LIPID

PLANT AND ANIMAL OILS

Mahendra Puguh Perdana (2314100082)

Department of Chemical Engineering

Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology

Surabaya

2017
 TABLE OF CONTENT

COVER.................................1
TABLE OF CONTENT................................2
PLANT OILS
Edible or Not?..................3
Lipid Composition ..................................7
Fatty Acids Profile.. .....................................8
ANIMAL OILS
Edible or Non Edible Oil...................................... 9
Lipid Composition................................. 12
Fatty Acids Profile...................................................... 13
UTILIZATION OF PLANT AND ANIMAL OILS
Food.............................................................15
Biodiesel.......................................22
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES

2|Page
3. Plant Oils

Edible or Not?

A. Olive Oil
Olive oil is an edible oil and become most demanded among the various edible oils
as it has a market share of around 20%. Oils are commonly found in nature as triglyceride,
which is an ester of glycerol and fatty acids (FAs). Three hydroxy groups of glycerol are
combined with either saturated or unsaturated FAs through esterification to form the
triglyceride. Thus, all the edible oils are rich of both saturated and unsaturated FAs.
(Wabaidur, Saikh. 2016)
Virgin olive oil (VOO), an excellent natural food, is obtained from olive fruit (Olea
europaea L.) by mechanical or physical procedures. Its composition varies widely,
depending on fruit variety, degree of fruit ripeness, environmental conditions, growing
region, and techniques of processing and storage (Barranco et al.).
B. Soybean oil
Soybean is the dominant oilseed produced in the world, due to its favorable agronomic
characteristics, its high-quality protein, and its valuable edible oil. It contributes over half
of all oilseeds produced worldwide (Gunstone, 2011).
Almost all margarine and shortenings in the United States contain soybean oil. It also is
almost universally found in mayonnaise, salad dressings, frozen foods, imitation dairy and
meat products and commercially baked goods. Soybean oil has little flavor, which is an
advantage because it wont interfere with the overall taste of the food.
C. Sunflower Oils
Sunflower oil is the non-volatile oil compressed from the seeds of sunflower (Helianthus
annuus). Sunflower oil is commonly used in food as a frying oil, and in cosmetic
formulations as an emollient. The world's total production of sunflower oil in 2014 was
nearly 16 million tonnes, with Ukraine and Russia as the largest producers.
Sunflower oil is a monounsaturated (MUFA)/polyunsaturated (PUFA) mixture of mostly
oleic acid (omega-9)-linoleic acid (omega-6) group of oils. The oil content of the seed
ranges from 22% to 36% (average, 28%): the kernel contains 4555% oil. The expressed
oil is of light amber color with a mild and pleasant flavor; refined oil is pale yellow.

3|Page
 Refining losses are low and the oil has good keeping qualities with light tendency for flavor
reversion. The oil contains appreciable quantities of vitamin E, sterols, squalene, and other
aliphatic hydrocarbons. (Christov, M. 2012)
D. Palm oil
Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of
the oil palms, primarily the African oil palm Elaeis guineensis, and to a lesser extent from
the American oil palm Elaeis oleifera and the maripa palm Attalea maripa.
Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content. It is not to
be confused with palm kernel oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit, or coconut oil
derived from the kernel of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). The differences are in color
(raw palm kernel oil lacks carotenoids and is not red), and in saturated fat content: palm
mesocarp oil is 49% saturated, while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81% and 86%
saturated fats, respectively. However, crude red palm oil that has been refined, bleached
and deodorized, a common commodity called RBD palm oil, does not contain carotenoids.
E. Almond Oil
Almond oil is extracted from almonds. There are many varieties of almonds, but
they are generally classified into two classes.
1. Bitter Almonds These are almonds that are bitter to taste. They are hardly ever eaten,
or used in recipes. Bitter almonds however are used to produce bitter almond oil. These
almonds contain a small amount of hydrogen cyanide, which is extremely poisonous.
Eating just a few of these almonds can lead to a vertigo, or even death.
2. Sweet Almonds These are the almonds that we are accustomed to eating. They are
used to produce sweet almond oil. This oil too has a sweet taste, making almond oil
one of the tastiest amond oils. Sweet almond oil organic also contains vitamins A, B1,
B2, B6 with small amounts of Vitamin E and D. Due to the presence of Vitamin E the
oil has antioxidant capability. Antioxidants protect vital cell structures by neutralizing
free radicals
Almond is actually a drupe, not a nut. It is native to the Mediterranean and Middle
East. Presently, the largest producer of almonds is USA, most of which comes from the
state of California. Spain too is known for its high quality almonds. Different varieties of

4|Page
 almonds have slight differences in taste, and this subtle difference also reflects in the oil
(Blanca Martinez, 2007).
F. Coconut Oil
Coconut oil is extensively used for food and industrial purposes. The oil is rich in
medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) and exhibits good digestibility. Coconut oil is an edible
oil extracted from the kernel or meat of mature coconuts harvested from the coconut palm
(Cocos nucifera). It has various applications. Because of its high saturated fat content, it is
slow to oxidize and, thus, resistant to rancidification, lasting up to six months at 24 C (75
F) without spoiling. (Marina, A.,M. 2009)
Various methods have been developed to extract coconut oil, either through dry or
wet processing. Dry processing is the most widely used form of extraction. Clean, ground
and steamed copra is pressed by wedge press, screw press or hydraulic press to obtain
coconut oil, which then goes through the refining, bleaching, and deodorizing (RBD)
processes. During the RBD process, heating process is applied especially during
deodorization process, which is carried out at high temperature between 204 and 245 oC
(OBrien, 2004). The copra industry also faced some problems such as contamination by
aflatoxin in copra and cake and presence of high free fatty acids due to high moisture
content (Guarte, Muhlbauer, & Kellert, 1996).
Recently, there is a trend towards producing coconut oil which does not have to go
through the RBD process. Rather than going to the normal dry process, this oil is obtained
by wet processing which entails the extraction of the cream from the fresh coconut milk
and consequently breaking the cream emulsion. This process is more desirable as no
chemical or high heat treatment is imposed on the oil. The coconut oil produced through
the wet method is known as virgin coconut oil (VCO).
G. Sesame Oil
Sesame oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from sesame seeds. Besides being used
as a cooking oil in South India, it is often used as a flavour enhancer in Korean, Chinese,
Japanese, Middle Eastern, and Southeast Asian cuisine. It has a distinctive nutty aroma and
taste. The oil from the nutrient-rich seed is popular in alternative medicine, from traditional
massages and treatments to the modern day. The oil is popular in Asia and is also one of
the earliest-known crop-based oils, but worldwide mass modern production continues to

5|Page
 be limited even today due to the inefficient manual harvesting process required to extract
the oil.
Now a days, Sesame or Til oil has been mostly used for cosmetics,
medicinal industries in manufacturing proprietary branded oils and medicines .It is a good
protector of ultra violet light, sun, wind, and radiation and therefore, it is used in various
cosmetics, and also in baby & children skin care. Sesame (Til) seed and oil has been in use
as a food and a healing oil for hundreds of years. It is a good source of protein 22% and
fatty oil 54%. In early India, the seeds of Sesamum indicum was included in the list of
cereals known as sapta-dhnya meaning seven cereals and not as a source of oil as it is
used presently. (Shah, N, C.2013)

6|Page
 Lipid Composition of Plant Oils

Parameter Olive Soybean Sunflower Palm Almond Coconut Sesame

TG 95-98% 95-97% 93-95% 93% 98% >95% 95%

DG 1 to 2.8% <1 % 1-3% 4.9% <1 % <1% 1.2%

MG < 0.25% <1 % 0.44% <1 % <1 % <0.5% <1%

FFA < 0.5% 0.3-0.7% 0.03-0.06% 3- 5% <0.8 % 0.9% 0.06%

Wax & - - 0.03-0.03% - - - -

Gum
Other 0.5-1.5% 1.6% <0.12% 1% 0.44% 0.42% 1.4-1.8%

phospolipids - 1.5-2.5% 0.86% - <0.5% 0.1% -

Reference Boskou,D. Pryde, 1980. Gupta, MK. Yuen May, Roncero, Krishna, 2010 Nhah, S.
2006 Hammon, 1998 2007 2016 2013
2005

7|Page
 FA Profile

Parameter Olive Soybean Sunflower Palm Almond Coconut Sesame

Caprylic - - - - 6.210.34 -
(C8:0)
Capric - - - - 6.150.21 -
(C10:0)
Lauric - - - - 51.020.71 -
(C12:0)
Myristic - - 1.230.28 0.01 18.940.63 -
(C14:0)
Palmitic 10 14.040.62 6.52 1.75 41.781.27 3.04 8.620.50 8.491.23
(C16:0)
Stearic 2 4.070.29 1.98 1.44 3.390.65 0.66 1.940.17 5.430.18
(C18:0)
Oleic 78 23.272.43 45.39 18.77 41.91.2 30.61 5.840.5 38.810.35
(C18:1)
Linoleic 7 52.182.64 46.02 16.75 11.030.02 12.06 1.28018 46.340.1
(C18:2)
Linolenic 1 5.633.48 0.12 0.09 - 0.01 - -
(C18:3)
Arachidic - - - - 0.01 - 0.940.18
(C20:0)
Erucic - - - - - - -
(C22:1)
Reference Gunstone, K.Chowdhury, K.Chowdhury, K.Chowdhury, Monaghan, K.Chowdhury, Nzikou,JM.
1996 2007 2007 2007 E. K.,2008 2007 2009

8|Page
Parameter Olive Soybean Sunflower Palm Almond Coconut Sesame

Caprylic - - - - 8 -
(C8:0)
Capric - - - - 7 -
(C10:0)
Lauric - - - - 48 -
(C12:0)
Myristic - - - - 16 -
(C14:0)
Palmitic 7.88 10 3.71.5 44 7.51.5 9 8.661.32
(C16:0)
Stearic 2.99 4 20.8 4 4.51.8 2 5.450.2
(C18:0)
Oleic 74.2 23 31.54.5 40 58.55.8 7 38.860.31
(C18:1)
Linoleic 7.32 51 59.57.5 10 202.7 2 46.180.12
(C18:2)
Linolenic 0.44 7 - - - - -
(C18:3)
Arachidic 0.44 - 2.31.2 - 31.2 - 0.850.15
(C20:0)
Erucic - - - - - -
(C22:1)
Reference Muco, Gunstone, Vesna Kostik Gunstone, Vesna Gunstone, Matos,L.2009
marinela 1996 1996 kostik 1996

4. Animal Oils
Edible or not?
A. Fish Oil (Cod Fish)
Cod liver oil is a nutritional supplement derived from liver of cod fish (Gadidae).
As with most fish oils, it has high levels of the omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Cod liver oil also contains vitamin A and vitamin
D. It has historically been taken because of its vitamin A and vitamin D content. It was
once commonly given to children, because vitamin D has been shown to prevent rickets
and other symptoms of vitamin D deficiency
B. Cow (Tallow)
Tallow is a rendered form of beef or mutton fat. It is solid at room temperature.
Unlike suet, tallow can be stored for extended periods without the need for refrigeration to
prevent decomposition, provided it is kept in an airtight container to prevent oxidation. A

9|Page
 significant use of tallow is for the production of shortening. It is one of the main ingredients
of Native American food called pemmican. Tallow is sometimes used in deep frying in
place of other oils.
C. Pig (Lard)
Lard is pig fat in both its rendered and unrendered forms. It is obtained from any
part of the pig where there is a high proportion of adipose tissue. It can be rendered by
steaming it or boiling it in water and then separating the insoluble fat from the water, or by
the use of dry heat. It is a semi-soft white fat with a high saturated fatty acid content and
no transfats, and refined lard is usually sold as paper-wrapped blocks.
Lard is commonly used in many cuisines around the world as a cooking fat or
shortening, or as a spread similar to butter. It is an ingredient in various savoury dishes
such as sausages, pts and fillings, and it is particularly favored for the preparation of
pastry because of the "flakiness" it brings to the product. Its use in western contemporary
cuisine has diminished with the increased popularity of vegetable oils, but many
contemporary cooks and bakers still favor it over other fats for certain select uses. The
culinary qualities of lard vary somewhat depending on the part of the pig from which the
fat was taken and how the lard was processed.
Lard can be obtained from any part of the pig where there is a high concentration
of fatty tissue. The highest grade of lard, known as leaf lard, is obtained from the "flare"
visceral fat deposit surrounding the kidneys and inside the loin. Leaf lard has little pork
flavor, making it ideal for use in baked goods, where it is valued for its ability to produce
flaky, moist pie crusts. The next-highest grade is obtained from fatback, the hard
subcutaneous fat between the back skin and muscle of the pig. The lowest grade (for
purposes of rendering into lard) is obtained from the soft caul fat surrounding digestive
organs, such as small intestines.
D. Lamb Oil
A sheep in its first year is called a lamb, and its meat is also called lamb. The meat
of a juvenile sheep older than one year is hogget; outside North America this is also a term
for the living animal. The meat of an adult sheep is mutton, a term only used for the meat,
not the living animals. The term mutton is almost always used to refer to goat meat in the
Indian subcontinent.

10 | P a g e
 Lamb is the most expensive of the three types, and in recent decades sheep meat is
increasingly only retailed as "lamb", sometimes stretching the accepted distinctions given
above. The stronger-tasting mutton is now hard to find in many areas, despite the efforts
of the Mutton Renaissance Campaign in the UK. In Australia, the term prime lamb is often
used to refer to lambs raised for meat. Other languages, for example French and Italian,
make similar, or even more detailed, distinctions between sheep meat by age and
sometimes by gender, though these languages do not use different words to refer to the
animal and its meat.
E. Camel Fats
In the north of Africa, Middle East and Asia, camels play a critical role in providing
human foods, especially meat, milk and fat. Camel fats, are used to prepare many dishes,
namely, the production of a cocoa-butter analog, making high-quality dry sausages, and
frying. The body lipids are the main form energy storage in mammals. Lipid deposition
and mobilization cycles are essential for reproduction, lactation and ecological adaptations
. The adipose reserves in camels are mainly stored in the hump. However, changes in lipid
reserves and related mechanisms are not well understood in this species which is able to
survive long periods without feed. Despite these difficult survival conditions, the trans-
fatty acid profile of lipids from hump adipose tissue and milk was compared in camel and
cattle, and shows that there are no gross differences between the two species.
(Nasser,B.2015)
F. Goat
Goat milk and its products have played an important role in the economic viability
in many parts of the world, especially in developing countries. A variety of manufactured
products can be produced from goat milk, including fluid products (low fat, fortified, or
flavored), fermented products such as cheese, yogurt or buttermilk, frozen products such
as ice cream or frozen yogurt, butter, and condensed and powdered products. However,
cheese is traditionally the main commercial goat milk product produced and consumed in
large quantities around the world.
A successful dairy goat industry cannot be established without the highest possible
levels of cooperation among goat breeders, milk producers, cheese and other dairy goat
product manufacturers, distributors, and retail outlets. Producing high quality raw milk is

11 | P a g e
 of utmost importance for successful production and marketing of dairy goat products. The
products must be safe to consume and free of pathogenic bacteria, antibiotics, insecticides,
and herbicides. They should have a good taste with no objectionable flavor or odor, be free
of spoilage from bacteria, and contain legal limits of all nutrients. (Rodrigues,R.2013)
G. Chicken
Chicken fat: It is the fat obtained (usually as a by-product) from chicken rendering and
processing. It is high in linoleic acids, the benefcial omega-6 fatty acid. Linoleic acid levels
are between 17.8- 22.9%. It is used in the production of pet foods and bio-diesel. Chicken
fat is one of the two types of animal fat referred as schmaltz, the other being goose fat.
(Sharma,H.2013)

Lipid composition

Parameter Fish Cow Pig Lamb Camel Goat Chicken

TG 93% 24.6 35 57.6 35.7 96.8 11.9

DG 5.5% 2.2

MG <1% 0.9

FFA < 0.5% 14 45 14.8 - 25

Wax & - 3.47 - - - - -

Gum
cholesterol 0.5-1.5% 0.94 0.82 0.78 0.56 <1% 0.89

phospolipids - 0.15 0.11 0.19 - 0.72

Reference Hoshino,T. Jussara J. D. Wood, T. Popova, Azza, Cerbulis, J. Jussara

1990 Carnevale, 2008 2008 Kamal, 1982 Carnevale,
2006 2009 2006

12 | P a g e
 FA Profiles

Parameter Fish (ClO) Cow Pig Lamb Camel Goat Chicken

Caprylic 0.99
(C8:0)
Capric 3.6
(C10:0)
Lauric 2.1
(C12:0)
Myristic 4.16 3 2 2.64 8.931.43 6.4 1
(C14:0)
Palmitic 11.89 27 27 23.75 37.22.65 24.26 22
(C16:0)
Palmitoleic 6.85 11 4 1.41 4.72.62 0.34 6
(C16:1)
Stearic 2.3 7 11 16.39 14.82.16 20.94 6
(C18:0)
Oleic 21.16 48 44 42.31 25.531.36 28.79 37
(C18:1)
Linoleic 0.42 2 11 6.4 3.460.99 5.97 20
(C18:2)
Linolenic 1.98 0.44 - 0.63 1
(C18:3)
Arachidic 0.12 0.02 - -
(C20:0)
Gadoleic 11.44 - - 1
(C20:1)
C20:5 16.74 0.380.16

Erucic 8.82 0.170.04 -

(C22:6n3)
Reference Rohman, Gunstone, Gunstone, Manso, Nasser,B. Rodrigues,R. Gunstone,
2012 1996 1996 T.2009 2015 2014 1996

13 | P a g e
Parameter Fish (CLO) Cow Pig Lamb Camel Goat Chicken

Caprylic 0.1
(C8:0)
Capric 0.12
(C10:0)
Lauric 0.77
(C12:0)
Myristic 2.9 2.93 1.3 2.65 10.1 5.2 0.89
(C14:0)
Palmitic 11.6 24.52 20.66 20.73 26.6 21.5 28.36
(C16:0)
Palmitoleic 3.6 2.81 1.98 0.96 10.4 2.7 5.75
(C16:1)
Stearic 4.7 17.85 10.91 28.06 12.2 18.1 6.7
(C18:0)
Oleic 25.2 38.63 39.13 33.94 26.3 34.4 41.12
(C18:1)
Linoleic 1 1.84 19.56 1.36 2.94 6 14.32
(C18:2)
Linolenic 0.3 0.83 1.21 0.83 1.37 0.63
(C18:3)
Arachidic - 0.12 0.91 0.55 0.57 0.15
(C20:0)
Gadoleic 9.1 0.21 0.96 0.11 - 0.01
(C20:1)
C20:5n3 17.9 0.06 0.12 0.15 - 0.09

Erucic 9.7 0.16 0.2 0.19 - 0.07

(C22:6n3)
Reference Gruger. Rohman, Rohman, Rohman, Hasmann, Casey, 1982 Rohman,
1960 2012 2012 2012 1998 2012

14 | P a g e
5. Utilization Plant Oils
a. Food
- Olive Oil :
There are three common types of olive oil, namely virgin olive oil, refined olive oil, and olive
pomace oil. Each has its unique processing method, flavor characteristics, composition, and food
applications. The quality of olive oil entering the US food supply is graded by the US Department
of Agriculture (USDA). US ExtraVirgin Olive Oil has excellent flavor and odor and a low free
fatty acid content. US Virgin Olive Oil has reasonably good flavor and odor and a higher free
fatty acid content than Extra Virgin Olive Oil. The flavor and aroma of olive oils are determined
by sensory evaluation (taste-testing) by trained individuals, whereas the free fatty acid content is
measured analytically. Other grades of olive oil include US Olive Oil (a blend of refined olive oil
and virgin olive oils); US Refined Olive Oil; US Olive-pomace Oil (a blend of refined olive-
pomace oil and virgin olive oils); and US Refined Olive-pomace Oil (USDA n.d.). Oils contain
monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, and saturated fatty acids. Specifically, olive oil is composed of
71% oleic and 1% palmitoleic (monounsaturated fats); 10% linoleic and 1% linolenic
(polyunsaturated fats); and 13% palmitic, 3% stearic, and 1% arachidic (saturated fats) (ISEO
2016). Olive oil provides about 120 calories per tablespoon with 100% of the calories coming from
fat (13.5 g of fat per tablespoon).
Oils are prone to rancidity, which is the breakdown of the fatty acids that occurs with exposure to
air and light (ISEO 2016). Rancidity produces off flavors and odors, which decreases the
acceptability of the oil. When purchasing olive oil, check for the use by date. Store olive oil in
a cool, dark cupboard after opening or in the refrigerator to extend its shelf life. Olive oil may be
kept in the original sealed packaging for about 18 months to 2 years (Daniels 2015). Substituting
olive oil, particularly virgin olive, for other fats and oils is a positive step towards good health.
Consuming olive oil may help reduce the risk of cancer, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and other chronic
diseases.
(England, Julie et al.2016. Health Benefits of Olive Oil and Olive Extracts.University of Florida :
Florida)

-Soybean Oil :

15 | P a g e
Most table spreads in the US are formulated with soybean oil. Palm oil, lauric fat, and even
partially hydrogenated marine oils are commonly used in such products in Europe. Blending of
unmodified oils with oils hydrogenated to various degrees allows the production of margarines
with desirable texture. The greater the number of base stocks available, the greater is the flexibility
to produce a wide range of products and the higher the tolerance to processing conditions. A study
of procedures for designing suitable margarine from various stocks was conducted by Cho and co-
workers (1993).
Other ingredients used in margarines are dairy products, emulsifiers, preservatives, flavors,
vitamins and colors. The processing of margarine includes emulsification, chilling, working,
resting and packaging (Chrysam 1996). The ingredients are emulsified before being fed into a
swept-surface heat exchanger. The mass emerging from the cooling tubes is a partially solidified
mass and it is further crystallized in the working unit. Texture of the product is further modified
in the resting tube before the margarine is packaged. Shortening contains 100% fat of vegetable or
animal source and is used in frying, cooking, baking and other confectionary items. It can be in
plastic and semi-solid or pourable fluid form, or in encapsulated powder, pellet or flake form. It is
produced by formulating a blend, solidifying and plasticizing the blend, and packaging and
tempering. The form crystals are preferred for both margarine and shortening products. The large
number of minute air bubbles, incorporated in the shortening, improve the leavening of baked
foods. A more in-depth discussion of the science and technology of shortening has been presented
by Metzroth (1996).
(Gunstone, Frank D.2002.Vegetable Oils In Food Technology : Compositio, Properties, and Uses.
Blackwell Publishing : UK )

- Sunflower Oils :
Sunflower oil has been a premium oil and for the US, the oil has been an export dependent
commodity with 6090% sold overseas. Most of the importing countries enjoyed a subsidy from
their governments but these have been curtailed from time to time. This led to a glut of sunflower
oil in the US and oil was then sold to domestic users at a discounted price. This did not help the
growers. Traditional sunflower oil is excellent for cooking, making salad dressing, margarine, and
so on, but it cannot be used for manufacturing shelf-stable fried foods because of its poor oxidative
stability. The oil must be partially hydrogenated for industrial frying application. The mid-oleic

16 | P a g e
sunflower named NuSun has performed exceptionally well in food services, margarine, and in
industrial and restaurant frying. The Procter & Gamble Co. have been using NuSun in their
premium potato chips (Pringles). The company tested the oil for: shelf life, oil oxidation in frying,
oleic acid content, impact on process reliability, and product flavor and stability.
(Gunstone, Frank D.2002.Vegetable Oils In Food Technology : Compositio, Properties, and Uses.
Blackwell Publishing : UK )

- Crude Palm Oil :

Palm oil has a unique fatty acid (FA) and triacylglycerol (TAG) profile which makes it suitable
for numerous food applications. It is the only vegetable oil with almost 5050 composition of
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. CPO is used for cooking, frying, and as a source of vitamins.
Fractionation of CPO yields mainly palm olein, theliquid fraction and palm stearin, the solid
fraction. These fractions have distinct physical and chemical properties. CPO, palm olein and palm
stearin are important constituents of several food and industrial products such as shortenings and
ice cream, Interesterification can be used to incorporate essentiall poly- unsaturated fatty acids in
order to obtain oil richi n essential fatty acids and enhanced antioxidant properties. Customized
blends of CPO and fractions with other oils are used in different food products ranging from
margarines to soup mixes and infant formulae (Manorama &Rukmini,1992). Palm oil is top prime
among frying oils.
(Dumont, Marie-Josee et al.2015. Palm Oil: Processing, Characterization And Utilization In The
Food Industry A Review. Macdonald Campus of McGill University : Canada )

- Coconut Oil :
CNO (Lauric Oil) have similar uses in both the edible and the non-edible fields, but there are some
differences which are worth noting. CNO has a greater content of the more valuable shorter-chain
fatty acids, which make it a little more attractive to the oleochemical industry.
Filling creams for biscuit sandwiches, wafers and cakes are usually called simply creams,
and are used in large quantities in biscuit factories and bakeries. These products are among
the most popular lines. The creams are composed essentially of sugar, fat and milk solids.
Lauric fats, because of their shorter chain length, adhere better to the shells and set faster
than non-laurics, so that the freshly-made biscuits in a factory can be transported on

17 | P a g e
 conveyors, cooled quickly, handled, and packed without coming apart or sliding off centre.
Lower cost creams are sometimes made from non-lauric hydrogenated fats, or even from
all-purpose shortenings, but they never have the sharp-melting properties of lauric-based
products and they tend to taste either waxy or greasy with a tendency to squeeze out.
Lauric oils in margarines contribute short-chain fatty acids, which make the fatty acid
composition of the blend more like that of butter and give a cooler mouth feel.
Lauric oils are highly suitable for shallow frying.
(Gunstone, Frank D.2002.Vegetable Oils In Food Technology : Compositio, Properties, and Uses.
Blackwell Publishing : UK )

-Sesame Oil :
Sesame coat possesses significant antioxidant activity against various lipid per-oxidation systems.
The oil was found to be cyanide free, hence suitable for human consumption. Sesame oil enhances
tocopherol and also increases vitamin E action that is supposeed to help in prevention of cancer
and other heart ailments. Sesame also reduces cholesterol level because it contains more
polyunsaturated fat substance in the oil as compared to other oils. It retains different lignans like
sesamolin, sesamin and sesamol. The proximate analysis showed the following contents: moisture
4.40%; ash 4.41%; protein 21.00% and oil 54. 26%. Oil content and fatty acid composition are
important attributes desirable in oil crops. The percentage content of linoleic, oleic, palmitic and
stearic acids in the seed oil ranged between 40.749.3, 29.341.4, 8.010.3 and 2.14.8%,
respectively. Linolenic and arachidic acids were the minor constituents of the sesame oil. Linoleic
and oleic acids were the major fatty acids of sesame with average values of 45.7 and 37.2%,
respectively.
The orient as a health food for aging prevention and energy increasing (Hajimahmoodi et
al., 2008).
The utilization of sesame into diet can help to have a better taste in our daily consumed
dishes. The sesame seeds have a pleasant flavor and taste that resembles the nuts and its
utilization is simple in different products. It can be spread over soups, salads, cereals or
yoghurt. The baked products can be supplemented with whole sesame grains to achieve an
attractive and appealing form that improves the texture of final product.

18 | P a g e
 Sesame or whole seeds can be replaced with wheat flour used for the production of
pancake, muffins, breads and cookies. Several food products containing sesame are
available in the market. The energy bars, pasta, bagels, muffins and pancakes are some of
the examples of products with added sesame either in whole or its ground form (Manthey
et al,., 2002).
(Majeedd, Muhammad Nauman et al.2014. A review on the utilization Of Sesame As Functional
Food. American Journal Of Food And Nutrition : Pakistan)

b. Biofuel
-Soybean Oil :
Food grade soy oil can have very low free fatty acid content, less than 4%, in comparison with
other oils, such as olive oil with up to 20%. However, lower quality feedstocks being considered
for fuel production have higher free fatty acid content,with the highest concentration being present
in waste oil that has usually been subjected to repeated heating cycles before being salvaged for
biodiesel production. To process waste soybean oil, a combination of transesterification and
esterification can be used, shown schematically in Figure 1. The waste oil passes through a
centrifugal separator to remove water and suspended solids. The oil then moves to a tank of acid
catalyst, H2SO4, and methanol. Thermal cracking of triglycerides, as opposed to
transesterification discussed earlier, has been carried out for over 100 years, with a recent focus
on converting fats and oils to liquid fuels (Maher & Bressler 2007). The cracking process takes
place at high temperatures, 300-500C, and atmospheric pressure producing alkanes, alkenes,
aromatics and carboxylic acids, that can be separated by distillation (Lima, Soares et al. 2004).
The resulting mixture has a lower viscosity than the parent oil. Yields tend to be low in comparison
with transesterification, although up to 77% conversion of soybean oil has been observed with the
use of a high quality, edible oil as the starting material.
(McFarlane, Joanna. 2011.Processing of Soybean Oil into Fuels. Oak Ridge National Laboratory
:USA)

-Palm Oil :
The biofuel production from palm oil can be divided into two main categories,i.e.,catalytic
cracking and transesterification. Transesterification is a process by which triglycerides (vegetable
oil) react with an alcohol (methanol or ethanol) to form fatty acid methyl/ethyl esters and glycerol

19 | P a g e
(Korus, 1993). The esters derived from vegetable oils are very similar to petro-diesel in terms of
cetane number, viscosity,and energy content (Darnoko and Cheryan, 2000), thus aptly named as
biodiesel. Amongst different types ofvegetable oils, palm oil holdssignificant potentialsin
meeting energy demands owing to its highyield (Pool, 2014). Due to this, many countries have
focusedon utilizing palm oil to produce biodiesel. Chen et al. (2003) demonstrated the use of
renewable resources such as rice husk ash in synthesizing the CaO catalyst for biodiesel production
from palm oil. Moreover, Shan et al. (2015) investigated the impact of sodium poly
styrenesulfonate induced mineralization and calcination of CaO on the enhancement of the
catalytic activity and reusability of the catalyst. In their study, not only the trasesterification yield
of palm oil was improved, the reusability was also enhanced as compared with the traditional CaO
catalyst. In another study by Wong et al. (2015), a biodiesel yield of 95% was achieved by using
a combination of Calcium and Cerium oxides. Moreover, the synthesized catalyst couldbe reused
6 times without significant lossesin the yield.
(Kurnia, Jundika C.et al.2016. Advances in biofuel production from oil palm and palm oil
processing wastes: A review. Biofuel Research Journal : Malaysia)

-Olive Oil :
Olive cake oil is extracted from olive cake samples, collected from modern olive pressing plants,
using hexane as an extraction solvent. The oil is converted to biodiesel (methyl ester) in two-steps
process: acid-catalyzed esterification followed by alkalicatalyzed transesterification. It is found
that the oil content in olive cake represents approximately 13.75 % by mass. The results of the two
step transesterification process shows that maximum yield is 74.29 and obtained at 30%v/v of
methanol/oil ratio, 65oC temperature with 1.0 % by weight KOH catalyst. The produced biodiesel
contributes only to about 0.057% of the total primary energy consumption. Yasin [27] used
immobilized lipase to produce biodiesel with Olive oil and a three- step addition of methanol. The
maximum biodiesel yield was 93% at 25oC in 24 h reaction. The stability test showed that a small
enzyme deactivation occurred after being used repeatedly for 10 consecutive batches. Used a
single step esterification reaction, with different catalysis, and found that the maximum biodiesel
yield was 80% obtained at 30% of methanol/oil ratio, 60oC temperature for 60 min with NaOH
catalyst. An organic based manganese additive was used to improve the biodiesel properties and
the performance in a direct injection diesel engine.

20 | P a g e
(Al-Hamamre, Z.2016. Biodiesel Production from Olive Cake Oil. University of Jordan, : Jordan
)

-Sesame Oil :
The fat of sesame is of importance in the food industry due to its flavour and stability, its oil has
been found to contain sesamin and sesaminol lignans in its non-glycerol fraction, which are known
to play an important role in the oxidative stability and antioxidant activity. The main fatty acid
composition of the oil is oleic (43%), linoleic (35%), palmitic (11%) and stearic (7%) acids,
contributing about 96% of the total fatty acids . It also contains some polyunsaturated fatty acids
basically Omega 6 fatty acids but lacks Omega 3 fatty acids. Transesterification of Sesamum
indicum L. oil was carried with methanol in the presence of sodium methoxide and the parameters
affecting the reaction; vegetable oil/methanol molar ratio,catalyst concentration, reaction
temperature and time were fully optimized by employing Central Composite Design method
(CCD). A quadratic polynomial was developed to predict the response as a function of independent
variables and their interactions and only the significant factors affecting the yield were fitted to a
second-order response surface reduced 2FI model. At the optimum condition of 1:6 oil/methanol
molar ratio, catalyst concentration of 0.75% and reaction time of 30 min, biodiesel yield of 87.80%
was achieved. The selected fuel properties were within the range set by ASTM and EN bodies.
(Ayodele, O.O. et al.2013.Biodiesel Production From Sesamum Indincum L. Seed Oil : An
Optimization Study. Egyptian Journal Petroleum: Egypt)

-Almond Oil :
Almond (Prunus amygdalus) seed oil as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production was
reported. The oil content other seed was extracted with n-hexane using Soxhlet extraction method.
The extracted oil was characterized to determine the key physical and chemical propertiesthat mark
the suitability of theoil for biodiesel production.Values obtained for parameters such as density
(0.98g/cm3), flash point (220C), acid value (40.14mg/KOH/g) and kinematic viscosity (30CSt at
40C) for the extracted oil were comparable with values reported for other non-edible oils such as
Jatropha curcas, Pongamina pinnata, Azadirachata indica and Simaroubia indica. The extracted
seed oil was transesterified using both homogeneous (NaOH) and heterogeneous (CaO and MgO)
catalysts.The yields of biodiesel obtained with homogeneous catalyst under optimum conditions

21 | P a g e
such as 1500rpm agitation speed, 60C reaction temperature, 5:1 methanol to oil ratio were
relatively higher than the yields obtained with heterogeneous catalyst under these same
experimental conditions. Physico-chemical properties of the biodiesel such as acid value
(mgKOH/g), saponification value (mg/g), flash point(C), fire point(C),specific gravity(gm-3),
viscosity (Kgm-1S-1), cloud point(C) and centane number were determined and foundconsistent
with the standards set for ASTM D6751 and EN 14214. In addition, remarkable variation was
noticed in the flash point (298C) and cetane number (62) of the biodiesel when compared with
those of petroldiesel which were 125C and 49,respectively.Weight percent composition of the
biodiesel was 0.49 for diglycol diacetate, 43.04for methyl oleate, 48.40 for methyl palmitate and
8.07 for methyl stearate. The biodiesel profile of the seed-oil is comparable with the high quality
biodiesel produced with yellow oleander (Thevetia peruvian) seed oil. Hence, almond seed oil is
cheaper, cleaner and suitable feedstock for biodiesel fuel.
(Daramola, B.M. and Ogunsuyi,H.O.2013. Evaluation Of Almond (Prunus Amygdalus) Seed
Oil As A Viable Feedstock For Biodiesel Fuel. International Journal of Biotechnology Research :
Nigeria)

5. Utilization of Animal Oil

a. Food
-Fish Oils :
The species caught in America South (Peru and Chile) and North (USA) have a high content of
LC omega-3 fatty acids which can be up to 35% of the total fat in the fish. They are mainly
eicosapentaenoic and decosahexaenoic acids (EPA and DHA) with some decosapentaenoic acid
(DPA) at around 10%. The European fish species such as capelin, herring, sand eel and sprat are
intermediate, have between 18% and 25% LC omega-3 fatty acids (Table 1). The demersal fish
store oil in the liver, e.g. cod and halibut and have a low content of LC omega-3s (15% to 20%).
The more unsaturated fish oils with a higher content of LC omega-3 fatty acids also have a
higher content of saturated fatty acids such as myristic and palmitic. The
unsaturated oils are susceptible to oxidation. For storage, all fish oils have to be out of contact
with air, pro-oxidant metals, especially those high in iron and copper, and preferably treated
with an antioxidant, such as butylated hydroxy-toluene (BHT).Farmed fish, especially oily fish
such as salmonids fed on fish oil provide an excellent source of these acids.
LC omega-3 fatty acids must be supplied in diet

22 | P a g e
 Fish oil can be used directly in a purified form (nutraceuticals) in a wide range of foods.
The daily recommended intake of EPA plus DHA of 0.25 to 0.50 g can then be met.
(Jackson, Andrew and Pike, Ian H. 2010. Fish oil: production and use now and in the future.
College Yard, lower Dagnall St., St Albans AL3 4PA : England)

b. Biofuel
-Fish Oils :
The weight proportions of the fatty acid compositions of the biodiesel were analyzed using a gas
chromatography. The GCMS analysis of waste fish oil showed them a in composition of fatty
acids to be the followings: 1.07% muriatic (C14:0), 20.91% palmitic (C16:0), 6.81% palmeitoleic
(C16:1), 0.69% heptadecanoic (C17:0), 0.36% heptadecenoic (C17:1), 6.14% stearic (C18:0),
40.34% oleic (C18:1), 13.86% linoleic (C18:2), 2.64% linolenic (C18:3), 0.44% eicosa pentaenoic
(EPA) and 4.75% docosahexaenoic (DHA)(Fig.5). These fatty acids affect the amount of cetane
number of diesel fuels. Fish oil extracted from marine fish is rich in omega-3 poly- unsaturated
fatty acids. The length of the carbon chain of fish oil is frequently greater than that of general
vegetable oils, which are primarily composed of palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and
linolenic acid. Biodiesel with larger cetane number may cause the improvement of diesel engine
performance and a reduction of pollutant emissions. Although there is great potential for the use
of fish oil biodiesel as transportation fuel or as a power source, research into the fuel properties
of fish oil biodiesel is rather limited. The use of locally processed fish biodiesel as a heating fuel
mixed with diesel fuel would be beneficial. Because fish oil contains approximately 90% of the
energy content of diesel fuel and is easy to process into usable biodiesel blend fuels, this clean
burning bio-oil could be used to reduce dependence on imported fuel and improve air quality.
(Ghobadian, B. et al. 2013.Waste fish oil biodiesel as a source of renewable fuel in Iran. Tarbiat
Modares University: Iran)

-Cow Oil :
Based on nat ional reports for the year 2014, it was estimated that the non-edible fat from beef
cattle and fowl annually generated in Mexico is sufficient to produce 216.0kt of biodiesel, which
would furnish 8379 TJ. This amount is equivalent to 1.5% of the energy annually consumed in
Mexico as fossil diesel for road transport. The potential 216.0kt of animal fat-based biodiesel that

23 | P a g e
can be produced annually could replace 198.3 kt of fossil diesel and thus allow a reduction in the
WTW (well to wheels) emissions of 592.3kt CO2, which represents 1.5% of the WTW CO2
emitted from the combustion of the fossil diesel used for road transportation in Mexico in the year
2014.

(Chavarria-Hernandez, Juan et al,. 2016. Perspectives on The Utilization of Waste Fat from Beef
Cattle and Fowl for Biodiesel Production in Mexico. Journal of Chemical Technology and
Biotechnology )

-Pig Oil :
Prime steam lard obtained from pig fat by rendering was characterized and refined. The lard was
transesterified with methanol and sodium hydroxide (as catalyst) at 40, 50, 60, and 70C. Fuel
properties of the fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) or biodiesel were determined alongside that of
petroleum derived diesel obtained commercially. First the fat was chopped into small pieces of
approximately 10 mm2, put in a 5 L beaker with water of about a quarter the volume of the fat.
Theset up was heated gradually to boil with continuous stirring until the water evaporated
completely. Further cooking led to the melting of the solid fat which was sieved through a sieve
cloth, allowed to cool to about 50C and water equivalent to twice the volume added and allowed
to stand overnight to clarify some of the little protein bits. The thick slab of lard floating on the
water was collected, dried, weighed and stored in a refrigerator for biodiesel production. The thick
slab of lard obtained as described above was cut into small bits and melted over low and sustained
heating procedure at 40C. 180 cm3 of the melted lard was put in the reaction vessel maintained
at 40C. 1.4 g NaOH dissolved in 138 cm3 of methanol and heated to 40C was added to the
reaction vessel and stirred mechanically. The system was maintained at that temperature for 90
min and the reaction quenched by removing the vessel from the heating system and immersed in
cold water. The methods of as described elsewhere was used to separate the upper (biodiesel) layer
from the lower (glycerol) layer and was applied in the washing of the lower (biodiesel) layer for
four times to completely remove the unreacted catalyst, etc.
(Anyagou, I.D. et al.2012. Pig-fat (Lard) derivatives as alternative diesel fuel in compression
ignition engines. Journal of Petroleum Technology and Alternative Fuels : Nigeria)

-Chicken Oil :

24 | P a g e
An environmentally friendly biorefinery process for producing biodiesel from chicken wastes
was performed. Extracted from broiler slaughter residues and it can be filtered or not since it has
guaranteed that the product contains minimum 90% total fatty acids, maximum 3%
unsaponifiable impurities, without FFA or fat degradation products. Low acid value (0.130.01
mg KOH/g) chicken oil was obtained by preparing chicken wastes with moderate heating and
filtration processes that minimized damage to the lipids and thus facilitated subsequent reactions.
Methanol-lipids in a molar ratio of 6:1 and a methanol-ethanol-lipids mixture in a molar ratio of
3:3:1 were both reacted with 1% KOH catalyst for transesterfication. Furthermore, ethanol-lipids
in a molar ration of 6:1 were analogously transesterified with1% sodium ethoxide. The amounts
of biodiesel were 771.54 mg/mL15.28, 722.98 mg/mL37.38,and 714.86 mg/mL29.99 from
methanol, ethanol, and a mixture of methanol/ethanol (3:3),respectively, after transesterification.
The total amount of ethyl ester was comparable with the total amount of methyl ester. In
addition, ethanol is a renewable resource and a biorefinery concept can be contributed for
biodiesel production. Furthermore, transesterification of chicken oil with a mixture of
methanol/ethanol (3:3) only needed a relatively short reaction time of an hour. Densities,
viscosities, sulphur contents, acid values, and flash points of all esters were within the
specifications of CNS 15072 and EN 14214. The transesterification system for chicken oil in
ethanol and mixed methanol/ethanol (3:3) demonstrated in this study is a potential candidate for
biodiesel production.

(Tsai, Shuo-Wen.2015. Production Of Biodiesel From Chicken Wastes By Various Alcohol-

Catalyst Combinations. ournal of Energy in Southern Africa )

25 | P a g e
Conclusion
From the FA profiles in the tables above we can know that for plant oils contain mostly oleic acid,
except olive oil and coconut oil. The differences between olive and coconut oil is olive oil does
not contain caprylic, lauric, mystiric, and capric acid. So if we have to determine which one is
olive oil we havo to analyze the oleic acid content and then check the caprylic, lauric, mystiric,
and capric acid. For animal oils, it is more difficult to know the origin of the oils because every
part of animal has different FA profiles. Animal and plant oils can be differentiate from its form
in room temperature. Plant oil has liquid form and animal has solid form (fat).

References
Al-Hamamre, Z.2016. Biodiesel Production from Olive Cake Oil. University of Jordan, : Jordan
Anyagou, I.D. et al.2012. Pig-fat (Lard) derivatives as alternative diesel fuel in compression
ignition engines. Journal of Petroleum Technology and Alternative Fuels : Nigeria
Ayodele, O.O. et al.2013.Biodiesel Production From Sesamum Indincum L. Seed Oil : An
Optimization Study. Egyptian Journal Petroleum: Egypt
Azza M. Kamal and Omar A. Salama, 2009. Lipid Fractions and Fatty Acid Composition of
Colostrums, Transitional and Mature She-Camel Milk During the First Month of
Lactation. Asian Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1: 23-30.
Blanca Martinez, 2007. Sweet Almond Oil Organic. Textron : Barcelona

Casey, N.H. 1982. Goat Meat In Human Nutrition. Department ofLivestock Science, Faculty
ofAgriculture, University of Pretoria, South Africa.

Cerbulis, J. O. W. Parks, And H. M. Farrell, Jr. Composition And Distribution Of Lipid Of

Goats' Milk. 1982 J Dairy Sci 65:2301--2307

Chavarria-Hernandez, Juan et al,. 2016. Perspectives on The Utilization of Waste Fat from Beef
Cattle and Fowl for Biodiesel Production in Mexico. Journal of Chemical Technology
and Biotechnology

Christov, M. 2012. Contribution of interspecific hybridization to sunflower breeding. Helia.

35(57): 37- 46. Doi: 10.2298/hel1257037c. http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/1018-
1806/2012/1018-18061257037C.pdf

26 | P a g e
Daramola, B.M. and Ogunsuyi,H.O.2013. Evaluation Of Almond (Prunus Amygdalus) Seed Oil
As A Viable Feedstock For Biodiesel Fuel. International Journal of Biotechnology
Research : Nigeria

Dimitrios Boskou ,Georgios Blekas, and Maria Tsimidou. Olive Oil Composition. Laboratory of
Food Chemistry and Technology, School of Chemistry, Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki, University Campus, Thessaloniki, 54124
Dumont, Marie-Josee et al.2015. Palm Oil: Processing, Characterization And Utilization In The
Food Industry A Review. Macdonald Campus of McGill University : Canada
England, Julie et al.2016. Health Benefits of Olive Oil and Olive Extracts.University of Florida :
Florida
Ghobadian, B. et al. 2013.Waste fish oil biodiesel as a source of renewable fuel in Iran. Tarbiat
Modares University: Iran
Guarte, R. C., Muhlbauer, W., & Kellert, M. (1996). Drying characteristics of copra and quality
of copra and coconut oil. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 9, 361e372.

Gunstone, Frank D. Vegetable Oils Food Technology: Composition Properties and Uses. Blackwel
Publishing (2011).

Gupta, M.K. NuSun : The Future of Oils. Inform 1998, 9, 1150-1154

Gruger jr, Edward H. 1960. Fatty Acid Composition of Fish Oils. United States Department of the
Interior

Hammond, Earl G.. 2005.Soybean Oil. Fereidoon Shahidi. Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.

Hasmann, H. 1998. Fatty acid composition of the meat and fat of the one-humped camel (camelus
dromedaries). Meat Sci. 1998;37(1):149-55. doi: 10.1016/0309-1740(94)90151-1

Hoshino, T. Selective Hydrolysis of Fish Oil by Lipase to Concentrate n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty
Acids. Agric. Biol. Chem., 54 (6), 1459-1467, 1990

Jackson, Andrew and Pike, Ian H. 2010. Fish oil: production and use now and in the future.
College Yard, lower Dagnall St., St Albans AL3 4PA : England

27 | P a g e
Krishna A.G .2010. Coconut Oil: Chemistry, Production and Its Applications -A Review.
Department of Lipid Science & Traditional Foods, Central Food Technological Research
Institute (CSIR), Mysore 570020.

Kurnia, Jundika C.et al.2016. Advances in biofuel production from oil palm and palm oil
processing wastes: A review. Biofuel Research Journal : Malaysia

Majeedd, Muhammad Nauman et al.2014. A review on the utilization Of Sesame As Functional

Food. American Journal Of Food And Nutrition : Pakistan

Manso,T., R. Bodas, T. Castro, V. Jimeno, A.R. Mantecn5Animal performance and fatty acid
composition of lambs fed with different vegetable oils. Address: rea de Produccin
Animal, E.T.S. de Ingenieras Agrarias, Universidad de Valladolid, Avda. Madrid.

Marina,A.M . Virgin coconut oil: emerging functional food oil. Trends in Food Science &
Technology 20 (2009) 481e487.

Marinela Muo1*, Anila Kopali2, Lumturi Xhelilaj Muo . PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF OLIVE OILS FROM AUTOCHTHONOUS ALBANIAN
OLIVE VARIETIES. Journal of Hygienic Engineering and Design Original scientifc
paper UDC 665.327.3(496.5)

McFarlane, Joanna. 2011.Processing of Soybean Oil into Fuels. Oak Ridge National Laboratory
:USA

Monaghan,E. K. 2008. Chemical composition of edible nut seeds and its implications in human
health. Taylor & Francis group

NASSER, Boubker, Mhamed Said EL KEBBAJ, Khadija MOUSTAID, Abdallah BAGRI,

Abdelkhalid ESSAMAD, and Norbert LATRUFFE. . Lipid analysis of tissues from
camel (Camelus dromedaries) reveals unique composition in fatty acids. International
Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 6, Issue 4, April-2015 ISSN 2229-
5518

28 | P a g e
Nzikou, J.M. Matos, L. 2009. Chemical composition on the seeds and oil of sesame (Sesamum
indicum L) grown in Congo-Brzzaville. Adv. J. Food Sci Technol. 1, 6-11.

Rodrigues,R. , Juliana Soares , Hugo Garcia , Claudenice Nascimento , Maria Medeiros , Marco
Bomfim , Maria Carmo Medeiros and Rita Queiroga . Goat Milk Fat Naturally Enriched
with Conjugated Linoleic Acid Increased Lipoproteins and Reduced Triacylglycerol in
Rats. Molecules 2014, 19, 3820-3831; doi:10.3390/molecules19033820

Rohman, A., Triyana, K., Sismindari and Erwanto, Y . Differentiation of lard and other animal fats
based on triacylglycerols composition and principal component analysis. International
Food Research Journal 19(2): 475-479 (2012)
Shah, N C. Sesamum Indicum (Sesame Or Til): Seeds & Oil An Historical And
Scientific Evaluation From Indian Perspective. Indian Journal Of History Of Science,
48.2 (2013) 151-174

Roncero, J.M.. 2016. Virgin almond oil: Extraction methods and composition.

Sharma,H., Giriprasad R and Meena Goswami. Animal fat-Processing and Its Quality Control.
Sharma et al., J Food Process Technol 2013, 4:8

Tsai, Shuo-Wen.2015. Production Of Biodiesel From Chicken Wastes By Various Alcohol-

Catalyst Combinations. ournal of Energy in Southern Africa

Vesna Kostik . Shaban Memeti , Biljana Bauer. FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE
OILS AND FATS. Journal of Hygienic Engineering and Design, Original scientifc paper
UDC 664.3:577.115.3
Wabaidur, S. Determination of free fatty acids in olive oils by UPHLCMS. Journal of
Chromatography B, 1031 (2016) 109115

Yuen May, Choo. 2013. Palm Oil: Procesing, Utilization and Nutriton. MPOB:Malaysia

Wood, J., D. 2008. Fat deposition, fatty acid composition and meat quality: A review. UK:
Division of Farm Animal Science, Department of Clinical Veterinary Science.

29 | P a g e
30 | P a g e