CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION:

Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information that

may be considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, politically incorrect or inconvenient as
determined by governments, media outlets, authorities or other groups or institutions.[1]

Governments, private organizations and individuals may engage in censorship. When an

individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of their own works or
speech, it is referred to as self-censorship. Censorship could be direct or indirect, in which
case it is referred to as soft censorship. It occurs in a variety of different media, including
speech, books, music, films, and other arts, the press, radio, television, and the Internet for a
variety of claimed reasons including national security , to control obscenity, child
pornography, and hate speech, to protect children or other vulnerable groups, to promote or
restrict political or religious views, and to prevent slander and libel.

Direct censorship may or may not be legal, depending on the type, location, and content.
Many countries provide strong protections against censorship by law, but none of these
protections are absolute and frequently a claim of necessity to balance conflicting rights is
made, in order to determine what could and could not be censored. There are no laws against
self-censorship.

The term censorship derives from the official duties of the Roman censor who, beginnin
g in 443 B.C., conducted the censusby counting, assessing, and evaluating the populace.
Originally neutral in tone, the term has come to mean the suppressionof ideas or images
by the government or others with authority.

Throughout history, societies practiced various forms of censorship in the belief that the com
munity, as represented by thegovernment, was responsible for molding the individual. For ex
ample, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato advocated variousdegrees of censorship in The Re
public; the content of important texts and the dissemination of knowledge were tightlycontrol
led in ancient Chinese society as is much information in modern China; and for centuries the
Roman CatholicChurch's Index Librorum Prohibitorum proscribed much literature as contrar
y to the church's teachings.

The English-
speaking world began wrestling with issues of censorship in the seventeenth century. In his A
reopagitica (1644),John Milton argued in favor of the right to publish, free from government
restraint. In the United States, the First
Amendment to the Constitution (1787) guarantees Freedom of Speech and Freedom of the
Press. When a U.S.government agency attempts to prohibit speech or writing, the party being
censored frequently raises these First Amendmentrights. Such cases usually involve commun
ication that the government perceives as harmful to itself or the public.

Tamil cinema refers to Indian motion pictures produced in the language of Tamil. Based in
the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, the hub of the Tamil film industry is in
the Kodambakkam neighbourhood of Chennai. Kollywood is a colloquial term used to
describe this industry, the word being a portmanteau of Kodambakkam and Hollywood The
first Tamil silent film, Keechaka Vadham, was made by R. Nataraja Mudaliar in 1918 The
first talking motion picture, Kalidas, was a multilingual and was released on 31 October
1931, less than seven months after India's first talking motion picture Alam Ara By the end
of the 1930s, the legislature of the State of Madras passed the Entertainment Tax Act of 1939.

Tamil cinema later had a profound effect on other filmmaking industries of India,
establishing Madras (now Chennai) as a secondary hub for Hindi cinema, other South Indian
film industries, as well as Sri Lankan cinema. Over the last quarter of the 20th century,
Tamil films from India established a global presence through distribution to an increasing
number of overseas theatres in Singapore, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Japan, the Middle East, parts
of Africa, Oceania, Europe, and North America. The industry also inspired independent
filmmaking in Tamil diaspora populations in Malaysia, Singapore, and the Western
Hemisphere.

"Supervision and control of the information and ideas that are circulated among the people
within a society. In modern times, censorship refers to the examination of books, periodicals,
plays, films, television and radio programs, news reports, and other communication media for
the purpose of altering or suppressing parts thought to be objectionable or offensive."

Censorship generally is the deletion of speech or any communicative material which may be
considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient to the government or media
organizations as determined by a body authorized to censor.

The term censorship derives from the official duties of the Roman censor who had the duty of
conducting census. Now, the term has come to mean the suppression of ideas or images by
the government or others with authority.

Censorship is most common in the entertainment industry because the entertainment industry
has great influence on people. Public entertainment like theatre and film affect the common
interest and therefore is subjected to certain governmental regulations

It is lawful to censor obscene entertainment to safeguard children from pornography, and to

guard adults from unknowingly or involuntarily viewing indecent materials.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR CENSORSHIP :

As the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, the issue of censorship is
one that resonates deeply within a majority of the citizens of the United States. Due to the
fact that it exists as such a multifaceted issue, comprised not only of ethical and legal
implications but religious as well, the ramifications of allowing a populace the freedom of
expression is a multifarious issue.

The separation of church and state was introduced in Article 6 of the Constitution of the
United States with the goal of eradicating censorship by preventing the United States from
becoming a theocracy, thus disallowing any institution the ability to create moral parameters
by which to censor the expression of any of its citizens. However, many cases have been
brought before the United States Supreme Court that have presented complications regarding
the implications of certain expression.

Despite the appointment of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), a national lobby
that protects citizens of the United States from censorship, there exist numerous instances
where the freedom of expression has proved to be not only hurtful, but also dangerous.
The Anti-Defamation League (ADL), a lobby that investigates and prosecutes hate speech,
works closely with the United States Supreme Court. While the First Amendment ensured the
right to freedom of expression to all citizens of the United States, delineation between the
cessation of violent, racist, sexist, and homophobic hate speech and censorship has yet to be
established.

In 1965, the case of Tinker vs. Des Moines was brought before the United States
Supreme Court. John Tinker, a 15 year old from Des Moines, maintained that his high
school had unjustly suspended both he and his sister because they had chosen to wear
black armbands to school in protest of the Vietnam War.

In an attempt to dispute the alleged censorship practiced by his school, he had claimed
that the suspension was in direct violation of his First Amendment right. The United
States Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Tinkers, explaining that as a result of the
absence of both violence and disturbance in their action, their expression was indeed
Constitutional. The United States Supreme Court added that the censorship imposed by
the school was both unjust and unmerited.

However, the United States Supreme Court has approved of instances in which censorship is
permissible. The establishment of criminal charges, such as the disturbance of peace as well
as the incitement of a riot, are instances in which freedom of expression may lead to potential
harm or danger.

On an international level, the public denial of the Holocaust is considered to be a crime in

many European countries, such as France, Germany, and Austria. However, despite protest
from the ADL, the United States Supreme Court has ruled that public denial of the Holocaust
is within the scope of the First Amendment, and as a result, free of censorship. However, this
anomaly only further illustrates the ambiguity of the First Amendment

Public international law :

With Internet censorship on the rise around the world, a variety of tools have proliferated
to assist Internet users to circumvent such censorship. However, there are few studies examining
the implications of censorship circumvention under international law, and its related politics. This
paper aims to help fill some of that void, with an examination of case studies wherein global
communications technologies have been disrupted or censored telegram cable cutting and
censorship, high frequency radio jamming, and direct broadcast satellite blocking and how the
world community responded to that disruption or censorship through international law and law
making. In addition to illustrating some of the law and politics animating global communications
censorship, I extrapolate lessons and insights for the challenges posed by Internet censorship today,
such as the international legality of censorship circumvention, the nature of censorship justifications,
and the potential liabilities for those engaged in censorship resistance under newly emerging
doctrines of international law.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS :
What controls, if any, should there be over the media?
Should there be more censorship? Should there be less censorship?
What is your opinion of sexual and/or violent content in TV, films and video games?
Which is it more important to control - sexual or violent scenes? Why should they be
controlled?
What effect, if any, do you think that sexual or violent scenes on the media have on people?
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY :
1. Is that the human should have control over the media.
2. Their should be less censor ship.
3. My opinion that there should be no seual films or video gmes because to protect
our younger and adult generation.
4. Yes,it is very important to control it in order to safeguard the younger generation
and growing kids from emotional aspects.
5. Yes,ofcouse mostly poor womens are lead to this malpractice and then people are
kidnapped for this cause.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE :

1. Fallen Angels by Walter Dean Myers

Book challenges are, primarily, generated by the fear that a book will somehow damage a
child by changing what is considered to be a valued norm. In my mind when a book touches
upon a controversial subject it is precisely because the norm has already been significantly
changed, and the author has had the courage to acknowledge this. Many of the challenge to
fallen angels have dealt with the use of profanity in the book. The execution of war
involves, on a very basic level, getting law abiding, and humane people into a mode that
allows them to kill other human beings for whom they have no personal animosity. The use
of profanity is part of the conversion process as is the nge in what is advertised as the
accepted norm. nterview with dehumanizing effect of referring to an enemy with such terms
as gooks and slants. When I write a book that is liable to be challenged it is because I have
detected a cha Story Snoops, 2012

2. Rainbow Boys by Alex Sanchez

Books can have an astounding effect on people. Its a power some individuals fear. And in
the case of books like Rainbow Boys that find appeal among young readers, the fears of some
individuals can become even more charged. These fears often disguised as moral outrage are
often at the root of censorship, something with which gay and lesbian people are well
familiar. From the time we are children we are taught to censor our feelings, keep secret our
thoughts, and deny our true selves. Fortunately, we live in a country where freedom of speech
and thought are cherished values. Every attempt to censor a book is an attack on our
constitutional freedoms Interview with Democrat and Chronicle, 2006

3. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain

Nobody attaches weight to the freaks of the Charlton LibraryBut the truth is, that when a
Library expels a book of mine and leaves an unexpurgated Bible lying around where
unprotected youth and age can get hold of it, the deep unconscious irony of it delights me. A
letter from Mark Twain written in 1907, published in Telegram, 2011
4. The Color Purple by Alice Walker

Great Literature is help for humans. It is medicine of the highest order. In a more aware
culture, writers would be considered priests. And, in fact, I have approached writing in a
distinctly priestess frame of mind. I know what The Color Purple can mean to people,
women and men, who have no voice. Who believe they have few choices in life. It can open
to them, to their view, the full abundance of this amazing journey we are all on. It can lift
them into a new realization of their own power, beauty, love, courage. It is a book that unites
the present with the past, therefore giving people a sense of history and of timelessness they
might never achieve otherwise. And even were it not great literature, it has the best interests
of all of us humans at heart. That we grow, change, challenge, encourage, love fiercely in the
awareness that real love can never be incorrect. Interview with Guernica, 2012.

5.The Giver by Lois Lowry

Ive never really sorted out in my mind why [The Giver is] challenged so often. Those who
object hold up two different scenes. One is, reference to the stirrings, which seems to be, so,
well, its something any kid that age is familiar with and has been taught about in school, but
also its alluded to so vaguely, its hardly explicitly sexual. The second, and it is explicit, is
when the father kills the baby, and thats been referred to as euthanasia. Certainly the book
doesnt promote euthanasia, but that charge has been brought. And thats often from someone
who hasnt read the book thoroughly and doesnt see why I included this. I have a feeling that
those two incidents are not the real reason, but theyre something that people grasp onto. I
think its a book that makes some perhaps very conservative parents uncomfortable because
its a book challenging the authority set down by the government, the parents, the older
people. Its a boy seeing the hypocrisy of the older generation and breaking the rules to
combat it. No ones come out and said it, but thats the only thing Ive figured out in my
mind that can bring out that kind of unease. Interview with The Atlantic Wire, 2012
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY :
Legal research can be classified in various ways. It can be divided on the
basis of nature of data collection, interpretation of already available data, tools of data connection,
purpose and other such criteria. The purposive research is divided as

1. Empirical i.e Non doctrinal and

2. Non- empirical i.e doctrinal

For the purpose of this research problem I have selected doctrinal research methodology as
many things can only be studied in empirical condition. Being a social issue the research has
got the status of socio legal research. Hence, the researcher thinks doctrinal method will hold
the research in proper manner. Research has studised the relevant literature available in
books, case laws and internet.
SOURCES OF DATA :
Research methodology is a systematized investigation to gain nwe
knowledge about the phenomena or problems. Butin its wider seance methodology
includes the philosophy and practice of the whole research process. Euthanasia under
human right perception provides standard. The research has used the following sources for
the research.

1. All india reports

2. Law journals
3. Articles, case laws on the research problems.
PLAN OF STUDY :
In chapter 1. I have explained about my topic in short explanation

In chapter 2. I have asked some research questions legally connected in accordance with my
topic

In chapter 3. I gave an idea about my research paper with id objectives of the study.

In chapter 4. I have given review of literature which means a short description about the book
written by the author in relation to my topic

In chapter 5. I have just explained what method of research i have done.

In this chapter i am goin to explain my topic in brief.

 Chapter -II

Censorship :

the alteration, adjustment, or editing of film or cinema in the event that the subject matter or
content is deemed to be Censorship is the legal process that regulates the permissibility of a
movie, film, video, or cinema to undergo broadcast and distribution; while certain movies are
permitted to undergo public disbursement and release, other types of movies will be limited
to their presentation within private sectors in certain cases, and movies will be prohibited
and banned in their entirety. Movie Censorship regulation will take length, content, and
subject matter into consideration with regard to enacting any or all alteration of banning.
Furthermore, the respective classification of a movie comprising the innate nature of the
movies content and subject matter will typically determine whether or not those videos
will be subject to censorship:
Movie Banning vs. Movie Censorship
Films subject to both movie censorship and movie banning are classified in accordance with
the presumption that their respective content is perceived to be objectionable, incendiary,
illicit, or immoral by the presiding authority. Both banned and censored items are classified
in accordance to the circumstantial ideology and methodology subject to variance on a
locational basis:
Movie Banning is considered to be a prohibition that is definitive and unwavering in the
entirety of the ban, which includes disbursement, viewing, sale, purchase, production,
advertising, marketing, distribution, and screening
Movie censorship involves objectionable in nature with regard to the code of decency within
the public sector of a specific location
Movie Censorship and Film Ratings
The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) is a non-profit, independent association
that is responsible for the oversight of the ratings system attributed to films and movies; these
ratings are determined with regard to the content and subject matter of the movies themselves
in addition to the presupposition of the intended audience. In lieu of movie censorship, the
MPAA rating system allows for the movies to remain intact as a result of regulations placed
on the permissible viewing audience the following are the classifications within the MPAA
rating system:
A rating of G, which is an acronym for General Audiences is given to motion pictures that
are presumed to be appropriate for all viewing audiences
BVpictures that are presumed to contain material, content, and subject matter ranging in
suitability with regard to child or minor - viewers
A rating of PG-13, which is an acronym for Parents Strongly Cautioned is given to motion
pictures that are presumed to be inappropriate for children under the age(s) of 13
A rating of R, which is an acronym for Restricted is given to motion pictures that are
presumed to be appropriate for children under the age(s) of 17; in the event that a child under
the age of 17 wishes to view the movie, parental accompaniment will be required
A rating of NC-17, which is an acronym for No One Under 17 Admitted is given to
motion pictures that are presumed to contain objectionable subject matter intended for adult
audiences

Censorship and Regulation :

It is perhaps a tribute (though a backhanded one) to the power of the moving

image that it should be subject to far greater censorship than any other artistic medium.
Current technology makes it effectively impossible to censor the written word, theatre
censorship was abolished in 1968, and there has never been any systematic regulation of
other art forms - anyone seeking to clamp down on such events must mount a private
prosecution, a lengthy and expensive process.
However, film and video releases in Britain are amongst the most tightly-regulated in the
Western world. With only a few exceptions, every commercially-released film both in
cinemas and on video will have been vetted by the British Board of Film
Classification (originally founded in 1912 as the British Board of Film Censors), which
applies age-restrictive classifications and, in some cases, recommends cutting or otherwise
altering the film in order to conform to their guidelines.
These guidelines are based on two main factors: legal requirements (for instance,
unsimulated animal cruelty, indecent images of children) and the BBFC's own policies. The
latter have changed enormously over the last century, ranging from rigidly applied lists of
forbidden topics to the current context-based system where artistic merit is a key factor in
assessing individual films.
Though this approach has undoubtedly led to a number of important films being passed
either uncut or with a milder age restriction than one would expect, it is also controversial,
due to the inevitable inconsistency. Some films are treated much more leniently than others
with very similar content, as a result of largely subjective judgements by a handful of
people.
Contrary to popular belief, the BBFC is not a government organisation. In fact, central
government has no direct involvement in film censorship beyond passing legislation
affecting the BBFC's activities. Local authorities have considerably more power, including
the final say in whether or not certain films can be shown, though in the vast majority of
cases they are happy to accept the BBFC's verdict. Indeed, this is why the BBFC was
created by the film industry in the first place.
The history of British film censorship is as much social as cultural: the reasons films were
banned in the 1920s (revolutionary politics) and 1950s (nudity) say as much about the
society of the time as anything in the films. It is also revealing that in an era of far greater
equality the BBFC is noticeably tougher on sexual violence today than it was thirty years
ago, though correspondingly much more relaxed about most other issues.
As technology develops, the BBFC's role may well become less and less significant. A side-
effect of its stated commitment to greater openness is that it is now easy to find out if films
have been cut in their British versions and current technology makes it equally simple to
order uncut and unclassified videos and DVDs from elsewhere (such material cannot be
legally sold within the UK, but there are no barriers to importation). If this practice
becomes widespread enough to affect the British film industry economically, it is likely that
pressure will be applied on the BBFC to reflect this.

State secrets and prevention of attention :

Wieczr Wrocawia Daily newspaper of Wrocaw, People's Republic of Poland, March 20

21, 1981, with censor intervention on first and last pagesunder the headlines "Co zdarzyo
si w Bydgoszczy?" (What happened in Bydgoszcz?) and "Pogotowie strajkowe w caym
kraju" (Country-wide strike alert). The censor had removed a section regarding the strike
alert; hence the workers in the printing house blanked out an official propaganda section. The
right-hand page also includes a hand-written confirmation of that decision by the
local "Solidarno" Trade Union.
In wartime, explicit censorship is carried out with the intent of preventing the release of
information that might be useful to an enemy. Typically it involves keeping times or
locations secret, or delaying the release of information (e.g., an operational objective) until it
is of no possible use to enemy forces. The moral issues here are often seen as somewhat
different, as the proponents of this form of censorship argues that release of tactical
information usually presents a greater risk of casualties among one's own forces and could
possibly lead to loss of the overall conflict.
During World War I letters written by British soldiers would have to go through censorship.
This consisted of officers going through letters with a black marker and crossing out anything
which might compromise operational secrecy before the letter was sent. The World War
IIcatchphrase "Loose lips sink ships" was used as a common justification to exercise official
wartime censorship and encourage individual restraint when sharing potentially sensitive
information.
An example of "sanitization" policies comes from the USSR under Joseph Stalin, where
publicly used photographs were often altered to remove people whom Stalin had condemned
to execution. Though past photographs may have been remembered or kept, this deliberate
and systematic alteration to all of history in the public mind is seen as one of the central
themes of Stalinism and totalitarianism.
Censorship is occasionally carried out to aid authorities or to protect an individual, as with
some kidnappings when attention and media coverage of the victim can sometimes be seen as
unhelpful.[23][24]

Religion :

Main article: Censorship by religion

Censorship by religion is a form of censorship where freedom of expression is controlled or

limited using religious authority or on the basis of the teachings of the religion. This form of
censorship has a long history and is practiced in many societies and by many religions.
Examples include the Galileo affair, Edict of Compigne, the Index Librorum
Prohibitorum (list of prohibited books) and the condemnation of Salman Rushdie's novel The
Satanic Verses by Iranian leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Images of the Islamic figure
Muhammad are also regularly censored.

Educational sources :

Historic Russian censorship. Book Notes of my life by N.I. Grech, published in St. Petersburg
1886 by A.S. Suvorin. The censored text was replaced by dots.
The content of school textbooks is often the issue of debate, since their target audience is
young people, and the term "whitewashing" is the one commonly used to refer to removal of
critical or conflicting events. The reporting of military atrocities in history is extremely
controversial, as in the case of The Holocaust (or Holocaust denial), Bombing of Dresden,
the Nanking Massacre as found with Japanese history textbook controversies, the Armenian
Genocide, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, and the Winter Soldier Investigation of
the Vietnam War.
In the context of secondary school education, the way facts and history are presented greatly
influences the interpretation of contemporary thought, opinion and socialization. One
argument for censoring the type of information disseminated is based on the inappropriate
quality of such material for the young. The use of the "inappropriate" distinction is in itself
controversial, as it changed heavily. A Ballantine Books version of the book Fahrenheit
451 which is the version used by most school classes[25] contained approximately 75 separate
edits, omissions, and changes from the original Bradbury manuscript.
In February 2006 a National Geographic cover was censored by the Nashravaran Journalistic
Institute. The offending cover was about the subject of love and a picture of an embracing
couple was hidden beneath a white sticker.

CASE LAWS :

Censorship is the suppression of speech or deletion of communicative material which

may be considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient to the government or
media organizations as determined by a censor.

The entertainment industry is an area where censorship is present in the most visible form.
Theater and film affect the common interest of the public and are hence subject to certain
types of governmental regulation. But attempts to regulate or censor films often interfere
with the free speech rights of playwrights, screenwriters, filmmakers, performers, and
distributors.

In Ginsberg v. New York, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that it is lawful to censor obscene
entertainment to safeguard children from pornography and to protect adults from
unknowingly or involuntarily viewing indecent materials. Although it was laid down
in Stanley v. Georgia by the Supreme Court that individuals are permitted to view obscenity
in the privacy of their homes, in Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton it was held that theaters and
movie houses are public places and are therefore subject to regulation. However the
difficulty with such censorship is in determining the boundary line between obscene and
non-obscene.

An attempt at defining what constitutes an obscene matter was undertaken by the Supreme
Court in Miller v. California. The Supreme Court in the case concluded that a work is
obscene and can be regulated if it appeals to a viewers prurient interest; portrays sexual
conduct in a patently offensive way; and lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific
value. The Court further ruled that interpretations of this definition may vary across the
United States and that communities may apply their own local standards to determine
obscenity.

To avoid government censorship, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA)

regulates itself through a voluntary rating system. The system does not have statutory
authority but is used to help the industry conform to statutes designed to protect children.
Later, on the lines of the Supreme Court decision in Ginsberg v. New York, the MPAA
devised a rating system based on the viewers age. As per this rating system, A G rating
signals that subject matter is suitable for general audiences; PG stands for Parental Guidance
Suggested; PG-13 strongly advises guidance for children under age 13 because of possibly
inappropriate material; R requires accompaniment by an adult for children under age 17, or
18 in some states; and NC-17 or X prohibit anyone under age 17, or 18 in some states, from
entering the theater.

Apart from films, radio and television have also met with governmental pressure to control
the content of their broadcasts. Spurred by the belief that violence on television adversely
affects childrens behavior and attitudes, the Congress has attempted several times to
encourage the media to adopt voluntary guidelines in the hope that less violence on television
will lead to a less violent society. However, the government intrusion into broadcasting arena
to discourage certain types of speech has not been generally welcomed. The various pieces
of legislation raise questions about media self-censorship and the role of the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) in regulating freedom of expression.

In response to congressional pressure the National Association of Broadcasters adopted the

Family Viewing Policy in 1974 to limit the first hour of prime-time programming to material
suitable for families. The policy was found unconstitutional in Writers Guild of America,
West, Inc. v. F.C.C.

The Childrens Television Act of 1990 regulates the content of childrens television by
limiting the amount of advertising on childrens television and compels broadcasters to air
educational programs. Failure to comply with the act can result in non- renewal of a stations
license.

The Television Violence Act introduced in December 1990 was another legislation
introduced to regulate contents aired on the television. This act, which expired in 1993, was
intended to prompt the networks, cable industry, and independent stations to decrease the
amount of violence shown on television. Although the Act did not constitute direct
government regulation, the Act was criticized as a governmental attempt to impose its values
on society by discouraging, if not suppressing, unpopular ideas.

The Telecommunications Act of 1996, required television manufacturers to create a chip,

known as the V-chip, which allows users, presumably parents, to block out programs based
on their sexual or violent content. The chip, which has been installed in television sets
manufactured since 1999, operates in conjunction with a voluntary rating system
implemented by TV broadcasters that rates programs for violence and sexual content.

Radio broadcasts have also come under censorship scrutiny. In FCC v. Pacifica Foundation,
the Supreme Court ruled that a daytime broadcast of a program called Seven Dirty Words
violated the prohibition of and was therefore subject to regulation.

Censorship is therefore a very important part of the entertainment industry. Censorship exists
in all spheres of the industry including radio, television and movies.

1.www.screenonline.org
Censorship, Violence & Press
Freedom :
Violence, bans and seizure of content are just some of the methods
used to directly censor and suppress people and their ideas.
Censorship in all its forms is often unjustifiable and is used simply to stop truths or ideas
emerge which draw attention to powerful people or governments, or undermine
ideology. This is inexcusable.

When the exercise of the right to free expression clashes with the rights of others or
threatens the safety of the nation, legislators face a difficult exercise of drawing lines; is
a restriction necessary and how far should it go?

As James Madison, who framed the US Constitutions protection of freedom of

expression, wrote, it is often prudent to permit some abuse of freedom of expression in
order to ensure that legitimate use of the right is not discouraged:

Some degree of abuse is inseparable from the proper use of everything, and in no instance is this
more true than in that of the press. It ... is better to leave a few of its noxious branches to their
luxuriant growth than, by pruning them away, to injure the vigour of those yielding the proper fruits.

One of the main arguments advanced against licensing of journalists and publications
was its indiscriminate nature: denial of a licence is tantamount to a ban on all future
articles, without regard to their content.

But what about a statement, whether written or audiovisual, which has already been
completed but not yet made public? Should the authorities only impose sanctions after
publication, where justified, or should they, in appropriate circumstances, be able to
prevent its release?

Prior censorship poses special dangers to freedom of expression. If the authorities are
able to suppress publications which nobody has seen, it becomes impossible for others to
verify whether the suppression was indeed justified; it is a question of time before such
an unchecked power is abused to prevent criticism of government. One partial solution is
to make the authorities decision subject to court appeal. But this creates a different
problem; control by the authorities of the timing of the flow of information is a
considerable power. Challenging a decision to censor information will be an expensive
and slow process, which many may not even use. Furthermore, news is a perishable
commodity, so that success in court after lengthy proceedings will often prove a pyrrhic
victory.

Because of the risk of abuse compared to sanctions after the fact, the American
Convention on Human Rights prohibits prior censorship altogether, except to protect
children. Article 13(2) of the ACHR states:

The exercise of the right provided for in the foregoing paragraph shall not be subject to prior
censorship
Nevertheless, some courts have been reluctant to rule prior restraints out categorically,
mainly because the damage done by a publication may not in all cases be reparable
through subsequent sanctions. This dilemma was posed starkly in one American case,
after a magazine, The Progressive, had attempted to publish an article explaining in
some detail how to construct a hydrogen bomb. The author and publisher argued that
they were merely synthesising publicly available documents, with the purpose of raising
awareness of the threat of nuclear weapons. The District Judge held:

A mistake in ruling against The Progressive [will] curtail defendants [right to freedom of expression] in
a drastic and substantial fashion. [But a] mistake in ruling against the United States could pave the
way for thermonuclear annihilation for us all. In that event, our right to life is extinguished and the right
to publish becomes moot.

The case did not reach the US Supreme Court. In other disputes, however, the Supreme Court has
repeatedly stated the following position: Any system of prior restraints of expression comes to this Court
bearing a heavy presumption against its constitutional validity.

International bodies have echoed this point of view. In a report on the Republic of Korea, the UN
Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Opinion and Expression stated that any system of prior restraint on
freedom of expression carries with it a heavy presumption of invalidity under international human rights
law. The ECtHR ruled that the dangers inherent in prior restraints are such that they call for the most
careful scrutiny.

This last case involved the ad hoc application of prior restraint to a specific harmful expression the
authorities had gotten wind of the upcoming publication, and had applied to a court to prevent it.
Systems of prior restraint whereby publications must be submitted to censors for clearance before
being distributed can never be justified for the media, and have for some time now been unknown
among democracies.

The position in international law can be summarised as follows: Although the right to freedom of expression
does not require an absolute ban on prior censorship, this should be a highly exceptional measure, taken
only when a publication threatens grave harm, such as loss of life or serious harm to health, safety or the
environment. An article deemed defamatory, blasphemous, obscene or overly critical of the government
would rarely if ever meet this threshold. Moreover, a system whereby media content must be officially
cleared before it can be released would be unacceptable; its harm to freedom of expression would plainly
far outweigh the benefit to its goals
Essay about Censorship of Literature
...Censorship of Literature on Students The child who is taught nothing of his or her
countrys cultural, political, and intellectual heritage must be pitied as much as the child
who is compelled to conform on all respects to conventional wisdom (Riechman 5).
Throughout the centuries, literature has been censored because it has been accused of
being inappropriate or promoting religious or racial ideals. Parents, school districts, and
school board members believe that these subjects shouldnt be taught to students in
junior high or high school for the reason that they see students as children that do not
need to be informed of such matters; however, this course of action has limited the
ability of students to learn from and form opinions on texts. Censorship of literature in
schools effects how students will learn in college and in everyday life, limits their
exposure to different types and styles of writing, and is a violation of the United States
Constitution. If certain pieces of literature are banned or censored in schools, it will
hinder the students ability to use the knowledge from those texts in college. Some
might say that these restricted works or books with similar ideas and themes might be
read in college. Although it may be true, colleges expect their students to be familiar
with controversial texts, such as The Scarlet Letter, or their themes. If books are not
available to students in high school, it creates obstacles that...

Stop Censorship Essay

...Stop Censorship SPECIFIC GOAL: I want my audience to step up and stop censorship.
INTRODUCTION I. (Attention getter): How are you all doing tonight? We have a
problem! A problem that some of us don't even know exist. I beg you all to pay attention
to your surrounding. The life we live today is in jeopardy. What we do today, or better
yet what we don't do can have detrimental results in due time. II. (Credibility
statement): I have researched this topic a great deal. You might not know it by name.
But this topic affects all of us sitting in this room. We can not continue to ignore this
issue. III. THESIS: Today I am going to make you aware of the topic of censorship. I
want you to not support government agencies and politicians that support censorship.
BODY I. (first main point) the first amendment of the Bill of Rights states: Congress shall
make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of press; or the right of people peaceably
to assemble, and petition the government for a redress of grievances. A. It seems to me
that this is a very clear statement that...

Music Censorship Essay

...hips and thrusting his waist to the music. This made all the girls go wild for him but
many found his dancing to be offensive and too much. Throughout history there have
been people who oppose artists viewpoints, how these artists choose to express
themselves. Music censorship restricts artists and not letting them express themselves
through their music is wrong Music censorship is wrong because it damages the entire
art world by limiting the ability of artists to express their viewpoints. Artist should be
protected by the first amendment along with the rest of the U.S. citizens.
Music censorship should not be accepted by the public and allowed to destroy this
countrys freedom and the artists freedom. All censorship exists to prevent one from
challenging current conceptions and existing institutions. All progress is initiated by
challenging current conceptions and executed by supplanting existing institutions.
Consequently the first condition of progress is the removal of censorship(George
Bernerd Shaw FreeMuse.com). This states that all censorship is made by people in power
to stop people from making statements that either questions the way society is or affects
the people in power. Music censorship is The term used to describe the act of editing,
altering, or preventing the listener from hearing the music as the artist created it in
order to either deny certain...

Censorship in Schools Essay

...Its not about Censorship, its about responsibility: Censorship in schools Kirsten Heck
Cheney High School Abstract The article argues that book banning and censoring the
student newspapers threaten the right to a free press and speech granted to the people
in the U.S. under the First Amendment of the Constitution. The First Amendment allows
citizens the right to access, to publish or to broadcast any content as long as it doesnt.
However, it is noted that censorship of publications challenges the freedom of expression
and the right to free press. The negative implications of censorship are also discussed,
along with the role of obscenity in publication. The question at hand is if students should
have to leave their first amendment rights at the school house gate? The voices of the
young people are just as important as anyone elses. If students want to express
themselves openly and blatantly, they should be able to do so. School publications
should not be censored due to the sensitivity of other students and the issues that the
administrations face. Students should not be deprived of their constitutional rights,
including freedom of press. Censorship is the practice of officially examining books,
movies, etc., and suppressing unacceptable parts. The arguments
regarding censorship has become a big deal in the past 20 years but it has been around
for so much longer than that....

Ethics in censorship Essay

...Analysis of Censorship within Ethics Censorship refers to the suppression of
information, text, and/or ideas in the media, which people find to be objectionable. In
other words, it refers to withholding information from the public. The opponents
of censorship assert that the progression of the world towards a society with no
boundaries is being hindered through communication media censorship. In
addition, censorship violates peoples freedom of speech and expression. On the other
hand, the proponents point out that different communication media dabble with ideas,
information, and topics that do not need promotion or even be provided to the public at
all. This begs the question of whether censorship is more beneficial than otherwise (CM,
1). In that regard, this paper explains that the public benefits more with censorship than
without censorship by government. The evaluation of free expression
and censorship requires the use of ethical theories. The two moral theories applicable in
this evaluation are consequentialist moral theories (utilitarianism in particular) and
deontological theories. Consequentialist theories, which were put forward by different
philosophers, such as J. S. Mill (1950), hold that the determination of the rightness of an
action is solely dependent on the degree of producing the desirable consequences.
Utilitarianism in...

Media Censorship: Good Or Bad?

Posted By: Site Author 28 Comments Censorship, Freedom, Freedom of Speech, Group Discussion, India, Social
Media, Syria

Censorship is a global phenomenon. Time and again, there have emerged news of something getting
banned somewhere in the world for reasons that seem unreasonable to many while a necessity to the rest.
In India, specially, censorship exists in mass abundance. Remember the case when Penguin India, on Feb
12, withdrew copies of Indologist Wendy Donigers book The Hindus: An Alternative History , after an
out-of-court settlement was reached between it and plaintiffs Shiksha Bachao Andolan which objected to
sections of Donigers book.

I can give you examples from all over the world. During the 1950s, Elvis Presley appeared in one of the
famous TV programs only to be shot by the camera till his torso, as his world-famous pelvic movements
were deemed vulgar. Again during the 1950s, the Scientific American magazine published an article on
thermonuclear fusion which was censored by the United

States Atomic Energy Commission. The printed

copies of the magazine were found and burnt as it contained classified information. During both World
War I and World War II strict military censorship was laid on the freedom of press. A similar kind of
censorship was also laid in India during the State of Emergency period in the late 70s. With the
introduction of television and Internet, many important developments have taken place in the field of
censorship around the world. A number of countries like Syria, Australia, Cuba, UAE, Yemen, Pakistan
and Burma have censored the Internet. China has imposed stringent censorship regulations. A military
censor was also laid on the freedom of press and Internet in Egypt lately. WikiLeaks, the sensational
international whistle blowing website was closed down several times under the pretext of censorship.
Satellite phones, Internet and freedom of press were also censored in Libya during Gaddafis rule.

While each country and each culture censors the media in one way or the other, the amount of censorship
or the cut-off level which defines what to show and what not, differs. There are also different types of
censorship. One of the most common criteria behind censorship is the age limits for viewing different
media. Sometimes the censorship can be a blanket ban on a certain taboo topics and the definition of a
taboo topic would be defined according to the governing authority in the country. So, while the levels of
media censorship exist, people are still calling for absolute removal of all types of censorship. Then again,
there are proponents who think that its use creates a balance in what ought to be said and written, which
again, the opponents criticize on the basis of the threat it poses to the right of speech.

Let us discuss this topic in some more detail:

POINTS IN FAVOUR:
Media influence on society: As a community, we are heavily influenced by the media and other sources
of information. However, we tend to overlook the fact that there are not only much bias but also skewed
perceptions of events and reports in the news today. The media does a poor job portraying things as they
really are in order to follow a sort of convention and to keep their show on air or their papers in stores. As
a result, most of the time we are being fed information that may not be entirely true and sometimes entirely
baseless. The media has the ability to manipulate its viewers in ways that are often unseen. That being said,
it is difficult to give full trust to any news or report on an event, let alone base beliefs off of something that
was skewed so much that it became a whole different story or subject in itself. Driven by money, greed and
popularity, most media outlets are fighting to report what they believe we want to hear, not what we really
should hear-the TRUTH.
Media to be censored for children: The impressionable young minds cant differentiate between real and
make believe. The amount of violence shown affects the perception of young children. Emp
hasis needs to be made on the fact that killing people is illegal and immoral. We dont want our children
thinking that it is cool to be all heartless and go on picking off people on the street. The vivid portrayal of
violence as a means of justice gives them a false sense of right and wrong. Hence the amount of violence
the media broadcasts ought to be censored at least for the kids. Also the casual approach towards the topics
of sex and pornography is giving very wrong ideas to the young minds. Since the Indian Education system
does not have a strong approach toward sex education, the open platform of media has become their
information ground. Open advertisement of smoking and alcohol also needs to be curbed. What they see,
they learn .There needs to be an age restriction strictly employed and the open media grounds like the news
channels and news papers must restrict their portrayal of such topics keeping in mind the age of the general
audience.
Political agendas: Though it is true that media is responsible for spreading information about current
events all around the world, the need of the hour is balance of information given. Certain times
violent speeches and derogatory comments given by people towards a particular race and religion. While
the act in itself can be condemned, there is no need of repeated air-time given to the incident. This can only
incite the masses against the said person or the organization he/she is associated with. Such media tactics
are often used by political parties for selfish means while ignoring the greater good of the society. This can
only bring unrest among the masses and disrupt the peace in the society. Some people may try to spread
nonsensical propaganda through unsuspecting media. Censorship will prevent the public display of
disrespect to any particular individual or community and promote political correctness.
Security of secrets: Ignorance is bliss, they say and it is in the best interest of a country and its people that
the plans of our armies are kept under wraps. Sometimes we need to blindly trust them. The detailed
discussion and scrutiny of every minute detail by the media can sometimes prove dangerous as the
information relayed to the general public can be as easily gathered by the wron
 g group of people. During an emergency like a
terrorist attack, it helps in controlling panic and rumors throughout the nation. This was observed in 2008
when terrorists attacked The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel in Mumbai. Mandating censorship on defense related
and sensitive subjects is necessary.

Curbing the spread of wrong information: Everybody has an opinion and wants to be heard. Whether it
is a hard fact or just their mere belief is a secondary matter. Thanks to the media, you now know where and
when and with whom a celebrity vacations, whether or not you want to know that. In the effort of claiming
their right to freedom of speech, media has crossed all boundaries of right to privacy of people. The truth
of the matter takes a back seat and even false information spreads like wildfire. Right from matters of
national importance to a celebritys divorce settlements, all details are publicly judged upon and sides
taken. It has reached an extent where you can not truly know if something that you read in a newspaper or
hear on a news channel is in fact true. Media is not an impartial spectator anymore, rather it has become a
weapon, the more powerful can use to its advantage. It has reached a juncture where we need to verify that
what is printed and circulated is a) actually newsworthy, b) as accurate as possible at the time and c) not
malicious.

POINTS AGAINST:
Propagating Ignorance: Media is a major source of information. Everything that we know about anything
in the world today is all thanks to news channels, news papers, internet and
other forms of media. In a country like ours, political parties will first suppress rightful information in the
name of censorship. Lets say that a foreign news channel is running an unbiased documentary on the
leadership of our country, the governing bodies of our country cannot do much about what that person or
channel is saying, except stop the people of our country from tuning into such shows. Hence here,
censorship is used to keep the ignorant, ignorant. So who gets to be the judge of what is appropriate on a
social level and what is not? Is it a handful of people sitting in a room and declaring what is and what isnt
right according to their ideologies? In the name of moral values, must we keep the society from
progressing by claiming certain ideas to be against our culture. Must we cling to age old norms in the
name of culture and censor what doesnt please Indian values? How can a society and a country progress
on an international level if we dont inculcate newer trends and censor everything that doesnt agree with
Indian culture.

Shaping the young minds: Times are changing. The newer generation is information hungry. A blanket
ban on topics like sex in the media will only generate their curiosity about it. And censorship of media will
only mean that they look into the absolutely wrong places for information. Rather these topics should be
discussed in a healthy manner so that the taboo tag is lifted off them. Instead of being completely censored,
Sex education and awareness of STDs can be dealt with maturity .If sex-related topics are completely
censored it becomes difficult to teach children and teenagers about the dangers of STDs. There are rating
systems and parental advisory stickers made to prevent negative influence. W

hy censor something, when classification serves the

purpose really well

Freedom of speech: Whats the point of your right to speak if there is no one to listen to what you are
speaking? Doesnt the very concept of censorship clash with the idea of democracy? If we are going to
cover the ears of our listeners, then what is the difference between democracy and dictatorship? If the
content in the media is manipulated by some people with vested interests, then the whole point of
democracy and freedom of thought goes out of the window anyway. And, how difficult do you think it is
to get an uncensored version of anything these days? By censoring it, you are promoting it even more.

Modified Truth: Censoring of information may lead to a wrong image perceived by the public. It gives
rise to and hides abuse of human rights. If the news coming from a war zone does not show the true nature
of the damage inflicted, how can a person be aware of the real situation of the war? If to say that the real
death toll and associated imagery should be censored, it will be equivalent to denying even the presence of
war. Death is real and people affected in a war zone pay for it with their lives and we owe it to them to
know their real stories. Dont censor the media; rather tackle the issues leading to a situation that might
need to be censored. Hiding the complete picture doesnt erase its presence, merely gives a false
perception. The recent ban on social media by the Assad regime in Syria makes a very apt example of the
same.

Hinders Creativity: There can be different standards of morals among different societies quite different
from the ones imposed by the censorship. Put in simple words, censorship hinders creativity. Censorship in
books plays and movies may compromise their entertainment value. Its as if to say that you cant voice
your thoughts freely in any medium .It may be used to block legitimate criticism. Its limiting artists from
truly expressing themselves. Isnt that what ART is all about?.

`
1.targetdpi.com/2014/03media.

"Family Friendly" Libraries: Extending the Culture War to Your Local Library
This article on a new organization wanting to "restrict access to public library
materials it deems inappropriate" is now not found, but we have redirected the
link to People For the American Way Constituional Liberties page.
"Freedom To Read" DEAD LINK, no alternative found.
An essay on censorship of that which is written, both in the form of books and
that of the internet.
Focus on the Family Calls 'Banned Books Week' a Fraud DEAD LINK, no alternative found.
Here is an article on American Library Association (ALA) Banned Books Week
and what some feel it stands for.
Time Forum from Transcript from Wed. Sept. 24th, 1997 DEAD LINK, no alternative
found.
A discussion with Herbert Foerstel, author of the book Banned in the U.S.A.,
about censorship.

The Power of Censorship :

English teachers in public schools must accommodate diverse constituents and

often find themselves caught up in conflicts about what texts are best suited for the
literature curriculum. The question for schools and teachers often centers
on who should decide what kinds of texts students read. In recent years, censorship
cases have escalated as teachers are asked to introduce more contemporary and
culturally diverse texts.

One disturbing aspect of censorship is its power to deny students in one class or an
entire school system the right to read particular texts. Mike Rose argued that many
schools, in spite of good intentions, actually deny students the opportunity to
develop intellectually: "Our approaches to language and literacy as often as not
keep us from deep understanding of differences and problemsand possibilities"
(128). Even the threat of censorship works to exacerbate the fears of teachers and
to undermine their attempts to introduce a broad range of texts that will help
diverse groups of students enter a discourse that "defines them as members of an
intellectual community" (Rose 192).

A particularly insidious effect of censorship is its power to silence teachers. Few

teachers take a proactive stance or speak out against censorship unless forced to do
so as a result of public challenges to the literature curriculum. Ken Donelson noted
that we know only about cases that have gained media publicity or that have been
reported to the Newsletter on Intellectual Freedom , an American Library
Association publication that documents challenges.

Public schools usually address censorship issues by taking one or more routes:
imposing a list of acceptable literary works on all teachers, providing guidelines, or
giving carte blanche to teachers and relying on their discretion. Even in the best of
situations, though, teachers are often uncertain about the consequences of
selections outside traditional or school-approved texts. Well-publicized cases of
teachers whose professional and personal lives have been damaged by lengthy
debates that take place in courts of law or school district offices have effects on
English teachers and school districts everywhere (e.g., Marion Goldwasser; Cissy
Lacks; James Moffet).

The Impact of Censorship on the Participating Teachers

The IRA/NCTE Standards for the English Language Arts called for students "to
build an understanding of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the United
States and the world" and "to develop an understanding of and respect for diversity
in language use, patterns, and dialects across cultures, ethnic groups, geographic
regions, and social roles" (p. 3). However, the teachers who participated in my
research said choosing such texts could jeopardize their careers. Those teachers
whose goals for teaching included reading diverse, contemporary literature took a
number of risks to do so.

The selection process of print and non-print materials in English language arts
classrooms, as the teachers in this study noted, is charged with social and political
tensions that extend far beyond the classroom. Some were willing to take the risk
of going outside conventional selections, and others were not. A teachers
willingness to take risks with text selections was related to several specific factors.
Strong support from school and district administrators, department chairs, and
colleagues was particularly important to the stances of teachers who sought to
include diverse contemporary texts. Teachers in English departments that had
active reading committees and regular discussions about texts were more likely to
use non-traditional literature than those who taught in departments in which a
process was implemented only when needed.

However, even with the most supportive of atmospheres, teachers were cautious
about their text selections. Those who were willing to take risks weighed their
decisions against a number of factors and developed detailed, carefully planned
strategies for introducing potentially controversial texts or films into the literature
curriculum. One teacher, who provided a wide range of contemporary literature for
her seniors, talked about how she tried to head off potential problems:
Anything I read, even for myself, I'm always thinking of bringing into the
classroom, and, indeed you'll see my library in there. I've probably got thousands
of books, that I have put on the shelves, and I tell the kids that these are adult
themes. And, you know, you're free to borrow them. And I even let the parents
know that. But know that there are real life things in there.

Another pattern that became evident in these data was the difference between
younger teachers who had no personal experience with serious challenges and
more experienced teachers who had been challenged. The more experienced
teachers often knew the history of the relationship between the community and the
school and spent more time articulating their stances in relation to that history.
Younger teachers with fewer years of experience, even though aware of potential
problems, knew less of this history. They were not as concerned as more
experienced teachers about how censorship might affect their own selections of
texts or their personal and professional lives. One younger teacher said he knew
other teachers were concerned, but he was not. However, he admitted, "Maybe that
will come and bite me some day."

The more experienced teachers all practiced self-censorship to some degree, trying
to strike a balance between what texts they felt would offer the best fit with their
instructional goals and what texts they believed could be problematic. However,
for all these teachers, texts that had sex scenes, no matter what other qualities the
text had to offer, were invariably off limits for required reading. One teacher said
she had to decide whether a potentially controversial text was "worth going the
distance for." Others opted to stick with the approved anthology rather than make
such decisions.

Some of the teachers identified themselves as risk-takers because they sought to

include more diverse contemporary texts in their literature curricula. They wanted
to engage students in conversations that would allow them to increase their
understanding of cultural differences and their respect for diversity. In contrast,
other teachers, even those who said they wanted to add more diverse literature to
broaden their students perspectives on the world, relied primarily on an anthology.
Fearful of potential controversy, they rarely added new texts. Adding a new text
occurred only after watching other teachers in their school use them for a while.

These findings confirm prior research showing the dominance of anthologies and
canonical works in the secondary school literature curriculum (e.g., Arthur
Applebee). Teachers reliance on such texts may, of course, be attributed to several
factors, but a significant factor is the belief that teaching only from approved texts
or traditional texts will help avoid potentially controversial situations, a response
noted in other research on teachers self-censorship (e.g., Cerra 36-50; Noll 59-64)
CONCLUSION:
This is not a black and white topic. Every argument given for the implementation of a strict media
censorship can as easily be used in a point against it. You can probably see that this debate is
largely a matter of degree. The questions that the censor boards need to ask themselves are
what is the rationale behind the censorship? And are we censoring the media as per that
rationale? Is the media being allowed to display what it ought to display? Are they showing things
that people want to or need to know about? Censorship is just like a double-edged sword. An
absence of censorship might not be a perfect notion, as it can cause chaos. But it also doesnt
mean that the government uses it for its own personal gain by suppressing dissent. Ours is a
democratic nation, yet has more censorship than most nations. Thats the irony.

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SUGGESTIONS

My suggestion on censorship is that there should be no censor because growing younger

generation are very faster now a days so they are losing there control over it .Parents of their
children can t be at their back,so they believe that their children view is on this,but in reality it is not
the truth,so atleast for this ,media should be stoping this .Hence , media should be more careful in
telecasting such things, it is for the benefit for the younger generation that they should not involve
in this .
BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1.https//legal-dictionary.com

2.https//enwikipedia.org

3.https://constitutionlaws.com

4.www.screenonline.org

5.https://www.entsportslawjournal.com

6.https://enntertainmentlawuslegal.com/(censorship

7.www.studymode.com/esaay/censorship

8.targetdpi.com/2014/03media

9.https://www.researchgate.net

10.https://worshipcalvin,edu.

11.https://www.cliffsnotes.com

12.https://steamcommunity.com

13.targetdpl.com/2014/03/media

BOOKS

1. JONATHOM W.PENNEY
2. MERRIAM