Infusing Science Curriculum

with Traditional Knowledge

Final Paper

ETEC 521: Indigeneity,

Susan Beeley 8/8/17
Technology, and Education
 Infusing Science Curriculum with Traditional Knowledge
Introduction

In a cooperative research paper carried out by Lets Talk Science and Amgen Canada Inc.

(2013) the financial, opportunity and societal costs of not engaging students in Science,

Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM subjects) were highlighted. Of particular

relevance to this paper is the recognition that Aboriginal peoples remain under-represented in

STEM fields in the education system and workforce (p12) despite the increased importance of

STEM subjects to both employability and the Canadian economy (Canadian Council on Learning,

2007; Lets Talk Science, 2013).

The National Association of Colleges and Employers carried out a survey that identified

skills such as problem solving, decision making, gathering and evaluating information and

analyzing data as the most desirable to employers (cited in Lets Talk Science, 2013). These

skills are all components in the study of STEM subjects. In addition to encouraging individual

employment, involvement in the STEM subjects affords Aboriginal students the ability to make a

positive impact on Canada through the sharing of their perspectives and traditional ways of living

sustainably with nature, particularly with subjects closely tied to their culture (e.g. fisheries) or

based in a particular place (e.g. resource management) (Barnhardt & Kawagley, 2005; Canadian

Council on Learning, 2007).

Aikenhead (2001) suggests that Aboriginal youth may disengage from the Western

science taught in traditional classrooms because science curricula attempt(s) to enculturate all

students into the value system of Western science (p. 337). This results in feelings of alienation

which are more intense for Aboriginal students due to the existing culture gap between traditional

knowledge and that presented by Western science. The table below outlines some of the

significant differences, but is by no means exhaustive. Further, it is not the intent of the author to

ignore commonalities between the two approaches, or to ignore moves that have been made
within STEM subjects to converge Western and traditional views, but that discussion is beyond

the scope of this paper (Barnhardt & Kawagley, 2005).

Western Science Traditional knowledge

Dualist: mind and matter are separate
Reductionist: the whole is a function of
individual parts
Nature exists to serve us, we have dominion
over it, competitive relationships
Seeks to eradicate mystery
Knowledge is universal and generalizable
Dynamic due to new or anomalous
evidence
Experimentally empirical through
quantitative data
Rectangular time, values precision and
order
Predictive validity where experiments
support a hypothesis
Realism, if it cannot be measured, it doesnt
exist
Table 1: Summary based on Aikenheads (2007) description of Western science
and Aboriginal ways of knowing.
Monist: everything is alive and has spirit
Holism: there are no individual parts,
interrelationships result in balance and
harmony
Relational: Everything is part of everything
else, all my relations
Celebrates mystery that result from constant
motion and flux
Knowledge is placed based
Dynamic due to new observations,
technologies, insights, spiritual messages
Systematically empirical over generations of
collecting qualitative, observed data
Circular time in harmony with repetitive
cycles of nature
Content valid based on depth and longevity
of knowledge
Rationality is culture based, and dependent
upon deep beliefs

Given the magnitude of contradictions between the two ways of seeing the world it is clear

to see how some Aboriginal students might struggle to bridge the gap between their learning

experiences around traditional knowledge outside of school and Western science in school

independently. Thus, the job of the science teacher needs to shift away from deliverer of the one

true knowledge to that of a tour-guide culture broker (p 340) who helps the students navigate
their way towards building an understanding of the world around them by drawing on and unifying

the strengths of the two belief systems (Aikenhead, 2001). Given that teachers are increasingly

asked to incorporate traditional knowledge across the curriculum it is important to recognise the

value in this for all students, including non-Aboriginal, through exposing them to diverse

perspectives and ways of viewing and living in the world around them.

This paper is intended to help science teachers feel more comfortable infusing the science

curriculum with traditional knowledge with the intent of engaging more students, particularly those

from under-represented, Aboriginal backgrounds. Where possible, Barnhardt and Kawagley,

(2005) suggest that grounding Western science in the practical and familiar world of the students

experience is a useful starting point.

Integrated sciences: Building Teacher Understanding

In 2004, Elder Albert Marshall of the Mikmaw Elders in Unamaki Cape Breton introduced

the principle of Two-Eyed Seeing as the foundation of the Integrated Science Program at Cape

Breton University (Bartlett, Marshall & Marshall, 2012). According to Cheryl Bartlett (2012) the

principle was developed as the communities, the elders were concerned that there were not any

students from their communities going into the sciences

Elder Albert Marshall and his wife, Murdena, proposed that by combining the strengths of

both Western Science and Aboriginal ways of living with nature in a mindful, purposeful way more

Aboriginal students would be engaged with and encouraged to carry on in their study of science.

Their guiding philosophy was that one of the most important questions an individual can ask in

life is who am I? When an education system ignores a large part of who its students are the

students ability to find an answer to this question becomes limited (Marshall, cited in Bartlett,

2012). Through the use of Two-eyed seeing both Western science and traditional knowledge are
recognised to have different strengths that can be drawn upon in different situations and as such,

both are given equal value in the classroom.

Bartlett suggests that the way to marry the two very different approaches and help

students to bridge the gaps identified by Aikenhead (2001) is to use Western sciences own

scientific method and a compare and contrast approach to come to recognise that both knowledge

sets are essential in order to move forward. This is particularly relevant given the contribution

traditional knowledge can make towards ecological and global sustainability as it is rooted in a

great respect for Mother Earth. Through Two-eyed seeing students are encouraged to see

through one eye the value of Western science and through the other the value of Aboriginal ways

of living sustainably with nature. This approach is strongly place-based and holistic, encouraging

students to view themselves as both a material and a spiritual part of the world in which they live

during their ongoing learning journey (Hatcher, Bartlett, Marshall & Marshall, 2009).

In a Letter of Understanding between British Columbia Teachers Federation (BCTF) and

British Columbia Public School Employers Association (BCPSEA) the historical under-

representation of Aboriginal teachers in the public school system is addressed (BCTF, 2008).

This means that it will largely fall on non-Aboriginal teachers to present science using an

integrated approach. This presents several potential difficulties as discussed by Brayboy and

Maughan (2009). The first is a willingness and ability on the part of non-Aboriginal teachers to

reflect upon the political nature of teaching and the connections implied between power and the

passing of knowledge. The second is an openness on the part of non-Aboriginal teachers to

learning about traditional knowledge and its key characteristics as they relate to teaching and

learning. For example, in Western systems knowledge is a noun, it is information that is contained

within, for example, books. In Aboriginal systems knowledge is a verb and so is seen as active

and linked to acting in certain ways to ensure survival. Secondly, Western systems

compartmentalise knowledge into various types (e.g. Biology, English, Math) while Aboriginal
systems see knowledge as circular and holistic requiring a much more cross-curricular approach.

Finally, in Aboriginal systems learning should serve a relevant purpose in everyday life, should

be helpful to the community, and should incorporate metaphysical and spiritual aspects.

To illustrate these concepts, an example borrowed from Brayboy and Maughan (2009) will

be outlined. This example involved teaching a lesson on scientific experiments by having

students plant bean seeds, one in soil the other in sand. Pre-service Aboriginal teachers were

then asked to comment on the lesson and suggest alternative Aboriginal ways of approaching the

content. The pre-service Aboriginal teachers felt that it was important to first discuss what the

seed does, it provides sustenance. Therefore, they felt that there was a spiritual component that

was missing from the lesson. Further, the experiment was a waste of valuable seeds as they

would not grow in sand and it was not the right time of year to plant beans. The students could

have been shown how to use constellations to determine when the correct time to plant beans.

Finally, rather than measuring height with a ruler to determine their beans success, students

could have produced actual beans to eat and even share with the community. This example also

brings to light issues around Western systems views that knowledge is universal, while Aboriginal

systems see knowledge as linked to a particular place and a particular context. This experiment

would not work in a place where beans would not grow, but some other seeds might have been

used instead.

To put the potentially daunting task of teaching Integrated Science into perspective the

similarities it holds to the more familiar constructivist approach may be helpful. The essential

characteristics of the constructivist approach as outlined by Baviskar, Hartle and Whitney (2009)

are inherent in Integrative sciences. Both value the discovery of prior knowledge as a starting

point and recognise the importance of working within existing cognitive frameworks to avoid

assimilation or outright rejection of new information. Existing knowledge and new information are

inspected to identify similarities and differences between the two. Both acknowledge the journey
aspect of learning as constructs are applied to different yet relevant contexts to determine how

they work. Mistakes are viewed as a valuable part of the learning process and constructive,

supportive feedback is provided throughout so that the learners understanding can be adjusted.

This understanding is then consolidated by reflection during which students become aware of the

dynamic and active relationship that exists between initial knowledge and new understanding.

Place-based learning: A starting point for student engagement

In our attempts to engage Aboriginal students in science the important role of place in

Aboriginal ways of living sustainably with nature should not be overlooked. Not only do scholars

highlight the role of place, but so do youth, as demonstrated through the following quotations:

Place-based science teaching focuses on local and regional environments and

synthesizes different ways of knowing them, leveraging the senses of place of

students and teachers. (Semken & Butler-Freeman, 2008. p. 1042)

I thought it would be good for me to be closer to the river. You hang around with it

long enough itll speak to you (Broad, 2009. 1:57)

You always gotta go back home. Make yourself feel whole again, like, being from

Nunavut you know youre going out camping all the time youre on the land and

being on the land its kinda like youwell for me when I get out on the land and I

just go out for a walk and take everything in, it really calms me down and brings me

down to Earth. (Sandiford, 2012. 29:19)

In a practical sense, place based learning requires that we understand the culture, history

and context in which a students learning of science takes place. It is a holistic process that

extends beyond content into relationships within the classroom, with parents, with the school and

with the community to recognise not only the material aspects of education but the spiritual and
emotional ones as well (Stewart, 2011). In order for place-based education to be successful it

must incorporate the following features:

Focusses on local issues in a way that makes them personally relevant to the

learners;

Provides experiences that contribute to the community and environmental quality;

Draws on partnerships with local agencies to support learning;

Integrates learning rather than compartmentalises it;

Promotes value and love for ones place and through this serves as a foundation

for applying principles learned on a larger scale (i.e. regional or global) (Promise

of Place, 2017).

While it is a common assumption that placed-based learning requires trips and time

outside, and this may in fact enhance the material being taught, the key element appears to be

cooperative teaching and learning to allow for the examination of different ways of knowing, which

can also happen in the classroom (Promise of Place, 2017; Semken & Butler-Freeman, 2008;

Sierra Club B.C., 2017; Stewart, 2011). Elders, community members or parents can come in to

speak to a class and share their expertise on local issues. Teachers can work together to develop

intra-curricular lessons or projects intended to make a difference in the community at large.

Science curricula can be linked to issues arising in the local community. Parents and peer tutors

can be involved in the learning process.

By stepping back from global issues and putting learning into a local, integrated context

students are given opportunities to advocate for their communities and become empowered to

create change. This, in turn, fosters engagement followed by continued interest in the study of

science where skills and knowledge developed at a local level can then be expanded and applied

to a regional or even global level (Semken & Butler, 2008). Examples of local success stories
with the implementation of placed based learning include Cultural Journeys (Aldous, 2017) at

Stawamus Elementary in the Sea to Sky district, and Sierra Club BC (2017) in Victoria.

Set in Stawamus Elementary school, Cultural Journeys began in 2015 as a collaborative

project designed to keep the endangered school open by encouraging increasing attendance.

Squamish Nation traditional knowledge and the importance of place are integral to curriculum

delivery and learning places further value on local language and culture. Students of varying

ages work together and develop a sense of connection with one another, the community and the

land.

Sierra Club BC is a charitable organisation that endeavours to protect the wild places and

species of BC from the impact of climate change. Their focus is on children and youth with the

goal of producing tomorrows leaders in finding solutions through science based research to

overcome the detrimental impact of climate change. They offer programs throughout BC that

represent the integration of Western science and traditional knowledge in hands-on, inquiry-

based, place-based learning experiences designed to promote environmental stewardship.

Science teaching resources and ideas for place-based learning can be found at Science World

(Science World, 2017) and Stewards of the Future (Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia,

2015). Science World offers place based learning through their BC Green Games which

encourages students to engage with their local environment. Units cover recycling,

decomposition, plants and urban wildlife and include activities, games and demonstrations.

Educators can apply to the Stewards of the Future for funding to support activities involved in

their outdoor learning experiences that are place, project and inquiry based. Students formulate

ideas on what makes their community great, what challenges it faces and how their community

is linked to other communities. Further exploration focuses on sustainability and environmental

issues as they relate to both local and global communities.

Assessment: Embracing diversity

One of the major challenges in education today is moving away the factory model upon

which it has been based since the Industrial Revolution with its bells, age defined grades, and

separate subjects (Robinson, 2010). This model has resulted in education that is often based on

the uniformity of an end product and, therefore, requires a degree of conformity. This is supported

by the use of summative assessments that measure end results for comparison rather than

formative assessments that track student growth throughout a learning journey.

Standardised tests are often used to make comparisons of students but these test are not

equitable as they are more or less accessible to different students or even groups of students.

Perhaps the most negatively affected are those who are culturally and/or linguistically different

from to the majority (Klenowski, 2014). In British Columbia Aboriginal students scored

significantly lower than non-Aboriginal students on both literacy and numeracy levels in grade 7

and while many students do not participate in the Foundation Skills Assessment (FAS) these

results are similar to those found for minority groups elsewhere (e.g. black vs. white students in

the United States) (Friesen & Krauth, 2009; Brayboy & Castagno, 2009)). These standardised

assessments have not been designed in a way to be deemed culturally or linguistically suitable

for Aboriginal students and so an inability for them to perform as well as their non-Aboriginal peers

is predictable (Nunavut Department of Education, 2008).

A knock-on effect of poor performance on standardised testing results in the use of Level

B assessment tools to determine whether or not special educational services are necessary, but

these tools are norm referenced by the dominant culture and so may not provide an accurate

picture of the types of support an Aboriginal student needs (Stoffer, 2017). As a result, Aboriginal

students are often over-represented in special education classes which contributes to their

inability to view themselves as anything other than academic failures in a school system that is

unable to provide appropriate support (Nichol, Archibald & Baker, 2012).

 Further, where standardised tests are used as a measure of students (and therefore

teachers) success it is often the case that teachers spend time teaching in a standard way, to the

standardised tests rather than teaching to the diverse group of students, with diverse interests,

and diverse cultural backgrounds, who sit in front of them. This is despite a growing body of

research that suggests that Aboriginal students do better and experience greater success when

community and culturally based educational practices are incorporated (Brayboy & Castagno,

2009; Stoffer, 2017).

Where an integrated, place based approach to science is used there is an even greater

need for diversity in assessment as students embark on unique learning journeys dependent upon

their own cultural and personal context. This amplifies the need for culturally sensitive

assessment that provides equity for all students regardless of background. Klenowki (2014) offers

some suggestions to support the process. He writes about personalised learning plans (PLPs)

which are composed of two elements. The first is documentation that is created by the teacher

with the student, and the parents or carers. The document focuses on the aspiration, options,

cultural resources and personal or educational challenges for the student. This document outlines

supports that will help the student achieve, thereby legitimizing alternative assessments. The

second element contained in the PLP is a collection of exemplar work completed by the student

who has a clear understanding of the success criteria for each task prior to starting. In working

towards the success criteria, formative assessment is provided by the teacher, by peers and by

the student themselves regarding how they are progressing and what they still need to do in order

to achieve the success criteria.

This sort of portfolio approach to assessment allows students to demonstrate not just an

end result but a trackable learning journey towards meeting a transparent, cooperatively created

set of goals. Further, it promotes agency in the student by giving them the freedom to determine

the way in which they will show their learning, perhaps through film or music production, or through

story telling.
 The above is an example about how we can assess in a more diverse, culturally

responsive way. A further question for consideration is what we are assessing in order to further

embrace and honour diversity. Verwoord, Mitchell and Machado (2011) suggest that using a

medicine wheel in assessment can help to ensure balanced, holistic, integrated assessment while

supporting Aboriginal beliefs such as interconnectedness and cycles of time. Different ideas and

different relationships may be represented within the medicine wheel depending upon the

specifics of the given Aboriginal culture, but what remains the same is the equal importance of

the physical, emotional, mental and spiritual realities. These can be used to create learning

outcomes and assignments that support all four dimensions represented in the medicine wheel.

For example, teachers could use the Circle of Courage (Brendtro, Brokenleg & Van

Bockern, 1990) as a guiding example of a medicine wheel so that within a unit of work each

quadrant accounts for 25% of a students grade, and has learning objectives and assessment

tasks attached to it.

Figure 1: Circle of courage model used for connecting with and

educating at risk youth (Calgary Board of Education, 2017).
 The Nunavut Department of Education (2008) uses a similar approach to assessment and

have created an assessment cycle that is inclusive and values Ilitaunnikuliriniq beliefs.

Figure 2: Assessment cycle based on Ilitaunnikuliriniq beliefs.

 These ideals are based on developing students so that they can achieve personal goals,

become well-equipped to contribute and serve their families and communities (Nunavut

Department of Education, 2008, p. 12). Reoccurring themes in the Foundation for Dynamic

Assessment paper include:

a commitment to lifelong learning;

individual goal setting that does not involve comparison to other students but a

progression through stages in an individuals learning journey towards mastery;

collaboration with family and community in the learning process that will, in turn, be used

to benefit the family and community;

authentic assessment that is holistic and focuses on what students can do;

assessment that is culturally sensitive to the specifics of Inuit society and linguistic

underpinnings.

Though the underpinnings of Aboriginal culture may vary from place to place, it is only through

the recognition of where our students are at when they come into the classroom that we can

provide equitable learning experiences and assessment in order to engage all student in an

educational process that celebrates success (Nicol, Archibald & Baker, 2012).

Technology to Support Aboriginal Students in Science

Besides connecting teachers through communities of practice, another important role of

technology in science education for Aboriginal students relates to accessibility. In Stepping

Forward (Sandiford, 2012) an Aboriginal student discusses her dream of becoming a nurse. It

was only after graduation that she realised that in order to become a nurse she needed to have

taken Chemistry, but in her local school the subject was not offered. Thus, for many students in

remote communities technology supported learning may represent the only opportunity to gain

access to education and career opportunities.

 Doering and Henrickson (2014) make some suggestions on key design features to

consider for ensuring success of remote educational projects. Firstly, reflective presence

provides opportunities for each community involved to identify itself as unique so that youth can

develop a sense of cultural identity through their learning experience. Secondly, interaction is

supported to motivate learners to share information within the context of the learning

environment in order to learn from one another. Thirdly, educator support is provided as many

of the teachers in remote communities are new and there is a high turnover rate. Finally, a

recognition that in many remote regions internet access is slow or limited to design that is

simple and can be provided in a pre-leaded application is more likely to ensure success.

The specific program discussed in Doering and Henrickson (2014) was called North of

Sixty. Its purpose was twofold, to promote discussion around challenges facing communities

and the future impact of these challenges on land and culture, and to promote the practice and

use of technology to open doors to future job opportunities. Currently, a Canadian charity called

Actua endeavours to engage students in STEM subjects through summer camps, workshops,

clubs and outreach. Within BC summer camps and workshops are run out of Thompson Rivers

Universigy, University of British Columbia, Simon Fraser University, Northwest Community

College and University of Victoria and can be tailored to engage Aboriginal youth, girls, and

youth facing socio-economic challenges. However, not all remote communities are accessible

(Doering & Henrickson, 2014) so programs such as North of Sixy that combine technology and

field work in an exploration of the curriculum that incorporates local culture are still required if

we are to reach all students.

Conclusion

If we are to engage Aboriginal students in STEM subjects we first need to understand

the obstacles they face when learning in a Westernised educational environment. Key cultural

differences can make science learning seem assimilative and insurmountably challenging.
Through the application of two-eyed seeing through place based learning traditional ways of

living sustainably with nature can be given value in the classroom. However, if assessments do

not offer further cultural responsiveness no amount of changing curriculum delivery will allow

Aboriginal students the same opportunities for success as their non-Aboriginal peers. While

some programs offer STEM learning outreach to remote regions technology is often a more

viable solution for provision of remote learning experiences. However, this does not come

without its own set of challenges based on limitations of infrastructure and technology.

While this paper has covered a vast amount of information it is the hope of the author

that it provides some inspiration and ideas for teachers working with Aboriginal students.

Traditional ways of living sustainably with nature offer a wealth of solutions to many of the

problems faced by todays scientists and it is through cooperative efforts that stand our best

chance at developing lasting and achievable solutions.

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