" Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing 23

22 Chapter 1: Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing

contral has been successfully used in many industrial plants. One typical representatian farmalismsusing frames, which was anather cantributian af
Minisky during this periad, alSo.need special mentian [28].
applicatian is the pawer cantral in a nuclear reactar.Besides design af the
contraller, the ather issue in pracess cantral is to. design a plant (pracess)
estimatar, which attempts to. fallaw the respanse af the actual plant, when 1.5.3 The Modern Period
bath the plant and the estimatar are jaintly excited by a camman input signal.
The fuzzy and artificial neural netwark-based learning techniques have The madem periad starts farm the latter---half of--the .!970~
_. .,-. '.'" to.th.e_pr.esent day.
"".,.........--
recently been identified as new taals far plant estimation [25], [43]. this peria4.i d~Y.Q!.~gtQsQlyii}g,mQ.recQ,I11.RLex 'problems ,af practical
interest. The
~
MYGIN e'ill,~.riments af Stanfard
. ..,.., ", .,,' ,. "...,,,,-
Uniyersity
.' '00" MO, ,
[4J: [39] resulted
",...,.., . 0 . ,-
"in
an expert system that cauld diagnose and prescribe medicme~ fm: iQf~"'t!QtlS
1.5 ~HistOry of AI bacterialogical.diseases. !h~ .,M!;:Q:IQ...system far. .~vin1L.E!2ble~s__af
Prafessor Peter Jacksan af the University af Edinburgh classified the histary N"ewtanian machines..J.s anather expert ~s~~~at..~e.al~',V_i!~ ,real lire
prablems. It shQ41~1Q~ a_dde~.!~a! l)e~ic!~~.plvin~ real ',Varld praolems,
af AI into. three periads namely i) the classical periad (af game playing and 'researchersare ;J!!::np.n~J!gr.din theoretical resear~h an AI iu!<l.udwg.,heIID!Otic
thearem praving), ii) the ramantic periad, and iii) the madem periad [12];
search, uncertainty madeling and nan-manatanic and. ~atia-temparal
the majar research wark carried aut during these periads is presented belaw. reas~fimg. TU ;)Ulllluarlze, this periad includes research oobatiitheOnes and
practical
aspects
afAI. '--
1.5.1 The Classical Period

This periad dates..E~~O. Th~ main research warks carried aut during
this periad incll!ge &yp-eplaying and ...!hearempraving. The cancept af state-
, "" space-appraach f.pr salying a prablem, 'which is a use_fu..!Jaalfar intelligent
prablem-salving
evennaw"wasariginatedduri~gthisEeriagJ27]. - -
The periad af classical Al research began with the publicatian of
Shannan'spaper an chess (1950) [35] and ended with the publiCation-by-
Feigenbaum and Feldman [10]. The majar area af research cavered under
this period is intelligent search prablems inval\1~d iJt &.1!me~iii~yrng-and
1.6 Characteristic Requirements for the
Realization of the Intelligent Systems
The AI prablems, irrespective af their type, passess a few camman
characteristics. Identificatian af these characteristics is required far designing
a camman framewark far handling AI prablems. Same af the well-known
characteristic requirements far the realizatian af the intelligent systems are
listed belaw.

-
thearem- praving. Turing's "test", which is a useful taal to. test machine
inteUigence, ariginated during this periad.
1.5.2 The Romantic Period
-The romantic periad started fram the mid 1960s aI!d cantinued until the rqid
1970s. During this periad, p.eapJe were- 1I1tereste<f lll' niakmg machines
"understand", 'by which- !he~ .l:!sually mean the understanding af natural
languages. Winagrad's (1972) SHRDLU system [46], a progfam,c~ab."eaf
understanding a nan-trivial subset af English by representing and wasGIlmg
about a restricted domain (a world cansisting of toy blacks), in this regard
needs special mentian. The knowledge representation scheme using special
structures like "semantic nets" was originated by Quillian [33] during this
periad. Minisky (1968) also made a great contribution from the point of view
of informatian pracessing using semantic nets. Further, knowledge
1.6.1 Symbolic and Numeric Computation
on Common Platform
It is clear fram the previaus sectians that a general purpase intelligent
machine shauld be able to.perfarm bath symbalic and numeric camputatians
an a camman platfarm. Sympalic camputing is required in autamated
reasaning, recagnitian, matching and inductive as well as analagy-based
learning. The need far ~mbalic camputing was felt since the birth af AI in
the early fifties. Recently, the cannectianist approach far building intelligent
machines with structured madels like artificial neural nets is receiving mare
attentian. The ANN based madels have successfully been applied in learning,
recagnition, aptimizatian and also. in reasaning problems [29] invalved in
expert systems. The ANNs have outperformed the classical appraach in
many applications, including aptimization and pattern classificatian
problems. Many AI researchers, thus, are of the apinion that in the long run