International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 659668

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International Journal of Hospitality Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman

An investigation of green hotel customers decision formation: Developing an

extended model of the theory of planned behavior
Heesup Han a,*, Yunhi Kim b,1
a
Department of Tourism Management, College of Business Administration, Dong-A University, Bumin-dong 2-ga, Seo-gu, Busan 602-760, Republic of Korea
b
Division of Tourism Management, Kyungnam University, Woryeong-dong, Masan, Gyeongnam 631-701, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The current study sought to extend the theory of planned behavior (TPB), which is rooted in the theory of
Green hotel reasoned action (TRA), to more comprehensively explain the formation of customers intention to revisit
Extended theory of planned behavior a green hotel. In particular, the extended TPB incorporates the critical constructs in the consumer
Revisit intention behavior and marketing literature (i.e., service quality, customer satisfaction, overall image, and
Decision-making
frequency of past behavior) into the original TPB model. Results of a structural analysis revealed that the
new model provides a better t with the data, and explains signicantly greater amounts of variance in
revisit intention in comparison to the TRA and TPB. Added constructs in the new model considerably
contribute to improve our understanding of the complicated process of green hotel customers decision-
making. In this study, all relationships appeared to be signicant as conceptualized according to the
theory. In addition, a mediating effect of satisfaction and attitude was found. The article includes
discussions on theoretical and managerial implications.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction greening efforts by eco-friendly hotels not only contribute to fulll

For the last few decades, the public has been recognizing the
seriousness of environmental problems/disasters, causing their
concerns for the environment to become broader (Kirk, 1995;
Roberts, 1996). Such environmental concerns and awareness have
led to great changes in consumer buying behaviors and attitudes
toward eco-friendly business establishments (Environmentally
Friendly Hotels, 2008; DSouza and Taghian, 2005). More and more
customers prefer green products/services and environmentally
responsible companies that meet customers green needs, as
exemplied, for example, in their willingness to pay for eco-friendly
products/services (Roberts, 1996; Vandermerwe and Oliff, 1990).
This green consumerism has brought about modications in
purchasing methods, manufacturing processes, and operation
procedures, including ecologically conscious decisions in various
business segments (DSouza and Taghian, 2005; Wolfe and Shanklin,
2001). In particular, in the hotel industry, recognizing the green
shifts in consumer behaviors and the importance of promoting
environmentally responsible products/services, increasing numbers
of hotel companies are adopting proactive environmental manage-
ment, and implementing environmentally conscious, practices to
improve their competitiveness (Claver-Cortes et al., 2007). Such
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 51 200 7427; fax: +82 51 201 4335.
E-mail addresses: heesup@donga.ac.kr (H. Han), yhunik@paran.com (Y. Kim).
1
Tel.: +82 55 249 2444; fax: +82 55 249 2444.
customers needs in the marketplace, but lower operational costs by
reducing the signicant extent of solid waste and energy/water
consumption (Manaktola and Jauhari, 2007). Accordingly, in recent
years many hotels have been proactive in advancing their
environmental performance in order to position themselves
distinctively in the increasingly competitive lodging market,
searching for effective ways to become green (Chan and Wong,
2006; Manaktola and Jauhari, 2007; Wolfe and Shanklin, 2001).
Specically, marketers in the hotel industry are striving to increase
their rms competitiveness (e.g., earning recognition and increasing
customer retention) through the greening of their rms, thereby
eventually enhancing their hotel rms prots (Chan and Wong,
2006; Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), 2001;
Manaktola and Jauhari, 2007).
Many hospitality and marketing researchers agree that
increasing customers positive pre/post-purchasing decisions is
the key to rms long-term success (e.g., Han and Back, 2008; Lewis
and Chambers, 2000; Yesawich, 1997). An understanding of green
hotel marketers decision-making process is essential in develop-
ing effective marketing and service strategies that induce positive
purchasing decisions (Han et al., 2010). While customers decision-
making process is very intricate, it is generally believed that their
decision formation can be a clue in comprehending this process
(Lam and Hsu, 2006; Han et al., 2010). Specically, an investigation
of the underlying volitional and non-volitional factors affecting
customers decisions may provide important insights into their
purchasing decision-making process (Ajzen, 1991; Lam and Hsu,

0278-4319/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.01.001
660 H. Han, Y. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 659668
2006; Han et al., 2010). Given this, the current study employed the
theory of planned behavior (TPB), an extension of the theory of
reasoned action (TRA) (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), in
order to gain a better understanding of green hotel customers
post-purchasing decision-making formation.
According to Ajzen (1991) and Perugini and Bagozzi (2001),
modifying the TPB model by altering paths and including
additional critical constructs in a certain context often contribute
to enhancing our understanding of the theoretical mechanism of
the model and increasing the prediction power for individuals
intention/behavior in that specic context. That is, the theory can
be broadened and deepened through such a process (Ajzen, 1991;
Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001). There is growing empirical evidence
that service quality, customer satisfaction, overall image, and
frequency of past behavior are critical to the decision-making
process and powerful predictors of post-purchasing decisions (e.g.,
Barsky, 1992; Han and Ryu, 2006; Morgan and Hunt, 1994; Oh and
Hsu, 2001). These studies stressed the signicance of the variables
in explaining customer post-purchase behaviors. Thus, the current
study also attempted to extend the TPB model by including such
constructs, which are important in a hospitality context, as service
quality, customer satisfaction, overall image, and frequency of past
behavior, and by altering the path in the model to improve our
ability to predict intention and understanding of green hotel
customers decision formation.
1.1. Purpose of the study
The TPB has been applied in various contexts, but little research
has employed the TPB to explain hotel customers decision-making
process. In addition, no research has yet compared the predictive
abilities of the TRA, TPB, and extended TPB, including additional
constructs in a hotel setting, particularly in a green hotel context.
Further, while the signicance of service quality, customer
satisfaction, overall image, and past behavior in explaining post-
purchasing behaviors have been stressed in various contexts, to the
best of our knowledge no research has integrated these variables
into the TPB model to predict customer intentions/behaviors.
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop an extended
TPB model by taking such variables as service quality, customer
satisfaction, overall image, and frequency of past behavior into
account in order to better predict green hotel customers revisit
intention. The specic objectives were to compare the predictive
ability of the TRA, TPB, and modied TPB models, to investigate the
relationships among the proposed study constructs, and to
examine the mediating role of customer satisfaction, attitude,
subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.
1.2. Proposed research model
The modied TPB model is presented in Fig. 1. The model
includes the original variables in the TPB and new constructs (i.e.,
service quality, customer satisfaction, overall image, and frequency
of past behavior). The bold lines indicate the newly added paths on
the original TPB model.
2. Review of the literature
2.1. Green hotels
Environmental protection continually attracts public attention
(Chan and Wong, 2006). Individuals are becoming more and more
aware of the environmental damage caused by various business
activities (Manaktola and Jauhari, 2007). This increasing public
concern is stimulating the implementation of environmentally
responsible management in the hotel industry (Manaktola and
Fig. 1. Proposed extended TPB model for green hotel repurchasing behavior.
Jauhari, 2007; Wolfe and Shanklin, 2001). That is, a growing
number of hotels are joining the green movement to reduce
harmful impacts on the environment, and thereby in doing so
eventually increasing their protability (e.g., cost savings and
customer attraction/retention) (Pizam, 2009; Wolfe and Shanklin,
2001). The term green is alternatively known as eco-friendly,
environmentally friendly, or sustainable (Han et al., 2009;
Pizam, 2009). Wolfe and Shanklin (2001) indicated that green
refers to actions that decrease negative impacts on our environ-
ment (e.g., recycling, eco-purchasing). Similarly, according to the
Green Hotel Associations (GHA) (2009) and DEP (2001), a green
hotel is an eco-friendly lodging property that has implemented
various green practices and institutes sound and environmentally
friendly programs to protect the environment and reduce
operational costs. In particular, in green hotels, the following
are quite commonly used, practiced, and served: durable service
items, cotton towels and linens for air quality, donations to charity,
well-educated staff about green practices, energy conservation,
environmental cleaning, eco-friendly/organic foods, fresh air,
water recycling/conservation, recycling bins, towel re-use pro-
gram, etc. (GHA, 2009; DEP, 2001).
2.2. Theory of planned behavior
Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), across a number of publications,
developed and explicated the TRA in order to account for
mechanisms of human behaviors in decision processes (e.g., Ajzen,
1985; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). The
TRA was specically designed to predict human behaviors under
complete volitional control. That is, this theory assumed that most
of individuals decisions/behaviors are derived from the intensity
of volitional efforts for the specic decisions/behaviors. According
to this theory, individuals are rational and motivation-based in
their decision-making processes, and make a reasoned choice
among various alternatives (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). In their
investigation of the effectiveness of TRA, which involved use of a
meta-analysis, Sheppard et al. (1988) veried the predictive power
of TRA. Their ndings indicated that the model accurately
predicted individuals decisions and behaviors when applied in
any situation or to any activity. Because of its accuracy in
predicting human behaviors and effectiveness in explaining
psychological processes in decision-making, the TRA is widely
utilized in comprehending customers decision-making processes
in various contexts.
 H. Han, Y. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 659668
The TPB is an extended version of the TRA. This theory considers
not only volitional control but non-volitional control in explaining
an individuals behavior. A central factor of the TRA and TPB is an
individual intention, which provides the most accurate prediction
of particular behaviors (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein and
Ajzen, 1975). In this theory, intention, which is viewed as an
immediate antecedent of behavior, indicates an individuals
readiness/willingness to engage in a particular behavior (Ajzen,
1985, 2009). In a similar manner, in this study, intention refers to a
green hotel customers readiness/willingness to repurchase a
green hotel product. The TPB postulates three conceptual
determinants of intention. Specically, intention is based on such
variables as attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and
perceived behavioral control. According to Ajzen and Fishbein
(1980), attitude toward the behavior refers to the degree of an
individuals positive or negative evaluation/appraisal of behavior
performance. This attitude is based on salient behavioral beliefs
and outcome evaluations. Behavioral beliefs refer to ones
perceived probability of an expected outcomes occurrence by
engaging in a particular behavior, and outcome evaluations involve
the assessment of the possible consequences of a specic behavior
(Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). The strength of each behavioral belief
(BBi) is multiplied by the corresponding evaluation of the outcome
(OEi), and the products are aggregated to estimate attitude
(SBBiOEi) (Ajzen, 1991, 2009; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). The
second predictor of intention is the subjective norm, which is
believed to be a social factor in nature (Ajzen and Driver, 1992). The
subjective norm refers to the social pressure exerted to engage in a
particular behavior (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). The subjective
norm is believed to be a function of normative beliefs and
motivation to comply. Normative beliefs are the perceived
behavioral expectations of ones important referents (e.g., family,
relatives, friends, neighbors, or co-workers), and motivation to
comply involves a persons desire to accommodate the opinions of
his/her salient referents with regard to a behavior (Ajzen and
Fishbein, 1980). The strength of each normative belief (NBj) is
weighted by the corresponding motivation to comply (MCj), and
the products are summed to determine the subjective norm
(SNBjMCj) (Ajzen, 1991, 2009; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). The third
determinant of intention is a non-volitional factor termed
perceived behavioral control. This predictor, which is not included
in the TRA, reects an individuals perception of the ease or
difculty in performing a specic behavior (Ajzen and Fishbein,
1980). A persons perceived behavioral control in TPB should be
greater when he/she has signicant resources and opportunities
(Madden et al., 1992). Perceived behavioral control is based on the
function of control beliefs and perceived power. Control beliefs
are the perceived presence (or absence) of resources and
opportunities that facilitate (or impede) performance of a
particular behavior, and the perceived power of each control
factor refers to individual assessment of the importance of the
resources and opportunities in achieving behavioral outcomes
(Ajzen and Madden, 1986; Chang, 1998). Numerically, perceived
behavioral control can be predicted by using the summed index
generated by multiplying each control belief (CBk) to a corre-
sponding perceived power (PPk) (SCBkPPk) (Ajzen, 1991, 2009;
Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). While the efcacy of TRA in explaining
a variety of behaviors has been widely validated in various
situations, it is believed that TRA only adequately predicts a
persons intention under conditions of volitional control (Lam and
Hsu, 2004; Park, 2003). The inclusion of perceived behavioral
control with control beliefs increases predictive power by
accounting for intention/behavior that is not under complete
volitional control or that stem from non-volitional factors (Ajzen,
1991; Lam and Hsu, 2004; Lee and Back, 2007). Fig. 2 presents the
TPB model. The model in the dotted square is the TRA model.
661
Fig. 2. TRA and TPB models.
2.3. Derivation of the extended TPB model
According to Ajzen (1991), the TPB is, in principle, open to
modication by altering the paths in the TPB and including
additional predictors if it can be shown that they capture a greater
proportion of the variance in intention/behavior after the original
TPB constructs have been taken into account. This modication
process is described as theory broadening and deepening (Perugini
and Bagozzi, 2001). Indeed, based on the assumption that a
theoretical mechanism of the TPB is better understood by altering
the paths to be more adequate in a particular context and by
including signicant antecedents for a possible increase in the
ability to predict an intention/behavior, the TPB has been revised in
various contexts (e.g., Bansal and Taylor, 1999; Han et al., 2010; Oh
and Hsu, 2001; Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001). Researchers efforts to
expand the theory have considerably enhanced the ability to
predict human behavior in a given context, capturing a greater
proportion of the variance in intention/behavior not sufciently
accounted for by the original TPB.
Findings from previous research suggest that service quality,
satisfaction, image, and past behavior are signicant constructs in
pre/post-purchase decision-making processes (e.g., Ajzen, 1991;
Bansal and Taylor, 1999; Lee and Back, 2009; Han et al., 2009; Han
and Ryu, 2006; Oh and Hsu, 2001; Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001;
Taylor and Baker, 1994). Such constructs could be added to the
TPB; indeed, this has been done in previous research (e.g., Bansal
and Taylor, 1999; Lee and Back, 2009; Han et al., 2010; Oh and Hsu,
2001; Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001). Accordingly, the present study
model integrated service quality, customer satisfaction, overall
image, and past behavior into the original TPB in order to better
predict revisit intention.
2.3.1. Service quality and satisfaction
Service quality and customer satisfaction are critical concepts
in marketing and consumer behavior. Numerous rms are
increasingly dedicating considerable energies to tracking service
quality and satisfaction since these can be essential measures of
the rms performance and ultimately drive future protability
(Anderson et al., 1994; Han and Ryu, 2006). While the con-
ceptualizations of service quality and customer satisfaction are not
identical in the literature, there are two fundamental aspects of
these variables in the marketing and consumer behavior literature:
(1) service quality from a general point-of-view involves a
comparison of excellence in overall services over the long run
(Bitner and Hubbert, 1994; Parasuraman et al., 1988; Taylor and
Baker, 1994); and (2) customer satisfaction is the post-purchase,
transaction-specic evaluation process for products/services
based on expectations prior to purchase (Kotler, 1991; Oliver,
1997; Parasuraman et al., 1988).
In a number of studies, service quality and satisfaction have
been found to signicantly explain behavioral intention. Cronin
and Taylor (1992) studied the casual relationships among quality,
662 H. Han, Y. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 659668
satisfaction, and intention. They found that service quality is a
signicant predictor of customer satisfaction in forming behavioral
intention. Ting (2004) examined customer behaviors in a service
setting and found that service quality predicts customer satisfac-
tion in the decision-making process. Consistent with these
ndings, in a restaurant setting, Han and Ryus (2006) ndings
indicated that service quality affects satisfaction, and satisfaction
fully mediates the effect of quality on intention to revisit and be
engaged in positive word-of-mouth behavior. In addition, in their
integrative approach to understanding attitude-behavior relation-
ships, Bansal and Taylor (1999), in developing a service provider
switching model, found that service quality is an important
inuence on attitude toward switching and satisfaction, such that
including service quality and satisfaction in their model was
essential to the precise prediction of an individuals intention. In
their study, both quality and satisfaction (mediator) contributed to
a decrease in intention to switch. Given this evidence, it seems
appropriate to incorporate service quality and satisfaction into a
model designed to explain the formation of repurchasing intention
in order to ensure a sounder theoretical underpinning.
2.3.2. Overall image
The denition of overall image varies in the marketing and
consumer behavior literature. According to one of the clearest
denitions, individuals total perceptions of a product (or service)
and its salient attributes are generated by processing information
from various sources (Assael, 1984; Bloemer and Ruyter, 1998).
Researchers generally agree that the formation of an overall image
about a product/service is based on a cognitive and perceptual
process (Assael, 1984; Bloemer and Ruyter, 1998; Han et al., 2009).
Consistent with these studies, the concept of overall image in the
current research is lodging customers overall perceptions of a
green hotel and its signicant attributes as shaped by information
from diverse sources and by prior or explicit knowledge about
them (Han et al., 2009).
Overall image has increasingly attracted the attention of
academic and industry professionals and is regarded as playing
an important role in predicting a consumers favorable/unfavor-
able decisions. Many researchers across various elds have
identied the signicance of overall image in customers deci-
sion-making processes (Han et al., 2009; Prendergast and Ho,
2002; Ryu et al., 2007). Prendergast and Ho (2002) investigated the
impact of store image, and found that a rms image is a critical
driving force in intention. In their empirical investigation of the
role of overall image in a hospitality setting, Ryu et al. (2007) stated
that a positive overall image of a hospitality rm increases
customers willingness to revisit and spread favorable word-of-
mouth. In addition, Han et al.s (2009) recent research on hotel
customers behaviors indicated that ones overall perception of a
green hotel (overall image) is positively associated with his/her
intention to buy a green hotel product, to recommend it, and to pay
for it. Considering these empirical studies, it seems likely that
overall image may play an important role in predicting a green
hotel customers intention to revisit the hotel when this construct
is integrated into the TPB model.
2.3.3. Frequency of past behavior
Frequency of past behavior is believed to be another signicant
predictor of intention/behavior (e.g., Lee and Back, 2009; Oh and
Hsu, 2001; Quellette and Wood, 1998; Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001;
Ryu and Jang, 2006). While past behavior was not originally
included in the TRA/TPB, numerous researchers have identied the
need to add this construct equivalently to other predictors of
intention or future behavior (e.g., Lee and Back, 2009; Oh and Hsu,
2001; Quellette and Wood, 1998; Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001). In
their meta-analysis, Quellette and Wood (1998) examined 64
studies across diverse elds, and found strong evidence for the
critical role of frequency of past behavior in forming intention and
behavior. In addition, in testing the competing models that use the
TRA, TPB, and extended TPB, Lee and Back (2009) veried that past
behavior is an important determinant of intention and behavior.
Further, Perugini and Bagozzi (2001) developed a modied model
of the TPB, a model of purposive behavior, and found that
frequency of past behavior plays a signicant role in decision-
making processes along with other added constructs in the original
TPB model. Specically, their ndings showed that frequency of
past behavior contributes directly to desires and behavioral
intention in both body weight regulation and studying effort
settings. Ajzen (1991) insisted that frequency of past behavior can
be utilized to assess the completeness/sufciency of a model
designed to predict decision/behavior. According to Ajzen, if
frequency of past behavior explains a decision/behavior in a
certain setting after the original model variables have been
accounted for, this construct may be employed to better predict
such a decision/behavior in a particular setting. Indeed, many
researchers in various elds have attempted to include this
variable as a determinant of intention and enhanced the predictive
power of the TPB (e.g., Lee and Back, 2009; Oh and Hsu, 2001;
Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001; Ryu and Jang, 2006).
2.3.4. Relationship between subjective norm and attitude
A possible link between subjective norm and attitude toward the
behavior was proposed and tested in previous studies (e.g., Chang,
1998; Han et al., 2010; Ryu and Jang, 2006). Chang (1998) developed
a modied model of the TPB and found that adding the path from
subjective norm to attitude was essential to improving the structural
model t. In a hospitality setting, Ryu and Jang (2006) found that
perceived subjective norm is positively associated with ones
attitude toward a certain behavior. Similarly, in examining hotel
customers eco-friendly behaviors, Han et al. (2010) veried that
attitude toward a green hotel is a positive function of a subjective
norm; this added path in the original TPB signicantly improved the
t of the model. Given this evidence, the current study assumed that
ones perceived social pressure from salient referents to engage in a
certain behavior induces his/her favorable/unfavorable evaluation
of a behavior. Thus, the path from subjective norm to attitude was
added to the proposed model.
In summary, a modication of the TPB is associated with the
introduction of additional variables explaining how they inuence
intention in relation to existing predictors and with the revision of
any path in the original model. Accordingly, the proposed extended
model completes the systematic integration of four key factors into
the TPB, considering their possible relations with the existing TPB
variables, and included a specic path in order to better comprehend
green hotel customers complicated decision-making process. In the
current study, the following 12 hypotheses were developed:
H1. Behavioral beliefs have a positive inuence on attitude.
H2. Normative beliefs have a positive inuence on subjective
norms.
H3. Control beliefs have a positive inuence on perceived behav-
ioral control.
H4. Attitude has a positive inuence on revisit intention.
H5. Subjective norm has a positive inuence on revisit intention.
H6. Perceived behavioral control has a positive inuence on revisit
intention.
H7. Service quality has a positive inuence on customer
satisfaction.
 H. Han, Y. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 659668
H8. Service quality has a positive inuence on attitude.
H9. Customer satisfaction has a positive inuence on revisit in-
tention.
H10. Overall image has a positive inuence on revisit intention.
H11. Frequency of past behavior has a positive inuence on revisit
intention.
H12. Subjective norm has a positive inuence on attitude.
3. Methodology
3.1. Questionnaire development
3.1.1. Elicitation study
According to Ajzen (2009) and Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), there
is no standard questionnaire for TPB. With regard to belief
constructs, they insisted that formative research (i.e., elicitation
study) and validation of the theorys belief constructs were needed
prior to construction of the nal questionnaire. They indicated that
such an endeavor helps researchers construct a questionnaire that
is adequate for a specic behavior and population of interest.
Accordingly, an elicitation study and pilot-test were conducted in
the present study. As an elicitation method, a focus group was
employed (Cheng et al., 2006; Lam and Hsu, 2004; Lee and Back,
2007). The focus group participants were green hotel customers,
hospitality academics, and hotel industry professionals. To obtain
the new set of belief items, salient beliefs and referents were
discussed in the focus group, and an open-ended eliciting
questionnaire was completed. The initial questionnaire, which
included 12 items for beliefs (6 items for behavioral beliefs; 3 items
for normative beliefs; and 3 items for control beliefs) and 12 items
for evaluative components, was generated through this process
and a literature review. The generated questionnaire was rened
through hospitality experts reviews. The salient referents identi-
ed were: family/relatives, friends, and colleagues/co-workers. As
a next step, a pilot-test was performed with 62 hotel customers.
The results indicated that the instrument had a sufcient level of
reliability and validity.
3.1.2. Construct measures for beliefs
A six-item scale was used with a 7-point Likert-type scale
ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7) for measures
of behavioral beliefs (e.g., Staying at this green hotel when
traveling to the same location next time would enable me to be
more socially responsible.) and very unimportant (1) to very
important (7) for measures of outcome evaluations (e.g., Being
more socially responsible is 1 = very unimportant, 7 = very
important). Three items with a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging
from very false (1) to very true (7) for measures of normative beliefs
(e.g., My family (or relatives) thinks I should stay at this hotel
when traveling to the same location next time) and extremely
unlikely (1) to extremely likely (7) for measures of motivation to
comply (e.g., Generally speaking, how likely are you to do what
your family (or relatives) thinks you should do?) were utilized.
Finally, a three-item measurement with 7-point Likert-type scale
was used to assess control beliefs (e.g., Staying at this hotel is
expensive) and each items control power (e.g., The price/cost of
staying at a green hotel would inuence my decision for hotel
selection.), ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7).
In order to gain an overall level of three belief constructs, items for
each belief construct were multiplicatively combined with their
evaluative components (SBBiOEi, SNBjMCj, and SCBkPPk) (Ajzen,
1991, 2009; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980).
663
3.1.3. Construct measures for other study variables
Items on attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral
control, revisit intention, service quality, customer satisfaction,
overall image, and frequency of past behavior were based on the
existing validated measures from the previous literature (e.g.,
Ajzen, 1988, 1991; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Baloglu and
McCleary, 1999; Han and Ryu, 2006; Lam and Hsu, 2004, 2006;
Lee and Back, 2007; Taylor and Baker, 1994). The measures were
slightly modied for use in a questionnaire suitable for a green
hotel setting. In particular, 6 items and a 7-point semantic
differential scale were employed to assess attitude (e.g., For me,
revisiting this green hotel when traveling to the same location next
time is 1 = extremely bad, 7 = extremely good). The measure of
frequency of past behavior was assessed using 5 frequency
categories (e.g., Which statement best describes how many times
you have stayed at this hotel 1 = 1 time, 2 = 23 times, 3 = 45
times, 4 = 610 times, 5 = more than 10 times). Three items and a
7-point Likert-type scale were used to measure overall image
(e.g., Overall image for staying at this green hotel is 1 = very
negative, 7 = very positive). Other study constructs were assessed
using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly disagree (1)
to strongly agree (7). In addition, multi-item scales were used to
assess subjective norm (3 items) (e.g., Most people who are
important to me think I should stay at this green hotel when
traveling to the same location next time), perceived behavioral
control (3 items) (e.g., Whether or not I stay at this hotel when
traveling to the same location next time is completely up to me),
revisit intention (3 items) (e.g., I am willing to revisit this hotel
when traveling to the same location next time), service quality (2
items) (e.g., I believe this green hotel offers excellent service),
and customer satisfaction (3 items) (e.g., I am very satised with
the overall service at this green hotel).
3.2. Data collection
An Internet-based survey was used to collect data. A question-
naire was sent to 4500 general hotel customers in the U.S. through
a survey system available via an on-line market research company.
In the opening instructions of the survey, a detailed description of a
green hotel was provided along with a list of green hotels in each
state certied according to well-recognized and -respected
national/regional organizations (e.g., U.S. Green Building Council
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and the
Green Seal). The hotels on the list are believed to actively follow
green guidelines and ideas. In addition, before completing the
questionnaire, two screening questions were given to the
participants (i.e. (1) Have you ever stayed at a green hotel?;
(2) If yes, when was the most recent stay at a green hotel?). Those
respondents who had stayed at a green hotel within the last 6
months were asked to complete the questionnaire. According to
Keaveney (1995), the time frame (6 months) is recent enough to
ensure that customers will reliably recall their service experi-
ences. The participants who had stayed at a green hotel not on the
list were also free to ll out the questionnaire. The respondents
were also asked to indicate the name of that green hotel. A total of
469 responses were received from the survey participants, for a
response rate of 10.42%. An Internet-based survey is considered a
more immediate and effective means of response (Kim, 2001).
With the development of the Internet, increasing numbers of
researchers have used web-based survey (e.g., Asperin, 2007; Han
et al., 2009; Kim and Ok, 2009; Kim et al., 2009; Yang and Peterson,
2004). The response rates of these recent studies employing an on-
line survey range from 8.1% to 17.1%. The response rate of the
present study is reasonable given the rates predicted by these
recent studies. A panel of experts from hotels and academic
institutions reviewed the hotels named in the completed ques-
664 H. Han, Y. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 659668

Table 1
Construct summary statistics (N = 434).

Correlations among latent constructs (squared)a and reliabilities of constructs

Constructs SQ BB NB CB CS AT SN PBC OI RI

SQ 1.000
BB .634 (.402) 1.000
NB .452 (.204) .387 (.150) 1.000
CB .084 (.007) .227 (.052) .106 (.011) 1.000
CS .537 (.288) .366 (.134) .442 (.195) .147 (.022) 1.000
AT .627 (.393) .582 (.339) .357 (.127) .129 (.017) .404 (.163) 1.000
SN .529 (.280) .443 (.196) .738 (.545) .042 (.002) .509 (.259) .498 (.248) 1.000
PBC .438 (.192) .422 (.178) .223 (.050) .186 (.035) .248 (.062) .273 (.075) .233 (.054) 1.000
OI .789 (.623) .715 (.511) .394 (.155) .160 (.026) .508 (.258) .683 (.466) .498 (.248) .371 (.138) 1.000
RI .685 (.469) .675 (.456) .495 (.245) .147 (.022) .569 (.324) .669 (.448) .638 (.407) .465 (.216) .783 (.613) 1.000

Mean 5.295 35.225 16.015 32.679 4.045 5.543 3.941 5.545 5.677 5.303
SD 1.322 6.190 5.399 5.003 1.222 1.231 1.167 1.196 1.322 1.327
Composite reliability .900 .842 .837 .660 .949 .823 .913 .644 .937 .744
AVE .895 .829 .824 .601 .947 .779 .909 .584 .934 .712
Alpha .912 .967 .933 .814 .959 .956 .967 .787 .974 .888

Note 1. SQ: service quality; BB: behavioral beliefs; NB: normative beliefs; CB: control beliefs; CS: customer satisfaction; AT: attitude; SN: subjective norm; PBC: perceived
behavioral control; OI: overall image; RI: revisit intention.
Note 2. Frequency of past behavior (FPB) was not included in the table in that FPB was measured by using a single item; the mean and standard deviation of FPB were 3.136 and
.984, respectively.
a
Correlation coefcients are estimates from AMOS 5. Model measurement t: x2 = 1228.954, df = 512, p < .001, x2/df = 2.400, RMSEA = 0.057; CFI = 0.959; NFI = 0.931.

tionnaires. Of the 464 responses, 30 were disregarded because the
panel determined the hotels named in these questionnaires were
not considered to be green. In addition, some extreme cases
identied through a test for multivariate outliers were eliminated.
Specically, with the use of a p < .001 criterion for Mahalanobis
distance, ve extreme multivariate outliers among the cases were
found (Mahalanobis D (42) > 76.054, p < .001) and removed from
further analyses, retaining a nal sample of 434 cases.
average variance extracted (AVE), and the correlation between
constructs. As shown in Table 1, all AVE values were above .50,
indicating adequate convergent validity. In addition, the AVE value
for each factor exceeded the squared value of each correlation
between constructs, providing evidence of discriminant validity
(Fornell and Larcker, 1981).
4.3. Structural model

4. Results 4.3.1. Modeling comparisons

4.1. Respondents prole
The sample contained almost equivalent numbers of men and
women51.4% of respondents were female and 48.6% were male.
The survey participants mean age was 44.72 years. Most
participants level of education was relatively high. About 80.6%
had a higher education degree. Most reported household income of
less than $69,000 (79.0%); 21.0% indicated that their household
income was more than $70,000. Approximately one-half of the
sample (51.4%) stayed at a hotel at least 25 times a year, and most
participants stayed at a green hotel on one or fewer occasions each
year (71.0%).
Before assessing the hypothesized paths, three models (i.e.,
TRA, TPB, and proposed models) were independently tested. The
results of the SEM revealed that all three models were a good t
with the data (see Table 2). In particular, the TRA model provided a
satisfactory t (x2 = 1221.286, df = 246, p < .001, x2/df = 4.965,
RMSEA = 0.076; CFI = .914; NFI = .896). All paths were positive and
signicant (p < .01). Two predictor variables (i.e., attitude and
subjective norm) explained about 51.9% of the total variance in
revisit intention (see Fig. 3). The TPB model also showed an
excellent t to the data (x2 = 1018.622, df = 311, p < .001, x2/
df = 3.275, RMSEA = 0.072; CFI = .942; NFI = .919). All linkages in
the TPB model were signicant (p < .01). Attitude, subjective norm,
and perceived behavioral control jointly explained approximately

4.2. Data quality testing Table 2

Modeling comparison resultsexplanatory power and t indices.
Before assessing the measurement model, data were screened
Fit indices Suggested TRA TPB Extended TPB
to avoid any violation of the assumptions of the general linear and R2 valuea
model. Based on this evaluation of assumptions, several variables,
x2 1221.286 1018.622 1492.186
which were not within acceptable limits, were transformed to
df 246 311 563
improve normality and linearity. A Conrmatory Factor Analysis 2
x /df 2 to 5 4.965 3.275 2.650
(CFA) was conducted using SPSS and AMOS5 to assess the RMSEA .08 .076 .072 .062
measurement model. The results of the CFA are summarized in CFI .90 .914 .942 .957
NFI .90 .896 .919 .938
Table 1. The t indices indicated that the model was relatively
consistent with the data, with all of the t indices better than the Adjusted R2
recommended values (x2 = 1228.954, df = 512, p < .001; AT .340 .336 .470
SN .553 .553 .556
RMSEA = 0.057; CFI = 0.959 NNFI = 0.931). In an assessment of
PBC .144 .145
the reliability of the measures, composite reliability for each CS .317
construct was calculated. All reliability values were greater than RI .519 .557 .720
the suggested threshold of .60, indicating high internal consistency Note. AT: attitude; SN: subjective norms; PBC: perceived behavioral control; CS:
(Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). As a next step, the validity of the measures customer satisfaction; RI: revisit intention.
was assessed using the factor loadings within the constructs, a
Suggested values were based on Hair et al. (1998).
 H. Han, Y. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 659668
Fig. 3. TRA model results (N = 434).
55.7% of the variance in revisit intention (see Fig. 4). Finally, the
extended TPB model exhibited a good t to the data
(x2 = 1492.186, df = 563, p < .001, x2/df = 2.650, RMSEA = 0.062;
CFI = .957; NFI = .938), and six antecedent variables explained
about 72.0% of the total variance in revisit intention (see Fig. 5).
Overall, the results of model evaluations implied that the TRA, TPB,
and proposed extended model well predicted hotel customers
intention to revisit a green hotel.
As a next step, the TRA, TPB, and extended models were
compared to assess their ability to explain revisit intention and t
statistics. Findings indicated that the extended model had superior
explanatory power to that found in the TRA and TPB model
(adjusted R2 for intention in the extended TPB = .720 vs. adjusted
R2 for intention in the TRA = .519 and adjusted R2 for intention in
the TPB = .557). Specically, the extended TPB model improved R2
from .519 to .720 and from .519 to .720 in comparison with the TRA
and TPB models, respectively. In addition, the extended TPB model
(x2/df = 2.650, RMSEA = 0.062, CFI = .957, NFI = .938) had relatively
better t statistics than the TRA (x2/df = 4.965, RMSEA = 0.076,
CFI = .914, NFI = .896) and TPB models (x2/df = 3.275,
RMSEA = 0.072, CFI = .942, NFI = .919). For decades, many
researchers have attempted to rene and extend the TRA and
TPB models by modifying the paths or by including new
construct(s) to better understand a wider range of human
behaviors in various settings (Bansal and Taylor, 1999; Chang,
1998; Han et al., 2010; Oliver and Bearden, 1985; Ryu and Jang,
2006; Taylor and Todd, 1995; Vallerand et al., 1992). Consistent
with these studies, the current study ndings revealed that the
proposed extended model, which included signicant constructs in
the consumer decision-making process (service quality, customer
satisfaction, overall image, and frequency of past behavior),
increased our prediction of intention and appeared to be superior
to the TRA and TPB models. Accordingly, this extended TPB model
was used in hypotheses testing.
Fig. 4. TPB model results (N = 434).
665
Fig. 5. Extended TPB model results for green hotel repurchasing behavior (N = 434).
4.3.2. Hypotheses testing
Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 were tested. The regression paths from
behavioral, normative, and control beliefs to attitude (b = .253,
t = 4.917, p < .01), subjective norm (b = .745, t = 17.751, p < .01),
and perceived behavioral control (b = .211, t = 3.640, p < .01)
were signicant. Thus, hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 were supported.
These ndings were consistent with expectancy-value theory and
previous studies in various settings (e.g., Ajzen, 1991; Han et al.,
2010; Lam and Hsu, 2004; Lee and Back, 2009). The ndings imply
that customers perceived probability of an expected outcomes
occurrence, perceived behavioral expectations of their important
referents, and perceived presence of resources and opportunities
contribute to building their favorable attitude toward revisiting a
green hotel, inducing their perceived social pressure to perform
the behavior, and stimulating their perception of the ease in
engaging in the behavior, respectively. Hypotheses 4, 5, and 6
were tested. The ndings indicated that attitude (b = .147,
t = 3.480, p < .01), subjective norm (b = .263, t = 7.047, p < .01),
and perceived behavioral control (b = .134, t = 3.901, p < .05)
were positively and signicantly associated with revisit intention,
supporting hypotheses 4, 5, and 6. These ndings aligned with
previous studies (e.g., Ajzen, 1991; Lam and Hsu, 2004, 2006; Lee
and Back, 2009) implying that an increase in favorable attitude,
subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control will result in an
increase in the likelihood of revisiting a green hotel. Subjective
norm was found to have the greatest direct effect on intention
among these three variables. That is, the intention to revisit a
green hotel was associated with hotel customers perceived social
pressure from their signicant referents. Hypotheses 7 and 8 were
tested. Results showed that service quality had a positive
inuence on satisfaction (b = .563, t = 12.140, p < .01) and
attitude (b = .412, t = 4.360, p < .01). Thus, hypotheses 7 and 8
were supported. This result indicates that as hotel customers
perceived service quality increases, so do their satisfaction levels,
as well as attitudes toward revisiting a green hotel. The regression
path from customer satisfaction and intention (b = .157, t = 4.347,
p < .01) was signicant. As expected, overall image was found to
be a signicant predictor of revisit intention (b = .285, t = 3.587,
p < .01). Therefore, hypotheses 9 and 10 were supported. The
ndings imply that increasing customers satisfaction level and
favorable overall image contribute to building strong intention to
revisit a green hotel. This result was in line with previous studies
666 H. Han, Y. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 659668

Table 3 5. Discussion
Standardized parameter estimatesextended TPB (N = 434).

Hypothesized paths Standardized estimates t-Values Results Little research has focused on green hotel customers decision-
H1: BB ! AT .253 4.917 **
Supported
making process. The current study sought to provide a deeper
H2: NB ! SN .745 17.751** Supported understanding of hotel customers intention to revisit a green hotel
H3: CB ! PBC .211 3.640** Supported by incorporating four critical constructsservice quality, satisfac-
H4: AT ! RI .147 3.480** Supported tion, overall image, and frequency of past behaviorinto the TPB
H5: SN ! RI .263 7.047** Supported
model. The extended model was tested using SEM, and there was
H6: PBC ! RI .134 3.901** Supported
H7: SQ ! CS .563 12.140** Supported strong support for the model. Specically, the study results
H8: SQ ! AT .412 4.360** Supported indicated that the proposed model had a satisfactory t to the data
H9: CS ! RI .157 4.347** Supported and the inclusion of these variables signicantly increased the
H10: OI ! RI .285 3.587** Supported predictive power of customers intention to revisit a green hotel.
H11: FPB ! RI .257 2.930** Supported
H12: SN ! AT .171 4.134** Supported
All twelve hypotheses in the study model were supported. The
ndings also indicated that satisfaction and attitude acted as
R2 (CS) .317
mediators between service quality and intention. Overall, the
R2 (AT) .470
R2 (SN) .556 current study achieved all study objectives.
R2 (PBC) .145
R2 (RI) .720 5.1. Theoretical and practical implications
Goodness-of-t statistics: x2 = 1492.186, df = 563, p < .001 (x2/df = 2.650)
RMSEA = .062 Study ndings hold both theoretical and practical implications.
CFI = .957 First, the prediction of green hotel customers revisit intention
NFI = .938
under the extended TPB model was well supported. The results of
Indirect impact on RI the modeling comparisons implied that both TRA and TPB are
SQ = .149** insufcient for comprehending intention formation in a green
BB = .037
hotel context, and that the extended TPB model represents a
NB = .105
SN = .025 substantial improvement over the TRA and TPB. Ajzen (1991, 2009)
CB = .028 stated that the modication of the TPB should occur cautiously,
Note 1. SQ: service quality; BB: behavioral beliefs; NB: normative beliefs; CB:
and provided some criteria. The extended model generally met the
control beliefs; CS: customer satisfaction; AT: attitude; SN: subjective norm; PBC: criteria for revising the TPB: similar to existing predictors of the
perceived behavioral control; OI: overall image; FPB: frequency of past behavior; RI: theory, the proposed variables are behavior-specic in compliance
revisit intention. with the principle of compatibility; the factors are conceptually
**
p < .01.
independent of existing constructs of the theory; the constructs are
regarded as casual factors that determine decisions; and nally,
the variables are potentially applicable to a broad range of
in different contexts (e.g., Bansal and Taylor, 1999; Han et al., behaviors in different settings (Ajzen, 1991, 2009). In particular,
2009; Han and Ryu, 2006; Taylor and Baker, 1994). In addition, added constructs in the current research (i.e., service quality,
frequency of past behavior was positively associated with revisit satisfaction, overall image, and frequency of past behavior)
intention (b = .257, t = 2.930, p < .01), supporting hypothesis 11. apparently provide sufcient impetus for the post-purchase
This nding is also consistent with the results of previous studies decision-making process, and a simultaneous analysis of these
(e.g., Lee and Back, 2009; Oh and Hsu, 2001; Quellette and Wood, constructs and original determinants of the TPB considerably
1998; Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001). Ajzen (1991) insisted that improved our understanding of the intricate process of green hotel
frequency of past behavior plays a critical role in decision-making customers revisit intention formation. Accordingly, beyond the
processes, especially when individuals deliberately make a simple application of the TPB to hospitality product purchasing
decision. Thus, in the present context, it would be true that activity, researchers should add variables as critical factors as they
customers consciously form an intention to revisit a green hotel. develop any theory that explains customers decision-making
Finally, the relationship between subjective norm and attitude process in both green hotel and hospitality contexts.
was tested. The hypothesized link was positive and signicant Second, this study found that service quality, satisfaction, and
(b = .171, t = 4.134, p < .01). Therefore, hypothesis 12 was overall image have a signicant positive association with revisit
supported. Based on this nding, it can be inferred that ones intention. From a practical standpoint, the ndings suggested that
social pressure from critical referents is important in explaining green hotel marketers should pursue the excellent attributes and
customers eco-friendly purchasing behaviors. This nding also services that induce customers positive evaluations and stimulate
supported empirical studies, which demonstrated that subjective the formation of favorable attitudes toward visits to green hotels.
norm has a direct impact on attitude toward a behavior (e.g., In addition, the ndings suggested that marketers should develop
Chang, 1998; Han et al., 2010; Randall and Gibson, 1991; Ryu and efcient strategies for enhancing their image by advertising their
Jang, 2006). Overall, all hypothesized paths were supported. The environment-friendly practices (e.g., donation of usable furniture/
ndings are summarized in Table 3. equipment to charitable organizations, recycling, conservation of
As a next step, the mediating roles of customer satisfaction, water and energy) to visiting and potential customers using
attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control were multiple information sources. These various efforts would
tested by examining the indirect effect of service quality, contribute to building customers strong intention to repurchase
behavioral beliefs, normative beliefs, subjective norms, and control a green hotel product.
beliefs on revisit intention. The ndings revealed that only service Third, frequency of past behavior was found to be a signicant
quality signicantly affected revisit intention through customer predictor of intention. That is, customers intention to revisit a green
satisfaction and attitude (bSQ-CS&AT-RI = .149, p < .01). This nding hotel becomes stronger with an increase in the number of prior visits
indicated that customer satisfaction and attitude have a signicant to the hotel. Ajzen (1991) which indicated that frequency of past
mediating role in the relationship between service quality and behavior should be utilized if the inclusion of this construct in the
revisit intention. TPB contributes to better prediction of decision-making in a specic
 H. Han, Y. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 659668
setting after the original TPB constructs have been accounted for.
The current study result veried the critical role of this construct in
explaining green hotel customers post-purchase decision-making
process. From a practical point-of-view, customers who have had
favorable experiences at a specic green hotel on a number of visits
are more willing to repurchase the eco-friendly hotel product.
Accordingly, for those marketing a green hotel, the development of
more effective service strategies is essential to improving their
customers favorable experiences while staying at a hotel.
Fourth, as shown in Table 3, the present study result indicated
that among the four mediator variables in the proposed model,
only customer satisfaction and attitude signicantly mediated the
impact of service quality on revisit intention (bSQ-CS&AT-RI = .149,
p < .01). This nding implied that service quality shapes satisfac-
tion and attitude toward a behavior, and these variables enhance
green hotel customers favorable decisions. Accordingly, green
hotel operators should seek to increase the level of customers
attitudes and satisfaction in order to take full advantage of the
impact of service quality on decisions to repurchase a green hotel
product. It should also be noted that green attributes in a hotel
should not be seen as an alternative to quality of service. It may be
true that green credentials can partially and occasionally
compensate for a poor quality product or service performance.
Indeed, empirical evidences indicated that environmentally
responsible customers are willing to sacrice a little convenience
on occasion (e.g., Dalton et al., 2008; Diekmann and Preisendorfer,
2003). However, they are not prepared to experience consistent
inconveniences, continuously accepting lower product and service
performance levels (e.g., Dalton et al., 2008; Diekmann and
Preisendorfer, 2003; Manaktola and Jauhari, 2007). Thus, for green
hotel operators, maintaining a level of service quality in their
hotels that is at least comparable to that in non-green hotels is
critical for retaining customers.
Lastly, as hypothesized, the subjective norm exerted a
signicant inuence on attitude toward revisiting a green hotel.
This nding indicated that attitudinal and normative factors of the
TPB were not independent. Some researchers argued for a possible
link between these two variables in the TPB, which should be
considered when testing the theory in any context (e.g., Chang,
1998; Han et al., 2010; Randall and Gibson, 1991; Ryu and Jang,
2006). The current study result is consistent with these research-
ers claims. Thus, application of the theory in explaining customer
decision-making in any context should occur cautiously by
considering the relationship between attitudinal and normative
constructs of the theory. From a practical point-of-view, the
ndings implied that hotel customers favorable perceptions of a
green hotel led to their positive appraisal of the eco-friendly
decision. In other words, green hotel customers favorable/
unfavorable attitudes toward repurchasing a green hotel product
largely depend on the positive/negative way in which their salient
referents (i.e., family/relatives, friends, and colleagues/co-workers)
consider revisiting a green hotel. Thus, green hotel marketers
should actively nd ways to help such referents develop favorable
perceptions of their hotel. Presenting the particular environmen-
tally friendly attributes of their hotel (e.g., water- and energy-
efcient xtures/devices, durable service items, environmental
cleaning, fresh air exchange system, organic foods) to the public
through various information sources may improve such referents
favorable perceptions of a green hotel.
5.2. Limitations and avenues for future research
This studys several weaknesses should be pointed out. First, the
extended TPB model was tested in a green hotel context. Since the
measurement items for the study constructs were particularly
designed to be adequate in a green hotel setting, generalizing the
667
current study ndings to other types of hotels (e.g., regular hotels)
should occur cautiously. Future research should apply the
extended model to other types of hotels. Second, this study used
a Web-based survey method to reach and sample a broader range
of hotel customers. Future studies should examine green hotel
customers post-decision-making process in an actual green hotel
purchase setting to reduce extraneous variance and increase
internal validity. That is, a replication of the study in a eld setting
is required in future studies. The third limitation lies in the
response rate. While it is frequent to have a relatively low response
rate, such as 10%, when using a web-based survey (e.g., Asperin,
2007; Han et al., 2009; Kim and Ok, 2009; Kim et al., 2009; Yang
and Peterson, 2004), increasing the response rate would enhance
the generalizability of the ndings of this study. Thus, future
studies should include more effective ways to induce Internet
users active responses. Finally, while the current study satisfacto-
rily extended the original TPB model, a broader variety of variables
(e.g., personal characteristics, value, self-concepts) should be
included in this study model. Such efforts would ensure more
comprehensive understanding of green hotel customers decision-
making process.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by research funds from Dong-A
University (No. 20090270).
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