VS]l>MS$ E*W^l l$l?

Bl> ]l f^l MS * l$ l$-l . l$l VS$_ MS*$ Z]l$ ]lY $]l$:

{MS.N. 600 M>Z {X$ >f Hll rtZ z HOl yl$ Bl> ]l$l Z E]l BMS MS
l$]l#$ lls Zl ]l ^l>$. Zl ]l {M> B Bl> MS A]l$Z]l*]l$lZ, l* ]l>YMS Z
A Al >, fl$ ^l >yl ^l_]l yl$ ]l*]l$lZ Er$.
s ElO ]lMS Bl Hyl A BMS^l$ F
q1q2
F=K
q1q2
d2 d2
MS$s$ l$$MS$$.
{MS.. 16]l Z Wt Al > l l l$l VS$_ q1, q2 = Bl>$ (charges).

> $Ol $]l Zl ]l ^l>yl$. d = Bl> ]l$l l*.

Bl>]l$ q *__, MS*$ (c) Al {]l*Z k = A]l$l
>MS.

I
M$ $. E:
_]l {]l*$..

H
z A, B Al yl$ C]l$ VO ]l$V> +10C, 6C
$ MS*$ = 103 C Bl>$ E. D yl$ V]l$ JMSMMSs Ml
O l ${M MS*$ = 106 C l*Z E_]l yl$ A BMS^l$MS$s. D
MS*$ = 109 C yl$ V]l$ JMS ]l$MSs MS Ml # E_
M MS*$ = 1012 C S W $l] ZMS $MSl] #yl$ A MS^l$MS$s.
l {]l*$..
MSZ MS*$ = 103 MS*$$ (C) l$lZ M>$ (Types of electricity):
l$V> MS*$ = 106 C l$l]l$ l$l (Static), { l$l A yl$
K
WV> MS*$ = 109 C M>$V> ]lYMS^l]l^l$a.

Bl yl$ M>-$: h$l {MS l Bl>]l$ l ]l, $ A l$l: ]l $l] # ElO V> E]l Bl> ]l H-
yl$ M>$V> ]lYMS ^yl$.
A

yl- l] l$l]l$ l$l As$.

z sZ g Bl>$ MS^l$MS$s-. g Bl>$ { l$l: MSZ Bl> { r$]l$ {
BMS^l$MS$s. l$l As$.
z V> $ylVS $ $ylVSMS$ g Bl> C_a]l yl$
S

A MS^l$M l*V> ly l ]l B V> Bl> Q

{ l$l i =
$ylVS ]l* $VS$l$. st l] M>
z Bl>$ Gyl* ]l $l] # > (vertices) ]ll MS{MSl]l$ q
i=
]l#. D l > BV> ^l $M h$l {MS l t

lightening conductors]l$ MS]l$Vyl$. {]l*: Amphere.

z V> Z l*O ]l MSyl z ]l$ Gl l] MSrty$, l$l]l$ yl$ M>$V> ]lYMS ^l]l^l$a.
]l$ llO ]l sO A]l$a, VS $ *$MS HM>l l$l (Alternative Current):
MS$#$. C yl$VS$ yl ]l$$Z B ]l]l$ MSZ l$l {]l $l] yl$ { l
^l$l$]l Bl> lightening conductors {VS _ *$ lMS ]l$_ $lM>MS, $lMS ]l$_ l lM>MS
ZMS ^l--. HM>lV> ]l*l HM>l l$l As$.
z ]l* MS V> lVSY lightening conductors]l$ z D l$l]l$ VS]l - - >-$, ]l]l$, ]l$
A]l$$a$. ]lyl yMS (O $), {]l$Z E*W $.
z Z$V> E]l ]l $l] #MS$ Ml Bl> C_a]l yl$ A B
]l $l] # ElOMS ^l l$l$. HMS]lQ l$l (D.C):
Al$]l yl$VS$ yl ]l$$Z M>$Z {* $l] MSZ l$l { JMS Z Es HMS]lQ
]lMS l]l]l$ ]l$ S^l$Ms B M>$Zl Ey.
l$l As$.
z r ]l$_ D.C MSs l$]lyl$l$.

z HM>l- l$-l(A.C)- l] $ HMS- l] -Q l$-l (D.C)V> ]l*a

y M>P (Rectification) As$.

--->- M>-$..
z Bl>]l$ l]l$ > { ^l l > BV> ^l $
MS$ >]l$ ]lyl$ M>$V> ]lYMS ^l]l^l$a.

1. l$l M>$:
s > l$l { f$VS$l$. E- - - -MS $..

I
]l$]lMS$ $l] >Z Al$l l] $Ol $]l l$l MS
lyl (Ag). l>-l Cu, Al, Fe llO ]l Z$.

H
z sZ E MSl l$l MSl V> $

VS$l$.
2. l$l lM>$:
l$-l {- fV- S -l] - - - ->- - l] $ l$-l l M- >-$
S
As- $. ]l$]lMS$ $l] >Z Al$l l] $Ol $]l l$l
l MS ]l{f. B l>-l Ol - M- O- y- l (PVC) Al Mt S
>$. , ylV> E]l ^lMSP]l$, $lO l $]l - $ C]l-
K
l$-l -l-M>-.
3. A M>$ (Semi Conductors):
s MSl M> MSs lMS$P]lV>, l M> MSs GMS$P
]lV> Er$. E: Al$l l] $Ol $]l A MS &
A

Si l>-l Ge.

M>l VS$_...
z C *$ O Z SiO2 (C$MS) *Z GMS$P]lV>
S

$.
z MS l$l MSV- > ]l*a $s]l$ (Photo
voltaic cells) M>l l*$^l$.
z MSNr Z E*W^l integrated chips]l$ Si
$. Al$]l MSNr *VS GMS$P]lV> E]l ]lVS
> Silicon Valley As$.
]l$]l lZ Silicon Valley (MSNr s)V> VS- *- $-
]l$ $-$--$.
 *V l$l MS A Gl$MSs$?
l$l s$: V=i R

z l$l s $ Al JMS VS JMS ]l $l] # Bl z R]l$ l (Resistance) A As$.

l$g$.
z Bl> Q GMS$P]lV> E]lrl AMS s $ E l (R):
A, lMS$P]lV> E]lrl A s $ E A JMS VS > l$l {]l $l] yl$ B l$l {
As$. D yl$ s $Z ly]l$ s $ ly ]lMS^l VS l A As$. Kl$ Al
As$. {]l*Z M$ $ ().
z {]l* = Volt

I
z *$Z A]llO l $]l QZ (infinite) l ]l, $ Bl>$ ]l:
Eylr ]l *$MS Ml Bl> Al]lV> ^la 1. { ]l (Series Combination):

H
W_ s $Z Gr$]ls ]l** MS$VSl$ z JMS l y _]l]l$, B l>l l lls
M>st *$ ll , s $]l$ "0'V> $MS$s$. _]lMS$ MS l { ]l As$.
z *$ G Bl>Ol C]lVS$VS$l$, $MVS$VS$ z D ]lZ l l
l$. M>st *V G[MSMt S MS A MS*y As$. RS = R1 + R2 + .......... $VS$l$. M>st l$l
z

220V ]ll
S
]l$]l lZ VS A]l > M E*W^l l$l]l$
> ^l $. D s $ ]ll VS
l$l MS>$ (l$l $, r*O s, s,
{ lVS$Yl$.
2. ]l*l ]l (Parallel Combination):
z lls _]l]l$ JMS l$]l#MS $, $W]l y
K
IlMS, r llO ]l) ^l. M> ss _]l]l$ ]l$MS l$]l#MS$ MS l ]l*l
]l$> st A {VS ^l l$l l$ B$Z ]l As $. D ]lZ l l
Er$. 1 1 1
= + + ......... lVS$Yl$.
z ]l$]l lZ l$l > 220V MSs lMS$P]lV> RP R1 R2
A

E]lrl low voltage A, GMS$P]lV> E]lrl high M>st l$l { $VS$l$.

voltage A As$. M>st l$l s $ ]l$
G yl$ MS*y 220V ]ll MS^lyMS t O f]l$ {l ^l A>$:
yl$. z JMS VS l MS *O B yl Er$.
S

z ]l$]l lZ > ^l $l] HM>l l$l (A.C) 1. ]l:

]l@#l] 50 Hz$. z l$ >Z ^leV> ^l^lVSVS G[M>tl] Q
z l l>$ G yl$ MS*y AMS s $ ]l$_ A l$V> Er$ M>st l MS*y JMS ]l$_
s $ O l # {]l . D l l> { ]l$ ]l$MS >MS ]l*$l$.
l$ l { V> $MS$s$. E:
z $lO l $]l G[M>tl] $ G yl$ MS*y A s $ ZZ (Ag, Au, Cu....) ^leV> ^l^lVSVS G[M>tl]
]l$_ AMS s $ O l # {]l . Q GMS$P]lV> Eylr ]l, l lMS$P]lV> Er$.
z l$l l M>Z (]l{f, Mt S ]l $l] #$ llO ]l)
Kl$ $]l$ (Ohms Law): ^leV> ^l^lVSVS G[M>tl] $ #V> Eyl]l#. M>st
z O l $]l E~{VSl ]ll JMS VSZ {]l
$l] l$l sZ l GMS$P]lV> Er$.
Z s $ lyMS$ A]l$Z]l*]l$lZ Er$. 2. MS $l$ O (Ml O ):
iV Dimensions of the conductor.
V = Potential difference z VS l yl]l#]lMS$ A]l$Z]l*]l$lZ]l*,
1
i= V Ayl$zMl O l >MS Z]l*]l$lZ Er$.
R
 R
l t l A As$.
a {]l* = m
z JMS ]l$lO l $]l VS]l$ ]l VSV> VS]l yl$ l
R
a
yl]l# W, Ayl$zMl O l > lVS$Yl $. Al$]l VS
l
l $VS$l$. Rs
a
z ]l VS]l$ ]l$lO l $]l VSV> ]l$_]l yl$ yl]l# Ra m 2
s= = =m
lWY Ayl$zMl O l > $VS$l$. M>st l lVS$Y l m

l$. MSl (Conductivity):

z l Z]l* MSl As$.

3. E~{VS {]l: MSl (C ) = 1

R
z M>]l$ lyl ^l (Ag, Au, Cu etc) s E~{VSl]l$
{]l*$: 1

I
_]l #yl$ l $VS$l$.
z l M>]l$ (insulators) lyl ^l , ^la s 1

H
= ohm 1 (or )mho
l Z Gr$]ls ]l*$ Eyll$. ohm
z A M>O ]l Si,Ger$ graphite, India rubber Al { $l E*W$l] {]l* Siemen.
>]l$ lyl ^l ]l yl$ s l lWY l$l
{ $VS$l$. l$l^eMS (electro motive force emf):
z 25C ]ll E]l >W,
S
M>l]l$ 0CMS$ ^l_]l
yl$ >W l lWY Z l$l {
$VS$l$. M> A M>O ]l Si l W l$l
z JMS l$l ]l$Z Bl>]l$ JMS l$]l# ]l$_ ]l$MS
l$]l#]lMS$ MS^lyMS sO E*W^l MS l$l
^eMS A As$.
K
{ lVS$Yl$. z {]l*$: Volt

z Si, Ge ]l$ ]l$ *]l E~{VSl ]llM S $ (absolute l$l^eMS A^l u>$ (Seats of emf)
temperature - 273C (......0 kelvin$) ^l_]lyl$ l$:
s l A]llO l $, A NO~ l $]l l M>$V> z $r (Cell or battery)
A

{]l. 'C' *lO l $]l {V>Os ]l$_ l$l z O MS yO l ]ll*

MS. Al$]l Z l >]l$ {l^l AZ z l$l f]lr (G[MSMt S f]lr)

A As$. A MSl (Super conductivity) :

z ${Z $ ]l$ lWY^lyMS {V>Os]l$ MS z Z ^la]l yl$ H JMS E~{VSl ]ll s l
S

O l V> (lubricant) E*W$. *]lOl $, A]llO l $]l l$l {]l

$. D l >
z >Z MS]l ]l*]l >]l$ st l ]l*$ A MSl A As$.
l$. z l (Hg) A MSl E~{VSl 4.2 Kelvin$.

E: z A MS MS]l$V]l > l l Kammerlingh ohnes

^leOl $]l s l GMS$P]lV> Er$. (M>]l$VS Kl)

M> Z E]l$ MS]l yl$ l lWY l$l V V
i= = =
R O
{V> ]l*$l$.
z ylV> E]l MS{ l GMS$P]lV> Er$. M> MS{]l$

sZ ]l_ ]l yl$ l lVS$Yl $.

s: BVS]ll$Oyl ]l ]l*]l]l# l$l l yl
^l 25,000 ]l$_ 30,000 $V> Er$. M> lyl
^l MS]l 10,000 $V> ]l*{ll$ Er$.

t l (Specific Resistance):
z {]l* yl]l#, {]l* Ayl$zMl O l > E]l VS
 $rZ E*W^l $]l ?
l$l l$ 106A ]lMS$ M$]l]l^l$a.
(Electric Devices) 11. A$-r-: 103A.
1. ~{l l$l
l (Gold leaf electro scope):
z D MS> E*W_ MSZ E]l l$l {
z MS]l$V]l > l l & Bennet
$ B$ ]l$_ M B$ ]lMS*
z D l E*W_ JMS ]l $l] # ElO Bl
M$]l]l^l$a. (103A)
]l As l l $l> l$$M]l^l$a.
z Bl A$r l (R) = 'O' (*]l)
2. G-[Mt-P-:
12. Kt $r-: R =
z E*W_ JMS VSZ l$l EMS VS$^l]l^l$a.
z E*W_ l$l ]l$Z HOl yl$ l$
3. Post office box:.

I
z ^ H MSlr VS l$$M]lyMS t ]l# ]l$l s $ ly]l$ $ $tZ, $tZ MS*y
>Q $ E*W^l- $. { $l C yl$MSZ M$]l]l^l$a.

H
l$. z BlOl $]l t $r l (R) = A]llV>

4. l st (Resistance box): Er$.

V V = iR
i=
R 13. s--* $r- emf, r
z

5.
l$l ]l$Z E]l JMS
^lyMS E*W $.
AMS l st
S
, 2, 3.....Z z E*W_ JMS

^l]l^l$a.
$r ]l$_ l$]lyl l$l^eMS
, AlY l (internal resistance) MSP
K
(High resistance box): 14. MS--r--(-MSyl-]l--):
z D l E*W_ JMS 1000 (MSZ z lMS$P]l gt ]ll, GMS$P]l Bl- >-$, l$l MS
ohm) ^l]l^l$a. ^l$yMS MSr]l$ yl$$.
s: $, AMS st Z l*$ z MSr MSs yl (Farad) Al {]l*Z M$
A

^l$yMS Maganine Constantan Al Z ${]l*]l$ $. D {]l* O l $MS yl $ ]l$_ {VS ^$.

(alloys) E*W $. Gl$MSs s ElO A 15. $r (Battery/Cell): .
l$]l# ]ll $ ]l*]lV> Es. z $s MS]l$V]l > l l Volta (Kt).
6. Kl$ $r (Ohm meter): z sZ $]l MS l$l MSV > ]l*$l$. $rZ E-
S

z JMS VSZ l > M]lyMS E* *-W^l $]l [H2SO4]

W$. z l$l ^l Z E]l $]lMS, l$l
7. *ts: MSV > *l ^ll$l$. D l$l $]l*
z JMS l$l ]l$Z -l] $ ]l*Z ]l$ {_]l > l l O l $MS yl.
]l*a G yl* l$l]l$ JMS $]l ]ll MS $. z Cs ]lMS$ MS]l$V]l $sZ ]lQOl $]l.. Kt, M>`,
8. Meter bridge: R, s
yl$, j , O {Ml$s $r llO ]l.
z D MS> E*W_ JMS VS l , t -l] $
z l ilZ j $s Vyl VSyl*>$, saO r$,
MSP^l]l^l$a.
MSl$>, {st $, _]l $ Byl$Ml Br]l$Z
9. MCG MS VS^l$rt V>$r (Moving coil
galvanometer): E*W$.
z E*W_ JMS VSZ {]l $l] l$l { z O ]l P]l $s$ Chargeable battery$ M>]l#.
9
]l$ Q l$l ]l* 10 Amphere ]lMS$ MS_a z Chargeable battery MS]l$V]l > l l Glante Plante.

lV> M]l]l^l$a. z D rZ l$l MS $]l MSV >, $]lMS W

10. Tangent Galvano meter: 106A. l$l^leMSV> ]l*$l$.
z C {M$Z Tan Al *{l BV> z V> D rZ Pb, PbO2 (yl, yl >MS yl)
^l $. E*W_ VS- Z- l$l { ]l$ G[Mtyl $V> yl$$.
z Bl $MS M>Z Chargeable rZ Ni Li]l$ MS*y $Z ]l$_ f VS$Z E]l M> yl$l]l#l $.
E*W$$. z r*O sZ l ]l G {Mtyl , $ G{Mtyl Al 2 G[Mtyl $$

z Chargeable battery]l$ - -- l] $, M- >- -z - $, ylM- >- Es. sZ l$l {]l $l] yl$ A M> MSV >
l$-Z E*W$$. ]l*$l$.
s: { ^l V> Z A]l$a]l storage (char z B Z Navapour ( $# VS$ M> M)
geable) batteryZ (H2SO4) E*W$$. M>st ]l*]l]l# Hg vapour]l$ (l$# VS$ M> M) E*W $.
MS GMS$P]lV> E *VS yl$l$]l D B]l* king of z l$l rZ {Ml$ (Nichrome) VS]l$ yl$$.
chemicals ( >f) A As$. Gl$MSs D VS l , {l]l]l l] (M.P) GMS$P]lV>
Es.
]lMS(Transformer): z Ng VS]l$ , sl ${]l$ l*$^l $. D
z lMS$P]l gt ]l$_ GMS$P]l gt MS, GMS$P]l gt ]l$_ Z ${]l* Type metal A As$. l

I
lMS$P]l gt MS l$l]l$ > ^l$ylZ {sl GMS$P]lV>, {l]l]l l] lMS$P]lV> Er$. D
]l$ E*W $. C { A]l lylMSP]l yl$ M__ lWl$. Al$]l AMS

H
{ (Mutual induction) Al *{l BV> ^l l$l { ]l$_ l$l VS]l$ M>ylsMS Fuse
$. D l BP_]l > l l O l $MS yl. VS]l$ l$l ]l*-MS {Z MS$#$.
z {sl]l$ yl$ M>$V> ]lYMS^l]l^l$a. z AMS ]l$ {Z MS$#$. Al D $Z

1. Step-up transformer: VL VH HOl JMS $]l$ W_ JMS $Z E]l

^l$ylZ yl$$.
2. Stepdown transformer: VH VL
S
lMS$P]l it ]l$_ GMS$P]l it MS l$l]l$ >

GMS$P]l it ]l$_ lMS$P]l it MS l$l]l$ >

l$s M> $W]l $$ lVS]l#.
z CsZ l$l MSlMS l JMS VS ]l$_ ]l$-MS VSMS {Z]l*,

JMS VSZ E]l l$l MS>$ ]l*lV> MS-

K
Es.
^l$yMS E*W $. t O fZ D yl$ M> s: l$l $Z rVS t l ]l$ E*W^lyMS M>
{sl* yl$$. l lMS$P]lV>, {l]l]l l] GMS$P]lV> Eylyll$.
z V> yl $, {]l$$, s, MSNr Z
A

MS*y s E*W $. l$l $

z {sl > HM>l l$l]l$ ]l*{ll$ { MS l: (Thermo electricity)
^l $. Gl$MSs --> {- ]lt- $ lMS$P-l] V- > yl$ l$ Z# VS]l$, yl$ l $$V> (junctions)
Es-. A]l$a]lrl Hyl]l E~ VS (Thermo couple)
S

z ]l$]l lZ E]l ]l{Wyl Q { $l &3. As$. E~ VSZ JMS ]l$^l$ ]lMSPZ E_

l$Z s Q 5MS$ VS]l^l$a. (^l cold junction), y lyl ^l ]lrl (hot
z lS ]l{Wyl (ll ]l{Wyl) ^lO l Z E. { junction) E ~ VSZ l$l f$. E~ l$l
^lZ AlO l ]l ]l {Wyl]l$ ^O l l Three godjes Al MS l (Seebeck effect) A As$.
{l ]ll _. z Seebeck effect Z f_]l E~ l$l yl$ A>O
z l$l $]l$ ]l$ B Gyl l Al > l l B yl Er$.
MS]l$Vyl$. Z rVS t l (W) l*O ]l l$s]l$ 1. E~ l$l]l$ l*$^l$yMS E*W_]l VS
A]l$a, 'Ar' Al fyl ]l#l] $ $ ^l $. ]lO B yl Er$. M>st Bsl
z l$sZ l$l {]l $l] yl$ A lyl ^llyl (Sb), l(Bi) E ~ V> l*$^l VS-- t E~
]l ]l$_ M> yl$l]l#l $. M>st l$l l$l f$.
$Z l$l MS & E~ MS (heat energy), M> MS( light 2. ^l , lyl MS ]l$l E]l E~{VSlZ lyO
energy)V> ]l*$l$. B yl Er$. D ly Wl E~ l$l MS*y
z b $ (Arc lamps), {MSr]l --$ & ]l*{ $VS$l$.
$Z llMS$ C$Ol # E*W^l -Z *l
(Ne) Al fyl ]l#l] $ E*W $. Gl$MSs D
 A]l$]l$
1. Thermophile: MS l BV> ^l
Thermophile]l$ Bsl, -l l*$^l $. D
MS> E*W_ >$ MS (I.R, E~ MS
) EMS MS]l$MP]l^- l $a.
2. E~ l$l E~{VS ]l*MS: Seebeck effect BV>
^l D l>$r]l$ E*W_ ]l $l] # E~{VSl]l$
M$]l]l^l$a.
E*V>$:
z JMS ]l $l] # E~{VSl]l$ 0.025C ]lMS$ MS_alV> M$]l
]l^l$a. M>st {MS$, MSrM> E~{VSl]l$ M]lylZ D

I
l>$r]l$ E-*-W--$.
z A {$V> ]l*$ ^ll$l$]l ]l $l] # E~{VSl]l$

H
MS_alV> M$]l^l$a.
E: ($]l ^l$)
Pelteir Effect:
E~ VS > {]l
^l l$l JMS ]ll >Z
E]l E~ {VS _ ^l- a, B {VS
S
_]l E~ ]l$MS
]ll $rMS$ yl$l ^l lylMS$Pl$. Pelteir Effect
As$.
K
A
S