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ADVANCED ENGINEERING

INFORMATICS
Advanced Engineering Informatics 21 (2007) 350355
www.elsevier.com/locate/aei

Radio-Frequency Identication (RFID) applications:


A brief introduction
Konstantinos Domdouzis a, Bimal Kumar b,*
, Chimay Anumba a

a
Centre for Innovative and Collaborative Engineering, Department of Civil and Building Engineering,
Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK
b
School of the Built and Natural Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK

Received 25 August 2006; accepted 6 September 2006

Abstract

This short paper introduces the key concepts behind RFID technology and presents a brief historical perspective. Examples of RFID
applications are also given to highlight the developing popularity of the technology in many sectors. This paper will provide insights into
the technology for the uninitiated reader without going into the technical and mathematical details. Over the next few years, this tech-
nology is expected to become ubiquitous in various forms and it is likely that everyones lives will be aected in many innovative ways.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Radio-Frequency Identication; Antenna; Reader; Transponder; Tagging; Tracking

1. Introduction tag to be activated and data to be read and written to it.


Antennas establish the communication between the tag
This paper is an introduction to RFID technology. It and the transceiver. The transceiver is responsible for the
presents the principles which characterize the function of data acquisition. The antenna can be packaged with the
an RFID system and the history of RFID technology. In transceiver and decoder in order to become a reader.
addition, dierent types of RFID tags are described along The reader can be congured either as a handheld or a xed-
with the frequencies of use of the technology. Specic mount device. There is emission of radio waves from the
emphasis is given to the applications of the technology in reader in ranges which can reach up to 100 feet or more,
various industries including the construction industry. depending on its power output and the radio frequency
which is used. In case an RFID tag is found in the electro-
2. Denition of RFID magnetic zone which is produced by the antenna, it detects
the activation signal of the reader. The reader decodes the
Radio-Frequency Identication (RFID) technology is a data which are encoded in the integrated circuit of the tag
wireless sensor technology which is based on the detection and the data can then be transferred to any computer sys-
of electromagnetic signals [13]. A typical RFID system tem for processing [1]. A typical RFID system is shown in
includes three components: an antenna or coil, a trans- Fig. 1.
ceiver (with decoder) and a transponder (RF tag) electron-
ically programmed with unique information. There is
emission of radio signals by the antenna in order for the 3. A brief history of RFID

*
Corresponding author.
In 1906, Ernst F.W. Alexanderson showed how the rst
E-mail addresses: K.Domdouzis@lboro.ac.uk (K. Domdouzis), radio wave could be generated continuously and how radio
B.Kumar@gcal.ac.uk (B. Kumar), c.j.anumba@lboro.ac.uk (C. Anumba). signals could be transmitted [12]. During World War II, the

1474-0346/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.aei.2006.09.001
K. Domdouzis et al. / Advanced Engineering Informatics 21 (2007) 350355 351

Fig. 1. A Typical RFID system [19].

British wanted to distinguish between their own returning based on the use of readers that could detect protocol tags.
aircrafts and those of the enemy. For this reason, they Texas Instruments developed the TIRIS system which was
placed transponders on their aircrafts which would be able used in applications related to vehicle access. European
to respond appropriately to interrogating signals from base companies, such as Alcatel, Bosch and Phillips spin-o
stations. This was called the Identity Friend or Foe (IFF) companies, such as Combitech, Tagmaster and Baumer
system which is widely considered the rst use of Radio- were involved in the development of a pan-European stan-
Frequency Identication (RFID) [5]. dard for tolling applications. These companies helped
In 1948, a paper entitled Communication by Means of develop a common standard for electronic tolling [12].
Reected Power written by Harry Stockman [18], was More recently, much smaller RFID tags have been pro-
published. In 1964, R.F. Harrington [10] examined the posed. RFID tags are built in the form of labels and placed
electromagnetic theory related to RFID in his paper on the objects which are going to be managed. By 2001, the
Theory of Loaded Scatterers. In the late 1960s, two com- use of RFID tagging for electronic toll collection had
panies called Sensormatic and Checkpoint were founded. expanded to 3500 trac lanes [12].
These companies together with another company called
Knogo, developed the Electronic Article Surveillance 4. Types of RFID tags
(EAS) equipment to face the theft of merchandise [12].
Large companies, such as Raytheon and RCA deve- RFID tags include two main elements: an integrated
loped electronic identication systems in 1973 and in circuit and an antenna. The integrated circuit consists of
1975, respectively. During the 70s, research laboratories the microprocessor, memory and an antenna. The role of
and universities, such as the Los Alamos Scientic Labora- the antenna is to dene the read range of the tag [3].
tory and Northwestern University were involved in RFID RFID tags can be distinguished into two categories
research. The Los Alamos Scientic Laboratory, the Inter- depending on their data storage capability: Read-Only
national Bridge Turnpike and Tunnel Association and Read/Write Tags. Most Read-Only tags do not have
(IBTTA) and the United States Federal Highway Adminis- data storage capacity. They only have a unique ID pre-
tration organised in 1973 a conference on RFID which written to them which points to a database, thus providing
concluded that there was no national interest in the deve- information about the object the tag is attached to [3].
lopment of a standard for vehicle identication. This RFID tags can also be distinguished as active and
decision lead to the development of a rang of systems. In passive. Passive tags depend on the electromagnetic eld
1978, R.J. King [11] wrote a book about microwave generated by the RFID reader in order to get activated.
homodyne techniques. This book has been used as the basis Active tags have built-in batteries and this increases the
for the development of the theory and practice which are range of the system as the tags do not depend on the elec-
used in backscatter RFID systems [12]. tromagnetic eld of the reader in order to get activated.
In 1987, the rst commercial application of RFID was The power, however, of the tags may be reduced by the
developed in Norway and was followed by the Dallas actual size of the tags as well as the local radio licensing
North Turnpike in the United States in 1989. During the regulations [3].
90s, a number of American states, such as Kansas and Dierences between active and passive RFID tags are
Georgia adopted a trac management system which was shown in Table 1.
352 K. Domdouzis et al. / Advanced Engineering Informatics 21 (2007) 350355

Table 1
Dierences between active and passive RFID tags [4]
Active RFID tags Passive RFID tags
Tag power source Internal to tag Energy transferred from the reader
Availability of tag power Continuous Only when found in the eld of the reader
Required signal strength from Low High
reader to tag
Available signal strength from High Low
tag to reader
Communication range Long range Short range
Multi-tag collection Scanning of thousand of tags Scanning of a hundred of tags
from a single reader within 3 meters from a single reader
Scanning of up to 20 tags Scanning of 20 tags moving at
moving at more than 100 miles/hour 3 miles/hour or slower
Sensor capability Ability to monitor continuously Monitor sensor input when tag
monitor sensor input is powered from the reader
Data storage Large Small

5. Frequencies of use of the RFID systems Table 2


Frequencies of use of RFID systems in dierent countries [14]
The frequencies used in RFID systems are analyzed Frequency Countries
below: 125134 kHz USA, Canada, Japan, Europe
13.56 MHz USA, Canada, Japan, Europe
125134 kHz: This is the low frequency which allows the 433.05434.79 MHz In most of USA and Europe and
under consideration in Japan
detection of RFID tags in a range of less than 0.5 m. 865868 MHz Europe
The typical data transfer rate is less than 1 kbit per 866869 and South Korea
second and in this frequency the electromagnetic waves 923925 MHz
penetrate water but not metal. This frequency is used for 902928 MHz USA
animal identication [20]. 952954 MHz Japan (for passive tags after 2005)
24002500 and USA, Canada, Japan, Europe
13.56 MHz: This frequency allows the detection of 5.7255.875 GHz
RFID tags for a distance of up to 1.5 m. The data trans-
fer rate for this specic frequency is approximately 25
kbits per second and in this frequency, the electro-
Table 2 summarizes the frequencies of use of RFID
magnetic waves can penetrate water but not metal. This
systems for a number of countries.
frequency is used for applications related to access and
There have been many attempts to harmonize the
security [20].
frequencies of use of RFID internationally. The Federal
433956 MHz: The frequencies which belong to this
Communications Commission (FCC) has modied its rules
range are characterized as ultra-high frequencies. The
for the use of RFID in order to harmonize with the Euro-
frequencies at the range from 433 to 864 allow the detec-
pean Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). The
tion of RFID tags for a distance of up to 100 m while
band 13.55313.567 MHz is used internationally for Indus-
the frequencies at the range from 865 to 956 MHz
trial, Scientic and Medical (ISM) applications. The FCC
allow the detection of RFID tags for a distance which
has also increased the level of power and bandwidth so
varies from 0.5 to 5 m. For all the frequencies in
RFID could be used under the limits developed by ETSI.
the range between 433 and 956 MHz, the data transfer
Specically, the increment of power for the band 13.110
rate is 100 kbits per second. The generated electromag-
13.410 MHz was 20 dB and there is also operation in bands
netic waves cannot penetrate water or metals. The
where no radiation was allowed [14].
frequencies at this range are used for applications in
logistics [20].
2.45 GHz: This frequency enables an RFID reader to 6. Applications of RFID in industry
detect a tag from a distance of ten meters. This specic
frequency is characterized as microwave frequency. The RFID technology has been successfully applied in a
data transfer rate for this specic frequency is up to 100 number of scientic and technical elds, such as medicine
kbits per second. The electromagnetic waves generated and engineering. In medicine, RFID tagging is used in
in this case cannot penetrate water or metal. The speci- blood transfusion and analysis. An RFID tag can be
ed frequency is used for applications related to mobile attached on a wristband which contains information about
vehicle toll [20]. The US Federal Communications Com- a specic patient. A wireless reader communicates with
mission (FCC) has allocated spectrum in the 5.9 GHz the tag and the information which is contained in the
band [12]. tag appears on the screen of the mobile device of the
K. Domdouzis et al. / Advanced Engineering Informatics 21 (2007) 350355 353

consultant. An RFID reader scans the tags which are through an RFID tag and then the tag transmits this ID
attached to blood bags and nds the appropriate blood to an RFID reader, thus making the product identiable [2].
bag for the specic patient [15].
RFID technology has also been applied in the aeronau- 7. Applications of RFID in the construction industry
tics industry supply chain. Specically, Boeing ships tagged
crates which are loaded with aeronautical equipment. RFID technology is being successfully used for applica-
Passive Electronic Product Code Class 0 RFID tags are tions in the construction industry. Examples of applica-
attached to these crates and they contain information such tions taken from both the industry and research are given
as a unique ID number which can be read by RFID readers below.
at a depot. Boeing then sends an advance report to the
depot regarding the contents of the tag. This information 7.1. Automated tracking of pipe spools
is a list of the crates contents, the quantity, the point of
origin, and the purchase contract. A Boeing worker manu- Pipe spools are of particular interest for a construction
ally enters the information into the Wide Area Workow project since piping is a costly process. However, piping
(WAWF) system. When the loaded crates are delivered to is characterized by uncertainties in the completion of prere-
the depot, an RFID reader obtains the ID numbers of quisite site work. For this reason, materials managers rely
the tags which are attached to the crates. These numbers on reserves of large quantities of pipe spools so that sched-
point to a database which contains the information uled work on construction sites is not delayed. These pipe
included on the advance shipment report sent by Boeing spools are placed on the constructors lay-down yard and
[16]. they remain there until pipe tting crews request for new
An important element in the construction and mainte- spools. When a request is placed by pipe tting crews,
nance of oil facilities is the correct assembly of the pipe- the contractor has to locate the pipe spools in the lay-down
work systems with the correct gasket, bolts and to the yard. However, it is possible that the requested pipe spools
correct torque. An incorrect assembly would create leaks are located in a dierent location than their right location
which can aect safety in an oil renery. RFID tags can or even located outside the lay-down yard, such as in the
be used in order to identify individual pipe-work joints. fabricators storage area. In such cases, localisation of
In this case, a database could be created which would appropriate pipe spools is time consuming. RFID techno-
include information about each joint. RFID tags could logy can be implemented in this case in order for the
also be used in order to capture information on pressure requested pipe spools to be located successfully [17].
safety relief valves in major vessels, pipe-work and process In this project, the RFID system is installed on a portal
equipment. RFID tags can be embedded in the valves of structure which uses four RFID readers through which a
the pipelines and record technical information. An RFID atbed trailer could be driven, thus simulating the trans-
reader can be used to scan these tags and identify whether port of a pipe spool. For the eld tests with the xed RFID
a valve is the correct one, in the correct location and at the system, 20 RFID tags were placed on pipe spools. These
correct pressure. In addition, RFID technology is used to pipe spools were then put on a trailer to be driven under
trace the movement of fuel tankers and in the management the portal structure. A number of parameters were consid-
of equipment servicing [6]. ered such as the number of tags placed on the trailer, any
In the automotive industry, RFID technology is used in variance in the amount of data to be captured from the
the assembly of new cars. Specically, RFID tags can be tags, the movement of the trailer under the portal structure
attached to parts of a car and track them during the assem- and number of RFID readers activated. The eld tests
bly process. In this case, the correct placement of the com- showed that RFID technology could be eective in
ponents of the car can be checked. Since every customer in construction environments where large metal objects are
the automotive industry may have dierent choices as to present and long read ranges are required [17].
how his/her car should be, the use of RFID tags allows fas- The steps which were followed during the eld tests are
ter tracking of the desired components and avoidance of shown in Fig. 2.
possible errors caused by incorrect placement of these com-
ponents [8]. 7.2. On-site inspection support system using
In the retail industry, RFID tags are used to identify and RFID tags and PDAs
track products along the retail supply chain. The tags can be
attached to physical items, such as pens or toothpastes, and RFID tags can be used in combination with Personal
transmit an identication signal allowing them to communi- Digital Assistants (PDAs) for the inspection of the con-
cate with RFID readers or with each other. An example of a struction processes. An on-site inspection support system
consumer goods tracking system is the Auto-ID system. which can be deployed on the construction site, will include
This system uses a numbering scheme called the electronic an RFID tag system, a PDA connected to the Internet, a
Product Code (ePC) which can assign a unique ID to any voice input/output system, and a digital camera. Each
physical object in the world. In the retail industry, the RFID tag is attached to a specic facility and can contain
Auto-ID can assign a unique ID to a specic product the latest inspection notes, inspection procedures and the
354 K. Domdouzis et al. / Advanced Engineering Informatics 21 (2007) 350355

Fig. 2. Steps followed during eld tests [17].

latest measured data related to this specic facility. The x, y and z data. The term key points refers to pre-dened
memory of the RFID tag is 256 bytes but it can be points which can be found at specic features of interest,
extended to 3 Mbytes if a battery and a microprocessor such as corners. The key points comprise a set of locations
unit is attached to the tag. In addition, RFID tags can con- necessary to establish the position and orientation of a
tain an ID for each facility. The PDA contains also data, component in 3D space. The obtained part ID and the x,
such as digital photographs and latest inspection routes y, z key points are sent wirelessly to a remote server which
while the local oce includes all the inspected data, docu- hosts a part locator service capable of dening the position
ment and drawing les. When the inspector requires addi- and orientation of the tracked item in the coordinate
tional information, he/she can get that information using system of the construction site. The purpose of this project
again his/her PDA and communicating with the local oce is the improvement of the steel erection process [9].
through a wireless LAN or even with the headquarters
databases via the Internet [22]. 7.4. Tracking of items on the construction site

7.3. Automated tracking of structural steel members RFID tags have been deployed on a construction site for
at the construction site the purpose of asset tracking. The tags are capable of gath-
ering data related to the location of target items [21]. Thus
Structural steel members can be tagged with RFID tags they are able to provide security on the construction site,
and via a Web-based graphical user interface and the either by constantly monitoring the site or by alerting the
identication information which is included in the tag is engineers when an item has been taken away from the site.
scanned directly into a wearable computer. This informa-
tion is used to query a project database for additional 7.5. Location of buried assets
information relating to the scanned item, such as 3D
CAD model of the steel part. This model enables eld Accurate location of underground assets like water and
workers through the measurement of key points using a sewage pipes is a major issue to the utility as well as
long-range 3D coordinate measurement system to acquire construction industry. Current methods which are used to
K. Domdouzis et al. / Advanced Engineering Informatics 21 (2007) 350355 355

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