6. ROLLING BEARINGS.

BEARING MOUNTINGS
6.1. DEFINITION. CHARACTERIZATION. CLASSIFICATION.

Bearings are defined as machine elements used for sustaining shafts or other rotational parts,
taking over the loads which act upon it. If the friction inside the bearing is rolling friction, the bearings
are called rolling bearing. The bearing is the key element of the bearing mountings. Besides the
bearing, the mounting is consisted of the shaft, the casing, axial fixing elements, sealing and
lubricating elements.
Ball-bearings (fig. 6.1) are independent assemblies, consisted of: exterior ring (1), with interior
race (cale de rulare); interior ring (2), with exterior race; rolling parts (3) and squirrel cage (4), which
prevents the contact between the rolling parts by setting their arrangements around the rings. Iin order
to reduce radial dimension, there are bearings without inner ring or without both rings, case in which
races are manufactured on the shaft and even on the casing.
Main advantages of the rolling
bearings are:
High efficiency
High loading capacity on length
unit, low axial dimension;
Low consume of lubricant;
Easy maintenance;
High changeability, due to
international standardization.
The disadvantages of the rolling
bearings are:
Relatively high radial dimension;
Low durability at high speed
rotations or for shocks or
vibrations conditions.
Rolling bearings are the main types of
bearings used in machine construction, the
area of using this types being restricted
only by the working conditions of high
Fig. 6.1 Elements of a ball-bearing
speeds, shocks or vibrations.
The classifications are made by a series of criteria.
Considering the shape of the rolling parts (fig. 6.2), are notable: ball bearings, cylindrical roller
bearings, pin (needle) bearings, tapered roller bearings, barrel shaped roller bearings symmetrical
(spherical roller bearing) or asymmetrical.

Fig. 6.2 Rolling parts

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 The number of the rows of rolling parts arrangements separates the bearings in bearings with
rolling parts placed on one row, two rows or more than two rows.
Considering the capacity of taking over the angular deformations, there are: common bearings
(which can take over small angular deviations) and self-aligning (oscilani) bearings (with
high capacity of taking over the angular deviations).
The main load direction separates bearings in: radial bearings (takes radial loads and
eventually small axial loads), axial bearings (takes axial loads), radial-axial bearings (takes,
mainly, radial loads, but also axial loads), axial-radial bearings (takes, mainly axial loads, but
also radial loads).
Considering the construction and the material of the squirrel cage, there are bearings with
stamped squirrel cage (from steel plate) or massive squirrel cage (made from textolite, hard
aluminum etc.)
Considering the sealing devices in the bearing construction, bearings can be: unsealed
(without own sealing device), sealed (filled with lubricant grease and sealed, on both faces,
with discs made of non-metallic materials) or protected (filled with lubricant grease and
sealed, on both faces, with discs made of metallic materials).
Considering the value of the radial clearance there are bearings with normal radial clearance,
enhanced or reduced, clearance determined by the precision of the execution which can be
normal or high.
Considering the dimensions, the standards gives radius series (with radial dimensions
differences) and width series (differences on the axial direction only at roller bearings), these
influencing the loading capacity of the bearings.
The standardization of the bearings, on international scale, covers a big constructive and
dimensional diversity. The recognition of the bearings is made on the base of a symbol, also
standardized. The symbolization is consisted of letters or numbers, which have a specific meaning,
{Type of the bearing}{Width series}{Radius series}{Inner diameter}.
The type of the bearing can be a number (3 for radial-axial tapered roller bearings, 6 for radial
ball bearing, 7 for radial-axial ball-bearing etc.) or a group of letters, for radial cylindrical roller
bearings (N for a cylindrical roller bearing with two shoulders at the inner ring, NU for a
cylindrical roller bearing with two shoulders at the exterior ring etc.).
The width series is a number, as bigger as the width of the bearing is bigger. It is used only at
certain types of bearings (generally at roller bearings).
The radius series is a number, as bigger as the exterior diameter is.
Inner diameter results by multiplying with 5 the number from the last 2 digits of the symbol.
For example: symbol 6 2 05 represents a radial ball-bearing (6), from the 2nd radius series, with
inner diameter 5 x 05 = 25 mm; 3 0 2 06 represents a radial-axial tapered roller bearing (3), from 0
series of width, from 2nd series of diameters and with inner diameter of 5 x 06 = 30 mm.

6.2. MAIN TYPES OF BEARINGS

Radial ball bearings (Rulmeni radiali cu bile

pe un rand) (fig. 6.3) are used for taking over
medium radial loads, and small axial loads in both
ways. These bearings have various constructions:
normal (fig. 6.3, a); protected, with metallic disks on
one side (-Z, fig. 6.3, b) or on both sides (-2Z, fig.
6.3, b); sealed, on one side (-RS, fig. 6.3, c) or on
both sides (-2RS, fig. 6.3, c); with a channel on the
exterior ring, normal (-N, fig. 6.3, d) or protected
on one side (-ZN, fig. 6.3, d). The rings have quite a b c d
2 Fig. 6.3 Radial ball bearings
deep rolling races (ci de rulare) and can transmit axial loads through their shoulders. Curving shape
provides linear theoretical contact under load. The clearance in the bearing ensures the possibility of
taking over angular deviations between the axis of the two rings up to 8`. Functioning with angular
deviations leads to diminishing the durability of the bearing, reason for which the use for these
bearings is limited to shafts at which the length does not exceed 10 times the inner diameter of the bearing.
Self-aligning ball bearings (Rulmeni radiali oscilani cu bile pe
dou rnduri) (fig. 6.4) are used for taking over medium-high radial
load in both ways, allowing angular deviations of the two rings up to
2,530. The inner ring is made with two rolling races same as the
radial ball bearing on one row. The race on the exterior ring is
spherical, allowing the possibility of the inner ring and the balls to
oscillate around the center of the bearing. These kind of bearings are
recommended for high bending deformation of the shaft (long or
elastic shafts) and for an assembly for which the coaxially of the
mounting cage bores is difficult to achieve. Self-aligning ball bearings
on two rows are executed in normal standard type (v. fig. 6.4) or with
tapered inner ring (K, see fig. 6.4) for conical shaft journal or on Fig. 6.4 Radial oscillating ball-
cylindrical shaft journal with a special adapter sleeve (H). bearing on two rows

Angular ball bearings (Rulmeni radial-axiali cu bile pe un rnd) (fig. 6.5) are taking over
medium radial load and small to medium axial load acting in one way. The rings are asymmetrical,
having rolling races with shoulder on one side. The line that links
the contact points between the rolling parts and rolling races
make an angle = 1240 with the balls plane. The angular ball
bearings with large are used when the axial load is very
important, and those with small , when the radial load is
predominant. Angular ball bearings are mounted in pairs (in X
or in O), in the same bearing or in different bearings of the
bearing mounting. The axial clearance adjustment is made during
the fixing of the assembling, through relatively displacement of Fig. 6.5 Angular Fig. 6.Angular
the rings. They are recommended in case of rigid shafts because ball bearings on ball bearing on
they cannot take over angular deviations between the axes of the one row two rows
rings.
Double-row angular ball bearings (Rulmeni radial-axiali cu bile pe dou rnduri) (fig. 6.6)
takes over medium to large radial loads, and small to medium axial loads in both ways, being
equivalent with two angular ball bearings on one row mounted in
O. These ball bearings are sensitive to angular deviations of the
rings, which limits the usage for short and rigid shafts.
Cylindrical roller bearings (Rulmeni radiali cu role
cilindrice pe un rnd) (fig. 6.7) are used for taking over large
radial loads and sometimes small axial loads in one way or in
both ways (depending on bearing design). The rolling races have
cylindrical shape, and because of the linear contact between the
rollers and the rolling race, the capacity of taking over radial
loads is quite high. The shapes of the rings gives the following
constructions of cylindrical roller bearings: with two shoulders
a b c
on the inner ring (type N) or with two shoulders on the outer ring
(type NU), the other ring having no shoulders (fig. 6.7, a); with Fig. 6.7 Radial ball-bearings with
cylindrical rolls on one rows
three shoulders (fig. 6.7, b) two on the outer ring and one on the
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inner ring (type NJ) or made from detachable parts (type NU+HJ); with four shoulders, two on each
ring, a shoulder from inner ring being detachable (type NUP or NJ+HJ, fig. 6.7, c). Usage of
cylindrical roller-bearings is limited for short and rigid shafts, being sensitive to bending deformations
of the shafts. Any angular deviations of the rings axis determine high stress concentrations at the ends
of the rollers leading to drastically diminish of durability.
Double-row cylindrical roller bearings (Rulmeni radiali cu role cilindrice pe dou rnduri)
(fig.6.8) they take over radial loads larger than single row cylindrical roller
bearings and they dont take over axial loads. Because of the reason that they are
more sensitive to bending of the shafts they are used at very rigid shafts. They are
manufactured with outer ring with no shoulders (type NN) or with inner ring
without shoulders (type NNU)
Needle bearings (Rulmeni radiali ace) (fig. 6.9) are roller bearings with
cylindrical rollers with small diameters and large length (up to 10 times bigger
than the diameters of the needles). Having smaller radial dimension, these
bearings take over comparative radial loads with the cylindrical roller bearings
and they do not take over axial loads. They can be manufactured with needles on
one row (fig. 6.9, a) or on two rows (fig. 6.9, b). For reducing radial dimensions Fig. 6.8 Double
there are solutions without the inner row cylindrical
ring (fig. 6.9, a, b and c) or even roller bearing
without both rings (fig. 6.9, d). In
these cases, rolling races are
manufactured on the shaft journal
and eventually in the casing bore, the
surfaces being hardened and grinded.
Same as any roller bearings, the
needle bearings are highly sensitive
to bending deformation of the shafts, a b c d
their usage being limited to short and Fig. 6.9 Needle bearings
rigid shafts.
Self-aligning barrel shaped roller bearings (Rulmeni radiali
oscilani cu role butoi pe dou rnduri) (fig. 6.10) are designated to
take over large to highly large radial loads and medium axial loads in
both ways, having the capacity of taking over angular deviations
between the axis of the rings up to 3. They are almost the same as
the self-aligning ball bearings, having a spherical shape rolling race
on the outer ring. The inner ring is manufactured with cylindrical
bore (see fig. 6.10, a) or with conical bore (K, See fig. 6.10 a and b)
for mounting on conical journals or on cylindrical journals with a
special adapter sleeve (AH).
Tapered roller bearing (Rulmeni radial-axiali cu role conice pe
un rnd) (fig. 6.11) takes over large radial loads and medium to large
axial loads acting on one way. Rolling races and the rollers are a b
conical shaped. To obtain smooth functioning with no slipping, the Fig. 6.10 Self-aligning barrel
cones of the rolling races and of the rollers have the same center shaped roller bearings
point. The rollers are fixed on the inner ring witch have shoulders,
while the outer ring have flat rolling race (no shoulders). Because of this, the tapered roller bearings
are demountable, outer ring, respectively inner ring with rollers are mounted separately on the bearing
bore and on the shaft journal. The contact angle is the angle between the normal on the roller axis
and the plane of the roller arrangement, same with the angle of the axis of the rollers and the bearing

4
axis. (see fig. 6.11, a). Tapered roller bearings are made with
contact angles of 10 or 28. The bearings with = 10 are
used when the radial load is predominant, and those with =
28, when axial load is predominant. Tapered roller bearings are
mounted in pairs (in X or in O), in the same bearing or in
different bearings of the bearing mounting. There are also
double row tapered roller bearings (fig. 6.11, b) or even with
four rows, for large radial loads. The axial clearance adjustment
is made during the fixing of the assembling, through relatively a b
displacement of the rings. Their usage is recommended in case
Fig. 6.11 Radial axial ball bearings
of high rigid shafts, because they are sensitive to angular with conical rolls
deviations between the axes of the rings.
Axial bearings (Rulmeni axiali) are built
with balls (fig. 6.12, a and b), with needles (fig.
6.12, c) or with cylindrical rollers not
standardized (fig. 6.12, d). These bearings are
used for taking large axial loads in one way (those
with simple effect fig. 6.12, a, c, d) or in both
ways (those with double effect fig. 6.12, b).
Because they dont fix the shaft on radial
direction, these bearings are used, usually, in
combination with radial bearings. Being a b c d
demountable, it is recommended that, in mounted
Fig. 6.12 Axial bearings
state, a minimum axial force, taken from bearings
catalogues, must act upon it. Axial bearings are
sensitive to deformations of bending of the shafts at high rotations,
because of the centrifugal effect on the rolling parts.
Axial-radial bearings (Rulmeni axial- radiali) (fig. 6.13), take
over high axial loads and small to medium radial loads. They can be
found in non-standardized ball construction (fig. 6.13, a). The barrel
shaped roller bearings (fig. 6.13, b) are also self-aligning having the
capacity of overtaking angular deviations between the axes of the
rings up to 23. Because these bearings are demountable it is
recommended a minimum axial force, found in the bearings
a b
catalogues.
Fig. 6.13 Axial-radial bearing
6.3. BEARING MOUNTINGS

The bearing mounting is represented by the sub-assembly consisted by a shaft (together with the
sustained part), journal bearing and the casings on which they lean on. The bearing mounting must
ensure the possibility of shaft rotation and also the transmitting of the loads from the pieces mounted
on the shaft to the fixed part (casing, frame etc.).
The conditions which have to be fulfilled by a bearing mounting are:
to axially fix the shaft (to allow transmitting axial loads from the shaft to the casing )
to radial fix the shaft (to allow transmitting radial loads from the shaft to the casing)
not to introduce supplementary forces in the bearings, in the case of shaft elongation or
bending.

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 6.3.1. Axial Fixing Of The Rings

The constructive elements which can be used for axial fixation of the bearing depend of the size of
the axial load, and the ring on which the axial fixation is made. For the axial fixing of the bearing
which are not axial loaded, a wire elastic ring is enough. The fixing of the bearing which takes axial
force, through the supplementary constructive elements, is depending on the fixing ring.
The most encountered constructive elements used for fixing inner rings (fig. 6.14) are:
with shoulder on the shaft (a);
with intermediary bushing between the bearing and a shoulder on the shaft or other part fixed
on the shaft (b);
with elastic ring (c);
with bearing nut (d);
with screw fixed washer(e), only at the end of shafts.

a b c d e
Fig. 6.14 Axial fixing elements for the inner rings

Fixing the outer rings on the bearings (fig. 6.15) can be performed by the following elements:
the bearing cap(a, b);
screw parts (sets) in the casing (c) or in other elements fixed on the casing;
shoulder in the casing (d) or in the bearing beaker (pahar) (e);
elastic support ring fixed in the casing (f) or even on the outer ring of the bearing (g).

a b c d

6
 e f g
Fig. 6.15 Axial fixing elements for the outer rings

6.3.2. Adjustments And Tolerances For The Journal And Bore

Radial fixing of the bearings is made through the adjustment between the rings and the conjugated
parts (the journal of the shaft, respectively the bore in the casing) and also through establishing the
radial tolerances in functioning.
The tolerances at the bore diameter on the inner ring and at the exterior diameter of the outer rings
are standardized on international scale. For this reason the tolerance at the journal diameter are chosen
in a standard bore system (sistem alezaj unitar), and tolerances at casing bore diameters are chosen in a
standard shaft system (sistem arbore unitar). These tolerances give the type of adjustment (interference
(cu strngere) fit or normal running (liber) fit) between the shaft journal and the inner ring of the
bearing, respectively between the outer ring and the casing bore. Tolerances fields between g6 and n6
are used for journals and between H6, H7 and P6, P7 and for the casing bore.
The types of adjustments are chosen depending on: how rings are loaded, type and value of the
loads, type and size of the bearing; temperature conditions; casing construction; mounting
demounting conditions; special axial shifting conditions.
Loading of the rings can be peripheral or local. If the load keeps direction, the rotating ring is
peripherally loaded and interference fit is recommended, and the un-rotating ring is locally loaded and
normal running fit is recommended.
Type and value of the load influence the interference size at tight fits, necessary interference fit
being as higher as the value of load or shocks is higher.
Type and the size of the bearing impose higher interference fits at the roller bearings and smaller at
ball bearings and also higher interference fits at larger bearings.
Temperature conditions impose higher interference fits when the functioning temperature is
bigger.
The casing construction can be with separating plane case in which interference fits are not
allowed, or without separating plane in the case of peripheral loading on the outer ring. Higher
interference fits are recommended for thin casing or made of light materials.
Mounting and demounting conditions must be quite simple. If the both rings are mounted with
interference fits, demountable bearing or conical bore bearing and extraction sleeve is recommended.
Special axial shifting condition is fulfilled by choosing a normal running fit between the local
loading ring and the conjugated part.

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 6.3.3. Clearance Adjustments (Reglarea jocurilor)

The free relative displacement between the rings, on the radial or axial direction, is known under
the name of radial clearance, respectively axial.
The radial clearance of a bearing is adjusted through mounting, due to interference fits, or in
functioning due of thermal expansion. The radial bearings are manufactured with three sizes of radial
clearance: normal, small or with interference. The radial clearance, in free state, is established so that,
after mounting in normal temperature conditions, the functioning clearance to be optimum. If the
adjustments are made with high interference fit or the functioning temperatures are high, a large radial
clearance (in un-mounted state) is recommended.
Axial clearance must be adjusted at radial-axial bearing or axial bearing. The radial-axial bearings
are not manufactured with a certain radial clearance in un-mounted state, the radial clearance being
adjusted at mounting along with the axial clearance. In order to achieve a normal running clearance,
the mounting clearance is established considering the mounting scheme and temperature conditions.
If the thermal expansions in functioning are major, the axial clearance at mounting is set to higher
values in case of axial-radial X bearing mounting and at low values in case of O mounting.
The clearance is established by moving the outer ring of a bearing at X mounting, and by
moving the inner ring of a bearing at O mounting.
Moving of the outer ring is made by the help of a shim package (pachet de garnituri de reglare)
placed between the bearing cap and the casing (see. fig. 6.19, fig. 6.20, fig. 6.23 6.25) or through
screw parts in the cap or in the casing (see. fig. 6.15, c). Shim package is is made of copper plates with
different thicknesses (between 0.1 and 1 mm).
Moving of the inner ring is usually made with bearing nuts (see fig. 6.26).

6.3.4. Main Diagrams Of Bearing Mountings

The most encountered bearing mountings are those of shafts on two bearings. Leaning a shaft on
more then two bearings is made only in the case of very long shafts or in case that bending deformations
of the shaft are not accepted. At this kind of mountings, the coaxially of the journals is very important.
The main diagrams of bearing mountings are differentiated by the axial fixation. The following
three diagrams can be drawn(fig. 6.16).
Mounting diagram with axial fixation at one edge
(fig. 6.16, a) One of the bearing (Bearing A in fig. 6.16,
a) takes the axial force in both ways.
The other bearing (Bearing B in fig. 6.16, a) is
mobile on axial direction, making only radial fixation.
This type of scheme is recommended for long shafts,
with relatively large modification of the length in
functioning, due to thermal expansion (at functioning
with major temperature variations), or due to elastic
deformation of the shaft (under the action of high axial
forces). The fact that the self-aligning bearing can fix
shafts in both ways makes this scheme to be
recommended in case of shafts with high bending
deformations. Also, the mounting scheme with axial Fig. 6.16 Main bearing mounting schemes
fixing at one edge is used at to shafts leaning on more
then two bearings.
The axial mobility of the axial mobile bearing is made through the displacement of the whole
bearing (relative to the casing bore) or through the axial displacement in the interior of the bearing
(between the rolling parts and one of the rings). For equalizing the loads on the two bearings, a relative
low radial loading of the axially fixed bearing is recommended.

8
 Mounting diagram with axial fixation on both edges, from the exterior on the outer rings, X
mounting, for radial-axial bearings (fig. 6.16, b). The two bearings take the axial forces oriented to
them. It is used, often, for fixing short shafts with small axial deformations (thermal or elastic). The
bending deformations of the shafts can be taken in the limits imposed by the bearings. If the bearings
are radial-axial, the points of application for reactions in the bearings are moved to the center of the
shaft, the distance between them being smaller. The mounting clearance in bearings, can be enlarged
because the thermal expansion of the shaft tend to make it smaller.
The mounting diagram with axial fixation on both edges, from the exterior on the outer rings,
O mounting, for radial-axial bearings (fig. 6.16, c) The two bearings take axial forces in one way.
Each bearing takes over the axial force oriented to the other bearing. There are used for short shafts,
with axial deformations (thermal or elastic) with small bending deformation. If radial-axial bearings
are used, application points of the bearing reactions are displaced to the edges of the shaft, and the
distance between the application points is increased. The thermal expansions, in functioning, increase
the clearance in bearings, reason for which these bearings are mounted with a certain tight.
Figure 6.17 6.27 are presenting constructive sketches of bearing mountings for shafts which
lean on two bearings.
The sketches presented in fig. 6.176.20 are based on the mounting diagram with axial fixation at
one edge. For this mounting diagram, for the axially fixed bearing, we can use (considering the size of
the axial or radial loads): radial ball
bearings on one row, radial cylindrical
roller bearings type NUP or NJ+HJ (four
shoulder bearings), self-aligning bearings
or combinations of bearings (axial bearing
with double effect and radial bearing, two
radial-axial bearings mounted in X or in
O etc.). For the axial free bearing there
can be used radial ball bearings, cylindrical
roller bearings (with two shoulders), needle
bearings, self aligning ball or roller bearings.
The mounting presented in fig. 6.17 is
made with radial ball bearings and it can
take small-medium radial loads and small
axial loads. The compensation of certain
expansions of the shaft is made through the Fig. 6.17 Montaj cu fixare axial la un singur capt, cu
relative displacement, in the axial free rulmeni radiali cu bile
bearing, between the outer ring of the
bearing and the casing. The figure is
presenting the flow of the axial forces in
both ways, from the shaft to the casing.
In fig 6.18 is presented the input shaft
mounting in a cylindrical speed reducer
with one gear. The mounting is made with
radial cylindrical rolls. The axial fixation is
made through the bearing type NUP (four
shoulders), and the mobile journal uses a
bearing type N (two shoulders) in which
can take place relative axial displacement
between the inner ring and the rolls, in
case of axial deformation of the shaft. The Fig. 6.18 Montaj cu fixare axial la un singur capt, cu
mounting is recommended for large and rulmeni radiali cu role cilindrice
insignificant radial loads.

9
 The mounting presented in
fig. 6.19 is one of the input
shafts in a cylindrical speed
reducer. There are used two
radial-axial (angular) ball
bearings, mounted in X, for
the axially fixed bearing, and a
radial ball bearing for the
axially free bearing. The
mounting is recommended for
medium radial loads and small-
medium axial loads.
Fig. 6.19 Montaj cu fixare axial la un singur capt, cu doi rulmeni
In the case of high radial
radial-axiali cu bile i un rulment radial cu bile
and axial loads, which can
appear at the mounting of an
input shaft with bevel pinon
(fig. 6.20), angular ball-
bearings are replaced with
tapered roller bearings, and the
radial ball bearing is replaced
with a cylindrical roller bearing
(with two shoulders). The axial
clearance adjustment is made
through the axial displacement
of the cap, with the help of the
shim package.
The mountings presented
in fig. 6.216.26 are based on
the mounting diagram with axial
fixation at both edges. At this
kind of mountings there are
often used identical bearings
Fig. 6.20 Montaj cu fixare axial la un singur capt, cu doi rulmeni
for each journal. The bearings
radial-axiali cu role conice i un rulment radial cu role
can be radial (with balls or with
cylindrical rollers with three
shoulders, type NJ) or radial-
axial with balls or tapered
rollers.
Figure 6.21 is presenting
the mounting of the output
shaft of a cylindrical speed
reducer. The mounting is made
with radial ball bearing and is
designated to medium radial
loads and small axial loads.
There is also presented the flow
of the axial forces, in both
ways, from the cylindrical gear
to the casing.

Fig. 6.21 Montaj cu fixare axial la ambele capete, cu rulmeni

10 radiali cu bile
 For taking over
large radial forces and
insignificant axial
forces, it is
recommended the usage
of radial cylindrical
roller bearing type NJ
(three shoulders). Such
a mounting, for the
input shaft, is presented
in fig 6.22. If
expansions of the shaft
may appear, an
enhanced axial
clearance must be set.
The mounting in Fig. 6.22 Montaj cu fixare axial la ambele capete, cu rulmeni
fig 6.23 is for an input radiali cu role cilindrice
shaft from a coaxially
cylindrical speed reducer, one
of the bearings being made
inside of the reducing gear. It is
recommended the usage of the
radial-axial (angular) ball
bearings for taking over
medium radial and medium-
small axial loads. The
application points of the
reactions in the bearings are
obtained as intersections of the
normally applied forces in the
contact points between the balls
and the rings, with the axis of
the shaft. The position of these
lines gives the X name of the
mounting.
Fig. 6.24 is presenting the
X mounting of the
intermediary shaft of a Fig. 6.23 Montaj cu fixare axial la ambele capete, n X, cu
rulmeni radial-axiali cu bile, pentru arborele de intrare ntr-un
cylindrical speed reducer. The
reductor cilindric coaxial
difference to the previous
mounting is the use of the radial-axial tapered roller bearings that are taking over high radial and axial
loads.
The same type of mounting has a special construction if it is used for the input shafts in bevel
speed reducers (fig. 6.25). The mounting is made as a sub-assembly separated in a piece called bearing
beaker (pahar). The axial clearance of the bearings is adjusted with the help the shim package mounted
between the cap and the bearing beaker. The axial clearance of the bevel gear is adjusted by axial

11
displacement of the whole sub-assembly of the pinion, with the help of the shim package between the
casing and the bearing beaker.

Fig. 6.24 Montaj cu fixare axial la ambele capete, n X, cu rulmeni radial-axiali cu role
conice, pentru arborele intermediar al unui reductor cilindric

Fig. 6.25 Montaj cu fixare axial la ambele capete, n X, cu rulmeni radial-axiali

cu role conice, pentru arborele de intrare ntr-un reductor conic

Fig. 6.26 is presenting the mounting with axial fixation on both edges, from the exterior on the outer
rings, O mounting, for the input shaft in a bevel speed reducer. This type of mounting, with radial-
axial tapered roller bearings, take over high radial and axial loads. The axial clearance adjustment is
made through the axial displacement of the inner ring of the bearing towards the input edge of the
shaft, with the help of the bearing nut. It is presented the flow of the axial forces in both directions,

12
from the pinion to the
casing or from the output
shaft to the casing. It can be
seen that the application
points of the bearings
reactions are obtained as an
intersection between the
normal to the tapered roller
axes with the shafts axis.
The position of these lines
gives the O name to the
mounting.
A special assembling is
presented in fig. 6.27, the
mounting of an
intermediary shaft from a
speed reducer gear with a
bifurcated second step. In
this case, the axial fixing is
Fig. 6.26 Montaj cu fixare axial la ambele capete, n O,
made by the bifurcated cu rulmeni radial-axiali cu role conice, pentru
gearing. The axial force on
the driven wheel of the first gear is transmitted at the output shaft by one of the bifurcated gears. The
assembly is axially free, on cylindrical roller bearings type N (with 2 shoulders).

Fig. 6.27 Montaj fr fixare axial, cu rulmeni radiali cu role cilindrice, pentru arborele
intermediar al unui reductor cilindric bifurcat n treapta II-a
6.4. MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY

13
 The materials for the rings and rolling parts must fulfill a series of conditions: high contact
strength, high wear resistance and tenacity. The steels that correspond to these demands are the steels
with chrome (Cr) that contain approximately 1% carbon and 1,31,65% chrome. Other alloying
elements are manganese (Mn) and silicon (Si). The hardening speed and depth depend upon the
content of manganese.
The hardening treatment (heating up to 800C, maintaining 1 hour, cooling in oil) is followed by
low annealing (heating up to 170C, maintaining 3 hours, cooling in preheated oil at 70C). After the
heat treatment, the rings and rolling elements have a hardness of 633 HRC.
Some bearings producing companies are using cementation steels; these having a better behavior
at shock conditions. For a good strength at high temperatures or for corrosion resistance special high-
alloyed steels are used.
The bearings rings are machined by turning on lathes and then rectified. The half products are in a
shape of laminated pipes, for diameters smaller than 20 mm and are obtained through forging, for
diameters bigger than 20 mm.
The forging is made on automated machines. Afterwards the half products are subject of a heat
treatment of short annealing (in electric furnaces) and sanding with cast iron balls for removing temper
scale (under) and of the eventually barbs (bavuri).
The turning on lathes is made on automated machines. Before the machining of the rolling races,
the bi-lateral ring surfaces must be rectified for ensuring the technological basis. After the mechanical
machining on lathes it must be applied a hardening heat treatment followed by, in the specified order,
the rectifying of the rolling surfaces, of the cylindrical surfaces, of the rolling races and the super-
finished machining of the rolling races. Finally the roughness of the rolling surfaces must be about 0,4
m.
The balls are obtained by cold pressing (in special machines), being followed by an eventual
rectifying machining. A hardening treatment is applied, followed by a rectifying machining, lapping
(lepuire) and sorting. The rectifying of the surfaces and the lapping are made with cast iron disks and
abrasive emulsions of Al2O3, Cr2O3 and, finally diesel fuel, resulting a roughness of 0,04 m.
The rolling elements are obtained by cutting processes from metal bars, which is followed by a
pressing machining. The hardening treatment is followed by scalping rectification (rectificare de
eboare) of the rolling generator.

6.5. BEARINGS FAILURES

The main causes of bearings malfunction are the following: deformation (formarea de adncituri)
of the rolling races; pitting of the rolling surfaces; abrasive wear of the rolling parts and of the rolling
races of the rings; breaking of the bearings cage, rings and of the rolling parts etc.
Deformation of the rolling races is the main failure for the non-spinning bearings. In this
category enter the stationary bearings, low speed bearings (n < 10 rpm) and the oscillating
bearings.
The residual deformations of the rolling races are caused by local loads that are over passing the
yield stress of the material. A favorable factor is the improper lubrication of the bearing. In order to
avoid this kind of failure, the static load capacity calculus is performed, as a safety criteria in the use of
non-spinning bearings.
The pitting of the rolling surfaces is the main failure of the spinning bearings (n > 10 rpm) with
good sealing and lubrication conditions.
As a result of the periodic process of spinning made by balls or rollers on the rolling races of the
bearings, variable contact stress appear on the rolling surfaces. This failure is a result of fatigue of
the materials superficial layer, belonging to the rolling parts or to the rings. After a certain
14
 number of running cycles, micro fractures develop on the surface. In time, due to the pressed
lubricant the micro-fractures will take to the detach of small pieces of material and small
depressions (pits) will appear. The first pits appear on the rolling race of the most stressed ring. In
the case of the bearing balls the first pits appear in the exit zone of the material fibers at forging.
The pitting is remarked due to the noise in functioning coming from the enlargement of the
bearings clearance. In order to avoid this failure the durability calculus, considering the dynamic
load capacity, is performed, as the safety criteria in the use of spinning bearings.
The abrasive wear of the spinning bodies and of the rolling races of the rings appears at the
bearings that are functioning in pour lubricating and sealing conditions, in abrasive environments.
The results of the abrasive wear are identical with the one resulting from pitting: the appearance of
noise in functioning and the enlargement of the clearance in the bearing. This failure can be
limited by increasing the efficiency of the sealing and lubricating systems.
The breakage of the cage, of the rings or of the rolling parts are failures due to errors
(improper manufacturing execution and mounting or improper exploitation the bearings). The most
dangerous one is the breakage of the cage, at bearing functioning at high speeds and at those mounted
with high interference fits. The breaking of the cage appears near the rolling parts, after a certain wear
of the cage rolling paths, or in the rivet assembling area. At the bearing rings, shoulders breaking can
appear.
The blocking of the bearings appears at bearings functioning at high temperatures and hard load
and low lubricating conditions. The blocking is characterized by the appearance of small local cracks
at the contact of the rolling bodies with the rings or the cages. Avoiding this type of damage is done
through a proper cooling and lubrication of the bearing.
If the abrasive wear, breakage of the bearings elements or blocking can be avoided or limited
through manufacturing, mounting or exploiting conditions, for avoiding the other types of damage
forms there are imposed some specific calculus:
The durability calculus (after the dynamic load capacity), at spinning bearings, in order to avoid
pitting;
The calculus after the static load capacity, at non-spinning bearings, in order to avoid the
deformation of the rolling races.

6.6. THE CALCULUS OF THE SPINNING BEARINGS

The running time of the bearings is limited by the appearance of pitting on the functioning
surfaces. The elements that are taken into account have been choose on the base of very high
experimental tests.
It has been observed that, in identical conditions of use, bearings with the same typo-dimensions
have different functioning periods. This fact can be explained by the micro and macro differences
between the bearings (dimensions and roughness of rings, rolling parts, cage) and also the different
mechanical characteristics of the used materials that are mainly influenced by the non-metallic
inclusions from these. As a conclusion, the durability calculus of bearings must take into account the
statistic distribution of failures. The calculus elements begin from defining of certain parameters with
statistical aspects.
The reliability of a bearing (fiabilitatea unui rulment) is the probability that a bearing reaches
and overpasses, in certain loading and functioning conditions, a determined running time.
The number of rotations made by the rotating ring until the appearance of the first fatigue sign
gives the durability of a bearing (durabilitatea unui rulment). In the case of bearings functioning at
a constant speed, the durability of the bearing is expressed in running hours.
The reliability of a batch of bearings (durabilitatea unui lot de rulmeni) (containing
apparently identical bearings), that function in the same conditions, is defined as the percentage of the
total bearings number of the batch that, statistically, reach or overpass a certain imposed running time.

15
Technically, the imposed reliability of a lot is 90%, meaning that 90% of the bearings must reach or
overpass the imposed running time. Defined in this manner, the reliability of a batch of bearings
represents the probability that any bearing from the batch can reach or overpass the imposed running
time.
The durability of a batch of bearings (durabilitatea unui lot de rulmeni) (containing
apparently identical bearings), that are functioning in the same conditions; is defined as the number of
rotations reached or overpassed by a certain percent of the batch, without the appearance of any
failure.

The basic durability (durabilitatea de baz) (Lb) is the durability of a batch of bearings for
which the imposed reliability is 90%.
The distribution curve of the durability of a batch
(fig. 6.28) shows that 50% of the batch exceed
approximately 5 times the basic durability, and 10% of

Durabilitaty, millions of rotations

the bearings in the lot exceed approximately 14 times
the basic durability. In other words, the bearing has a
90% probability of reaching the imposed running time,
50% probability of reaching a 5 times higher running
time and 10% probability of reaching a 14 times higher
running time.
The basic dynamic load capacity (C)
(Capacitatea de ncrcare dinamic de baz) is
defined as the pure radial force, for radial or radial-
axial bearings, and the pure axial force for the axial or Percent of the batch
axial-radial bearings, constant, under which, a batch of
bearings apparent identically, that are functioning with
the spinning inner ring, have a basic durability of a Fig. 6.28 Curba de distribuie a
durabilitii rulmenilor rotitori
million rotations (Lb = 106 revolutions).
The basic dynamic load capacity is a parameter, experimentally established for each typo-
dimension of bearings, its value being given by catalogues of the bearing companies.
The calculus of the spinning bearings is considering the time dependence of the load and of the
speed (constant or variable). Forward, we will consider the case of the bearings functioning at constant
speed and load. In real conditions, a bearing can function with the spinning inner ring or with the
spinning outer ring, and also, loaded with mixed forces that can be radial (Fr) and axial (Fa).
The equivalent dynamic load (P) (Sarcina dinamic echivalent) is defined as the pure radial
load, for radial or radial-axial bearings, and the pure axial load for the axial or axial-radial bearings,
constant, under which, a bearing with the inner spinning ring, reaches the same durability as in real
functioning conditions and loading.
Figure 6.29 is presenting the correlation,
experimentally established, between the
radial force on the bearing and the axial
force taken by the bearing, for a constant
equivalent dynamic load (P = const.). In the
diagram, the line inclined with angle
defines two areas. The angle is imposed
by a constant of each bearing, e (e = tg ),
its a value given in the bearing catalogues,
considering the typo-dimension of the
bearing and sometime the axial load Fa. The Fig. 6.29

16
two diagram areas are characterized by different calculus methodology for the equivalent dynamic
load.
Zone I is characterized by small axial forces, in comparison with the radial ones:
Fa
tg tg ' e .
Fr
The equivalent dynamic load is established by neglecting the axial force effect:
P f pVFr . (6.1)

Zone II is characterized by big axial forces, in comparison with the radial ones:
Fa
tg tg ' e . The equivalent dynamic load is established taking into account the
Fr
effect of the axial force:
P f p VXFr YFa . (6.2)
In the previous relations: is the angle between the radial component of the load Fr and the
normal load Fn; fp global correction factor, that takes into account the functioning conditions of the
bearing; X and Y equivalence factors for the radial load (Fr), and the axial one (Fa); V factor that
takes into account the type of the spinning ring (inner or outer).
The global correction factor fp is computed, considering specific factors:
f z fd fv fs
fp , (6.3)
ft
where: fz is a factor taken into consideration only in the case of bearings in transmissions with gears
and depends on the tooth precision; fd is chosen considering the type or machine from which the
bearings mounting is part; fv factor introduced for taking into account the presence of a belt wheel on
the bearing mounting; fs factor that takes into account the shocks on transmission; ft depends on the
temperature regime.
The factor V takes the value V=1, for the bearings that function with the spinning inner ring and
value V=1.2, for the bearings functioning with spinning outer ring, taking into account that, the
durability is higher than if the spinning ring is the inner one. The explanation is that the local loading
of the non-spinning ring is much dangerous then the peripheral loading of the spinning ring and the
inner ring is less resistant at contact stress than the outer one, due to rolling race of smaller dimensions
and of the external contact with the rolling parts (the rolling parts have inner contact with the rolling
path of the outer ring). At the self-aligning ball bearings, V=1 no matter the type of the spinning ring,
considering that the probability of failures for both rings is the same.
The radial force Fr, taken over by the bearings, is the radial reaction resulted from the equilibrium
of the shaft mounted on the bearings.
The axial force Fa is taken over by the bearings, usually, from the helical, bevel or worm gears
mounted on the shaft.
A particular case is that of the mountings with axial fixing at both ends, with radial-axial bearings
(e.g.: the X mounting with radial-axial tapered roller bearings is shown in fig. 6.30). The axial force
that loads the radial-axial bearings must be established taking into account the contact between the
rolling parts and the bearings rings. For any radial-axial bearing, the normal reactions in the bearing
FnA and FnB (perpendicular on the contact surfaces between the rolling parts and the bearing rings see.
fig. 6.30) have the radial components FrA, FrB respectively the axial components F ' aA , F ' aB .

17
 The axial components F ' a are named supplementary axial forces. They depend on the size of
the radial force on the bearing and on the type of bearing. It is computed for the two bearings as
follows:
FrA
F ' aA 0,5 ;
YA
(6.4)
F
F ' aB 0,5 rB ,
YB
where YA and YB are the equivalence factors for the axial force, for the two bearings.

Fig. 6.30 Schema de calcul a forelor axiale suplimentare i totale pentru rulmenii radial-axiali

The total axial force, that loads the two bearings, is determined considering the supplementary
axial forces and the resulting external axial force Fa, that loads the shaft. Under the action of the
external axial force and the supplementary axial forces, the shaft is not in equilibrium and tends to
have axial displacement. In one of the bearings appears an axial reaction that equilibrates the shaft and
is taken into consideration when computing the total axial force for that bearing. As a consequence, the
computation of the total axial forces is done considering the type of the mounting (in X or in O),
the value and direction of the supplementary axial forces and of the external axial force Fa.
A particular case, presented in fig. 6.30, shows the external axial force oriented towards the
bearing A, with the following relation between the axial forces F ' aA FA F ' aB , the shaft tends to
displace towards the bearing A and generates a reaction FA F ' aB F ' aA , that gives axial equilibrium.
Taking into account the appearance of the axial reaction, the total axial forces are established as
follows:

Fa t A F ' aA FA F ' aB F ' aA FA F ' aB ;
(6.5)
FatB F ' aB .

At the mountings with axial fixing at both edges, with radial-axial bearings, the equivalent
dynamic loads, for each bearing, are established with relation (6.1) or relation (6.2), replacing the axial
force Fa with the total axial forces Fat. At a bearing loaded only with the supplementary axial force
Fat F 'a
Fat F ' a , the ratio e and so, in the calculus of the equivalent dynamic load, the
Fr Fr
influence of the axial force is neglected.

18
 In the case of the bearings with two radial-axial bearings in X or O mounted, used at the
mountings with bearings that have axial fixing at one edge, the supplementary axial forces are
canceling each other and we dont have to determine the total axial forces.
The durability calculus of the spinning bearings is performed on the dynamic load capacity.
According to the Whler fatigue curve for bearings, between the durability of the bearing L, the basic
durability Lb respectively and the equivalent dynamic load P, the basic dynamic load capacity C, the
following dependence appear:
P p L C p Lb const . , (6.6)
where p is the grade of the fatigue curve and depends on the shape if the rolling parts; for ball bearings
p 3, and for roller bearings p 10 .
3
If the durability of the bearing L is measured in millions of rotations and the value of the base
durability Lb = 106 rotations is considered, relation (6.6) becomes
P pL C p. (6.7)
On the basis of relation (6.7), the calculus of the spinning bearings may be performed in two ways.
Determining the necessary load capacity, that must verify the following relation
p
C necesar P L C , (6.8)
where the basic dynamic load capacity C is given by the bearings catalogue.
The imposed durability for the bearing (in millions of rotations) L is determined depending of
the rotational speed of the spinning ring n and the imposed running time Lh impus (in hours),
with relation:
60nLh impus
L . (6.9)
10 6
Determining the running time of the bearing Lh (in hours), which, for verification, must comply
with the relation:
10 6 L
Lh Lh impus , (6.10)
60n
where
p
C
L . (6.11)
P
In the case of bearings consisted of two rolling bearings, the basic dynamic load capacity is
increased Ctotal = fi .C , where fi is a coefficient higher than unity, that depends on the shape of the
rolling parts. The value of fi is smaller than 2, because the two bearings dont take over the same load.
At the spinning bearings the functioning speed must comply with the relation
n nlim f nlim , (6.12)
Fa
where: f is the speed factor, given by the bearings catalogue depending on the ratio Fr or by the
bearings dimensions and the imposed running time Lh impus , for the self-aligning roller bearings; nlim
the limit speed, indicated by the bearings catalogue depending on the typo-dimension and the
lubricating method (with oil or lubricating grease).

The designing algorithm for spinning bearings starts from the following design inputs: the type
and size of the loads that must be supported by the bearing (FrA, FrB, Fa etc.); functioning speed (n);

19
imposed running time at the bearings (Lh impus); the diameters of the shafts journals; information
regarding the length and stiffness of the shaft, the elements sustained by the shaft, the coaxially
tolerance of the casing bore, the casing construction, the functioning temperature, functioning
conditions etc. and continues with the following steps:
Choose of the mounting diagram considering the number of bearings, length and stiffness of
the shaft, value of thermal dilatations, the precision of execution and mounting etc.
Choose of the type of bearings considering the chosen mounting diagram, the type and size of
forces that must be supported, the stiffness of the shaft and value of coaxially tolerances of the
casing bore.
Choose of the size (series) of the bearings and the characteristics of these, from the bearings
catalogue considering the journal diameter.
Verify the bearings with one of the relations (6.8) or (6.10), after we have determined the
equivalent dynamic load for each bearing. If we deal with identical bearings we may verify
only the most loaded bearing (with the biggest equivalent dynamic load).
In the case that the chosen bearings dont verify the relations (6.8) or (6.10) or there are over
dimensioning, the following possibilities can be considered:
Choose another bearings, same type, same inner diameter but from another size series ;
Choose another type of bearing ;
Mounting two bearings in the same bearing or choose a double row bearing;
Increase the journal diameter;
Consider a smaller running time of the bearing, and imposing the replacement of the
bearings after a shorter period of time.
Choose the axial fixing solutions, the adjustments for the bearing assembling, the tolerances,
the roughness of the journal and of the bore in the casing, the lubricant and lubricating system,
sealing system and the solution for a convenient mounting and demounting of the assembling.

6.7. THE CALCULUS OF NON-SPINNING BEARINGS

In this category enter the bearings loaded at rest, the slow oscilating bearings and the ones
functioning at small rotational speeds (n < 10 rot/min). The main failure is the deformation of the
rolling races. In order to avoid this failure the load is
limited to a maximum allowable load.
In the case of the radial bearings, in the absence
of any radial clearance in the bearing, the radial load
is taken over and distributed on the rolling parts
disposed in an arch of maximum 180 (fig. 6.31). The
most loaded rolling part is the one found on the
direction of the load. The load F0 taken by it is
depending on the shape of the rolling parts (balls or
rollers) and on the size of the radial clearance, taking

values of 45 times higher than the load Fr that

z
would act on each of the z rolling parts, in a uniform
distribution hypothesis.
For the calculus of these bearings we define the
static load capacity and the equivalent static load. Fig. 6.31 Distribuia sarcinii pe corpurile de
The static load capacity (C0) is the pure radial rostogolire ale rulmenilor radiali
load for radial or radial-axial bearings, or pure axial

20
 for the axial or axial-radial bearings, under which, the most loaded contact between rolling part and
the rolling race of the inner ring, produces a remanent deformation of 0.0001 of the rolling part
diameter. The static load capacity from the bearings catalogues is given considering the typo-
dimensions of the bearings.
For taking into account the fact that over the bearing may act a complex of loads (axial and
radial), the equivalent static load is defined.
The equivalent static load (P0) is the pure radial load for the radial or radial-axial bearings,
pure axial for the axial or axial-radial bearings, under which, the contact between the most loaded
rolling part and the rolling race of the inner ring, produces the same deformation as under the action of
the real loads (radial Fr and axial Fa) acting on the bearing. It is established with the following relation:
P0 X 0 Fr Y0 Fa , (6.13)
where X0 and Y0 are equivalence factors for the radial and axial loading.
In the case of the radial-axial bearings, it must be taken into consideration the supplementary axial
force that appears in each bearing. The total axial force, taken into account, when computing the static
equivalent load is determined in the same manner as in the case of spinning bearings. (see sub cap.
6.6).
The calculus of non-spinning bearings is performed by comparing the necessary static load
capacity C0 nec and the static load capacity C0.
C 0 nec s 0 P0 C 0 , (6.14)
where s0 is the safety factor that takes into account the functioning conditions of the bearing.

6.8. THE LUBRICATION OF THE BEARINGS

The lubrication of the bearings is necessary, its purposes being the following: the reduction of
friction between the elements in contact, in relative motion; protection against corrosion, uniform
distribution and eviction of heat from the bearing; noise reduction.
The main lubricants used in the rolling bearing are the mineral oils and lubricating grease.
The oil lubrication is recommended in the following cases: the bearings are functioning in spaces
where oil is used for lubricating other mechanical systems; the temperature in the bearing is high and it
is compulsory a heat eviction from the bearing; at bearings where it is necessary a full control of the
lubricating process; bearings with high speeds.
The main types of lubricating systems are:
The lubrication in an own oil recipient (fig. 6.32, a) is used in the case of big bearings that
function at low speeds, the system being designed with its own oil check, fill and eviction
systems.
The circulating oil system (fig. 6.32, b) that is based on the existence of an oil circuit actuated
by a pump, through which the oil is pumped under pressure and pulverized in the zone of the
rolling parts and is then used again; this type of system is used in delicate bearings, with high
functioning speeds when it is desired a fast heat eviction from the bearings;
The lubrication through droplets is based on the forming of oil drops that reach the rolling
bodies and the rolling paths; the oil drops are obtained by the interaction between the lubricating
oil with rotating parts- gears, disks or rings (fig. 6.32, c) through an oil bath;
Dripping lubrication is used in the case of high speed bearings and is done with the help of an
oil wick (fitil de ungere);
The lubrication through oil fog is recommended at the bearings found in narrow spaces; the
oil fog is obtained by blowing air through the oil in the direction of the bearing.

21
 a b c
Fig. 6.32 Oil lubricating systems

The lubricating grease has the advantage of protecting very well the bearing against dust and
humidity through a good adhesion at the bearings elements. It is applied at the bearings found in
inaccessible places where oil is harder to transport.
The space from the ball bearing is completely filled with solid lubricating grease, and the space
from the casing is filled partially or totally depending on the shafts rotational speed, (the quantity of
lubrication decreases with increasing the rotational speed). The lubricant gives up gradually the
contained oil and looses the lubricating properties. The process is accentuated by high temperatures. At
regulated periods is necessary the completing or the changing of the lubricating grease.

6.9. THE SEALING OF THE BEARINGS

The sealing of the bearings has a protection purpose against the intrusion from the exterior of
foreign bodies and it doesnt allow the leak of the lubricant from the bearings. The quality of the
sealing devices influences the durability of the bearing.
When choosing the sealing system we must consider: the type of the lubricant, the lubricating
system, the external conditions (dry environment, clean, impure or wet); the speed of the bearing;
functioning temperature.
The sealing between the bearings caps and the casing are fixed, with intermediary sealing
elements (see fig. 6.176.27) or rings O [14].
For sealing parts in relative motion (shaft - caps, casings, etc.) mobile sealing, with or without
contact, is used. The sealing with contact can be with felt rings (inel de psl) (see. fig. 6.18) or with
oil sealing ring (manet de rotaie) (see. fig. 6.20, 6.21, 6.23, 6.25, 6.26). The sealing without contact
can be slot sealing (etanare cu fant) or with slot and recesses (fant i canale circulare) (see. fig.
6.19); with mazes (labirini) (see. fig. 6.22 ); or with sealing washers (aibe de reinere) (see. fig. 6.25).

22