by adding (TAP-TBP)/2 (second term from equation 9) to the TAB/2 line
(first term from equation 9). The slope of the T curve is 1/V2.
We can now calculate the delay time at point P. From Equation 10,
we see that
to
T ' AP = TAP (10)
2
According to equation 8
to hp cos(ic )
= (8)
2 V1
So
t0 hp cos(ic )
T ' AP = TAP = TAP (12)
2 V1
Now, referring back to equation 4
2h cos(ic ) x
T2 = + (4)
V1 V2
Its fair to say that
2hp cos(ic ) x
TAP + (13)
V1 V2
Or
hp cos(ic ) x
T ' AP = + (14)
V1 V2
Referring back to equation 9, we see that
hp cos(ic )
DTp = (9)
V1
Substituting into equation 14, we get
hp cos(ic ) x x
T ' AP = + = DTp +
V1 V2 V2
Or
x
DTp = T ' AP (15)
V2
Solving equation 9 for hp, we get
D TPV 1
hP = (16)
c o s (ic)
We know that the incident angle i is critical when r is 90o.
From Snells Law,
sin i V 1
=
sin r V 2
sin ic V 1
=
sin 90 V 2
V1
sin ic =
V2
V1
1
ic = sin
V 2
Substituting back into equation 16,
DTpV 1
hp = (16)
cos(ic )
we get
DTpV 1
hp =
1 V 1
cos sin (17)
V 2
In summary, to determine the
depth to the refractor h at any
given point p:
1.Measure V1 directly from the
traveltime plot.
2.Measure the difference in traveltime
to point P from opposing shots (in
zone of overlap only).
3.Measure the reciprocal time TAB.
T (T AP T BP )
4. Per equation 11, T ' A P =
AB
+ ,
2 2
divide the reciprocal time TAB by 2.
T (T AP T BP )
5. Per equation 11, T ' A P = 2 +
AB
,
2
add the difference time at each
point P to TAB/2 to get the reduced
traveltime at P, TAP.
6. Fit a line to the reduced
traveltimes, compute V2 from slope.
7. Using equation 15,
x
DTp = T ' AP (15)
V2
DTpV 1
hp = (16)
1 V 1
cos sin
V 2