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10 7
r08 MECHANISM OF FLUID DISPLACEMENT IN SANDS
flow because of the low permeability of the corrected to a standard base pressure,
sand to gas, with the result that the initial passes through a maximum and thereafter
produced gas-oil ratio is substantially equal declines.
to the dissolved ratio. As the gas saturation Production from a reservoir by the mecha-
l0r-----r---~r-----r---~----_,
nism of dissolved-gas drive alone is thus
characterized by low initial gas-oil ratio,
followed by rapid increase to a maximum
.8r---~~----+-----~----~-.~~ ratio, with a declining ratio as the supply of
gas and the pressure approach exhaustion.
:;; This mechanism is fundamentally ineffi-
~.6r-----+-~--+-----~----~----~ cient and the amount of oil that can be
~ recovered thereby is seriously limited. This
.
0..
possibility of some degree of mechanical At this stage, the displacing fluid will be
selection in production. almost 100 per cent effective. As displace-
If the areas of high gas saturation can be ment proceeds the permeability of the
made to increase in extent through con- sand to oil will continuously decrease
tinued segregation or by the return of IOOr---~r----'-----;----~-----'
produced gas to the reservoir, and con-
trolled by production of only the wells low
C 80 4
on structure, a displacement of oil in the 8
reservoir may be effected during which the ~
area of high gas saturation will encroach
on the area of high oil saturation until the
E
il 60
iii
go
..
<ft
A =.!l!:... (diD) AO
( au)
ao SD =
qT (aiD)
cf>A as-; 6
u cf>A dSD
The new computed curve is S-shaped though in the regions of gradual transition
and is triple-valued over a portion of its of saturation with distance the capillary
length, obviously a physical impossibility. pressure gradient may be small in compari-
The correct interpretation is that a portion son to the other forces, at any saturation
IOOr-------~------~--------~------~------~------__,
..
c
<.>
~
660
-=e
:>
~ =:-
i40
~
i
(f)
20
0 5 10 15 20 25
U, Distance: Arbitrary Units
FIG. 3.-CALCULATION OF SATURATION HISTORY DURING WATER FLOOD.
of the curve is imaginary and that the real discontinuity the capillary pressure gradi-
saturation-distance curve is discontinuous. ent would become exceedingly large, with
The imaginary part of the curve is dotted in the result that the plane of saturation
Fig. 3 and the real distribution curve is discontinuity would be converted into a
shown by the solid line labeled Q!, dis- zone of more gradual transition in satura-
continuous at Uj. The position of the plane tion, the width of the zone depending for a
Ul is determined by a material balance, the given system primarily upon the rate of
shaded area between the original and the displacement. For many cases a slight
new saturation curve being equal to ~j. rounding off of the corners of the curve
illustrated in Fig. 3 will represent a reason-
In any actual displacement of oil from able approximation to the conditions
sand by gas or water, no such saturation encountered in practice.
discontinuity as that indicated in Fig. 3
can exist in a uniform sand. The capillary INITIAL AND SUBORDINATE PHASES OF
between oil and the displacing fluid and Fig. 3 indicates that at a plane in the
the curvature of the interfaces in the sand sand some distance away from the point of
tend in all cases to maintain uniform entry of the water, no substantial change
saturation throughout any continuous in the water saturation results as the
homogeneous sand body. The degree of water first advances. Then a very rapid
equalization obtained depends upon the rise in water saturation takes place as
combined effects of the capillary pressure the transition zone reaches and passes the
gradient, gravitational pressure gradient, plane. This period of rapid increase of water
and the impressed pressure gradient. AI- saturation may be considered the initial
112 MECHANISM OF FLUID DISPLACEMENT IN SANDS
phase of the displacement. During this ceases and the oil that remains is unrecover-
phase the displacement is quite effective; able. The quantity of unrecoverable oil has
most of the water reaching the plane re- been referred to as the residual oil and is a
mains in the sand, ejecting oil. Following useful index to the recovery efficiency. 6
801----~!!"II
220%
8Z5%
75.0%
~601---~~.-~---~~-~-~~~--+-~~~-~~~~i
~
e
::I
~401---+---~'
j
20
0~----~----~------~----~8~----~lb----~1~2----~'4~----~6----~e
Height Above Bottom of Oil Zone: Feet
FIG. 4.-SATURATION HISTORY OF OIL-BEARING SAND UNDER WATER FLOOD.
i~ Legend:
Porosity = 20 %
t---
.~
~
~20
~
~ 10
-- ~
0=107
r\ 0=20./
'\ 0=30 J '-0=40
100 200
\
300 400 ~
Distance
\ 600 700
\
800 900 1000
upward or gas downward to displace oil, ture and permeability from adjacent beds,
the capillary and gravitational effects to conditions such as more permeable or
oppose each other and tend somewhat to less permeable zones or lenses within a
cancel. At high rates of displacement the continuous sand. These lenses may be so
frictional forces may exceed both, with the small and so numerous as to constitute,
result that their effects are ob:;;cured and together with the enclosing sand, a bed of
the flow is regulated primarily by the relative very irregular properties, or they may
permeabilities and viscosities as was indi- be large and fairly uniform within them-
cated in equation 3. At extremely low selves. Since the recovery from the reservoir
displacement rates, however, the frictional as a whole depends upon the efficiency with
forces may be negligible and the balance which all parts of the sand are flushed, a
between capillary and gravitational forces study of the mechanism by which water
control the saturation distribution. In penetrates and floods irregular sand bodies
this case the vertical distribution in the is extremely important.
reservoir may remain substantially similar Prior to production the reservoir may be
to that obtained under static conditions, in assumed to be in capillary equilibrium; Le.,
which the capillary pressure is constant at a at the same horizontal level the capillary
given depth and the entire reservoir is in pressure is the same in all sands and the
capillary-gravitational equilibrium. 7 capillary pressure and gravity are balanced
vertically. At equilibrium the water satura-
CAPILLARY EFFECTS IN HETEROGENEOUS
tion throughout the reservoir is not uni-
SANDS
form, but at the same level is greater in
The effects of capillary forces are most the finer, less permeable sands. When water
noticeable in the production by water drive advances into the reservoir as a result of oil
of reservoirs containing intercommunicat- production, the level of zero capillary pres-
ing sands of variable permeability. All sure rises, creating a tendency for the
s. E. BUCKLEY AND M. C. LEVERETT
0-C
I &~-E / OC
.,
~~ .sdl
1----+----+----+--- 0 . , _ 0 a.-t--J-----i
I11/
(5
,
<n
o
<.!)
I
_0 <=1
6- "0
~
';'~c .Q '"
j
(l)CI)=
o~ - 0
~0:;:
Q,) -
~..Q 0:""
0
r---,.Eo - -g.~ r--5 ~ ~- ~c
//
.3<t20 6::>0
,
.Q ~~ 'g it ~
0
~.Ee ~g
--(/) '" 0
0 C 0
'"
C
0::
o
C
~
.2 ~
.,
0:0=0
E ~o. 00.
_~a::E -.~!~ ~.g CI) ~.~
(5
, ~~'5 gJ::o
1~~~T2
<n
o
<.!)
a:&G3"
I ~3~ 6~&
i
~
I
_L
I I /
I I V
I
--- ~
sure, water saturation, and permeability ing the behavior of a small lens of tight, fine
is such that the tendency is for the fine sand embedded in a coarse, more permeable
sands always to maintain higher water sand at some distance above the original
saturations at equilibrium than the ad- water table. If the rate of production is
jacent coarse sands at the same level. such that the water table rises slowly
The complexity of natural reservoirs pro- enough to permit the maintenance of capil-
hibits the formulation of any single quan- lary equilibrium, the water saturation in
titative expression relating over-all flushing the coarse sand will gradually increase
II6 MECHANISM OF FLUID DISPLACEMENT IN SANDS
simultaneously with the rise in the water assumes the sharp front described in the
table. As the water saturation in the first part of this paper. Instead of a con-
adjacent coarse sand increases, the tight tinuous increase in water saturation, no
lens will imbibe water and expel oil, both sensible increase takes place until just be-
fore the advancing water front reaches a
given position, whereupon the water satu-
ration rises rapidly during the initial phase
of the displacement. Under such conditions
the tight lens just considered will have no
opportunity to imbibe water from the
beginning of production, but will become
somewhat suddenly surrounded by a zone
of high water saturation when it is reached
by the flood. Oil may then escape from the
tight sand exclusively by counterflow of
water and oil between the two sands, an
exchange that is slow at best. Furthermore,
any oil that escapes from the tight lens may
enter the surrounding coarse sand so slowly
and into a region of such high water satura-
tion that this oil will not be recovered. Thus,
although in time the lens undoubtedly will
expel its oil and become substantially
water-saturated. as a practical matter it
may be considered that the oil was trapped
and lost. The conditions under both low
and high displacement rates are illustrated
b- High Production Rate in Fig. 8. For this particular situation, it
is evident that the slower the rate of
water advance, the higher the recovery.
It is readily apparent that in any natural
FIG. S.-EFFECT OF PROD1.:cTIOK RATE 0"
FLOODING OF OIL BY WATER FRO,,[ A I.my- reservoir composed of heterogeneous sands
PERMEABILITY LENS. the over-all recovery is related to the rate
by absorbing water at the bottom and of advance of the water. The magni-
expelling oil at the top and by counterflow tude of the effect depends upon the degree
of water and oil over the entire surface of and nature of the irregularities of the sand
the lens, tending always to maintain a and upon the viscosity of the oil.
higher water saturation than that reached
REFERENCES
by the surrounding coarse sand. Thus the
1. R. J. Schilthuis: Trans. A.I.M.E. (1938) 127. I9<;).
tight sand will at all times be more com- 2. R. D. Wyckoff and H. G. Botset: Physics (1936) 7.
pletely flushed than the coarse sand and 325.
3. H. G. Botset: Trans. A.I.M.E. (1940) 136.91.
will become depleted while oil is still flowing 4. M. C. Leverett: Trans. A.I.M.R (1939) 132. 149.
5. M. C. Leverett and W. B. Lewis: Trans. A.I.M.E.
in the surrounding sand. (1941) 142.107.
6. T. V. Moore: A Review of the Principles of Oil
The higher the rate of production the Reservoir Performance. Amer. Petro lnst. loth
Mid-year Meeting. Fort Worth. 1940.
more nearly the advancing water table 7. M. C. Leverett: Trans. A.I.M.E. (1941) 142.152.