Jacquelyn K.
Mallette University of Georgia
Ted G. Futris University of Georgia
Geoffrey L. Brown
Assaf Oshri University of Georgia
The Influence of Father Involvement and
Interparental Relationship Quality on Adolescent
Mothers Maternal Identity
Guided by maternal role attainment and iden-
tity theory perspectives, the authors examined
the association between prenatal and postbirth
father involvement and maternal identity for
adolescent mothers and the moderating effects
of interparental relationship quality. Mailed sur-
veys were completed by 125 mothers age 1419
years (67.2% White) who were recruited from a
statewide school-based program. Maternal iden-
tity was operationalized as a latent construct
Department of Human Development and Family Science,
College of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of
Georgia, 114 Dawson Hall, 305 Sanford Dr., Athens, GA
30602 (jkm0612@uga.edu).
Department of Human Development and Family Science,
College of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of
Georgia, 225 Hoke Smith Annex, 300 Carlton St., Athens,
GA 30602.
Department of Human Development and Family Science,
College of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of
Georgia, 205 Family Science Center (House A), 403 Sanford
Dr., Athens, GA 30602.
Department of Human Development and Family Science,
College of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of
Georgia, 208 Family Science Center (House A), 403 Sanford
Dr., Athens, GA 30602.
Key Words: adolescent parenthood, fathering, identity the-
ory, interparental relationship, maternal role attainment.
476 Family Relations 64 (October 2015): 476489
DOI:10.1111/fare.12132
University of Georgia
composed of three indicators representing role
validation, role strain, and identity salience.
Analyses revealed that prenatal father involve-
ment was positively associated with fathers
postbirth engagement with their children and
indirectly associated with maternal identity. The
association between father involvement pre and
post birth as well as the association between
fatherchild involvement and maternal identity
were moderated by the presence of a cooper-
ative relationship between mothers and their
childs father, consistent with a moderated medi-
ation model. Implications for future research
and practice are presented.
Although rates of teenage pregnancy have
steadily declined since 2000 (Hamilton, Martin,
& Ventura, 2013), there remains a need to
understand the mechanisms that influence the
health trajectories of this vulnerable popu-
lation and their children. Early childbearing
has negative psychological consequences for
adolescent females, including increased par-
enting stress (Larson, 2004) and depression
(e.g., Whitson, Martinez, Ayala, & Kaufman,
2011). These adverse consequences are asso-
ciated with less effective parenting practices
Adolescent Maternal Identity
and greater challenges adjusting to the moth-
ering role (Florsheim et al., 2003). Moreover,
children of adolescent mothers are at greater
risk of experiencing failure to thrive, abuse,
neglect, and impaired cognitive development
(Whitson et al., 2011). In contrast, successful
adaption to the maternal role can provide a
mother with the ability to nurture and support
her childs physical, emotional, behavioral,
and social development (Logsdon, Wisner, &
Pinto-Foltz, 2006; Rubin, 1984). Establishing
a positive maternal role identity may be more
challenging for adolescent females, but with
available support, in particular from their childs
father, they can function as well as adult women
(Beers & Hollo, 2009; Lesser, Koniak-Griffin,
& Anderson, 1999). Although research suggests
that maternal role identity affects both maternal
and child well-being, research examining the
predictors of positive maternal role identity
among adolescent mothers is limited.
Fathers can have a meaningful, albeit com-
plex, influence on maternal functioning. Fathers
influences appear to begin even before the birth
of the child, with past research suggesting that
the benefits of father involvement for moth-
ers mental and physical health and well-being
can be extended to the prenatal period (e.g.,
Fagan & Lee, 2010). Furthermore, research on
the transition to parenthood suggests that pre-
natal involvement may set the stage for fathers
early involvement in the first years of their chil-
drens lives; that is, father involvement before
the birth of the child is a consistent predictor
of father involvement post birth (Bronte-Tinkew,
Ryan, Carrano, & Moore, 2007; Cabrera, Fagan,
& Farrie, 2008). These findings strongly suggest
that fathers prenatal involvement may influence
maternal functioning both directly and indirectly
through fathers involvement in childrearing fol-
lowing the birth of their child.
Past research also has examined the associ-
ation between interparental relationship quality
and father involvement, documenting that these
are related but not redundant constructs (e.g.,
Hohmann-Marriott, 2011). Nonetheless, few
investigations have considered the joint and
interactive influences of the interparental rela-
tionship and father involvement on either child
or maternal outcomes. Such an investigation
seems relevant for adolescent parents, given
the heterogeneity in their living arrangements,
relationship status, and parenting relationship
quality (e.g., Furstenberg, Brooks-Gunn, &
477
Chase-Lansdale, 1989). Variation in the quan-
tity and quality of interactions between mothers
and fathers may affect both the stability of father
involvement across the transition to parenthood
and the meaningfulness of fathers involvement
to mothers well-being; specifically, fathers may
be more likely to maintain prenatal involvement
following the birth of their child if they are part
of a supportive partnership. Indeed, both adoles-
cent and nonadolescent fathers are more likely
to stay involved with their young children over
time when they experience a supportive relation-
ship with the childs mother (Cutrona, Hessling,
Bacon, & Russell, 1998; Fagan & Palkovitz,
2007). In contrast, fathers in hostile or under-
mining relationships may show less stability in
their prenatal to postbirth involvement.
The quality of the interparental relationship
may also moderate the association between
father involvement post birth and maternal
identity. For instance, father involvement in
the context of a supportive relationship may be
seen as positive from the mothers perspective
and spill over to her sense of role validation
and identity salience. In contrast, fathers who
continue to be involved despite a conflictual rela-
tionship may elicit stress in mothers, causing
deleterious effects on their well-being (Fagan &
Palkovitz, 2007). This may be particularly true
when the interparental relationship is hostile or
contentious, in which case father involvement
may be perceived by mothers as an intrusion on
their maternal identity (Cutrona et al., 1998).
In sum, the present study moves beyond prior
investigations examining main effects models on
father involvement and interparental relationship
quality. Specifically, we examined the degree to
which a cooperative interparental relationship
may enhance or mitigate (a) the stability of father
involvement from pre to post birth and (b) the
relations between father involvement and mater-
nal identity. A better understanding of these
complex associations seems particularly relevant
given the recent federal initiatives aimed at pro-
moting responsible fatherhood and family stabil-
ity (S. L. Brown, 2010). In the sections that fol-
low, we provide additional information on each
of the paths presented in the conceptual model
depicted in Figure 1.
Maternal Identity
Based on the work of Rubin (1984) and
Mercer (1986), maternal role attainment (MRA)
478
FIGURE 1. Conceptual Model of the Association Between Fathers Prenatal Involvement and Maternal
Identity as Mediated by Post-Birth FatherChild Involvement and Moderated by Interparental Relationship
Quality.
has been described as a complex cognitive and
social process that encompasses both behavioral
and affective experiences. These experiences
include mothers becoming attached to their
infant, expressing pleasure and gratification in
their role, and gaining feelings of competency
based on significant others affirmation of her
role performance. Thus, maternal identity is con-
sidered to be the endpoint of the MRA process
that reflects a mothers feelings of external vali-
dation of her role performance, positivity toward
her child, and role salience (Mercer, 1986;
Nuttbrock & Freudiger, 1991; Rubin, 1984).
Building on this conceptualization of mater-
nal identity development, in the current study
we examined external role validationthe
belief a mother has of others feelings about
her competence as a parentas an indicator
of maternal identity (Mercer, 1986; Rubin,
1984). Whereas self-efficacy is considered
to be reflective of ones belief in ones own
ability to perform parenting tasks, perceived
parental competence refers to perceptions
that others hold about the parents ability to
care for a child (Bryanton, Gagnon, Hatem,
& Johnston, 2008). These beliefs and sense
of role validation directly influence parenting
practices (Coleman & Karraker, 2000) and
buffer some of the adverse effects, such as
maternal depression, child temperament, and
poverty (Knoche, Givens, & Sheridan, 2007),
on parenting quality. Maternal role validation
Family Relations
is particularly important among young moth-
ers, who are at increased risk of feeling less
competent as parents (Knoche et al, 2007).
According to Pearlins (1989) stress process
framework, parenting role strain, or stress,
involves negative feelings toward the self
and the child that emanate from the mothers
perception that the demands of parenting
exceed the resources she has to cope with
such demands (Deater-Deckard, 1998). For a
pregnant teenager, the transition to motherhood
can be particularly stressful. While negotiating
the developmental tasks of adolescence (e.g.,
self-identity, establishing independence from
family), they also have to cope with establishing
their identity and preparing for the off-time
transition to motherhood (Stevenson, Maton,
& Teti, 1999). As a consequence, competing
developmental demands can create role strain,
which interferes with maternal identity attain-
ment (Flanagan, McGrath, Meyer, & Garcia
Coll, 1995; Mercer, 1986). Conversely, mothers
with less role strain are more likely to actively
take on parenting role behaviors (Florsheim
et al., 2003). Thus, role strain is an important
aspect of maternal identity that reflects ones
self-appraisals about, and positivity toward, the
parenting role (Abidin, 1992).
On a related note, identity theory (Burke,
2003; Stryker, 1968) suggests that role identities
are aspects of the self that serve as behav-
ioral guides. In terms of motherhood, women
Adolescent Maternal Identity
who feel that their maternal role is important
are more likely to demonstrate readiness to
actively engage in behaviors associated with
that role (Nuttbrock & Freudiger, 1991). This
willingness to enact a role, also referred to as
identity salience (Stryker & Serpe, 1994), is
another critical facet of maternal identity in that
it reflects how often a mother thinks or talks
about her child (e.g., psychological presence)
and her desire to be an active part of her childs
life (Nuttbrock & Freudiger, 1991; Stryker
& Serpe, 1994). Adolescent mothers whose
maternal roles are more prominent are more
likely to be motivated to participate in parenting
behaviors that benefit their child (Lesser et al.,
1999; Logsdon et al., 2006).
The Influence of Fathers on Maternal
Identity
The MRA perspective, which is based on and
consistent with role theory, purports that a
mothers adaptation to the social and psycholog-
ical expectations of the maternal role is guided
by others in her social system (Mercer, 1986). A
mothers maternal identity is influenced by her
perception of significant others as accepting and
supportive of her in the parenting role (Rubin,
1984). Support from others during and after
the pregnancy decreases parental stress (e.g.,
Letourneau, Stewart, & Barnfather, 2004) and
promotes positive maternal behaviors, mental
health, and well-being (Whitson et al., 2011).
Adolescents can be as successful as adults in
adapting to their parenting role when they are
embedded within a strong social support system
(Beers & Hollo, 2009).
Specific to the current study, support from the
babys father has been shown to influence mater-
nal well-being (Turner, Grindstaff, & Phillips,
1990). MRA theory suggests that mothers who
perceive rejection by the father of their infant are
more likely to experience role strain and feel less
competent as a parent, which adversely affects
their ability to care for their child in a posi-
tive way (Rubin, 1984). Similarly, identity the-
ory suggests that role identities are more salient
when one is embedded in a network of relation-
ships that reinforce ones commitment to the role
(Stryker, 1968). A belief that the father does not
support her identity performance is related to a
decrease in a mothers self-esteem, self-concept,
and psychological well-being (Thoits, 1991).
Thus, a fathers shared expectations and support
479
of the mothers efforts may enhance her abil-
ity to identify with her new role as a mother.
In this study we examined how fathers influ-
ence adolescent maternal identity on the basis
of their involvement during pregnancy and with
their child post birth as well as the supportive
nature of their interparental relationship.
Adolescent females consider the babys
father to be a significant source of potential
support and usually desire his involvement
during the pregnancy (e.g., transporting the
mother to doctors appointments, buying clothes
for the baby; Gee & Rhodes, 1999) and after
the birth (Letourneau et al., 2004). Adolescents
who perceive that their babys father is involved
during the pregnancy are more likely to exhibit
behaviors that will be beneficial for the baby,
develop a more secure attachment to the baby
during and after pregnancy (Whitson et al.,
2011), and show higher levels of adaptation
to the maternal role, regardless of other life
stressors (Turner et al., 1990). After the birth,
continuous fatherchild involvement has been
associated with adolescent mothers feelings of
competence, self-esteem, and satisfaction as a
parent (Cutrona et al., 1998; Kalil, Ziol-Guest,
& Coley, 2005). Unfortunately, compared
with adult fathers, adolescent fathers are less
involved with their children, or have waning
involvement over time (Cutrona et al., 1998;
Kalil et al., 2005). Father absence or minimal
involvement has been associated with higher
levels of depressive symptoms and anxiety (Gee
& Rhodes, 2003) and increased parenting stress
(Kalil et al., 2005) in adolescent mothers.
The Moderating Effects of Interparental
Relationship Quality
Adolescent relationships are often short lived
and involve frequent breakups and conflict
(Gee & Rhodes, 2003; Letourneau et al., 2004).
However, a cooperative interparental relation-
ship (e.g., supportive, minimal conflict) has
been found to directly influence a fathers
involvement with the mother and child (Beers
& Hollo, 2009; G. L. Brown, Schoppe-Sullivan,
Mangelsdorf, & Neff, 2010; Gavin et al., 2002),
even when the parents are not in a romantic rela-
tionship (Futris & Schoppe-Sullivan, 2007). Of
particular relevance to the current study is that
interparental relationship quality may also act as
a moderator. Under conditions of a cooperative
and low conflictual interparental relationship,
480
young fathers are even more likely to maintain
involvement from pregnancy to after the birth
(Gavin et al., 2002; Gee, McNerney, Reiter, &
Leaman, 2007) and up to 3 years postpartum
(Gee et al., 2007).
Despite the modest association, interparental
relationship quality is independent of father
involvement. For example, even when parents
are not romantically involved, emotional support
from fathers is related to adolescent mothers
reduced psychological distress and increased
self-acceptance (Letourneau et al., 2004). Sim-
ilarly, some studies suggest that a fathers
parenting support, but not his involvement
with his children, is associated with decreased
maternal role stress in adult mothers (Harmon
& Perry, 2011). In contrast, a highly conflictual
interparental relationship can threaten ones
maternal identity (Thoits, 1991) and lead to
maternal role strain (Florsheim et al., 2003;
Larson, 2004), thereby diminishing the benefi-
cial maternal effects of an adolescent fathers
involvement with his child. Thus, higher inter-
parental relationship quality may moderate the
positive association between father involvement
and maternal identity. In other words, father
involvement may be helpful for an adolescent
mother only if she perceives a cooperative
relationship with the father.
The Current Study
In this study we examined the proposed theoret-
ical model to explain the relationships between
prenatal and postbirth father involvement,
interparental relationship quality, and maternal
identity. As illustrated in Figure 1, the pro-
posed moderated mediation model tested three
hypotheses: (a) the effects of prenatal father
involvement on maternal identity are mediated
through fathers involvement with their child
post birth; (b) the association between pre-
natal father involvement and postbirth father
involvement (Path a1) will be moderated by
interparental relationship quality (Path a2) such
that the association with father involvement pre
and post birth will be stronger when mothers
perceive higher interparental relationship qual-
ity; and (c) father involvement after the birth
will be positively associated with adolescent
mothers reports of positive maternal identity
(Path b1), especially when mothers perceive
a higher quality relationship with the fathers
(Path b2).
Family Relations
Method
Sample
Participants were recruited during the
20012002 school year through a statewide
school-based program for adolescent parents
from 32 schools in Ohio. The program, which
promotes positive health care and parenting
practices, was delivered in approximately
385 schools to almost 7,500 adolescents each
year. Family and Consumer Science educators
assisted with participant recruitment. Among
the 365 pregnant or parenting teen mothers
enrolled in the program that school year, 292
were present on the day initial screening data
were collected to determine eligibility for and
interest in the study. Among those who agreed
to participate (n = 273), 178 mothers who were
19 or younger at the time of their childs birth
and whose child was younger than 25 months
were selected and mailed a survey that focused
on the parenting and interparental relationship
behaviors of the mothers and fathers. Each
mother received a small stipend for completing
and returning the survey.
The current study is based on complete data
collected from 125 mothers. The age of the
mothers ranged from 14 to 19 years (M = 16.9,
SD = 1.0); 67.2% of the mothers were White,
19.2% were African American, and 14.6% were
Other. The focal child (51.2% female) ranged
in age from 1 to 24 months (M = 9.2, SD = 6.4,
Mdn = 8.0, mode = 3.0). According to mater-
nal reports, the age of the fathers ranged from
15 to 24 years (M = 19.0, SD = 1.9); 64.8%
were White, 23.2% were African American,
and 12.0% were Other. Most of the fathers
(81.6%) did not reside in the same household
with the mother and focal child, and 63.5% lived
within 10 miles of the childs primary residence.
Last, 47.2% were romantically involved with the
mother at the time of the survey. Analyses com-
paring the final sample of 125 mothers to the 53
mothers who did not reply revealed no statisti-
cally significant differences across demographic
characteristics.
Measures
Prenatal Father Involvement. Maternal ratings
assessed the extent (1 = never to 5 = always) to
which the father participated in seven activities
prior to the birth of the baby (e.g., going with
her to doctor visits, buying things for the baby,
Adolescent Maternal Identity
speaking to the baby, feeling the baby move in
her belly). Mean scores were computed, with a
higher score indicating more involvement prior
to the birth ( = .96). To aid in coefficient inter-
pretability and computation of interaction terms,
mean scores were converted to z scores for use
in analyses.
FatherChild Involvement. Mothers indicated
the extent (1 = never to 5 = very often) to which
fathers participated in 11 child-centered tasks
(e.g., play with the child, take the child to the
park, read to the child), six caregiving activ-
ities (e.g., feed the child, change the childs
diapers), and five financial tasks (e.g., shop for
groceries for the child, provide money to sup-
port the child) during the past month (adapted
from Roopnarine et al., 1995). Mean scores
were computed and then converted to z scores,
with higher scores representing more frequent
involvement ( = .98).
Interparental Relationship Quality. Mothers
were asked to indicate how well 10 items
(adapted from Rands, Levinger, & Mellinger,
1981) described their childs father when they
disagreed about something (1 = not at all to
5 = very well). Items represented both coopera-
tion (four items; e.g., He tries to reason with
me, He tries to work out a compromise) and
conflict (six items; e.g., He gets really mad and
starts yelling, He gets sarcastic). Conflict
items were reverse coded, and mean scores
were computed and converted to z scores, with
higher scores indicating a more cooperative
and less conflictual interparental relationship
( = .90).
Maternal Identity. On the basis of MRA
and identity theory, as well as prior research
reviewed earlier (e.g., Miles, Holditch-Davis,
Burchinal, & Brunssen, 2011), we used three
measures to assess the construct of maternal
identity. First, role validation reflects mothers
perception of significant others view of her
parental competence (Rubin, 1984). Mothers
were asked to rate their level of agreement
(1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree)
with 10 items (e.g., He is satisfied with my
child-rearing skills, He feels good about the
amount of involvement I have with our child)
that reflected how they believed the father would
assess their parenting performance (Guidubaldi
& Cleminshaw, 1985). Mean scores were
481
computed, with higher scores indicating higher
external role validation ( = .96). Next, we
assessed role strain, an indicator of parenting
role adjustment (Florsheim et al., 2003), using
an adapted version of the Parenting Stress Index
(Abidin, 1992; Abidin & Brunner, 1995). Moth-
ers rated their level of agreement (1 = strongly
disagree to 6 = strongly agree) with 22 items
reflecting possible parenting stressors (e.g.,
Being a parent is harder than I thought it would
be; I have had more problems raising my
child than I expected; When I think about the
kind of parent I am, I often feel guilty or bad
about myself). Mean scores were computed
such that higher scores reflected lower role
strain ( = .85). Last, identity salience repre-
sents a readiness to actively engage in behaviors
associated with the parenting role and can be
reflected in the psychological presence of the
child to the parent (Nuttbrock & Freudiger,
1991; Stryker & Serpe, 1994). We used eight
items (adapted from Ryan, 1991) to ask mothers
how frequently (1 = never to 5 = always) each
statement was true for them (e.g., Do you find
yourself thinking about where your child is and
what he/she is doing? Do you talk about your
child to others?). Mean scores were computed,
with higher scores indicating stronger identity
salience ( = .85).
Analysis Plan
At the outset, we estimated a measurement
model of the latent variable construct. We then
specified the hypothesized model in which we
tested two interlinked steps. First we ran a medi-
ation model in Mplus Version 7.2 (Muthn &
Muthn, 19982012) in which the path from pre-
natal father involvement to maternal identity was
mediated by fatherchild involvement. Determi-
nation of mediation was based on examination
of the significance of the indirect effect using the
product-of-coefficients method. The confidence
interval of the mediation effect was calculated
using bootstrapping with 1,000 resamples. Next,
we tested for moderated mediation to fully inves-
tigate the pathways to maternal identity. Consis-
tent with Preacher, Rucker, and Hayes (2007),
we operationalized the moderation of the a and b
paths (illustrated in Figure 1) as cross-level inter-
action effects in order to probe the indirect effect
at conditional levels of the moderator. In other
words, the interactions between prenatal and
postbirth father involvement and interparental
482
relationship quality were examined as part of a
conditional indirect effects model.
To test the proposed models, we used struc-
tural equation modeling to analyze the data using
the Mplus program. This analytic approach
allows modeling of all the examined variables
simultaneously (Kline, 2011). A Bayesian esti-
mation approach was applied to analyze the
structural equation model (Muthn & Muthn,
19982012) using two independent Markov
chain Monte Carlo chains with convergence cri-
terion indicated by Gelman and Rubin (1992).
Bayesian estimation depends less on asymptotic
theory and thus produces more reliable results
for small samples (Song & Lee, 2012).
Results
Preliminary Analyses
Descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations
for all studied variables are reported in Table 1.
On average, the adolescent mothers reported
high/positive feelings for the three indicators
of maternal identity (M 4.0). Adolescents also
described that the fathers of their babies, on aver-
age, were sometimes involved during pregnancy
(M = 3.13) and with their child (M = 3.01). In
addition to these accounts of father involve-
ment, adolescents described their relationship
with their childs father as somewhat to fairly
cooperative (M = 3.34). Variables were all corre-
lated in the expected directions, and most of the
correlations were significant, with two excep-
tions: Mothers identity salience was not signifi-
cantly associated with fatherchild involvement
or with interparental relationship quality.
Testing the Mediation Model
We tested the mediation model with prenatal
father involvement as the independent variable,
maternal identity as the dependent variable,
and fatherchild involvement as the media-
tor. The results of the model are reported in
Table 2. Factor loadings for the indicators of
maternal identity (parental competence; iden-
tity salience; role strain) were found to be
statistically significant. This model fit the data
adequately: 2 (3) = 6.68, p = .08; comparative
fit index [CFI] = .98; TuckerLewis Index = .92;
root-mean-square error of approximation
[RMSEA] = .099, 95% confidence interval
[CI] [.00, .20]; standardized root-mean-square
Family Relations
residual = .03. Analysis of direct effects indi-
cated that prenatal father involvement was not
significantly associated with maternal identity
( = .31, p = .14), but was significantly asso-
ciated with fatherchild involvement ( = .78,
p < .001). The relationship between fatherchild
involvement and maternal identity was also sta-
tistically significant ( = .51, p = .03). Next, the
unstandardized estimate of the indirect effect of
prenatal father involvement on maternal identity
was .13, 95% CI [.00, .04], suggesting that the
association between father involvement during
pregnancy on maternal identity was significantly
mediated through fatherchild involvement post
birth. Overall, father involvement pre and post
birth accounted for 59.5% of the explained
variance in maternal identity.
Testing the Moderated Mediation Model
Table 2 also shows the results of the moderated
mediation model, including path coefficients
and confidence intervals. Initial model fit
indices indicated a very good fit (Hu &
Bentler, 1999) to the data: 2 (11) = 11.17,
p = .43; CFI = .99; TuckerLewis Index = .99;
RMSEA = .011, 95% CI [.000, .095]; stan-
dardized root-mean-square residual = .03.
A significant association remained between
prenatal father involvement and fatherchild
involvement ( = .61, p < .001). Interparental
relationship quality was significantly associ-
ated with fatherchild involvement ( = .32,
p < .001) and maternal identity ( = .41,
p < .001). A significant interaction effect indi-
cated that the association between prenatal father
involvement and postbirth father involvement
was moderated by interparental relationship
quality ( = .09, p = .04). To further probe this
significant interaction, we plotted simple slopes
using 1SD from the mean (Aiken & West,
1991). As illustrated in Figure 2, Panel A,
prenatal father involvement was more strongly
associated with fatherchild involvement in the
presence of high interparental relationship qual-
ity ( = .72; t = 8.71, p < .001), than when the
quality of their relationship was low ( = .51;
t = 6.39, p < .001). In addition, the results indi-
cated that the association between postbirth
father involvement and maternal identity also
was moderated by the quality of the interparental
relationship ( = .24, p = .028). Simple slopes
were plotted and are presented in Panel B of
Adolescent Maternal Identity 483

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations (N = 125)

Construct Range M SD 1 2 3 4 5

1. Prenatal father involvement 15 3.13 1.41

2. Postbirth fatherchild involvement 1.185 3.01 1.25 .755
3. Interparental relationship quality 15 3.34 1.09 .445 .588
4. Role validation 2.256 5.19 0.79 .316 .371 .330
5. Identity salience 3.635 4.87 0.24 .217 .096 .111 179
6. Role strain 25 4.30 0.65 .322 .331 .349 .204 .345
p < .05; p < .01.

Table 2. Standardized Parameter Estimates for Factor Loadings and Paths

Paths SE p

Measurement model
Maternal identity Role validation .468 .116 .000
Maternal identity Identity salience .422 .122 .001
Maternal identity Role strain .589 .120 .000
Mediation model
(a1) Prenatal FI Postbirth FI .755 .038 .000
(b1) Postbirth FI Maternal identity .508 .228 .026
(c1) Prenatal FI Maternal identity .312 .213 .144
Moderated mediation model
(a1) Prenatal FI Postbirth FI .607 .048 .000
(a2) Prenatal FI Interparental relationship Postbirth FI .094 .053 .039
(b1) Postbirth FI Maternal identity .136 .217 .264
(b2) Postbirth FI Interparental relationship Maternal identity .239 .128 .028
(c1) Prenatal FI Maternal identity .310 .192 .051
Interparental relationship Maternal identity .408 .158 .000
Interparental relationship Postbirth FI .315 .058 .000
Note. FI = father involvement.

Figure 2. As illustrated, fatherchild involve- identity were moderated by their reports of

ment was related to higher levels of maternal
identity only when mothers reported a highly
cooperative relationship ( = .03, t = 2.45,
p = .008) but not when interparental relation-
ship quality was low ( = .004, t = 0.327,
p = .458). Overall, the full moderated mediation
model accounted for 76.7% of the explained
variance in maternal identity.
Discussion
In the present study we examined the mech-
anisms by which father involvement is
associated with adolescent mothers mater-
nal identity; specifically, we tested a moderated
mediation model in order to examine, simul-
taneously, whether the associations among
mothers reports of prenatal father involvement,
fatherchild interactions post birth, and maternal
interparental relationship quality. Mothers
recollection of how involved fathers were prior
to birth was associated with higher maternal
identity, and this association was mediated by
how involved she perceived him to be post birth
in meeting their childs caregiving and financial
needs. Furthermore, mothers reports of a more
cooperative and less conflictual interparental
relationship moderated the association between
prenatal and postbirth father involvement as well
as the association between postbirth fatherchild
involvement and maternal identity. These
findingsinterpreted with the acknowledgment
that the data are cross-sectional, retrospec-
tive, and based on a single reporterwill be
addressed along with their implications for
future research and practice.
The concept of maternal identity is complex
and multidimensional. This study is unique in its
484
FIGURE 2. The Moderating Effects of Interparental Relationship Quality on the Associations Between (Panel
A) Prenatal and Postbirth Father Involvement as Well as (Panel B) PostBirth Father Involvement and
Maternal Identity.
Note. Data are based on unstandardized regression coefficients. Low scores reflect 1 SD below the Mean. High scores reflect
1 SD above the Mean. *p < .01.
approach to conceptualizing maternal identity
as representing role validation, role strain, and
identity salience as informed by principles of
MRA theory (Mercer, 1986; Rubin, 1984) and
identity theory (Burke, 2003; Stryker, 1968).
Similar to other findings (Bryanton et al., 2008;
Larson, 2004), we found that the adolescent
mothers in this study generally experienced
high feelings of role validation as reflected in
their perception of fathers view of their parental
competence, high identity salience, and low role
strain. Understanding how adolescent mothers
adapt to off-time parenthood and construct
a positive maternal identity is beneficial to
informing future research as well as policies and
programs aimed at supporting this population.
Although it is typically believed that adolescent
mothers experience stress and have difficulty
adjusting to the parenting role (Knoche et al.,
2007), young mothers do not always experience
parenting as stressful (Larson, 2004). Consistent
with MRA theory, these results support the
idea that adolescents have the ability to attain
a positive maternal identity if surrounded by
supportive relationships, in particular with the
father of their baby (Mercer, 1995; Rubin, 1984).
The importance of fathers in supporting
maternal functioning often has been studied
Family Relations
either in terms of his involvement with his child
(Gee et al., 2007) or the nature of his relationship
with the mother (Emmanuel, Creedy, St. John,
Gamble, & Brown, 2008; Gee & Rhodes, 2003).
The consideration of both was a strength of this
study. In addition, our examination of father
involvement assessed multidimensional aspects
of fathering pre and post birth, including finan-
cial, caretaking, and child-centered activities.
The consideration of these multiple dimensions
of fathering was another strength of this study,
given that our indicators encompassed various
ways that fathers can be involved in their childs
life (Lamb, 2000). Consistent with the MRA and
identity theoretical frameworks, and similar to
previous findings with adult mothers and fathers
(Emmanuel et al., 2008), our results indicated
that high prenatal father involvement was asso-
ciated with adolescent mothers feeling more
validated in their role and with their reports of
lower role strain and stronger identity salience.
Also consistent with prior research (Fagan &
Lee, 2010), our findings suggest that this associ-
ation may be mediated through mothers reports
of how involved fathers were with their child
after the birth. In other words, higher levels of
prenatal involvement were related to fathers
Adolescent Maternal Identity
being more involved with their child, which was
then associated with positive maternal identity.
This finding has important implications for
practitioners working with pregnant adolescents.
Engaging young fathers to be positively involved
both during the pregnancy and after the childs
birth may facilitate young mothers development
of a stronger attachment to their newborn and
comfort in their new role as a parent. Practition-
ers concerned with family functioning may ben-
efit from expanding traditional interventions that
primarily target mothers and children by also
involving the fathers. Services that prepare both
parents to positively engage their child may pro-
mote father involvement, which in turn may offer
additional support to mothers development of a
positive maternal identity. Alternatively, because
causality cannot be inferred from our findings
based on our current data, it is plausible that
adolescent mothers who achieve positive mater-
nal identities also might encourage greater pater-
nal involvement. Thus, interventions aimed at
supporting adolescent mothers with adjusting to
their parenting role may also, in turn, empower
mothers to facilitate fathers continued involve-
ment with their children.
This may be especially relevant given that
patterns of involvement by young fathers are
often inconsistent (Cutrona et al., 1998; Kalil
et al., 2005). In the present study, we found that
mothers who reported higher father involvement
during the pregnancy were also more likely to
report that he had more subsequent involvement
with their child. It is important to note that we
also found that interparental relationship qual-
ity may moderate this association. Whereas prior
research has reinforced a direct link between the
interparental relationship and father involvement
(Fagan & Palkovitz, 2007), our findings suggest
that the relationship between parents may facil-
itate continued involvement over time. In other
words, although all fathers who are involved pre-
natally are more likely to remain involved after
the birth of their child, this may be particularly
true when mothers perceive their relationship
with the fathers as cooperative and supportive.
Although our data precluded our ability
to examine shifts in and continuity in father
involvement over time, our results highlight the
importance of a cooperative and low conflictual
interparental relationship in facilitating higher
levels of fathers involvement pre and post birth.
Intervention programs for young fathers often
address their economic involvement (e.g., job
485
training), and many also impart knowledge of
child development and caregiving skills (e.g.,
parenting education). Our findings reinforce
the importance of teaching skills that promote
the development and maintenance of healthy
couple and or coparenting relationships in order
to facilitate continued father involvement.
On a related note, our findings also show
that the quality of the relationship between the
mother and the father is associated with mater-
nal identity attainment. Thus, the influence of
fathers on adolescent mothers maternal iden-
tity is not as simple as fathers taking part in
the care of their child. Instead, when mothers
both perceive the father as more involved with
their child and feel that they have a cooperative
interparental relationship, they are more likely
to report higher feelings of role validation and
identity salience and less role strain. Specifi-
cally, mothers tended to experience significantly
better parental adjustment only when they per-
ceived the father as cooperative and less conflict-
ual. According to MRA theory, the ability of a
mother to achieve a successful maternal identity
is dependent on the support of others in her par-
enting efforts (Rubin, 1984). Thus, it is possible
that a fathers involvement with his child is bene-
ficial for the mother only if she feels that she and
the father negotiate discussions in a positive way.
These results highlight the need for proactive
involvement with adolescent parents to reinforce
skills that support the development of a healthy,
cooperative interparental relationship. Because
of the low stability and conflictual nature of their
relationships (Letourneau et al., 2004), interven-
tions that help adolescent parents learn how to
manage their differences and conflict may pro-
mote greater father involvement and positive
maternal identity development. The integration
of relationship education into programs and ser-
vices geared toward young unmarried parents
has been shown to facilitate more supportive
relationships (see Markman & Rhoades, 2012)
and foster greater father involvement (Cowan,
Cowan, Pruett, Pruett, & Wong, 2009). However,
the effects of these programs on maternal iden-
tity have not been clearly established, especially
with adolescent parents. As well, and because
our data preclude us from making assertions of
causation, it also could be the case that moth-
ers who achieve maternal identity attainment
may display more cooperative interactions with
the father (Sheftall, Schoppe-Sullivan, & Futris,
486
2010), thus encouraging his continued involve-
ment (Cutrona et al., 1998).
Despite the contributions presented by this
study, there are some limitations that warrant fur-
ther attention in future research. First, although
small sample sizes can reduce power in esti-
mating model parameters, our use of Bayesian
inference, which is unbiased with respect to sam-
ple size (Song & Lee, 2012), addressed this
limitation. However, the small sample size did
limit our ability to examine possible covariates
in the model that have been previously associ-
ated with each of the constructs examined. For
example, fathers involvement has been found
to covary with proximity to their child (Gee
et al., 2007) and their relationship status with the
childs mother (e.g., Fagan & Palkovitz, 2007;
Futris & Schoppe-Sullivan, 2007). These covari-
ates have also been linked to various indicators
of maternal adjustment (Gee & Rhodes, 1999,
2003). Although it makes sense that fathers who
reside with their child or have a romantic rela-
tionship with their mother will have more acces-
sibility to, and therefore more opportunity for
engagement with, their child than fathers who do
not (i.e., mean-level differences in involvement),
this should not change the process by which pos-
itive father involvement affects maternal identity
(i.e., as reflected in the strength of association
between constructs). Still, future research could
further advance our understanding of the influ-
ence that couple, parent, and child characteris-
tics have on the process as a whole.
Next, the cross-sectional nature of the study
limited our ability to determine a temporal rela-
tionship between the variables, preventing any
causal inferences. Because we are unable to
infer causality, future studies using longitudinal
designs could examine the transient and fluctu-
ating role of these fathers relationships with the
mother and their child over time. Similarly, the
current study relied solely on mothers reports
and used retrospective data to assess prenatal
father involvement. This is a common limita-
tion in studies of adolescent parents because
of the challenges posed in collecting data from
fathers (Beers & Hollo, 2009). Future work
would benefit from using multiple reporters per-
ceptions to advance our understanding of the
mutual influence mothers and fathers have on
each other. Also, although the majority of the
sample (75%) had children 12 months of age or
younger (mode = 3.0 months) and were recalling
prenatal father involvement from only 1 year or
Family Relations
less in the past, this still presents an issue of bias
in the accuracy and objectiveness of mothers
reports. Although this is a potential limitation,
perceived social support has been frequently
used as an acceptable indicator of the amount of
actual support (Wills & Shinar, 2000). For ado-
lescent mothers, who are experiencing concrete
thinking, egocentrism, and a heightened preoc-
cupation with the self (Flanagan et al., 1995),
perception of support is likely to have a greater
impact on maternal functioning than the amount
of support they actually receive (Turner et al.,
1990).
On a related note, in the current study we
examined only the influence that fathers may
have on mothers maternal identity. Because
the adolescent mothers were currently in high
school and attending a program intended to
support them, their access to formalized support
may have influenced positive parenting out-
comes (Beers & Hollo, 2009). Future research
that examines the unique and collective influ-
ence that formal and informal support received
(or perceived) from others (e.g., school, parents,
extended family, peers, new romantic partners)
may have on maternal identity development
among adolescent mothers would be beneficial.
It is possible that adolescents who are lacking in
support from the father of their baby compen-
sate by obtaining support from others (Gee &
Rhodes, 2003). Conversely, fathers may have a
unique influence on mothers above and beyond
the support received from others (Kalil et al.,
2005).
Despite its limitations, this study is the first
to examine associations among father involve-
ment in terms of prenatal engagement and
postbirth fatherchild interactions, interparental
relationship quality, and maternal identity simul-
taneously for adolescent mothers. Our findings
reinforce the connected influence that both father
involvement and interparental relationship qual-
ity may have on maternal functioning. The
findings also highlight the possible implications
of supporting fathers involvement early during
the pregnancy as well as the development of a
healthy couple and/or coparenting relationship.
Encouragement of father involvement, com-
bined with a consistently positive interparental
relationship, could reduce the risk for negative
parenting practices by enhancing an adolescent
mothers feelings of role validation, identity
salience, and adjustment to the mothering role.
Adolescent Maternal Identity
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