Bru'n Water

Bru'n Water Copyright 2012 Martin Brungard. All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part in any form or medium without the express
written permission of Martin Brungard is prohibited.

Instructions
Created by Martin Brungard, P.E. D.WRE (mabrungard@hotmail.com)

Most water sources that have an acceptable taste can be used to brew beer. But to brew great beer, adjustment of brewing
water may be needed. Bru'n Water is a brewing water analysis program that enables a brewer to successfully evaluate and
modify their water supply to improve their beer. The program steps through the evaluation of a brewer's water supply, adjustment
to a desired water profile, evaluation of potential mash pH, and adjustments to produce desirable mash pH.

Homebrewing and Craftbrewing are unique in their need to frequently assess and adjust their brewing water to better suit their
upcoming beer. This differs from the needs of production breweries that brew thousands of barrels of the same beer every year.
Consistency is the key for production brewers and they have little need to evaluate or change their brewing water. Through trial
and error and advanced laboratory analyses, production breweries typically know exactly what adjustments they need for their
brewing water. Homebrewers and Craftbrewers rarely have the tools at their disposal to perfect their water and since they often
change what beer they brew, a capable tool is helpful. This brewing tool is intended to aid those who want to get great results out
of every batch.

Getting Started

The first thing needed for brewing water analysis is to know your water supply characteristics and ion concentrations. Of
course, you want a water supply that is safe to drink and tastes good. Water that leaves black, brown, or red water staining may be
an indication that the water will need additional treatment to be suitable for brewing. Water that has been softened by typical home
water softeners (ion exchange) is not typically desirable for brewing due to elevated sodium or potassium content and low calcium
and magnesium content. Brewers with softened water should obtain their brewing water from a point upstream of the softener for
better brewing results. Hard water is not typically an obstacle to brewing good beer. However, alkalinity is a problem typical to
many brewers. Ion exchange water softeners do not affect alkalinity sigificantly and the resulting water is often poorly suited to
brewing.

A comprehensive instruction on brewing water knowledge is included in this program to assist the Brewer in understanding brewing
water chemistry. Select the Water Knowledge tab to view or visit the Bru'n Water Knowledge web site link below.

Bru'n Water Knowledge

This program steps the brewer through a set of spreadsheets to complete the water analysis and adjustment. If a Brewer's water
source is relatively stable and its characteristics do not change, then it is likely that the Brewer will only visit sheets 1 and 2 (Water
Report Input and Sparge Acidification) once. Sheets 3 and 4 (Water Adjustment and Mash Acidification) will be used for each
new brewing session. The Brewer should work sequentially through sheets 1 through 4 to define and assess their brewing water
chemistry. If the mash acidification results indicate that the water adjustments will not produce a desirable result, the Brewer may
need to revisit the Water Adjustment page (Sheet 3) and adjust the dilution, mineral, or acid additions to achieve their desired
mash pH.

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Program Flow Summary

1. Input the Ion content of the existing water source on the Water Report Input sheet.

2. Check the Cation/Anion Balance on the Water Report Input sheet to confirm that the ion information input for the existing
water is appropriate. If problems with the balance are found, double check the reported units for the inputs and convert any
quantities that are not reported in straight ppm or mg/L units (not ppm as CaCO3).

3. Input the alkalinity of the existing water on the Sparge Acidification sheet and calculate the amount of acid needed to bring
the Sparging Water pH and Alkalinity down to a proper level.

4. Select a desirable water profile for the brewing water on the Water Adjustment sheet and experiment with mineral and acid
additions and/or water dilution that approximates the desired water profile. Adjust the mashing bicarbonate content to match the
desired water profile that will serve as your first guess. The bicarbonate content of the mashing water may require refinement
based on the acidity of the mashing grain bill.

5. Input the mashing grain bill on the Mash Acidification sheet along with the water volume of the mash and total batch of beer.

6. Check the resulting Estimated Mash pH on the Mash Acidification sheet. If the pH is lower than desired, increase the
bicarbonate content of the mash water on the Water Adjustment sheet. If the pH is higher than desired, reduce the bicarbonate
content. Adjust the mashing water ion concentrations until the desired mash pH is predicted.

7. A listing of the recommended Water Adjustments for mashing and sparging water is presented on the Adjustment Summary
sheet. That sheet is configured for printing.

If Reverse Osmosis (RO) or Distilled Water is the Brewer's primary water source, then Sheets 1 and 2 can be skipped and the
Brewer can move directly to Sheets 3 and 4. Select either RO or Distilled from the Dilution Water Profile selection and set the
dilution percentage to 100 percent. The water adjustments can then be properly entered to create the desired water profile.

This program is unique in that it enables the evaluation of both brewing water alkalinity and mash acidity to more closely estimate
and assess the mash water adjustments needed. The mash acidity is calculated from the actual grain bill used for each brewing
session.

The program is set up with color-coded cells to aid and direct the Brewer. Blue colored cells accept Brewer input. Yellow colored
cells present calculated data and results. Many cells within each sheet contain informational comments that help the Brewer
understand the inputs and results. Cells with comments have small Red mark in their right upper corner. Hover the cursor over
cells to see the informational comments. Some cells will change their color to Green when inputs are within recommended
tolerance.

Features in this software require the use of Macros. Macros must be enabled in the software to access the drop-down selection
information. If a security message from the spreadsheet software is displayed regarding macros, enable macros to run to gain full
use of this program's features.

When opening the program for the first time, the zoom on each of the sheets is set low (small) so that most Users can see the
extent of the working area. Adjust the zoom setting on each sheet so that each sheet is enlarged and visible on your monitor.
When the program is saved, your preferred zoom settings on each sheet will be saved. If text in some cells does not appear right,
increasing the zoom can improve the appearance.

The minimum water information needed includes: the water's pH and the water's Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Alkalinity,
Sulfate, and Chloride concentrations. If the water pH is not known, it can generally be estimated as 8.0 without much error. If
you are connected to a municipal water supply, you may be able to obtain this information from their water quality testing report. If
that information is not readily available or if the water is from a private source, you may need to have the water tested for those
parameters. A suite of tests such as the Household Mineral Test from Ward Labs (wardlab.com) is suitable ( Sodium, Calcium,
Magnesium, Potassium, Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Chloride, Sulfate, Nitrate, pH, Total Hardness, and Total Alkalinity). Only a small
water sample is required for the testing. A White Labs yeast vial holds enough water for testing.

Measurements

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Mineral and acid additions must be measured and added accurately to achieve good brewing results. Brewers should obtain a
scale with an accuracy of at least 0.1 grams to more accurately measure mineral and acid additions for typical homebrew sized
batches. Craftbrewers that brew larger batches should have a scale with an accuracy of at least 1 gram to accurately measure
their additions. Scales may be mechanical or digital, but their resolution should meet the recommendations above. An internet
search for "digital scale 0.1" will reveal there are many scales available for under $30. A scale that can weigh at least 500 grams
is recommended so the scale can be used for multiple uses including weighing hop additions. Higher scale capacity typically
increases the cost of the scale, but the durability may also be improved.

Liquid acid additions should also be measured accurately. An inexpensive measurement option for typical homebrew sized
batches is to obtain a graduated medicine dropper from a drug store. A craftbrewer could consider obtaining a graduated cylinder
or pipette for their larger acid additions.

Some municipal water supplies get their water from several sources and the ionic content of the water may vary. That may require
additional testing or analysis to ascertain. Contact the water utility to find out the water source variability. Water test kits may be
used to provide the brewer with a quick assessment of the primary water quality parameters and are discussed below. Water test
kits are recommended if the source and/or quality of the water supply varies.

Aquarium test kits can provide reasonably accurate assessment of the primary brewing water quality parameters of calcium content
(or hardness) and alkalinity (which is also termed 'carbonate hardness'). Aquarium test kits from manufacturers such as Aquarium
Pharaceuticals, Elos, and Red Sea are available and can determine the concentration of these components. If better accuracy is
desired, water testing kits from suppliers such as Hach and Lamotte are suggested. The hardness and alkalinity concentrations
are the primary components that influence mash pH. The calcium kits may have names such as Calcium Test or General
Hardness. The Alkalinity kits may have names such as Alkalinity/pH Test or Carbonate Hardness. Search the web for 'Aquarium
Test Kits'. Colormetric kits that you add drops to are recommended since they are generally more sensitive than kits that use
Test Strips.

Aquarium test kits may report their results in terms of German degrees of Hardness, American Grains per Gallon, milliequivalents
per liter, milligrams per liter, or parts per million. Results must be in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or parts per million (ppm) for use in
this program. ppm and mg/L are generally equivalent. Conversion factors are provided below and some are included in the
Conversion Calculator on the Water Report Input sheet.

1 German degree Hardness = 17.85 ppm as CaCO3 = 7.14 ppm Ca

1 German degree Carbonate Hardness = 17.85 ppm Alkalinity as CaCO 3 = 21.8 ppm HCO3
1 American degree Hardness = 1 grain per gallon = 17.1 ppm as CaCO 3 = 6.86 ppm Ca
1 American degree Alkalinity = 1 grain per gallon = 17.1 ppm as CaCO3 = 20.8 ppm HCO3
1 mEq/L Hardness = 50 ppm Hardness as CaCO3 = 20 ppm Ca
1 mEq/L Alkalinity = 50 ppm Alkalinity as CaCO3 = 61 ppm HCO3

Water Report Input

Water testing results are entered on the Water Report Input sheet. The concentrations for each ion are entered in the
Blue cells. Yellow cells display calculated results. Water reports typically present the ion concentrations as milligrams per liter
(mg/L) or parts per million (ppm). These units are roughly equivalent and are used interchangably. This program includes helpful
pop-up informational comments in some cells. Cells with a Red mark in the upper right cell corner will display the comment when
the mouse cursor is hovered over that cell.

If the Brewer's water report does not include information on minor ions such as potassium, flouride, iron, nitrate, or nitrite, enter
zeros for those concentrations. The concentration of these ions is typically low and should only produce a minor error in the
cation/anion ratio if they are entered as Zero.

Metallic taste can be discerned in water by most people when the iron concentration exceeds 0.3 ppm or when manganese
concentration exceeds 0.1 ppm. When metallic tastes are detected in beer or water, testing for these ions is recommended.

Water testing reports can contain testing and reporting errors. Therefore, a review of the ionic balance between the positively-
charged ions (Cations) and negatively-charged ions (Anions) is helpful. The Water Report Input sheet includes an Ion Balance
calculator to provide you with a rapid evaluation of the water report results. The cation and anion totals should be nearly equivalent
under most conditions. There can be some difference in the totals if there were errors in the testing or reporting or if there are
other ions in the water that were not reported. The ion totals should generally be within about 0.5 milliequivalent per liter (meq/L) of
each other to indicate acceptable testing results.

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A warning flag is shown on the sheet if the ions are not within acceptable balance. The Cation/Anion ratio cell will turn GREEN
when the ratio falls between 0.95 and 1.05 (5% recommended error allowance). Be sure that the nitrate and sulfate concentrations
were adjusted prior to entry if the water report was from Ward Labs. Be sure that concentrations that were reported in (as CaCO3)
units have been converted to their true ion concentrations. Question the water report results with the water company or testing lab
if the ions do not balance acceptably. If the water has very low ion content, minor discrepancies in the ion concentrations can
prevent the Cation/Anion ratio from balancing. Ignore that result if the ion totals are still within 0.5 meq/L of each other.

The ion concentrations that were entered on the Water Report Input sheet are automatically entered in the Water Adjustment
sheet. If the water source is fairly stable, the Brewer may not need to adjust this page in the future. Saving the program with those
values on the Water Report Input sheet will speed the future use of the program.

Proceed to the Sparge Acidification sheet to calculate the quantity of acid needed to properly adjust sparge water for brewing.

Things to Check when your Water Report does not balance

When the reported water testing results do not indicate balanced ion concentrations, there are things the Brewer can check to
evaluate what the potential errors are.

If the water report gives either Total Hardness, Temporary Hardness, or Permanent Hardness results, compare the reported values
from the water report to the values calculated on the Water Report Input sheet. If Total Hardness is incorrect, adjust either the
calcium or magnesium content to better match the reported value. Magnesium is typically at lower concentration, so preferentially
adjusting the calcium concentration is recommended.

Some water reports may display ion concentrations in standard units such as (as CaCO 3, as NO3-N, or as SO4-S). In that case, the
reported concentration must be adjusted to the true result. Conversion factors for these ions are presented below. A Calculator
with these Unit Conversions is provided at the bottom of the Water Report Input sheet.

Ion Conversion
Calcium (ppm as CaCO3): multiply by 0.401 to convert to (ppm) Calcium
Magnesium (ppm as CaCO3): multiply by 0.243 to convert to (ppm) Magnesium

Bicarbonate (ppm as CaCO3): multiply by 1.22 to convert to (ppm) Bicarbonate

Carbonate (ppm as CaCO3): multiply by 0.60 to convert to (ppm) Carbonate
Sulfate (ppm as SO4-S): multiply by 3.0 to convert to (ppm) Sulfate
Nitrate (ppm as NO3-N): multiply by 4.43 to convert to (ppm) Nitrate

If the water report includes Total Alkalinity but does not report the Bicarbonate or Carbonate concentrations, a calculator is included
on the Water Report Input sheet to estimate those concentrations. Water pH does influence the relative amount of these ions, so
the water pH must be entered. If the water report does not provide the pH, use a typical pH of 8.0 for the calculation.

If the calculated Alkalinity value does not agree with the Alkalinity presented in the Water Report, adjust the Bicarbonate content on
the Water Report Input sheet to better match the reported value. If the calculated Permanent Hardness value does not agree with
the reported Permanent Hardness, it may indicate that the the chloride or sulfate content is incorrect.

If any of these corrections produce a better ion balance, then the Brewer may elect to use these revised concentrations for their
water profile instead of having another water test performed or asking for additional water testing information.

Sparge Water Acidification

WARNING! Acids can seriously injure persons. All acid usage should be made with great care and proper storage, dosing,
and protective equipment must be used.

Acidification of brewing water to reduce alkalinity can be difficult without a good tool. The adjustment of sparge water pH is
important for producing good brewing results. Proper pH and temperature of sparging water will help reduce tannin extraction.
The recommended maximums for pH and temperature of sparge water to reduce tannin extraction are 6.0 and 170F,
respectively.

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If only RO or Distilled Water is used for brewing, it may not be necessary to acidify the sparge water. Acidification of sparge water
is performed only to reduce the sparge water alkalinity to low levels. pH targets for acidification are only indicators of low alkalinity.
Alkalinity reduction is the real goal of acidification. If the starting water alkalinity is less than about 25 ppm, then acidification may
not be necessary.

With pH and Alkalinity information on the Existing Water, the proper amount of acid can be calculated without significant trial and
error. The Sparge Acidification sheet is intended only for sparge water adjustments and should not be used for mashing water
adjustment. A separate acidification (alkalinity adjustment) tool is provided at the bottom of the Water Adjustment sheet for mash
water adjustment.

Enter the water Alkalinity and the Starting Water pH in the Sparge Acidification sheet. If the alkalinity is not known but the
bicarbonate content is known, the Water Report Input sheet calculates and displays the alkalinity of the existing water. If the
Brewer will be diluting the existing water with distilled or RO water, the resulting alkalinity of the diluted water is provided at the right
end of the Diluted Water Profile line on the Water Adjustment sheet. The Brewer can visit the Water Adjustment sheet anytime
after the Water Report Input is complete. The Alkalinity value from the Water Report Input sheet is NOT automatically
entered on the Sparge Acidification sheet by the program. That value is left as a manual entry since the sparging water may
use the existing water or less mineralized water such as RO or DI water.

If the Starting Water pH is not known, the Brewer can assume a relatively neutral pH between 7 and 8 without much impact to the
results. The Desired Water pH is also entered here. The Desired Water pH for sparge water generally ranges between 5.5 and
6.0. The resulting Alkalinity of the sparging water can be used to help guide the degree of acidification. Reducing sparge water
alkalinity to about 25 ppm (as CaCO3) should be sufficient. Vary the Desired Water pH value until the alkalinity target is achieved.

Enter the volume of water that will be adjusted with this acid addition. Enter the volume as Gallons. A conversion to Liters is
provided for those using metric or SI units, but the volume must be entered as Gallons in the blue cell. If the water source is
consistent, the volume of acid needed for sparge acidification will only vary with the sparge water volume. Standardizing the water
volume to 1 Gallon may be helpful. If the water volume is set to 1 Gallon, the sparge water acid amount on the Adjustment
Summary sheet will automatically multiply the acid addition by the number of Gallons of sparge water input on the Water
Adjustment sheet.

Use the drop-down box to select the type of acid used for acidification. Typical solid and liquid acids used in brewing and wine-
making are provided in the selection box. If the acid is a liquid, enter the numerical strength reported for the acid and select the
strength parameter (% = Percentage, N = Normality, M = Molarity). When entering acid percentage, enter as a whole number.
For example: enter 88% as 88 and not 0.88. When using solid acids, the strength parameter setting is not used.

The Output section reports the quantity of the specified acid needed to bring the water to the desired pH. If the specified acid is a
solid form, then use the Solid Acid Required quantity. If the specified acid is a liquid form, then use the Liquid Acid Required
quantity. A conversion from milliliters (mL) to teaspoons (tsp) is provided for User convenience.

An accurate scale should be used for measuring solid acid additions and an accurate volume measure such as a graduated
cylinder, pipette, or graduated dropper should be used for liquid additions. Care and proper protective gear must be used when
working with acid since it can cause serious physical harm. Measure carefully and use instruments such as graduated pipettes or
droppers to transfer acid. If the Brewer has a calibrated pH meter or test strips available, add about 3/4 of the calculated acid
amount and mix the water thoroughly prior to checking the pH. Add the remainder of the acid incrementally while checking the
water pH to make sure the pH isn't overshot. Once the performance of the Existing Water and the acid are confirmed to hit the
Target pH, acid additions for future brewing sessions can typically be added all at once. Use caution when using pH strips since
there is evidence that the typical strips used by homebrewers measure about 0.2 to 0.3 units lower than actually present
in the mash. pH measurement with a calibrated meter is recommended. If using pH strips, a pH reading that is about 0.2
units above your targeted pH should be considered good.

Variation in the water source pH or alkalinity can cause the pH target to be missed. Decarbonation of the water during heating or
boiling can also reduce water hardness and alkalinity and cause the calculated acid addition to drop the pH too far. The Brewer
should be aware of this possibility and measure their actual pH's when possible.

When Sulfuric acid is used, the concentration of added sulfate ions is provided in the Output. When Hydrochloric acid is used, the
concentration of added chloride ions is provided in the Output. The sulfate and chloride results calculated on this page are not
included in the Water Adjustment results. The brewer can either include these results manually in the adjusted water profile, or
the type and amount of acid (in mL per gallon units) indicated on the Sparge Acidification sheet can be entered into the acid
calculator on the Water Adjustment sheet and the ions will then be included in the Finished Water profile.

All acids used for acidification should be identified as Food-Grade chemicals. This is particularly important for the acids since acids
can easily dissolve and contain heavy metals that are hazardous to health.

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Proceed to the Water Adjustment sheet to calculate the mineral and acid additions to create the desired mashing water profile.

Water Adjustment

After entering the Water Report information, water adjustment can be properly estimated for the Existing Water. The
Existing Water Profile was automatically entered into the Water Adjustment sheet from the Water Report Input sheet. If the
Existing Water Profile is not shown or is not correct, correct the entries on the Water Report Input sheet.

A Desired Water Profile can be input in the Water Adjustment sheet from either a selection of historical world brewing center
water profiles or one that generally fits the intended beer style. The sheet includes typical minerals and acids that can be used to
adjust the water ion content.

A wide range of target water profiles are available in the drop-down selector box to suit a variety of beer styles. These water
profiles have been thoroughly researched and represent accurate and balanced ion concentrations for either the brewing center
location or the beer style. Unfortunately, water profiles previously published in both print and electronic resources have had serious
errors in ion content and ionic balance and cannot always be considered accurate or appropriate. The water profiles presented in
this program provide the Brewer with the best information available.

Brewer's should use caution in the use of historical water profiles. Although the water profiles are accurate, that does not mean
that the brewers in those locations used that water without modification. For example, brewers performed operations such as
Decarbonation by Boiling to reduce hardness and alkalinity and used acid rests and saurermalt (acid malt) or saurergut (soured
wort) to reduce high alkalinity. Profiles with high bicarbonate concentrations are likely to have been treated by those means prior to
mashing when light-colored beers were brewed. Brewers should approach these profiles with a focus on the mash pH they
produce with their proposed grain bill and be ready to adjust the mashing water alkalinity if the water does not produce a
desirable mash pH.

Some historical water profiles that are suitable for Decarbonation by Boiling are provided in the water choices with their estimated
ionic content. These profiles may be useful for brewing lighter-colored beers that may have been brewed in these cities. Boiling
a water with high Temporary Hardness can be expected to reduce the bicarbonate content to between 60 and 80 ppm. For the
purpose of these estimates, the upper end of the bicarbonate range (80 ppm)(indicating less effective decarbonation) was used to
estimate the post-boiling water that those historic brewers might have been able to attain. The decarbonation process causes
calcium carbonate to precipitate from the water, reducing the concentrations of both calcium and bicarbonate. The concentrations
of the other water profile ions remain as in the original water profiles. See the Water Knowledge sheet for more information on
Decarbonation.

The water profiles include recommendations based on the color of the beer to be produced. In general, the residual alkalinity (RA)
should increase as the beer color increases. For the Brewer's convenience, a description of the color range for the color
descriptors used in the provided water profiles is provided below and on the Water Adjustment sheet.

Beer Color Descriptors

Yellow: SRM < 6
Amber: SRM between 7 and 17
Brown: SRM between 18 and 30
Black: SRM > 31

The Brewer should typically start with a water profile that covers their intended beer color. Water profiles should be considered
approximate and variation to meet the brewer's taste is acceptable. It may be necessary to revise the selected mineral profile if
the Mash Acidification sheet indicates that a problem will be produced with the proposed grain bill. WHEN THE MASH
ACIDIFICATION RESULTS INDICATE A DESIRABLE MASH pH WILL NOT BE ACHIEVED, ADJUSTMENT OF THE WATER'S
RESIDUAL ALKALINITY (hardness and/or alkalinity) AWAY FROM THE TARGET VALUE MAY BE NECESSARY. Since the water
profiles do not represent what the actual grist used was or what the brewers in that historic location had to do to use their water
(acid rest, boiling, etc.), the Brewer should rely more on the results of the Mash Acidification analysis rather than using the
recommendation provided by the water profiles. An appropriate mash pH result shown on the Mash Acidification sheet should be
the Brewer's primary goal.

Add Minerals in the Water Additions section of the sheet to increase the appropriate ion concentrations. The Yellow cells in the
Table show which ions each mineral will increase. For instance, adding Gypsum will add Calcium and Sulfate. Review the Target
Water Adjustment and Actual Water Adjustment cells for each ion. For the Minerals the Brewer has on hand, add those
minerals on a trial and error basis until acceptable agreement between Target and Actual adjustments is achieved. For most ions,
the Target and Actual cells will turn Green when the concentrations are close enough.

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Alkalinity is adjusted by increasing or decreasing the bicarbonate (HCO 3) concentration. Add chalk, baking soda, or pickling lime to
increase alkalinity. Add acid or dilute with distilled or RO water to reduce alkalinity.

Since Pickling Lime is a strong caustic, ADD PICKLING LIME ONLY TO THE MASH. DO NOT ADD TO WATER ONLY OR THE
WATER pH WILL INCREASE EXCESSIVELY. Use great care when using Pickling Lime and measure carefully.

Customizing Water Profiles: If the Brewer desires to adjust the ion concentrations or names of the supplied water profiles, the
water profile table is located at the bottom of the Water Adjustment sheet (scroll down) and it can be adjusted by the Brewer. Be
sure to verify that the Cation and Anion totals match when adjustments to a water profile are entered. The Cation and Anion cells
will turn Green when the ion totals are within 0.1 of each other.

The variation of Bitter, Balanced, and Malty water profiles generally reflect the relative content of sulfate (SO 4) and chloride (Cl) in
the water profile. Select the water profile that generally meets your taste goal. As an example, a hoppy American style may benefit
from a bitter water profile while a sweeter German style may benefit from a malty water profile. The concept of this sulfate/chloride
ratio was modified from the Handbook of Brewing, Priest & Stewart, 2006 and the water chapter by David Taylor. This concept
assumes that chloride accentuates malt and sweetness and sulfate accentuates dryness and bitterness. Therefore, the ratio of
these ions is used as a indicator of the sweetness or bitterness perception of the finished beer. The following table describes the
flavor perception and sulfate/chloride ratio that may promote that perception. Although this ratio has merit, the brewer should strive
to keep both the chloride and sulfate concentrations below 100 ppm in most cases. In strongly bittered profiles such as Burton or
Pale Ale profiles, the sulfate concentration may exceed 100 ppm, but the chloride concentration should be kept below 100 ppm.

Very Bitter: SO4/Cl is greater than 2.0

Bitter: SO4/Cl is between 2.0 and 1.3
Balanced: SO4/Cl is between 1.3 and 0.75
Malty: SO4/Cl is between 0.75 and 0.5
Very Malty: SO4/Cl is less than 0.5

The Brewer should recognize that the Sulfate/Chloride ratio only improves the perception of bitterness or maltiness in the beer,
but the actual bittering compounds added to the wort (hops, roast, spice, etc) are the primary components in the bittering balance
of the beer. The Brewer should evaluate the bittering contribution of those components through other brewing guides. If malty
beer is desired, the bittering level should be reduced and conversely if bitter beer is desired, the bittering level should be increased.
The Sulfate/Chloride Ratio does not change the bittering level in the beer.

After selecting the Desired Water Profile, the sheet enables the evaluation of adding various minerals to the starting water. The
Water Adjustment sheet is used to calculate the mineral adjustments for either mashing or sparging water. Minerals for mashing
water should be added to the mash water prior to mashing. Minerals for sparging water can be added to the sparging water prior
to sparging or can be added directly to the kettle prior to the boil.

If the Existing Water Profile has ion concentrations that are higher than the Desired Water Profile, then dilution with distilled
water (DI) or reverse osmosis (RO) water can be used to reduce the concentrations. To help identify when ion concentrations in
the Existing Water are higher than the Desired Water Profile, cells within the Target Water Adjustment line will be colored RED.
If the difference between the Existing and Desired ion concentrations are small, the Brewer may decide to ignore the need to dilute
the existing water to reduce the existing concentrations. The Brewer should avoid adding minerals that add to the over-target ions.

If dilution is desired, select the type of dilution water from the drop-down box and dial up the percentage of dilution water added to
the existing water until the RED cells in the Target Water Adjustment line return to YELLOW or GREEN color. Distilled water is
typically available in bottles or jugs and it typically contains virtually no ionic content. Commercial water vending machines such as
those in grocery stores typically provide RO water. RO water does contain low concentrations of ions. A typical RO water profile is
included in this sheet. A conversion from percent dilution to either ounces of dilution water per gallon or pints of dilution water per
gallon is shown for convenience.

If only the bicarbonate (HCO3) concentration of the water supply is too high and the other ions are not too high, then acidification
may be preferred for bicarbonate reduction instead of dilution. An Acidification Calculator is provided at the bottom of the Mineral
Addition section that shows the bicarbonate reduction provided by acid addition. Acids typically used for brewing use are provided
in the drop-down box. Select the acid type and enter the numerical strength and adjust the acid strength parameter that is reported
for the acid (% = Percentage, N = Normality, M = Molarity). The calculator indicates the bicarbonate consumed (-HCO 3) by the acid
addition. It also indicates the sulfate added when using Sulfuric Acid or the chloride added when using Hydrochloric Acid. These
ion additions are included in the Actual Water Adjustment. Care must be exercised when working with acid since they can cause
serious physical harm. Measure carefully and use instruments such as graduated pipettes or droppers to transfer acid.

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The bicarbonate contributions shown for Baking Soda, Chalk, and Pickling Lime in the Water Additions area represent their
equivalent bicarbonate alkalinity contributions. Baking Soda and Pickling Lime will easily dissolve in water or the mash. Since
Chalk has limited solubility in water or in the mash, special measures will be required to dissolve the Chalk and produce its
expected bicarbonate and alkalinity contribution.

To effectively use Chalk, the Chalk has to be mixed with water in a sealed container and then pressurized with Carbon Dioxide
(CO2). The CO2 dissolves the Chalk in the water, changing the water from cloudy to clear. This process is not quick and requires
planning and preparation. Therefore, using Chalk to add alkalinity to mash water is not recommended unless the Brewer is
going to perform these measures. Another option for using Chalk is to perform the calculations for Chalk addition with Bru'n Water
and then double the quantity of Chalk actually added to the mash. This is a very inexact method, but its better than nothing when
other alkalinity increasing minerals are unavailable.

If the Desired Water Profile has a significantly lower than desired bicarbonate (HCO3) concentration (Alkalinity), then a preferred
method to add bicarbonate is to add Pickling Lime or Baking Soda since Chalk is difficult to dissolve in water or the mash. When
alkalinity needs to be added to the mash water, Pickling Lime or Baking Soda will provide more certain results. Care should be
exercised when adding Baking Soda since the Sodium concentration should typically not exceed 100 ppm for good brewing
results. ONLY MASH WATER EVER NEEDS ITS BICARBONATE CONCENTRATION INCREASED. SPARGE WATER NEVER
NEEDS BICARBONATE ADDED.

A variety of minerals used for water chemistry adjustment are included in the spreadsheet. Vary the mineral amounts and compare
the Target Water Adjustment and Actual Water Adjustment results to find the combination of minerals that best approximate the
Desired Water Profile. The Target and Actual adjustment cells will turn GREEN when the values are within 10 ppm of each other.
The Brewer should not be too concerned with a difference greater than 10 ppm, but that is a reasonable target range. In general,
the Brewer should use a lower than targeted concentration when they have difficulty in finding the correct combination of minerals
to add to meet the targeted concentrations.

The Finished Water Profile line shows the water profile that will result when you perform the proposed dilution and mineral or acid
additions. This water profile is automatically entered into the Mash Acidification sheet in order to assess the resulting mash pH.

All minerals and acids used for water adjustment should be identified as Food-Grade chemicals. This is particularly important for
the acids used for water adjustment since acids can easily dissolve and contain heavy metals that are hazardous to health. Table
Salt used for water adjustment should be NON-IODIZED to avoid poisoning the brewing yeast. Homebrewers are encouraged to
use a scale with an accuracy of at least 0.1 gram to measure mineral additions. Craftbrewers can use scales with 1 gram accuracy
since their batch size is larger. Volume measures such as teaspoon or tablespoon can be significantly less accurate than weight
measures. Inexpensive scales with good accuracy are available.

All Mash Water mineral and acid additions should be added to the mash in order to create the desired water profile and produce
the desired mash pH. These additions should not be added directly to the boil kettle unless adding them to the mash would be
detrimental to mash pH. A calculator is provided on the Water Adjustment sheet to convert the gram/gallon or mL/gallon additions
for the minerals and acid to their Total Additions (grams or mL) by multiplying by the gallons of water to be treated. Enter the
Water Amount to Treat in the Total Additions column.

Mineral and acid additions to Sparge Water can also be calculated on the Water Adjustment sheet. The sparge additions
should not include the alkalinity increasing minerals (Baking Soda, Chalk, & Pickling Lime) since alkalinity is not needed or
desirable in the sparge water.

If the Brewer desires the same calcium concentration in the sparge water as the mash water when Chalk and/or Pickling Lime are
deleted from the sparge water, an automatic addition of gypsum and calcium chloride can be included to make up for those deleted
minerals. A check box is provided next to the Sparge Water Additions column to include or omit those gypsum and
calcium chloride additions for Sparge Water. The additional gypsum and calcium chloride additions are calculated to keep the
Brewer's desired SO4/Cl ratio in the Sparge Water. If the Brewer's raw water already has high calcium content (>100 ppm), the
Brewer may consider turning off this calcium addition for the sparge water. If Baking Soda is used for the mash water it can and
should be deleted from the sparging water since sodium is not particularly beneficial to beer flavor.

Sparge Water mineral additions can be added directly to the Sparge Water or can be reserved and added directly to the boil kettle.
Acid additions calculated on the Sparge Acidification sheet must be added to the Sparge Water. If Hydrochloric or Sulfuric acids
are used to acidify the sparge water, their chloride or sulfate ion contributions can be included on the Water Adjustment sheet by
taking the mL per gallon acid addition calculated on the Sparge Acidification sheet and entering it on the Water Adjustment
sheet. Make sure the water volume on the Sparge Acidification sheet is 1 gallon so that the acid addition shown on that sheet is
provided at a mL per gallon rate. Adjust the acid strength parameters on the Water Adjustment sheet to the same settings as on
the Sparge Acidification sheet.

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Proceed to the Mash Acidification sheet to assess if the proposed water profile will produce an acceptable mash pH. Use only
the mashing water profile in the Mash Acidification analysis since the sparge water profile has had its alkalinity reduced and is only
used after mashing is complete.

Special Consideration for Extract Brewers:

Brewers using Malt Extract for their brewing can still benefit from Water Adjustments. Most particularly when using either highly
mineralized or alkaline water or when using RO or Distilled Water.

When using highly mineralized or alkaline water, the water can impart poor flavor to the beer. Using highly alkaline water may
increase the pH of the resulting wort and create a coarser and rougher flavored beer. If the water has high ion concentrations,
dilution with RO or Distilled Water is appropriate. The Dilution Calculator on the Water Adjustment sheet can help the Brewer
assess how much dilution will be needed to produce a desirable water profile. If the water has high alkalinity, the Sparge Water
Acidification Calculator can be used to reduce water alkalinity to under 50 ppm which should allow the wort and resulting beer to
reach desirable pH. The Water Profiles on the Water Adjustment sheet are appropriate goals for Extract Brewers.

When brewing with RO or Distilled Water and Malt Extracts, the Extract should provide most of the minerals needed for proper
fermentation performance. But the ion balance in the Malt Extract is typically moderate. If the Brewer desires a specific flavor
profile, additional Sulfate or Chloride containing minerals can be added to the brewing water. The Water Adjustment sheet can
help the Brewer assess how much of these minerals should be added to the brewing water.

Mash Acidification

The Mash Acidification sheet allows the Brewer to assess the acidity produced by the grain during the mash. That result is
compared with the alkalinity produced by the adjusted mashing water to estimate the Net Acidity of the mash which drives the
mash pH. This analysis is performed using only the mashing water profile and not the acidified sparge water profile.

In the past, rough correlations between beer color and appropriate Residual Alkalinity (RA) have been proposed. Due to the non-
linear relationships between grain color and its acidity, a good correlation cannot definitively be made between RA and beer color.
This Mash Acidification calculator was developed to provide brewers with a more accurate assessment of beer color, alkalinity,
and the resulting Net Acidity that drives the mash pH.

Begin by entering the volume of water used for mashing at the top of the sheet. Also enter the volume of the beer that will be
produced by the batch at the top of the sheet. The mashing water volume is needed to determine the Net Alkalinity provided by
the mashing water. The total volume of the beer batch is needed to enable the estimation of the finished beer color.

Enter each grain used in the mash grist in the spreadsheet. The grain names can be entered to help identify each component, but
the grain names are not necessary. Enter the Weight of each grain in either pounds or ounces. Enter the Color of each grain in
Lovibond color units. If the grain is listed in EBC color units, there is a Conversion Tool at the bottom of the sheet to provide the
Lovibond units.

For each grain, use the drop-down box to signify what type of grain is on that line (Base Malt, Crystal Malt, Roast Malt, or Acid
Malt). This selection is important since each category of malt has differing acidity versus grain color characteristics.

Special Note: It appears that base malts from Rahr Malting may be pre-acidified by that company and they may provide more
acidity than expected for similar base malts. This may produce a mash pH lower than expected or calculated by this program.

After the grain information is entered, the Total Weight of the grist and its Water to Grist Ratio are provided at the bottom of the
sheet. Compare the calculated total weight to your recipe total to verify the grain entries are correct.

Water to Grist Ratio is an indication of how thick the mash is. A thick grist may have a water to grist ratio of around 1 quarts per
pound while a thin grist may be up to 2 quarts per pound. The typical range is 1.25 to 1.5 quarts per pound although thinner grists
may have advantages. Since the water used for mashing typically contains alkalinity, a thinner grist will have more milliequivalents
(mEq) of alkalinity than a thick grist. More alkalinity consumes more of the grain acidity and the mash pH will likely be higher with a
thin mash than a thick mash. Therefore, it may be necessary to further reduce the water alkalinity to provide appropriate mash pH
when the mash is thinned. Adjusting the Water to Grist Ratio can be used to adjust the mash pH.

The Estimated Color of the beer (in SRM units) is provided at the bottom of the sheet for comparison with the Brewer's brewing
software results (Promash, Beersmith, etc.). Note that the batch volume affects this calculation and must be the same of the
brewing software's input in order to see agreement. The Morey equation is used for the color calculation.

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At the bottom of the Mash Acidification sheet, a drop-down box allows the brewer to toggle between the brewer's Existing Water
(unadjusted) and the Adjusted Water (Finished) calculated on the Water Water Adjustment sheet. Typically, the box should be
left on the Adjusted Water setting, but the Brewer can use the other setting to see what the Net Mash Acidity would be without
water adjustment.

The results of the analyses are sumarized as the Net Water Alkalinity, Total Mash Acidity, and Net Mash Acidity. For proper
pH drop during mashing, the Net Mash Acidity is typically between 0 and 25 mEq. This should produce an appropriate pH drop
into the desired mashing range (5.2 to 5.8 when measured at room temperature) or (4.9 to 5.5 when measured at mash
temperature). If the net mash acidity does not fall within this range, minor adjustment to the water alkalinity through either mineral
or acid adustment should be performed. A message is displayed if the Net Mash Acidity falls well outside the preferred range. BE
SURE THAT ALL THE CORRECT GRAIN TYPE SELECTIONS ARE MADE FOR EACH GRAIN LISTING. IT MAKES A BIG
DIFFERENCE IN THE RESULTS!

Mash pH can be checked about 5 minutes after combining the water and grist. But for more accurate results, the mash pH should
be checked at around 15 minutes after combining the water and grist. Note: pH strips reportedly indicate the mash pH is about 0.2
to 0.3 units lower than actual. A calibrated pH meter is the recommended measurement source.

The mash pH prediction should only be considered a good approximation. The Brewer can expect that the predicted mash pH will
typically be within 0.2 units from the room-temperature mash pH. The algorithm used to estimate the mash pH was produced
through the evaluation of actual mashs and resulting pH. That algorithm will be modified based on the results of Brewer's reports.
A copy of this program that includes the Brewer's input data along with their measured room-temperature mash pH can be sent to
the program author for inclusion in this study and refinement.

Characteristics of wort from the mash can be altered slightly through adjustment of the mash pH. The Extract and Fermentability of
the wort can be enhanced by adjusting the wort pH toward the low end of the range. Conversely, the Body and Mouthfeel of the
wort can be enhanced by adjusting the wort pH toward the high end of the range (from Malting and Brewing Science, 1981). The
Brewer should consider these results when adjusting the mashing water alkalinity. Lower mash pH = higher fermentability and
less body, Higher mash pH = lower fermentability and more body. The mash pH should be kept within the desired pH range.

Mash pH can also alter the flavor perception of the beer. Lower mash pH can produce a sharper and tarter flavor perception.
Higher mash pH can produce a rounder and fuller flavor perception.

To produce the mash pH effects mentioned above, the Brewer should target the pH range between 5.3 and 5.5. Target a mash
pH of 5.3 for the lower mash ph and target a mash pH of 5.5 for the higher mash pH.

Revisit the Water Adjustment sheet if the Net Mash Acidity did not fall within the recommended range or if the Predicted Mash
pH did not meet the Brewer's target pH range. The Water Adjustment sheet provides tools to adjust these components. Recheck
the Mash Acidification sheet after readjusting the water profile. It may take a few trips to the Water Adjustment sheet to produce
the result the Brewer is seeking.

If more acidity is needed, a recommended alternative is to decrease the water alkalinity by reducing the bicarbonate content by
adding more acid or reducing any Baking Soda, Chalk, or Pickling Lime additions. If less acidity is needed, decrease any acid
addition or increase the bicarbonate content to the mash water to consume more grain acidity. If dilution was used to produce the
Adjusted Water, reducing the dilution percentage can typically increase the bicarbonate content since most drinking water has
alkalinity.

The Mash Acidification analysis provides a better assessment of where the mash pH will end at. This enables the Brewer to
better adjust their water or mashing conditions to produce the beer characteristics they prefer or require.

Adjustment Summary

The Adjustment Summary sheet provides the Brewer with a concise report of the Starting and Finished Water
characteristics and the Mineral and Acid adjustments recommended to produce the Finished Water. It is intended to provide a
single sheet that can be used as a quick reference during brewing.

Recommended ranges for the various ions are shown on the sheet to provide the Brewer with a quick check of their proposed
brewing water profile. All of the information shown on the Adjustment Summary is input or calculated on the other sheets within
Bru'n Water. No inputs are performed on the Adjustment Summary sheet. Be sure that water volumes are properly entered on
the Sparge Acidification and Water Adjustment sheets. The water volume input on the Sparge Acidification sheet can be
entered as either 1 gallon or the total sparge volume. The water volumes on the Water Adjustment sheet should reflect the total
volumes of water to be used for mashing and for sparging.

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The sheet includes information on the total mineral and acid quantities needed for both the mashing and sparging water. The
estimated mash pH is also shown. The mash pH cell changes color to signal how the estimated pH compares to the optimum
range (5.3 to 5.5). The cell is Green when the estimated pH is within that range and Orange when just outside that range. The
cell turns Red when the estimated pH falls outside the recommended range of 5.2 to 5.8.

A reproduction of A.J. DeLange's Residual Alkalinity chart is provided on the sheet to show where the Brewer's Finished Water
Profile plots on the chart. The chart includes an overlay of several historic brewing waters so that the Brewer can compare their
result with those waters. The water parameters plotted for those historic brewing waters are for the raw and unadjusted water and
may not represent the treated water those Brewers used in those locations. Use the chart for comparison only. Do not use the
chart to guide your brewing water adjustments.

Acknowledgements

The Author thanks A.J. DeLange for producing and publishing outstanding resources on mash chemistry and acidification
and serving as a continuing resource to the brewing community. The Author also thanks Kai Troester for the grain acidity
information used in this program and his service to the brewing community.

About the Author

Martin Brungard is a civil and environmental engineer with over 25 years of professional experience. His practice area
focuses on water resources engineering and he has been named a Diplomate of Water Resources Engineering by the American
Academy of Water Resources Engineers. His engineering practice includes providing engineering consulting services to
municipalities and major and craft brewers across the United States. He has been homebrewing since 1999, is a member of the
American Homebrewers Association, and has attained the rank of National Judge from the Beer Judge Certification Program
(BJCP). Comments and concerns regarding this program may be sent to the author at the link below
mabrungard@hotmail.com

Support the development of Bru'n Water

Users that value the use and development of Bru'n Water can support the continued development and show support by donating
through their PayPal account. Although Bru'n Water is freeware, to assist the team in continuing the improvement of this
program and to indicate your approval and support, donations through PayPal are welcome. A couple of dollars are truely
welcome from those that find this program and water knowledge useful. Use the email address mabrungard@hotmail.com to
forward comments about the program and to direct donations to the development team. For those with a PayPal account, a link to
PayPal is provided below. Use the SEND MONEY tool and select the PERSONAL tab to direct a GIFT amount to the developers.
The size of your gift is truely at your discretion.

Link to Bru'n Water website for updates and to donate

THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS
FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT OF THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR HOLDERS INCLUDED IN THIS NOTICE BE LIABLE
FOR ANY CLAIM, OR ANY SPECIAL INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
Bru'n Water v. 1.13us 8/4/2012

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 Bru'n Water Link to Bru'n Water website for updates and to donate

Water Report Input Hover cursor over cells w/ red triangles to display helpful comments

Enter Ion Concentrations from Water Report

Cations Anions
(mg/L or ppm)
Calcium (Ca) 73.0 206.6 Bicarbonate (HCO3)
Magnesium (Mg) 6.8 0.0 Carbonate (CO3)
Sodium (Na) 50.0 42.0 Sulfate (SO4)
Potassium (K) 0.0 80.0 Chloride (Cl)
Iron (Fe) 0.3 0.0 Nitrate (NO3)
0.0 Nitrite (NO2)
0.4 Fluoride (F)
If water report provides only Total Alkalinity (as CaCO 3), use the calculator below to estimate the Bicarbonate and Carbonate concentrations. Insert
the estimated results in the table above.
Reported Total Alkalinity (as CaCO3) (mg/L or Reported or Measured Estimated Bicarbonate
Estimated Carbonate Concentration (ppm)
ppm) Water pH Concentration (ppm)
170.0 7.6 206.6 0.4

Ion Balance Results

Total Cations (meq/L) 6.38 0.98 Cation/Anion Ratio
Total Anions (meq/L) 6.54

Hardness and Alkalinity Results

Total Hardness, as CaCO3, (ppm) 210 171 Alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3)
Permanent Hardness, as CaCO3, (ppm) 39 196 RA Effective Hardness, (ppm as CaCO 3)
Temporary Hardness, as CaCO3, (ppm) 171 115 Residual Alkalinity (RA), (ppm as CaCO3)

Ion Concentration Conversion Calculator

Input Reporting Unit Input Output Output Reporting Unit
Calcium (ppm as CaCO3) 0.0 0.0 Calcium (ppm)
Magnesium (ppm as CaCO3) 28.0 6.8 Magnesium (ppm)
Bicarbonate (ppm as CaCO3) 0.0 0.0 Bicarbonate (ppm)
Carbonate (ppm as CaCO3) 0.0 0.0 Carbonate (ppm)
Sulfate (ppm as SO4-S) 0.0 0.0 Sulfate (ppm)
Nitrate (ppm as NO3-N) 0.0 0.0 Nitrate (ppm)
German Hardness (GH) (degrees) 0.0 0.0 Calcium (ppm)
Karbonate Hardness (KH) (degrees) 0.0 0.0 Bicarbonate (ppm)
Hardness (meq/L) or (mval) 0.0 0.0 Calcium (ppm)
Alkalinity (meq/L) or (mval) 0.0 0.0 Bicarbonate (ppm)

Copyright 2012 Martin Brungard. All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part in any form or medium without the express written permission of Martin Brungard is prohibited.

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Sparge Water Acidification Calculator

INPUTS

Water Alkalinity = 100 ppm as CaCO3

Starting Water pH = 8.2 Standard Units

Desired Water pH = 5.7 Standard Units

Water Volume = 1.00 Gallons = -----> 3.79 Liters

Acid Type = Lactic 4 1

Acid Strength = 88 %

OUTPUTS

Acidity Required = 1.68 mEq/L

Final Water Alkalinity = 16 ppm as CaCO3

Solid Acid required = 580 mg or 0.58 gram

Liquid Acid required = 0.53 mL or 0.11 tsp
Sulfate added to water = 0.0 ppm

Chloride added to water = 0.0 ppm

Hover cursor over cells w/ red triangles to display helpful comments

Recommendations for Sparge Water: Low to moderate alkalinity is desirable for Sparge Water. DO NOT
add minerals such as chalk, baking soda, or pickling lime to sparge water since these minerals increase
water alkalinity. Sparge water is acidified to reduce pH and alkalinity. An alternative to adding these
alkalinity increasing minerals is to increase the addition of calcium- or sodium-containing minerals (gypsum,
calcium chloride, table salt) to compensate for the deletion of chalk, baking soda, or pickling lime from the
sparge water mineral additions. Another option to avoid adding these alkalinity producing minerals to the
sparge water is to reserve these minerals additions from the sparge water and add them directly to the
kettle.

Copyright 2012 Martin Brungard. All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part in any form or medium without the express
written permission of Martin Brungard is prohibited.

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Water Profile Adjustment Calculator Hover cursor over cells w/ red triangles to display helpful comments
Calcium Magnesium Sodium Sulfate Chloride Bicarbonate Cations Anions Total Alkalinity RA SO4/Cl
Desired Water Profile (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (meq/L) (meq/L) Hardness (ppm) (ppm) Ratio

Yellow Balanced 54 51 50.0 7.0 5.0 75.0 60.0 0.0 3.3 3.3 154 0 -40 1.3

Existing Water Profile 73.0 6.8 50.0 42.0 80.0 206.9 6.4 6.5 210 171 115 0.5

Dilution Water Profile

RO Water 2 1.0 0.0 8.0 1.0 4.0 16.0 0.4 0.4 3 13 13

Dilution Percentage 0 0.0 oz/gal 0.0 pt/gal < These conversions are provided for your convenience
Diluted Water Profile 73.0 6.8 50.0 42.0 80.0 206.9 6.4 6.5 210 171 115 0.5

Target Water Adjustment (ppm) -23.0 0.2 -45.0 33.0 -20.0 -206.9 -3.1 -3.3 -57

Actual Water Adjustment (ppm) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0

Finished Water Profile 73.0 6.8 50.0 42.0 80.0 206.9 6.4 6.5 210 171 115 0.5

Total Water Additions

Mash Sparge
Water Water
Volume 3.5 Volume 5.0
Water Additions 2 (gal) (gal)

Addition Calcium Magnesium Sodium Sulfate Chloride Bicarbonate Total Mineral Additions Total Mineral Additions Add CaSO4 & CaCl to replace Chalk &
Mineral (gram/gal) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (grams) (grams) Lime in Sparge Water?
Gypsum (CaSO4) 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1
Epsom Salt (MgSO4) 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Check this box to automatically add
Canning Salt (NaCl) 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Gypsum and CaCl2 to Sparge Water
additions to supplement Calcium
Baking Soda (NaHCO3) 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 Not Recommended concentration when Chalk or Pickling
Lime are deleted from Sparge Water.
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0
This is desirable if the Brewer's water
Chalk (CaCO3) 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 Not Recommended has Calcium content below 40 ppm.
The added Gypsum and CaCl2
Pickling Lime (Ca(OH)2) 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 Not Recommended quantities maintain the Brewer's
desired Sulfate/Chloride ratio.
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Addition Sulfate Chloride Bicarbonate

1 Total Acid Addition (mL) Total Acid Addition (mL)
Acid (mL/gal) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

Lactic 0.00 Strength 88.0 % 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 See Sparge Sheet
2

Most mineral additions should be added to both the mash water and sparge water. DO NOT add alkalinity producing minerals such as chalk, baking soda, or pickling lime to sparge water since that counteracts the desired
sparge water acidification. Either reserve those minerals from the sparge water and add directly to the kettle, or delete them and substitute other calcium or sodium containing minerals to make up for their contributions. Do not
use the acid amount calculated for Mash Adjustment from this sheet for the Sparge Water adjustment. Use the acid amount calculated on the Sparge Acidification sheet for Sparge Water. Add acid prior to heating the water.

Copyright 2012 Martin Brungard. All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part in any form or medium without the express written permission of Martin Brungard is prohibited.

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Mash Acidification Calculator Hover cursor over cells w/ red triangles to display helpful comments

Grain Acidity
Mash Water Volume
(gallons)
3.50 Batch Wort Volume
(gallons)
5.00
Acidity Contribution
Grains Grain Type Quantity (lb) Quantity (oz) Color (L) Malt Color Units (MCU)
(mEq/L)

2 Row Pale Malt Base Malt 0.0 0.0 1.8 0.0 0.0

Munich Base Malt 0.0 0.0 10 0.0 0.0

Crystal 40L Crystal Malt 0.0 0.0 40 0.0 0.0

Special B Crystal Malt 0.0 0.0 120 0.0 0.0

Carafa Roast Malt 0.0 0.0 450 0.0 0.0

Crystal Malt 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

Roast Malt 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

Base Malt 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

Base Malt 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

Base Malt 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

Base Malt 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

Base Malt 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

Base Malt 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

Base Malt 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

Base Malt 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

Base Malt 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0

Total Grist Weight (lbs) 0.00 Total MCU 0.0

Water to Grist Ratio (Qts/Lb) #DIV/0! Est. Beer Color (SRM) 0.0

Mash Acidity Results

Water used for Mash Adjusted Water Net Water Alkalinity (mEq/L) 2.3

2 Total Mash Acidity (mEq/L) 0.0

EBC Color Conversion Tool 20 EBC ---------> (L) 8.0 Net Mash Acidity (mEq/L) -2.3
Estimated Room-Temperature Mash pH 6.1

Less Mash Water Alkalinity is Needed

Copyright 2012 Martin Brungard. All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part in any form or medium without the express written permission of Martin Brungard is prohibited.

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Water Adjustment Summary Hover cursor over cells w/ red triangles to display helpful comments

Calcium (ppm) Magnesium (ppm) Sodium (ppm) Sulfate (ppm) Chloride (ppm) Bicarbonate (ppm)

Existing Water Profile 73 7 50 42 80 207

Finished Water Profile 73 7 50 42 80 207
Recommended Ranges 50 to 150 5 to 30 0 to 150 0 to 350 0 to 100 as needed

Mash Parameters
Batch Volume (gal) 5.00 Hardness (ppm as CaCO3) 210 RA (ppm as CaCO3) 115
Estimated Mash pH 6.1 Alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3) 171 SO4/Cl Ratio 0.53

Total Mash Water Vol (gal) 3.50 Total Sparge Water Vol (gal) 5.00
Additions Mash Dilution Vol (gal) 0.00 Sparge Dilution Vol (gal) 0.00
Mash Water Additions Sparge Water Additions
Mineral (grams) (grams)
Gypsum (CaSO4) 0.0 0.0
Epsom Salt (MgSO4) 0.0 0.0
Canning Salt (NaCl) 0.0 0.0
Baking Soda (NaHCO3) 0.0 Not Recommended
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) 0.0 0.0
Chalk (CaCO3) 0.0 Not Recommended
Pickling Lime (Ca(OH)2) 0.0 Not Recommended
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) 0.0 0.0
Acid (mL) (mL)
Lactic 88.00 % 0.0 2.7

280
Alkalinity, (mg/L) as CaCO3

How this Water Profile RA = 125 RA = 100 RA = 75 RA = 50 RA = 25

compares to Historic Brewing
Dublin

260 Profiles
Munich

Edinburgh

(See Red Dot)

240

Burton
220
Brussels

Dortmund
Vienna

200

180
Koln

160
London

140

120

00
100 -1
=
80
Dussel-

A
RA = -75
dorf

R
60
RA = -50
40
RA = -25
Kohlbach's Residual Alkalinity
Pilse

20
n

RA = 0 (from A.J. DeLange)

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
Hardness (Calcium + 0.5 Magnesium), (mg/L) as CaCO3

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 Bru'n Water

Bru'n Water Link to Bru'n Water website for updates and to donate

Link to the On-Line Version of Water Knowledge Provides more figures and improved layout

Water Knowledge by Martin Brungard

This page provides basic knowledge that is useful for understanding brewing water chemistry. Water is the most basic
building block in brewing. Beer can contain up to 97 percent water, so it is by far the largest component in beer. A
variety of ions and chemicals can be dissolved in water. Although water is seemingly simple, its ionic components can
drastically affect a finished beers quality and perception. Those effects may range from dramatic to barely perceptible.
The following sections discuss how aspects of water affect the brewing process and the quality and perception of beer.

Water Sources

The source of water has a direct affect on its suitability for brewing. Some brewers rely on municipal water supplies for
their water while other brewers may have private wells, springs, rain barrels, or other local sources for their brewing
water. The water source can also have substantial effect on its quality and variability.

Municipal sources in the United States typically treat and verify that their water is safe to drink. Municipal water
companies typically rely on surface water sources (rivers, lakes, and reservoirs) and/or groundwater sources (springs
and wells) for their water source. A variety of processes can affect the quantity and quality of water from these sources
through the year. For instance, large volumes of snow melt or rainfall can provide softer water to a surface water source
while that surface water can become more mineralized from groundwater inflow at other times of the year. Additionally,
the municipal water source might vary between a variety of surface and groundwater sources as they are consumed
through any dry weather periods.

Most municipalities are required to disinfect their drinking water and provide a disinfection residual in their distribution
system (piping). Halogenated (typically chlorinated) compounds are frequently used to provide disinfection. If the raw
water is unfit for drinking due to hardness or other excessive mineralization, the municipality may treat the water to
reduce hardness or mineralization prior to delivering it through their distribution piping.

Differing ionic content of brewing water can affect mashing performance and flavor perceptions in the finished beer. Ions
in water come primarily from the soil and rock minerals that the water contacts as it flows through the environment. In
areas where the soil and rock are less soluble, the degree of mineralization of the water may be lower. However, when
the soil and rock are more soluble, significant concentrations of ions may dissolve into the water. The effect of these
dissolved ions on brewing is presented in the following sections.

Wells draw groundwater from underground aquifers. Where these aquifers are isolated from lakes, rivers, marshes, and
salt water, their groundwater quality tends to be more consistent throughout the year. Wells that are not isolated from
lakes and rivers may be subject to the same water quality variability of the lake or river. Like surface water sources, the
mineralization of groundwater is affected by the type of soil or rock that the groundwater flows through. Groundwater
flowing through limestone and gypsum formations typically has more hardness ions than groundwater flowing through
granite or sandstone.

Wells draw groundwater from underground aquifers. Where these aquifers are isolated from lakes, rivers, marshes, and
salt water, their groundwater quality tends to be more consistent throughout the year. Wells that are not isolated from
lakes and rivers may be subject to the same water quality variability of the lake or river. Like surface water sources, the
mineralization of groundwater is affected by the type of soil or rock that the groundwater flows through. Groundwater
flowing through limestone and gypsum formations typically has more hardness ions than groundwater flowing through
granite or sandstone.

Springs provide another source of groundwater. As with the sources listed above, understanding the quality of spring
water is still important. The taste and ion content of the water must be suitable for brewing and the water should be free
of chemical and microbe contamination. Landfills, waste dumps, and wastewater facilities are examples of facilities that
might impact a spring source. A spring water source is not a guarantee that the water is safe to drink or suitable for
brewing.

Rivers, lakes, and reservoirs may have additional variability in their water quality due to natural algae and microbes that
may create strong taste and odor in water during warmer weather. These taste and odor components can make it past
some municipal water treatment methods and leave the water with undesirable taste and aroma that may persist into the
finished beer.

When presented with a water source with poor brewing qualities, additional water treatment by the brewer may help
correct the waters faults for brewing usage. Water treatment alternatives such as water distillation, reverse osmosis,
carbon filtration, lime softening, water boiling, mineral addition, or acid addition may improve the brewing quality of a
water source. Understanding the source of water and its limitations and variability can help maintain the quality and
consistency of a brewers product.

Minerals and Brewing Chemistry

Minerals dissolved in brewing water produce an important effect on the overall chemistry of the brewing process. The
ions from these minerals alter the waters pH, Hardness, Alkalinity, Residual Alkalinity, and Mineral Content. These
interrelated components are the most important factors in defining the suitability of water for brewing. Adjustments to any
one factor can have an effect on the others. A discussion of each factor is presented below.

pH

pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution and is related to the concentration of hydrogen (H+)
ions in a solution. A very small percentage of the water molecules (H2O) naturally split into hydrogen (H+) protons and
hydroxyl (-OH) ions. A neutral pH of 7.0 indicates a balanced population of those ions in pure water (at 25C). Acidic
solutions have a pH of between 0 and 7 while Basic solutions have a pH between 7 and 14. The pH of typical municipal
water supplies generally lies between 6.5 and 8.5, but may exceed those bounds since pH is not regulated by the Safe
Drinking Water Act that governs drinking water quality in the U.S. .

The pH of the raw water used in brewing has only modest impact on the brewing process. The primary interest to
brewing is the pH of the wort during mashing. Factors such as water alkalinity and mash grist composition have greater
effect on mashing pH than the starting pH of the raw water.

The pH of the mash influences a number of factors in brewing including; fermentability, color, clarity, and taste of the wort
and beer. A slightly acidic mash pH of between 5.2 and 5.8 (measured at room-temperature) improves the enzymatic
processes during mashing. The lower end of that range produces more fermentable wort and thinner body. The lower
end of that range also produces better extraction efficiency, lighter color, better hot break formation, and the beer is less
prone to form haze. The upper end of that range produces less fermentable wort and more body (Briggs et. al., 1981).
Tailoring the mash pH helps a brewer create the wort character desired for the finished beer. In most cases, narrowing
the target mash pH range to between 5.3 and 5.5 is recommended.

Minor increases in wort or beer pH can create problems in the finished beer. Increased wort and beer pH makes the
beers bittering perception more coarse and less favorable. The isomerization of alpha acids during the boil is
increased slightly as wort pH increases, which may add to the coarseness. Increased pH in wort and the finished beer
slows the reduction and removal of diacetyl from beer during maturation. During mashing, a pH greater than 6.0 can
leach harsh-tasting silicates, tannins, and polyphenols from the grain into the wort (Briggs et. al., 1981). Adjusting
sparge water pH to between 5.5 and 6.0 helps avoid raising the mash pH above 6.0 during sparging.

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The pH of the mash varies with temperature. There are two components to the variation of mash pH with temperature.
The first is a chemical change caused by the change in the energy in the water that makes it easier to split hydrogen
protons from acidic molecules in the mash. The second component is due to the change in electrical response of the pH
meter probe electrodes with temperature. These two factors produce a mash pH that measures about 0.2 to 0.3 units
lower at 150F than at room temperature. Therefore, it is important to standardize the temperature at which mash pH is
measured. All pH readings presented on this page assume measurement at room-temperature [between 20C and 25C
(68F to 77F)].

Brewers should note that Automatic Temperature Compensating (ATC) pH meters only compensate for the response of
the pH meter's electrode at varying temperature. That feature does not compensate for the actual pH shift produced
chemically in the mash as mentioned above. All mash pH measurement should be performed at room-
temperature. ATC-equipped pH meters are not necessary for brewing use since it is important to cool the sample to
room temperature to avoid the chemical mash pH variation.

SPECIAL NOTE: Five Star 5.2 Stabilizer is indicated by its manufacturer to "lock in your mash and kettle water at a pH
of 5.2 regardless of the starting pH of your water". Evidence by homebrewers indicates that this product does not
produce a mash pH in the preferred room-temperature range of 5.3 to 5.5. That evidence shows this product does
produce some pH moderation in waters with high Residual Alkalinity. But, the mash pH tends to center around 5.8
(room-temperature measurement). While 5.8 pH is acceptable, it is at the upper end of the desirable range. The
evidence also shows that in waters with low Residual Alkalinity, this product shows no effect on pH. Since Five Star 5.2
Stabilizer is a compound with high sodium content, its use will elevate the sodium concentration in the brewing water.
High sodium content is undesirable from a taste standpoint in beer. Proper acidification of mashing and sparging water
will produce more acceptable brewing results for most brewers than the use of 5.2 Stabilizer.

SPECIAL NOTE: pH meters require calibration between uses or at regular intervals to verify their measurement
accuracy. Meter calibration using pH 4 and pH 7 reference solutions is recommended. Those solutions have limited
shelf life and should be replaced within a year after opening. Refrigerating the reference solutions may improve their
shelf life, but the solutions should be warmed to their reference temperature (typically 20C to 25C) prior to calibration
use. The glass electrode used in many pH probes is typically filled with a potassium chloride solution. The pH probe
should be stored in a similar potassium solution (storage solution) to improve the probes lifespan. A pH meter with a
resolution of 0.05 standard units or better is helpful in assessing when a pH reading has stabilized and that reading can
be recorded.

SPECIAL NOTE: pH strips typically used by homebrewers are reported to mis-report mash pH by about 0.2 to 0.3 units
lower than actual. Homebrewers should use caution when using pH strips. Without another means of pH verification,
Brewers are advised to accept a pH strip reading that is about 0.2 units above their targeted pH to avoid undershooting
the mash pH. A pH strip reading of about 5.6 to 5.7 should indicate an appropriate room-temperature mash pH of
around 5.3 to 5.5. pH measurement by a calibrated pH meter is preferred.

Hardness

Hardness in water is primarily due to the calcium and magnesium content of drinking water. High concentration of
calcium or magnesium ions produces hard water and low concentration of those ions produce soft water. Water
Hardness can be either Temporary or Permanent. Total Hardness is the sum of Temporary and Permanent Hardness.

A common misperception among brewers is that hardness in brewing water is not desirable. A more valid way to
evaluate brewing water suitability is summarized below.
Hardness --> Good
Alkalinity --> Bad

The hardness of water does not indicate its suitability for brewing. As illustrated in the sections below, both very soft
water and very hard water can be utilized for brewing as long as the appropriate alkalinity is provided for mashing. Since
there is a minimum calcium content desired in brewing water, moderately hard to hard water is typically desirable for
brewing. Soft water may not be desirable for brewing without calcium addition. Although the statement above indicates
otherwise, an appropriate level of alkalinity is desirable in brewing water. The problem is that many water supplies have
alkalinity higher than desirable for brewing.

Water hardness varies regionally. .Much of the Western and Midwestern U.S. has high hardness while coastal or
mountainous regions may have lower hardness. Groundwater hardness may or may not mimic the surface water
hardness shown below, but drinking water aquifers tend to cover regional areas and have somewhat consistent water
quality.

Water Hardness can be either Temporary or Permanent. These forms of hardness are discussed below.

Temporary Hardness results when calcium or magnesium are paired with carbonate and bicarbonate in the water.
Temporary Hardness can be reduced by boiling treatment and by treatment through lime softening.

Permanent Hardness results when calcium or magnesium are paired with anions such as chloride and sulfate that
cannot be driven off by boiling the water. Enhanced softening processes are required to reduce permanent hardness in
water.

Total Hardness is the sum of Temporary Hardness and Permanent Hardness in the water.

Alkalinity

Alkalinity is related to pH, but is not a direct measure of it. Alkalinity is a measure of the "buffering" capacity of a
solution and its ability to neutralize strong acid and resist pH change. Alkalinity is defined as the amount of strong acid
required to lower the pH of a sample of the water to a specified pH (typically 4.3). Alkalinity is generally due to the
carbonate (CO3), bicarbonate (HCO3), and hydroxyl (OH) content of the water. Higher alkalinity water requires more acid
to change the pH. Alkalinitys effect on brewing can be evaluated through the concept of Residual Alkalinity.

Like hardness, alkalinity tends to vary on a regional basis. .Much of the U.S. has relatively high alkalinity in surface
waters. Of the regions with reduced alkalinity, many are mountainous or are regions without carbonate rock near
surface.

Residual Alkalinity

Residual Alkalinity (RA) is a result of both Water Hardness and Alkalinity that relates potential mashing pH conditions.
RA was described in the 1940s by Paul Kohlbach. He showed that during mashing, calcium and magnesium in the
brewing water react with phosphatic compounds in the malt to produce acids that neutralize the waters alkalinity. This
interaction between the brewing waters hardness and alkalinity is expressed by RA. RA is an indicator that is specific to
brewing and is an important factor in defining the suitability of brewing water. RA is calculated with the following
equation.

RA ( ppm) = Alkalinity ( ppm) [ Calcium ( ppm) Magnesium ( ppm)

3 .5
+
7 ]
With RA, a brewer can better understand the interplay of alkalinity and water hardness and its effect on mashing
chemistry and performance. .

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RA can be adjusted by either hardness adjustment or alkalinity adjustment as illustrated in the chart above. For
instance, Burtonizing the brewing water by adding Gypsum and/or Epsom Salt is an example of reducing RA by
increasing the water hardness. Adding acid to the water is an example of reducing RA by reducing alkalinity.
Decarbonating water by boiling can be used to reduce RA in water with high Temporary Hardness. Adding Chalk,
Pickling Lime, or Baking Soda are examples of increasing RA by increasing alkalinity. Diluting water with distilled or RO
water reduces the RA of the diluted water.

RA provides a rough indicator of where the mash pH will end up and if there is a need for water chemistry adjustment.
Although the RA Chart suggests that beer color influences what RA value is appropriate for a beer, the relationship is
more complicated than that. The acidity provided by various malt types is not proportional to the color they impart to the
beer. Therefore, a direct relationship between beer color and RA is not possible.

The various malts used in brewing can be generally divided into four categories: Base malt, Crystal malt, Roast malt,
and Acid malt. Each category has different acidity characteristics.

Base malts are malts and grains that have not been stewed to produce sugars in the malt or grain kernel and have
relatively low color rating (<20 Lovibond (<52 EBC)). Flaked malt and grain should be considered base malts.

Crystal malts have been stewed in the kernel to produce sugars in the malt and can have color ratings from about 1 to
less than 200 Lovibond (~530 EBC).

Roast malts are malts or grains that are roasted to a color rating of greater than 200 Lovibond.

Acid malts are low color malts that are infused with 2 to 3 percent lactic acid for mash pH reduction purposes.

The acidity production for the Roast and Acid malts is relatively consistent within each category and their acidity does not
vary with color rating. For Base and Crystal malts, their acidity does vary with their color rating (Lovibond). The malt
acidity information was taken from research performed by Kai Troester, 2009.

Even though a direct and accurate relationship cannot be made between beer color and RA, a general relationship is
apparent. Lighter color beers benefit from lower RA and darker color beers benefit from higher RA. As the acidity of the
mashs grain bill increases, the mashing water RA must also rise proportionally to maintain the mash pH.

The success in brewing pale beer in Pilsen is due to the soft and low alkalinity water there (RA is near 0). Likewise, the
success of brewing pale beer in Burton-on-Trent is due to the very high hardness and high alkalinity that still produce low
RA. Low RA waters are well suited to brewing pale beers since the mash pH is more likely to fall into the desired pH
range. Low RA waters are less suitable for brewing dark beers since the acidic dark grains can drive the wort pH lower
than desirable, which reduces the effectiveness of mash enzymes and possibly produces a sharp, acidic, or tart beer.

The success in brewing dark beers in places such as Dublin, Edinburgh, Munich, and London that have high Residual
Alkalinity water (RA greater than 50), is due to the more acidic dark grain used in their grist. The elevated water alkalinity
and resulting RA, moderates the increased acidity from the dark grain to produce smoother dark beers brewed in those
locations. That raised the reputation of those locations for brewing fine dark beer styles. Without the additional dark
grain acidity to consume the high alkalinity, the mash pH would not drop into the desired range for good enzyme
performance and the resulting beer might present a harsh character because of the leaching of silicates, tannins, and
polyphenols into the wort during mashing. High quality, light-colored beers are more difficult to produce in these
locations if the alkalinity of the brewing water is not reduced.

Coordinating the acidity of the malt bill and the alkalinity of the water is important for conducting a mash that produces a
pH in the optimum range between 5.2 and 5.8. The enzymatic processes in the mash are hindered when the mash pH
falls outside that range. Enzymatic activity varies with pH and temperature

Mineral Content

Dissolved minerals (ions) are typically present in all natural waters, although rainwater may have very low ion
concentrations. The type and concentration of those dissolved minerals can have a profound effect on the suitability of
water for brewing use, its mashing performance, and the flavor perception of beer. A discussion of dissolved minerals
that are a concern to brewers is presented below. Minerals form ions when they dissolve in water. These ions are either
positively-charged (Cations) or negatively-charged (Anions).

Undesirable Ions - The first consideration is that brewing water should have high quality and be safe to drink. This
requires that the water have no pollutants and have little or no iron, manganese, nitrites, nitrates, or sulfides. Organic
pollutants and chemical contamination have no place in beer. The following ions are commonly found in water supplies,
but their concentrations must be low in order to not affect the finished beer.

Iron may be tasted at concentrations of greater than 0.3 parts per million (ppm or mg/L). The iron taste threshold may
also be reported as 300 parts per billion (ppb or g/L). Iron has a very metallic taste that is easily conveyed into the
finished beer. Rust-colored deposits on plumbing fixtures may be an indicator of elevated iron content in water.

Manganese may be tasted at concentrations of greater than 0.05 ppm or 50 ppb. Manganese has a very metallic taste
that is easily conveyed into the finished beer. Black-colored deposits on plumbing fixtures may be an indicator of
elevated manganese content in water.
Major
Ions
Nitrate is not a great concern in brewing, but should generally be less than 10 ppm in the water source to protect infants
Effecting
that may drink the water. Children and adults can tolerate higher nitrate concentration and the 10 ppm limit may not be a
Brewing
concern in brewing. Nitrate in brewing water should be less than 45 ppm. High nitrate concentration in the water may
be converted to nitrite in the mash and nitrite becomes poisonous to yeast at levels above 0.1 ppm. If elevated nitrate
Cations
levels are found in water, associated ions such as nitrite and ammonia should also be tested for.
Anions
Sulfide compounds that might be exhibited as sulfur or rotten-egg aromas should not be perceptible in the water.
Calcium

Chloride
Major Ions in brewing - The major ions of interest to brewers are shown in the table below. These ions have the
greatest effect on the quality and perception of finished beer.
Magnesiu
m

Sulfate Major Ions Affecting Brewing

Cations Anions
Sodium
Calcium Chloride
Bicarbon
Magnesium Sulfate
ate
Sodium Bicarbonate

These ions can also be grouped in another way. Calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate produce hardness and alkalinity
that affect the mash pH. Sodium, chloride, sulfate, and magnesium ions affect flavor which adds important nuances to
beer perception.

Ion Effects in Brewing

Affect Hardness Affect
& Alkalinity Flavor
Calcium Sodium
Magnesium Chloride
Bicarbonate Sulfate
Magnesium

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A discussion of the effect of each of the ions is presented below.

Calcium is typically the principal ion creating hardness in water. It is beneficial for mashing and enzyme action and is
essential for yeast cell composition. In the mash, it reacts with the malt phosphates to lower the mash pH by
precipitating calcium phosphate and liberating protons (H+). Calcium improves the flocculation of trub and yeast and
limits the extraction of grain husk astringency. It also reduces haze and gushing potential, improves wort runoff from the
lauter tun, and improves hop flavors. The ideal range for calcium ion concentration is 50 to 100 ppm although exceeding
this range may cause phosphorus (an essential yeast nutrient) to precipitate excessively out of solution. Since oxalates
are also precipitated through complexing with calcium, insufficient calcium in brewing water may contribute to beerstone
(calcium oxalate) formation. A minimum concentration of 40 ppm calcium is recommended to reduce beerstone
formation potential. Increasing the calcium content of mash water is a useful tool for reducing the pH of the mash water.
Calcium content has little effect on beer flavor but it is paired with anions that may increase the minerally flavor of the
water when present at elevated concentrations. (Note: adding calcium to sparging water does not reduce the waters pH
or alkalinity since there are no malt phytins present. An acid must be used to reduce the alkalinity and pH of sparging
water.)

Magnesium is typically the secondary ion creating hardness in water. It accentuates flavor with a sour bitterness when
present at low concentration, but it is astringent at high concentration. Magnesium is a yeast nutrient and an important
co-factor for certain enzymes. Like calcium, magnesium reacts with the malt to lower the mash pH, but with a reduced
effect compared to calcium. The preferred range for magnesium concentration is 0 to 30 ppm. A minimum of 5 ppm
magnesium is known to be desirable for good yeast flocculation. A typical barley or wheat mash grist should contribute
more than 5 ppm magnesium to the wort for proper yeast flocculation so it should not be necessary to add magnesium to
brewing water unless desired for its flavor effects. Increasing the magnesium content of mash water is not a useful tool
for reducing the pH of the mash water since the allowable concentration range for this ion is small.

Sodium The sour, salty taste of sodium accentuates beer's flavor when present at modest concentration. It is
poisonous to yeast and harsh tasting when at excessive concentrations. It accentuates flavor when used with chloride
and imparts roundness to the beer flavor. The preferred sodium concentration range is 0 to 150 ppm, but the upper limit
should be reduced in water with high sulfate concentration to avoid harshness. A practical maximum concentration of
100 ppm is recommended. Some beer styles such as Gose may have much higher sodium concentration (~250 ppm) as
part of their desired flavor profile.

Chloride Chloride accentuates fullness and sweetness and improves beer stability and clarity. The ideal range is 10 to
100 ppm, but the upper limit should be reduced in water with high sulfate concentration to avoid harshness. The
minerally flavor of Dortmunder Export may be due to the typical 130 ppm chloride concentration in Dortmunds water.
The chloride ion is not the same as the disinfectant, chlorine and should not be confused with it.

Sulfate Sulfate provides a sharper, dryer, fuller edge to highly hopped beers. The ideal concentration range is 0 to 350
ppm, although the concentration should not exceed 150 ppm unless the beer is highly hopped. Sulfate concentration
above 350 ppm has been reported to produce sulfury aroma in finished beer. The use of a historic Burton water profile
(sulfate greater than 600 ppm) may not produce ideal ales for that reason. Sulfate should be kept as low as possible
when brewing continental lagers using noble hops since the sulfates characteristic of drying out the bittering perception
may not be desirable with those hops or the maltier beers that are typically brewed with them.

Bicarbonate Bicarbonate is a strongly alkaline buffer that is typically responsible for the alkalinity in most drinking
water. Malt acids produced during mashing can consume some of the bicarbonate in the brewing water. When the malt
acids do not neutralize most bicarbonate, the mash pH may not fall into the optimum range, which may reduce enzyme
action and make hop flavors more harsh. When brewing lighter colored beers, bicarbonate is generally undesirable in
brewing water and is best kept below 50 ppm or should be balanced with additional calcium to reduce the Residual
Alkalinity of the brewing water. When brewing darker colored beers, elevated bicarbonate concentration may be needed
in the mash water to balance the acidity added by the dark-colored malts. High bicarbonate concentration and its
resulting alkalinity is not desirable in sparge water due to the increased potential to leach harsh-tasting silicates, tannins,
and polyphenols into the wort. Control and adjustment of bicarbonate is an important factor in producing a desirable
mash pH.

Acids - Acids can be an important component in brewing water adjustment. Acids come in solid and liquid forms and all
add hydrogen protons (H+) to the water and move pH lower. Acids also add their unique anion to the water. Frequently,
the anions have distinctive flavor that may compliment or degrade beer flavor when they are present in beer at levels
above their taste threshold. Some acids are more perceptible in beer than others.

Phosphoric acid is more difficult to perceive in beer since beer contains similar phosphatic compounds. It is typically the
most flavor-neutral acid used in brewing.

Hydrochloric and Sulfuric acids can add chloride or sulfate ions that may be desirable in the flavor profile.

Citric, Malic, and Tartaric acids can add fruity or estery perceptions to the beer.

Lactic and Acetic acids can impart their unique flavor to beer. Lactic is smooth while Acetic is pungent.

Minor Ions There are minor ions in water and wort that can effect fermentation and flavor. Undesirable ions were
highlighted at the beginning of this section. Minor ions can have a beneficial or detrimental effect depending on their
concentration.

Potassium Potassium is a component of malt and it is contributed to wort. The potassium content of water has some
effect on flavor, adding a saltiness to the beer at elevated concentration. Potassium in the water at levels above 10
ppm are reported to inhibit certain enzymes. However, given the variability of potassium contributed by the malt, it
appears that higher concentration in brewing water may be allowable. Since potassium is contributed by the malt, there
is no need to add more to brewing water.

Zinc Zinc is a yeast nutrient when present at very low concentrations of 0.1 to 0.2 ppm and the level should not
exceed 0.5 ppm. At higher levels (~1 ppm), zinc becomes toxic to yeast and contributes a metallic flavor. Commercial
yeast nutrient preparations provide zinc to wort or a dose of zinc chloride or other zinc supplement may be added to
provide the desired concentration.

Copper Copper is a beneficial complexing agent at low concentration (~0.1 ppm) in wort. Sulfides and other sulfurous
compounds can be complexed out of the wort by copper. The copper concentration should be kept below 1 ppm to
avoid mutagenic effects to yeast and metallic flavor. Past brewing practices used all copper boil kettles, so it appears
unlikely that overdosing wort from copper contact will occur. A modest area of exposed copper metal in contact with the
wort during the brewing process is typically sufficient to provide beneficial copper contribution. For instance, a couple of
inches of copper tubing in a 5-gallon batch may be sufficient. The tubing is placed in the kettle during the boil and
reused repeatedly. If the brewing equipment already includes copper tubing or surface area within the system, then
adding the piece of copper to the boil kettle may be unnecessary.

Minerals and Beer Styles

The historic beer styles that have developed around the world were sometimes the result of the water conditions present
in that area. Prior to the understanding, measurement, and ability to adjust water chemistry, beer styles had to suit the
local water. Typically, dark-colored beer styles developed in areas with high RA water and light-colored beer styles
developed in areas with low RA water.

Additionally, ions affecting beer flavor perception in the local water also influenced beer styles. For instance, malty styles
tended to be found in areas with low sulfate concentrations while hoppy styles tend to be found in areas with elevated
sulfate concentrations.

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Examples of the ionic concentrations of water from various major brewing centers are shown in the table below. There
are a variety of literary sources that provide differing estimates of the appropriate ionic concentrations for these brewing
waters. For some of those literary sources, the quoted ionic concentrations are known to be incorrect since the indicated
ionic balance could not exist at reasonable pH levels and they are not supported with factual laboratory data. The
concentrations shown in the table below have been researched and verified with historic and current references. The
profiles are also corrected where necessary to provide an appropriate ionic balance. The RA calculated for each of
water profile is provided in the table for reference.

Ionic Profiles for Major Brewing Centers (in ppm)

Brewing Ion Concentrations Residual
Center Calcium Magnesium Sodium Sulfate Chloride Bicarbonate Alkalinity
Burton 275 40 25 610 35 270 5
Dortmund 230 15 40 330 130 235 20
Dublin 120 4 12 55 19 315 170
Edinburgh 100 20 55 140 50 285 150
London 70 6 15 40 38 166 85
Munich 77 17 4 18 8 295 180
Pilsen 7 2 2 8 6 16 5
Vienna 75 15 10 60 15 225 125

Although the historic water profiles above are accurate, it does not mean that the brewers from those areas did not treat
or alter their water to brew. Of particular interest is the use of decarbonation and softening of water by boiling. Another
treatment option was to use saurermalt (acidified malt) or saurergut (soured wort) to reduce alkalinity.

For instance, the groundwater in Burton on Trent is the result of upwelling from the Mercia Mudstone (a gypsum-bearing
formation) into the surficial Sand and Gravel aquifer where it mixes with groundwater from rainfall infiltration and from
Trent River inflow. The more the brewers of the region utilized that water source, the more the sulfate laden upwelling
was diluted by these other less mineralized water sources. The amount of rainfall and the river level also affect the
groundwater quality.

The location of the water supply well also has an influence. At Marston Brewery, the sulfate content of their groundwater
is up to 800 ppm. While at Coors Brewery, the sulfate content of their groundwater was only about 200 ppm. These were
sampled at the same time and come from the same Sand and Gravel aquifer. So, defining a 'true' Burton water profile is
impossible.

The balanced Burton water profile in Bru'n Water was estimated based on the relative concentrations of ions observed
from the Sand and Gravel aquifer, but those concentrations could be higher or lower depending upon time of year and
location. At over 600 ppm sulfate, the provided profile is not as extreme as that groundwater gets, but it is highly
mineralized. Brewing with that Burton profile may be extreme and an alternative would be to brew with the Pale Ale
profile that is also included in Bru'n Water as a first try for brewing a good hoppy beer (300 ppm sulfate).

Other examples can be made for Munich and Vienna where the high alkalinity and resulting high RA of their raw water
would make it difficult to produce the lighter colored beers those cities are known for. In their case, it appears likely that
some form of alkalinity reduction was practiced by brewers in those areas.

As mentioned above, the brewers in those historic locations may have further treated their local water to make it more
suited to their brewing. Of particular interest is the use of decarbonation to soften the water by boiling. Another
treatment option was to use saurermalt (acidified malt) or saurergut (soured wort) to reduce water alkalinity.
Decarbonation by Boiling and Lime Softening are discussed in the Alkalinity section below. A selection of estimated
Decarbonated Water Profiles is provided in that section to illustrate the difference that boiling can create in the water
profiles.

Water Treatment

Every water resource may not provide ideal conditions or results for brewing. Most likely, a water source may be suited
to brewing a limited range of beers without additional treatment. Water treatment may be needed for a number of
reasons including:

Chlorine Removal
Hardness Adjustment
Alkalinity Adjustment
Mineral Profile Adjustment

Chlorine Removal

Chlorine is typically found in municipal water supplies to assure the waters disinfection from disease-causing organisms.
Chlorine removal from brewing water is critical for good brewing results. Although the term chlorine is used generically
here, chloramines, chlorine dioxide, and bromine are other disinfection agents used in municipal water disinfection. If
these compounds are not removed, they combine with the organic compounds naturally found in wort to create
chlorophenols. Even at part per billion (ppb) concentrations, chlorophenols can be detected in beer and they have a
distinctive mediciny, band-aid flavor that is objectionable in both flavor and aroma.

The use of bleach as a sanitizing agent can leave chlorine on brewing equipment and in the brewing water. Sanitizers
such as iodophor and acid-type cleaners can be more effective and require no rinsing. Switching from bleach to these
sanitizers can produce a substantial improvement in the quality of a finished beer.

Several options are available for removing chlorine from brewing water.

Boiling
Metabisulfite addition
Activated Carbon filtration
Aeration

Boiling is effective for chlorine removal, but requires time and energy to conduct the boil. Boiling is less effective for
chloramine removal, but additional boiling time will remove it. A by-product of boiling is that Temporary Hardness can be
removed as described below.

Metabisulfite (Campden Tablet) addition is effective for chlorine and chloramine removal. The tablets are either
potassium metabisulfite or sodium metabisulfite. Both are effective in disinfectant removal. When sodium content in the
brewing water is a concern, potassium metabisulfite may be preferred. Moderate potassium content in brewing water
generally has little effect on brewing performance or taste. Adding these compounds at a rate of about 9 milligrams per
liter (~35 milligrams per gallon or ~1 tablet per 20 gallons) will dechlorinate typical municipal water and leave residual
concentrations of about 3 ppm potassium or 2 ppm sodium (depending on the chemical used) and 8 ppm sulfate and 3
ppm chloride. These ion contributions are relatively insignificant and can be ignored in practice.

Activated Carbon Filtration of brewing water is an effective disinfectant removal alternative. Activated Carbon is also
known as: carbon, carbon block, granular carbon, GAC. Both chlorine and chloramine are removed from the water by
activated carbon while leaving most other water ion concentrations unchanged. Filtering with activated carbon can also
remove water contaminants such as organic compounds that include taste and odor compounds. The chlorine and
contaminant removal performance of activated carbon filtration is proportional to the amount of time the water is in
contact with the activated carbon. Therefore, a low flow rate through an activated carbon filter is required to provide
acceptable chlorine and contaminant removal performance. The flow rate through a standard under-sink (10-inch)
activated carbon filter unit should be no greater than 1 gallon per minute to achieve good chlorine and chloramine
removal. Inserting a restrictor plate in the filters water supply line with a 1/16-inch diameter hole will reduce the flow rate
through a filter to about 1 gallon per minute. The flow rate through smaller filters should be further reduced to provide
good removal. A slow filtering flow rate increases the life of the filter cartridge and the volume of water it can treat.

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Aeration of tap water can be used to dechlorinate, but its removal rate is slow. Water is left in an open container or air is
bubbled through it. A large, exposed water surface area is desirable for quicker dechlorination. As with boiling, chlorine
is removed more quickly than chloramines. A day of aeration is typically sufficient for chlorine removal whereas it may
take days to remove chloramine from tap water with this method.

Testing Chlorine and Chloramine removal can be verified through testing with swimming pool or aquarium test kits. If
the water system does not use chloramine, then a readily-available "Free Chlorine" test kit will work well. If chloramine is
used as the waters disinfectant, then a slightly more expensive "Total Chlorine" or "Combined Chlorine" test kit is
needed. Liquid test kits are recommended over test strips since they tend to be more sensitive at the low concentrations
a brewer is interested in.

Hardness Adjustment

Increasing water hardness is fairly easy. Gypsum (calcium sulfate), Epsom Salt (magnesium sulfate), Calcium
Chloride, Chalk (calcium carbonate), or Pickling Lime (calcium hydroxide) are used to increase the hardness.
Reducing hardness is much more difficult.

Dilution with distilled water or Reverse Osmosis (RO) water is a quick, yet more costly option. Distilled water is free of
all hardness and alkalinity ions while RO water is nearly free of those ions. Both sources are very soft water that reduce
the hardness and alkalinity of the brewing water in proportion to the amount of purified water added. The ion
concentrations of these purified waters are typically too low to promote good mashing and fermentation conditions.
Therefore, minerals should be added to these purified waters or the purified water should be blended with the original
source water to provide an adequate ionic content.

RO water is not pure water and it still contains low concentrations of ions. The concentration of ions in the RO water
vary based on what the raw water entering the RO unit contains and the type of membrane used in the unit. To provide
an indication of typical RO water quality, the following profile from a RO unit is presented as an example. The raw water
feeding this RO unit came from an ion-exchange softener and that raw water had little calcium or magnesium, but
relatively high sodium. The sodium concentration in the RO water is slightly higher than if the raw water had not been
previously softened.

Typical RO Water Profile & Membrane Passage

Ion Ca Mg Na SO4 Cl HCO3

Concentration (ppm) 1 0 8 1 4 16

Typical Membrane
3 3 4 1 4 4
Passage (%)

The ion removal efficiency of RO units varies for each of the ions. The table above also includes the typical percentage
of the raw waters ion content that makes it through the membrane into the finished water (source: GE Water & Process
Technologies). If the raw water quality is known, a rough estimate of the resulting RO water quality can be estimated
using those membrane passage percentages.

Quality assurance of RO-treated water is an important component in maintaining brewing water quality. Since the RO
process relies on a very thin membrane to purify water, any physical or chemical damage to the membrane could permit
untreated raw water to pass the membrane into the treated water stream. A relatively simple and rapid test is to evaluate
the Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) of the RO-treated water. Inexpensive, portable TDS testing meters are available for this
use. A TDS reading of about 20 ppm or less is typical for a properly operating RO system. If the TDS exceeds 50 ppm,
membrane replacement may be needed. This quality assurance testing is highly recommended when purchasing RO
water from vending machines.

Decarbonation by Boiling is a practice that was employed historically and it does reduce alkalinity and calcium
(hardness) in water with high Temporary Hardness. The boiling process drives off carbon dioxide (CO2) that helps keep
chalk (CaCO3) soluble in water. When the CO2 is driven off, the chalk will precipitate out of the water.

The water is heated to boiling or near-boiling and stirred, splashed, or aerated to help get the CO2 out of the water. As
CO2 leaves the water, chalk precipitates and causes the water to become cloudy. The heating is ended and the
precipitate is allowed to settle quietly to the bottom of the vessel. The water is then immediately decanted off the
sediment and used for brewing. The water cannot be allowed to sit too long on the sediment or CO2 will again diffuse
from the atmosphere into the cooled water and redissolve the sedimented chalk.

This process does not reduce the magnesium content since magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) is much more soluble
than chalk in water and the chalk precipitates first, leaving the magnesium with the remaining bicarbonate in the water.

Boiling reduces both bicarbonate (HCO3) and calcium content of the water when performed properly. The practical limit
for the process reduces the bicarbonate content to between 60 and 80 ppm. Therefore, the quantity of chalk that can be
precipitated will be based on the difference between the starting and ending bicarbonate content. A reasonable
assumption is to use an 80 ppm ending bicarbonate concentration since that allows for more error in the process. The
ending calcium content for the decarbonated water can be calculated using the following formula:

Calcium end ( ppm ) = Calcium start ( ppm ) [( HCO 3

start
( ppm ) HCO
3 . 05
3 end ( ppm ) )
]
The equation above assumes that the water has a high enough calcium concentration to execute the reaction to
volatilize the CO2 and precipitate the chalk. The practical minimum calcium concentration achievable through
decarbonation is about 12 ppm. If the calculated calcium concentration is lower than 12 ppm when using the 80 ppm
bicarbonate assumption, the bicarbonate concentration assumed in the equation must be increased until a 12 ppm
calcium concentration is predicted. The Munich water profile is a case in point. Decarbonating to 80 ppm bicarbonate
leaves only 7 ppm calcium in the water. Therefore, the practical ending bicarbonate concentration must be increased to
95 ppm to leave the water with 12 ppm calcium.

A technique to help encourage and speed the precipitation of chalk from the boiled water is to add more chalk to the
water. The undissolved chalk provides nucleation sites for the precipitating chalk to agglomerate with and form larger
flocs that will settle faster. A teaspoon of chalk per 5 gallons mixed into the water should be sufficient to improve the
settling. The added chalk does not dissolve and add to the waters calcium concentration since it is not soluble in water
without CO2.

Examples of the effect of Decarbonation by Boiling are presented in the water profiles below. The bicarbonate content
was assumed to be reduced to 80 ppm for all the profiles (excepting Munich) and the precipitated calcium content was
subtracted from the original calcium concentration. All other ion concentrations remain as for the original water. In the
case of the Burton and Dortmund profiles, the low original RA and significant reduction in RA with boiling, indicates that
those profiles do not need to be treated in this way for brewing. Typically, water profiles such as Dublin, Edinburgh,
London, Munich, and Vienna are well suited to boiling treatment.

Ionic Profiles for Major Brewing Centers after Boiling (in ppm)
Brewing Ion Concentrations Residual
Center Calcium Magnesium Sodium Sulfate Chloride Bicarbonate Alkalinity
Burton 213 40 25 610 35 80 -109
Dortmund 179 15 40 330 130 80 -70
Dublin 43 4 12 55 19 80 33
Edinburgh 33 20 55 140 50 80 31
London 42 6 15 40 38 80 33
Munich 12 17 4 18 8 95 60

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Vienna 27 15 10 60 15 80 38

These profiles present the theoretical precipitation of calcium that should occur as the water is decarbonated by boiling.
The low calcium concentration for the Munich profile (12 ppm) is the practical limit for calcium removal through
decarbonation and the bicarbonate concentration can only be brought down to about 95 ppm for that reason.

Although the effect of boiling on Temporary Hardness is well documented and understood, the effect of minor water
heating (ie: during mashing and sparging) is less understood. Since the solubility of CO2 is inversely proportional to the
water's temperature, it follows that minor heating will produce some of the decarbonation effects of boiling. Bubbles are
often seen on the side of brew kettles as water heats to boiling. Therefore, a partial reduction in alkalinity and calcium
content may occur when heating water with high Temporary Hardness to mashing or sparging temperature. The effect is
improved if the water is stirred or splashed and the bubbles are forced from the water into the atmosphere. Since
precipitation and decanting are not typically performed for mashing or sparge water preparation, the effectiveness of
heating on the alkalinity and calcium reduction is probably limited. As already known for chalk, the precipitated chalk in
the water does not readily redissolve in the mash and therefore the heating may provide some minor alkalinity and
calcium reduction. Chalk that is not fully dissolved with an acid can only provide half its predicted alkalinity and that
phenomena can be used to predict a reduced alkalinity in the mashing water.

Lime Softening is another option for hardness reduction in water with high Temporary Hardness. This softening is
typically conducted using either an Excess Lime or Split-Treatment process. These processes affect only the calcium,
magnesium, and bicarbonate concentrations while leaving the water's other ion concentrations unchanged.

When both calcium and magnesium concentration in tap water are excessive, the Excess Lime process is
recommended. The Excess Lime procedure is recommended when the water's magnesium content is greater than
about 15 ppm. In the Excess Lime process, pickling lime is added to the raw water to elevate its pH above 11. The high
pH causes both calcium and magnesium compounds to precipitate out of the water. After the water clears, the water is
immediately decanted off the sediment. When properly performed, Excess Lime softened water provides moderately-
hard water with typical concentrations as low as 12 ppm calcium and 3 ppm magnesium in water with a high Temporary
Hardness (low chloride or sulfate concentrations). When the water also contains significant Permanent Hardness
(hardness associated with chloride and sulfate), lime softening is not as effective and the final calcium and magnesium
concentrations will be higher than indicated here.

When the starting water has high Temporary Hardness and low magnesium concentration, the Excess Lime softening
procedure above is modified to a Split-Treatment process that requires the pH be raised to only 10 instead of 11. This
lower pH target still causes calcium to precipitate without affecting the magnesium content. The lower water pH is easier
to neutralize through aeration or acidification with this approach. When properly performed in water with a high
Temporary Hardness (low chloride or sulfate concentrations), this process reduces calcium concentration to as low as 12
ppm calcium. The magnesium concentration is unchanged. When the water also contains significant Permanent
Hardness (hardness associated with chloride and sulfate), lime softening is not as effective and the final calcium
concentration will be higher than indicated here. Immediately after the water clears and the sediment has dropped, the
water is decanted off the sediment. Since good brewing practice is to use brewing water with calcium concentration of at
least 40 to 50 ppm, the Split-Treatment process includes blending a portion of the raw water with the decanted, lime-
treated water to bring the calcium concentration back up to desirable level. This blending also reduces the high pH of
the lime-treated water which makes it easier to bring the pH of the blended water down.

Since the water pH and alkalinity are high after treatment in either of the processes above, the pH and alkalinity must be
reduced prior to brewing usage. Aeration (to dissolve CO2 in the water) and/or the addition of acid are suitable for
reducing the pH and alkalinity of the decanted, lime-treated water. Reducing the pH of the lime-softened water to under
8.6 through aeration or acid addition is desirable. The lime-softening methods above require time, special chemicals,
and a pH meter to conduct successfully.

Ion-Exchange Softening is a common household water softening method that uses salt (sodium chloride or potassium
chloride) to soften water. Water softened with this process should not be used for brewing water since the hardness ions
(Ca and Mg) are replaced with elevated levels of sodium or potassium that impart undesirable flavor and potentially harm
the yeast. Since calcium and magnesium ions are beneficial to brewing, removing them from the water and replacing
them with sodium or potassium is not desirable. Additionally, ion-exchange water softeners do not reduce the alkalinity of
the softened water. Since the alkalinity remains high and hardness is reduced, the RA of the softened water is raised
significantly, making it even less suitable for brewing.

Alkalinity Adjustment

Alkalinity affects the performance of the mash through RA. Alkalinity is produced by bicarbonate, carbonate, and
hydroxyl in the water. Bicarbonate is the predominant species in the typical municipal water system pH range of 6.5 to
8.5. There are several reasons why bicarbonate is the predominant species in tap water. Carbonate does not exist in
significant concentration in that typical water pH range since it is preferentially transformed to bicarbonate. Hydroxyl is a
strong base that reacts easily with impurities in the water. Since there are typically impurities in the water, hydroxyl does
not exist in significant concentration in water supplies.

Excessive alkalinity can reduce the quality and perception of pale colored beers. Alkalinity can also have a detrimental
effect on beers made with Malt Extract since excessive alkalinity can drive up the pH of the resulting wort and finished
beer. Water used for beers made with Malt Extract should have alkalinity under 50 ppm as CaCO3. The alkalinity of
mashing water should be based on the acidity of the mash grist.

Alkalinity can be reduced in a number of ways. Dilution with distilled water or RO water is effective in reducing alkalinity.
Acid addition is also a simple way to neutralize alkalinity.

Alkalinity is desirable when acidic grists (significant roast and/or crystal malt content) are mashed. Alkalinity helps buffer
the pH and helps keep the mash pH in the proper range. Chalk (calcium carbonate), Pickling Lime (calcium
hydroxide), or Baking Soda (sodium bicarbonate) can be used to increase alkalinity. Low alkalinity is always desirable
in sparge water and alkalinity-increasing minerals should not be added to sparge water.

A summary of alkalinity adjustment options are presented in the sections below.

Chalk Chalk increases alkalinity. Because Chalk does not dissolve easily in plain water, chalk should only be added to
the mash. The acids in the mash are weak and cannot fully dissolve chalk. To fully dissolve chalk in water, it must be
dissolved with an acid. In nature, CO2 forms carbonic acid in water which dissolves the chalk. Bubbling air or CO2
through a chalk water solution can be used to dissolve the chalk, but that requires time and effort.

Evidence has shown that even in the mash, chalk does not dissolve in significant quantity and the chalks theoretical
amount of alkalinity is not produced in the mash. That evidence shows that approximately half the chalks theoretical
alkalinity is provided to the mash in practice. A workable solution for using chalk is to assume that only one-half the
chalks alkalinity is added to the water. Brun Water software assumes that chalk is fully dissolved in the water to provide
its full theoretical alkalinity. Therefore, a brewer would add twice the amount of chalk indicated by Brun Water to
produce the target alkalinity (bicarbonate) concentration. Other brewing water references and software may assume
either all or half of the theoretical alkalinity is added with chalk addition. A brewer should verify the assumption made by
those resources for the amount of alkalinity added to the water from a chalk addition.

For a chalk addition of 1 gram per gallon, the bicarbonate concentration is increased by about 322 ppm assuming the
chalk is fully dissolved. A bicarbonate concentration of about 160 ppm is produced if the chalk is not fully dissolved when
added at a rate of 1 gram per gallon. Undissolved chalk precipitates from the water and is not an active component of
the water chemistry. Other sources of more predictable alkalinity are presented below.

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Pickling Lime increases alkalinity and is readily soluble in water, but must be handled with care since it can burn skin
and eyes and significantly raise the mash pH if not dosed properly. Since Pickling Lime can significantly increase the
water pH and cause calcium to precipitate out of solution, it should only be added to the mash water after the grain is
added. Pickling Lime can be found where home canning supplies are sold. It is also available at salt-water aquarium
shops and may be found under the names: Lime or Slaked Lime. Although pickling lime supplies hydroxyl ions to water,
the hydroxyl content can be presented as a corresponding bicarbonate concentration for use in brewing calculations.
For a pickling lime addition of 1 gram per gallon, the bicarbonate content of the water is increased by about 435 ppm.

Baking Soda increases alkalinity and is readily soluble in water, but its usage should be limited if the sodium content of
the brewing water is a concern. Sodium at a concentration of 100 ppm or more can produce harshness in the beer
flavor. A baking soda addition of 1 gram per gallon, increases the bicarbonate content of the water by about 192 ppm
and the sodium content by about 72 ppm.

Liquid Organic Acids such as Lactic and Acetic Acid can be used for alkalinity reduction and acidification. Lactic Acid
is readily available for brewing use, but it can produce a distinctive tang in the flavor profile at high concentration. The
lactic acid flavor is typically characterized as smooth. It is a weak acid that can be somewhat safer to handle than other
stronger acids. Acetic Acid produces a very strong, pungent, and distinctive flavor and aroma (vinegar) and it is not
typically used in brewing. However, there are some beer styles that can benefit from minor additions instead of relying
on natural processes to create those flavors. In addition, controlled addition of acetic acid can be more reliable and
repeatable than culturing acetic bacteria in beer.

Phosphoric Acid can also be used for alkalinity reduction and it has little flavor effect since this acid is similar to the
malt acids produced through mashing. Phosphoric acid should not cause excessive precipitation of calcium in the mash
and can be used freely in brewing. It has less tendency to create acidic vapors than hydrochloric and sulfuric acids, but
is a strong acid that must be handled carefully when used at high concentration.

Hydrochloric and Sulfuric acids are strong acids that reduce alkalinity and also contribute chloride or sulfate ions,
respectively. These acids do not produce strong flavor impacts, but the limitations for either chloride or sulfate
concentration mentioned above should be observed. Even at low strength, these acids may create hazardous acidic
vapors that can corrode metal and damage lungs and skin. For typical brewing usage, diluting these acids to lower
strength or concentration is recommended for safety.

Solid Organic Acids such as Citric, Malic, and Tartaric acids can also be utilized for alkalinity reduction and
acidification. These acids may impart distinctive flavor into the water and beer if used at elevated concentration. In
some cases, those flavors may be welcome in beer. These organic acids can add fruity or estery perceptions to the beer
that may benefit certain styles.

The disadvantage with acids is that they can be hazardous to handle and they require knowledge or experience to
determine how much is needed. Accurate measurement for acid addition is also needed. Graduated pipettes,
graduated cylinders, and graduated medicine droppers are suitable for measuring liquid acids. Accurate scales are
required for measuring solid acids.

Acid Malt can also be used to reduce alkalinity. Acid malt is similar to an acid addition since the malt has been infused
with lactic acid or been acidified by bacterial action. The typical acid content of acid malt can vary from maltster to
maltster. A range of 2 to 3 percent by weight lactic acid to acidulated grain weight is typical. Since the primary acid is
lactic, the acid flavor is relatively smooth, but other components from the acidification process can provide more complex
flavor than refined lactic acid. Since acid malt is typically added as a low percentage of the overall grist, lighter and less
flavored beers should benefit more from the complex flavor offered by acid malt. Stronger and bolder flavored beers are
less likely to benefit from the acid malts flavor contribution.

Harden Water to increase Malt Acid (phytin) production is a common alternative for alkalinity reduction. The brewing
water is hardened with calcium and/or magnesium to create more malt acids through the malt phosphate reaction with
the calcium or magnesium (hardness) ions. This approach is directly from the concept of Residual Alkalinity presented
above.

Decarbonation by Boiling Water with high Temporary Hardness is suited for hardness and alkalinity reduction by
boiling. An extended discussion of this method is presented in the Hardness Adjustment section above.

Lime Softening is another decarbonation practice where the water is chemically reacted with a strong base to force the
less soluble calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide to precipitate out of the water due to high pH. When
conducted properly, lime softening reduces alkalinity. Lime softening is presented with more detail in the Hardness
Adjustment section.

Delaying hardness mineral additions to the mash may be an alternative to adding alkalinity when mashing an acidic
grist. When the brewing water has lower than desired alkalinity and calcium and/or magnesium additions are planned for
the water, delaying the addition of those hardness-producing minerals to the mash can be employed to avoid decreasing
RA any further. Although calcium and magnesium minerals can be important additions to brewing water, they are not
needed in the mash when the alkalinity is too low for the mash. As long as those minerals are added to the wort prior to
fermentation, they will still serve their purpose as if originally added to the mash without the detriment of decreasing
mash pH too far. The calcium and/or magnesium additions intended for the mash can be added directly the kettle prior
to the boil to provide the desired water profile to the wort.

Altering Mash Thickness. Since mash pH hinges on the relative amounts of acidity from the grist and alkalinity from
the water, altering the relative amount of water in the mash can affect mash pH. In the case of mashing with a water with
higher than desired alkalinity, reducing the amount of water in the mash (water/grist ratio) can have the net effect of
reducing the mash pH. If the mashing water has too little alkalinity, increasing the amount of water in the mash can have
the effect of increasing the mash pH.

When to Add Acid to Mashing and Sparging Water. It does make a difference when you add any acid to brewing
waters. The alkalinity value that was reported for the tap water was measured in the water near room temperature. As
pointed out above, raising the temperature of water reduces the solubility of dissolved carbon dioxide in the water. This
decarbonates the water and converts alkalinity in the water (mainly bicarbonate) to undissolved chalk in the water and
the carbon dioxide bubbles out of the water. The alkalinity of heated water is reduced in comparison to its room-
temperature alkalinity.

Since acid additions are calculated based on that reported room-temperature alkalinity value, it is important that any acid
dose calculated for that water be added prior to heating. If the acid is added after the water is heated, the reduced
alkalinity of the heated water means that too much acid will be added and the resulting brewing water alkalinity will be
too low. Add all acid to brewing water prior to heating in order to achieve the alkalinity targeted by brewing water
calculations

Mineral Profile Adjustment

Mineral additions are sometimes desirable for RA adjustment and for creating certain flavor contributions in the finished
beer. Common mineral salts are typically used to provide the mineral additions. The following mineral salts are
commonly used in brewing water adjustment. Only food-grade minerals should be used for water adjustment.

Gypsum provides calcium and sulfate ions and is readily soluble in water. Gypsum is more soluble in cool water and
should be added to water prior to heating for quicker dissolution. Gypsum is also known by its chemical name: calcium
sulfate dihydrate and its chemical formula is: CaSO42H2O. Gypsum does not readily pick up moisture from the air.
Gypsum is typically available from brewing supply stores. A gypsum addition of 1 gram per gallon, increases the
calcium content of the water by about 61 ppm and the sulfate content by about 147 ppm.

Epsom Salt provides magnesium and sulfate ions and is readily soluble in water. Epsom salt is also known by its
chemical name: magnesium sulfate heptahydrate and its chemical formula is: MgSO47H2O. Epsom Salt does not
readily pick up moisture from the air. Epsom salt is typically available from drug stores. An Epsom salt addition of 1
gram per gallon, increases the magnesium content of the water by about 26 ppm and the sulfate content by about 103
ppm.

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Calcium Chloride provides calcium and chloride ions and is readily soluble in water. Calcium chloride is highly
hygroscopic and will rapidly draw moisture out of the air, changing its state of hydration. A common form of Calcium
Chloride as a brewing mineral is calcium chloride dihydrate and its chemical formula is: CaCl22H2O. A brewer may also
obtain this mineral in anhydrous, monohydrate, and tetrahydrate forms. If this mineral is not kept in a tightly sealed
container, it will eventually become a saturated mass and the reliability of mineral addition calculations will be poor.
Calcium chloride is typically available from brewing supply stores. In its dihydrate form, a calcium chloride addition of 1
gram per gallon, increases the calcium content of the water by about 72 ppm and the chloride content by about 127
ppm.

Table Salt provides sodium and chloride ions and is readily soluble in water. Only non-iodized salt should be used since
iodine is poisonous to yeast. Table salt is also known as sodium chloride and its chemical formula is: NaCl. Table salt
does not readily pick up moisture from the air. Non-iodized table salt is available from grocery stores. A table salt
addition of 1 gram per gallon, increases the sodium content of the water by about 104 ppm and the chloride content by
about 160 ppm.

Baking Soda provides sodium and bicarbonate ions and is readily soluble in water. Baking soda is also known as
sodium bicarbonate and its chemical formula is: NaHCO3. Baking soda does not readily pick up moisture from the air.
Baking soda is available from grocery stores. A baking soda addition of 1 gram per gallon, increases the sodium content
of the water by about 72 ppm and the bicarbonate content by about 192 ppm.

Chalk provides calcium and carbonate ions. Chalk is also known as Limestone and calcium carbonate and its chemical
formula is: CaCO3. Chalk does not readily pick up moisture from the air. Chalk is typically available from brewing
supply stores.

Chalk is not readily soluble in water and acidic conditions are required to fully dissolve chalk into water. In nature,
carbon dioxide dissolves into water to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid dissolves chalk into the water and converts all
the carbonate into bicarbonate. Aerating (bubbling, splashing, spraying, etc) helps add carbon dioxide to water, but that
process can take days. The process can be accelerated by pressurizing the water with carbon dioxide (carbonation) to
dissolve chalk. The fully alkalinity of chalk can only be achieved when the chalk is fully dissolved in water. If chalk
cannot be fully dissolved into the water prior to brewing, adding chalk to the mash can help partially dissolve the chalk.
The carbonate ions partially transform into bicarbonate ions in the mash and the remainder of the undissolved chalk
precipitates from solution. The method adds about half of the alkalinity that would be produced if the chalk was fully
dissolved in the water with acid.

A chalk addition of 1 gram per gallon, increases the calcium content of the water by about 106 ppm (53 ppm) and the
bicarbonate content by about 322 ppm (161 ppm) if the chalk is fully dissolved (partially dissolved concentrations in
parentheses).

Pickling Lime provides calcium and hydroxide ions. Pickling Lime is also known as Slaked Lime and calcium
hydroxide. Its chemical formula is: Ca(OH)2.

The hydroxide ions are strong consumers of acidity and can significantly increase pH if over dosed. Consuming acidity
is the definition of Alkalinity. Therefore, an equivalent bicarbonate alkalinity contribution can be calculated. Pickling Lime
is readily soluble in water and must be used with care.

Pickling Lime will pick up moisture from the air which allows the mineral to revert to Chalk with enough time and CO2
contact. Pickling Lime should be kept in a tightly sealed container to avoid air contact. Pickling Lime can typically be
found in stores selling home canning supplies which may include grocery stores. A pickling lime addition of 1 gram per
gallon, increases the calcium content of the water by about 143 ppm and the effective bicarbonate content by about 435
ppm.

Magnesium Chloride provides magnesium and chloride ions and is readily soluble in water. A common form of
magnesium chloride as a brewing mineral is magnesium chloride hexahydrate and its chemical formula is: MgCl26H2O.
Magnesium chloride is highly hygroscopic and will rapidly draw moisture out of the air, changing its state of hydration. It
should be kept in a tightly sealed container. Magnesium chloride is typically used as a health supplement and may be
found in health food or drug stores. A magnesium chloride addition of 1 gram per gallon, increases the magnesium
content of the water by about 32 ppm and the chloride content by about 92 ppm.

Measuring Mineral Additions

At the typical homebrewing batch size of around 5 gallons (19L), mineral additions are typically very small and they
require relatively precise measurement and dosing. Volumetric measures (such as teaspoon or tablespoon) are
inherently inaccurate due to the powdery or granular nature of many mineral forms. The density and packing of the
mineral in a volumetric measure can vary significantly. Therefore it is difficult to be sure that the intended quantity of
mineral is added to the water when measuring volumetrically. A more accurate method of mineral measurement is by
weight. At the typical homebrewing batch size, a scale with an 0.1 gram accuracy should be sufficient for measuring
mineral additions. At the craftbrewing batch size, a scale with 1 gram accuracy should be sufficient for this use since the
mineral additions are larger.

Pickling Lime is a very strong base and the amount typically added to mashing water is relatively small. Very accurate
measurement of this mineral is highly recommended. High accuracy digital scales are relatively inexpensive and widely
available. Brewers adjusting their brewing water chemistry should obtain a scale with sufficient accuracy to meet their
brewing needs.

Some minerals and acids used in brewing are in liquid form. Measurement and dosing of acids is especially critical in
brewing. An accurate volumetric measure such as graduated cylinder, graduated pipette, or graduated medicine dropper
is recommended. For the homebrewer, graduated medicine droppers are suitable and are readily available at many drug
stores. When strong acids are used and the acid addition volume is small, knowing the volume delivered per drop may
be useful. Fill the dropper with a known quantity of water (for instance, 1 mL) and count the number of drops produced
by that volume. Calculate the volume per drop using that result. A weight measure can be used for liquids if the density
of the liquid is known. Divide the calculated liquid volume by the liquids density to determine the weight of liquid
needed.

References
American Water Works Association, Water Quality and Treatment, 5th Ed., R. Letterman, Editor, McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Briggs, D.E., J.S. Hough, R. Stevens, and T.W. Young, Malting and Brewing Science, 2nd Ed. London, Chapman & Hall, 1981.

Briggs, J.C. and J.F. Ficke, Quality of rivers of the United States, 1975 water year; based on the National Stream Quality Accounting
Network (NASQAN), Series 78-200, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977.

Clark, J.W., W. Viessman, and M.J. Hammer, Water Supply and Pollution Control, 3rd Ed. New York, Harper & Row, 1977.

deLange, A.J. Understanding Alkalinity and Hardness - Part I, Unpublished.

deLange, A.J. Understanding Alkalinity and Hardness - Part II, Unpublished.

Fix, G.J. and L.A. Fix, An Analysis of Brewing Techniques, Brewers Publications, 1997.

Omernik, J.M. and C.F. Powers, Total Alkalinity of Surface Waters, A National Map, Annals of the Association of American
Geographers, 1983.

Palmer, J, How to Brew, website, 1999.

Pearson, A., Environment Agency - Midlands Region - Central Area, Burton Groundwater Quality, personal communication, 2010.

Snoeyink, V.L. and D. Jenkins, Water Chemistry, J. Wiley & Sons, 1980.

Troester, K, The effect of brewing water and grist composition on the pH of the mash, 2009.

Copyright 2012 Martin Brungard. All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part in any form or medium without the express written permission of Martin Brungard is prohibited.

v. 1.13us Page 25 8/4/12

 Alkalinity, (ppm) as CaCO3

280
Residual Alkalinity Chart
RA = 150 RA = 100
260
Increasing
Alkalinity by
240 adding Chalk,
Pickling Lime, RA = 50
220 or Baking
Soda
increases RA
200

180 RA = 0

160

140
RA = -50

120

100 00
-1
=
80 A
Reducing R
60
Alkalinity by
adding Acid
reduces RA
40
Hardening the water by adding Calcium or
Magnesium compounds reduces RA
20 Chart based on work by AJ
DeLange

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800

Hardness (Calcium + 0.5 Magnesium), (ppm) as CaCO3

RA chart
150 0 150
455 280
125 0 125
541 280
100 0 100
631 280
75 0 75
716 280
50 0 50
800 280
25 0 25
800 252
0 0 0
800 227
-25 88 0
800 204
-50 175 0
800 179
-75 263 0
800 153
-100 350 0
800 128