Programa

1. Introduo aos circuitos elctricos

2. Grafos e circuitos resistivos lineares
3. Circuitos dinmicos lineares
4. Regime forado sinusoidal
Amplitudes complexas (Phasors)
Diagramas vectoriais
Potncia instantnea, mdia, eficaz, complexa
Factor de potncia
5. Anlise no domnio da frequncia complexa
6. Circuitos resistivos no-lineares
 STEADY-STATE POWER ANALYSIS
LEARNING GOALS
1. Instantaneous Power
For the special case of steady state sinusoidal signals

2. Average Power
Power absorbed or supplied during one cycle

3. Maximum Average Power Transfer

When the circuit is in sinusoidal steady state

4. Effective or RMS Values

For the case of sinusoidal signals

5. Power Factor
A measure of the angle between current and voltage phasors

Complex Power Correction

6. Power Factor
Measure of power
How to improve usingtransfer
power phasorsto a load by aligning phasors

7. Single Phase Three-Wire Circuits

Typical distribution method for households and small loads
INSTANTANEOUS POWER LEARNING EXAMPLE

Instantaneous Assume : v (t ) = 4 cos( t + 60),

Power Supplied Z = 230
to Impedance Find : i ( t ), p(t )
V 460
p(t ) = v (t )i (t ) I= = = 230( A)
Z 230
i ( t ) = 2 cos( t + 30)( A)
VM = 4, v = 60
In steady State I M = 2, i = 30
v (t ) = VM cos( t + v )
p(t ) = 4 cos 30 + 4 cos(2 t + 90)
i ( t ) = I M cos( t + i )
p(t ) = VM I M cos( t + v ) cos( t + i )
cos 1 cos 2 = [cos(1 2 ) + cos(1 + 2 )]
1
2
p(t ) = M M [cos( v i ) + cos(2 t + v + i )]
V I
2
constant Twice the
frequency
AVERAGE POWER LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the average
For sinusoidal (and other periodic signals) power absorbed
we compute averages over one period + by impedance
t 0 +T VR
1 2
P=
T p(t )dt T=

t0

VM I M
p( t ) = [cos( v i ) + cos(2 t + v + i )]
2
1060 1060
V I
P = M M cos( v i ) It does not matter I= = = 3.5315( A)
2 who leads 2 + j 2 2 245
VM = 10, I M = 3.53, v = 60, i = 15
If voltage and current are in phase
1
v = i P = VM I M Purely P = 35.3 cos( 45) = 12.5W
2 resistive
Since inductor does not absorb power
If voltage and current are in quadrature one can use voltages and currents across
the resistive part
v i = 90 P = 0 Purely
inductive or 2
VR = 1060 = 7.0615(V )
capacitive 2 + j2
1
P = 7.06 3.53W
2
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the average power absorbed by each resistor,
the total average power absorbed and the average power
supplied by the source

Inductors and capacitors do not absorb

power in the average
Ptotal = 18 + 28.7W

Psupplied = Pabsorbed Psupplied = 46.7W

Verification
I = I1 + I 2 = 345 + 5.3671.57
If voltage and current are in phase
1 1 2 2 I = 8.1562.10( A)
v = i P = VM I M = RI1M = 1 V M
2 2 VM I M
1245
2 R P= cos( v i )
I1 = = 345( A) 2
4 1
Psupplied = 12 8.15 cos(45 62.10)
1 2
P4 = 12 3 = 18W
2
1245 1245
I2 = = = 5.3671.57( A)
2 j1 5 26.37
1
P2 = 2 5.362 (W ) = 28.7W
2
LEARNING EXTENSION Find average power absorbed by each resistor

I j4 4 90
I2 = I= 2.6886.6
1260 4 j4 4 2 45
I=
Zi I 2 = 1.9041.6
1
I2 P4 = 4 1.902 (W )
2

Z i = 2 + (4 || j 4)

4( j 4) 8 j8 j16 25.3 71.6

Zi = 2 + = =
4 j4 4 j4 4 2 45
Z i = 4.47 26.6
1260
I= = 2.6886.6( A)
4.47 26.6
1 2 1
P2 = RI M = 2 2.682 = 7.20W
2 2
LEARNING EXTENSION Find the AVERAGE power absorbed by each PASSIVE
component and the total power supplied by the source
1
P4 = 4 4.122 (W )
I1 2
+ I2
Pj 2 = 0(W )
Vs

Power supplied by source
4 + j2
I1 = 1030 Method 1. Psupplied = Pabsorbed
3 + 4 + j2
4.4726.57 Psupplied = P3 + P4 = 90.50W
I1 = 1030 = 6.1440.62( A)
7.2815.95
Method 2: 1
1 2 1 P = VM I M cos( v i )
P3 = RI M = 3 6.142 (W ) 2
2 2 Vs = 3 I1 = 18.4240.62
1
I 2 = 1030 6.1440.62 P = 18.42 10 cos(40.62 30)
2
3 3030
I2 = 1030 =
3 + 4 + j2 7.2815.95
= 4.1214.05( A)
 LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine average power absorbed or supplied by each
element
1230 60 10.39 + j 6 6
I3 = = = 6 j 4.39
j1 j
= 7.43 36.19( A)
1
P60 = 6 7.43 cos(0 + 36.19) = 18W
2
Passive sign convention
1230
I2 = = 630( A) I1 = I 2 + I 3 = 5.20 + j 3 + 6 j 4.39 = 11.2 j1.39( A)
2
= 11.28 7.07
1 2 1
P2 = RI M = 2 62 = 36(W ) 1
2 2 P1230 = 12 11.28 cos(30 + 7.07)
2
Pj1 = 0 = 54(W ) = 36 + 18
To determine power absorbed/supplied
by sources we need the currents I1, I2

Average Power For resistors

1 2
P = VM I M cos( v i ) P = 1 RI 2 = 1 VM
2 M
2 2 R
 Determine average power absorbed/supplied by each
LEARNING EXTENSION
element
V4 1
P120 = 19.92 12 cos(54.5 0) = 69.4(W )
2
1
I2 P430 = 4 (9.97) cos(30 204) = 19.8(W )
2
I1
Check: Power supplied =power absorbed

Loop Equations
I1 = 120
Alternative Procedure
430 = j 2 I 2 + 4( I 2 + 120)
Node Equations
430 480 3.46 + j 2 48
I2 = = V V 430
4 j2 4.47 26.57 120 + 4 + 4 =0
4 j2
44.58177.43 430 V4
I2 = = 9.97204( A) I2 =
4.47 26.57 2j
V4 = 4( I1 + I 2 ) = 4(12 + 9.97204)(V )
= 4(12 9.108 j 4.055)(V ) = 19.92 54.5(V )
1 VM2 1 19.922 Average Power For resistors
P4 = = = 49.6W 2
2 R 2 4 1 1 1 V
P = VM I M cos( v i ) P = RI M =
2 M
P 2 j = 0(W ) 2 2 2 R
LEARNING EXTENSION Determine average power absorbed/supplied by each
element
V 240 V 24 14.77 j1.85
I1 = = = 4.62 j 0.925
2 2
I1 = 4.71 11.32( A)
I1
120 V 12 14.77 + j1.85 j
I2 I2 = =
j2 j2 j
1.85 + j 2.77
I2 = = 0.925 + j1.385( A) = 1.67123.73( A)
2
1
Node Equation P2 = 2 4.712 = 22.18(W ) For resistors
2
V 240 V 120 V 1 14.882 1 2 1 VM2
+ + = 0 j4 P4 = = 27.67(W ) P = RI M =
2 j2 4 2 4 2 2 R
2 j (V 24) + 2(V 12) + jV = 0 1
P120 = 12 1.67 cos(0 123.73) = 5.565(W )
2
(2 + 3 j )V = 24 + j 48 1
24 + j 48 2 j 3 192 + j 24 P 24 0 = 24 4.71 cos(0 + 11.32) = 55.42(W )
V= = 2
2 + j3 2 j3 13 Average Power Check :
= 14.887.125(V ) 1 Pabsorbed = 22.18 + 27.67 + 5.565(W )
P = VM I M cos( v i )
= 14.77 + j1.85(V ) 2 Psupplied = 55.42(W )
 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
ZTH = RTH + jX TH
1 | Z L || VOC |2 RL
PL =
2 | Z L + ZTH |2 RL2 + X L2

Z L + ZTH = ( RL + RTH ) + j ( X L + X TH )
| Z L + ZTH |2 = ( RL + RTH ) 2 + ( X L + X TH ) 2

Z L = RL + jX L
1 | VOC |2 RL
1 PL =
PL = VLM I LM cos(VL I L ) 2 ( RL + RTH ) 2 + ( X L + X TH ) 2
2
PL
1 = 0
= | VL || I L | cos(VL I L ) X L X L = X TH
2
PL
VL =
ZL
VOC | VL |= ZL = 0 RL = RTH
Z L + ZTH
| VOC | RL
Z L + ZTH
V L I L = V L Z L |V | Z Lopt = ZTH
*

IL = | I L |= L
Z L V I = Z L | ZL | 1 | VOC |2
L L PLmax =
2 4 RTH
Z L = RL + jX L tan(Z L ) = X L
RL
1 RL
cos = cos(VL I L ) =
1 + tan 2 RL2 + X L2
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load

1 | VOC |2
Z Lopt = *
ZTH PLmax =
2 4 RTH

Remove the load and determine the Thevenin equivalent of remaining circuit

8 + j 4 (8 + j 4)(6 j1) 52 + j16

ZTH = 4 || (2 + j1) = = =
6 + j1 37 37
8 + j 4 8.9426.57
= = = 1.4716.93
6 + j1 6.089.64
Z L* = 1.47 16.93 = 1.41 j 0.43

2 320
I1 VOC = 4 40 = = 5.26 9.64
6 + j1 6.089.64

1 5.262
PLmax = = 2.45(W )
2 4 1.41
We are asked for the value of the
power. We need the Thevenin voltage
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load

1 | VOC |2
Z Lopt = *
ZTH PLmax =
2 4 RTH

Circuit with dependent sources!

VOC
ZTH =
I SC

40 = V x' + ( 2 + j 4) I1
KVL V X' = 2 I1
40 = (4 + j 4) I1 = ( 4 245) I1
40
I1 = = 0.707 45( A)
4 245
KVL
VOC = 2 I1 40 = 1 j1 4 = 3 j1 = 10 161.5
Next: the short circuit current ...
LEARNING EXAMPLE (continued)... 1 | VOC |2
Z Lopt = *
ZTH PLmax =
2 4 RTH
Original circuit LOOP EQUATIONS FOR SHORT
CIRCUIT CURRENT
V x" + j 4 I + 2( I I SC ) 4 = 0
40 + 2( I SC I ) j 2 I SC = 0
CONTROLLING VARIABLE
V x" = 2( I SC I )
Substitute and rearrange

(4 + j 4) I 4 I SC = 4
2 I + (2 j 2) I SC = 4 I = (1 j1) I SC + 2

4(1 + j )[(1 j ) I SC + 2] 4 I SC = 4
I SC = 1 j 2( A) = 5 116.57
VOC = 2 I1 40 = 1 j1 4 = 3 j1 = 10 161.57
ZTH = 2 45 = 1 j1 Z Lopt = 1 + j1

1 ( 10 ) 2
PLmax = = 1.25(W )
2 4
LEARNING EXTENSION Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load
1 | VOC |2
Z L = ZTH
opt *
PL =
max

2 4 RTH

4j
ZTH = j 2 + (2 || j 2) = j 2 +
2 + j2
4 8 j8
ZTH = = = 1 j ()
2 + j2 8

VOC = 120 + j 2 I
Z Lopt = 1 + j ()
+ = 12 + j 2 9(1 j )
= 6 + j18
VOC 1 360
VOC = 18.97471.57(V ) PLmax = = 45(W )
2 4
I
| VOC |2 = 62 + 182 = 360

360 = ( 2 + j 2) I
36( 2 j 2)
I= = 9(1 j ) = 12.73 45
8
LEARNING EXTENSION Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load
1 | VOC |2
Z L = ZTH
opt *
PL =
max

2 4 RTH

ZTH

j 2 ( 2 j 2)
V j2 ZTH = j 2 || ( 2 j 2) =
2 + j2 j2
KVL
+ ZTH = 2 + j 2()
VOC
Z Lopt = 2 j 2()

1 720
j2 PLmax = = 45(W )
V j2 = 240 = 2490 2 4 2
j2 j2 + 2
VOC = 120 + 2490 = 12 + j 24(V )
| VOC |2 = 12 2 + 24 2 = 720
 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUES

i (t ) Instantane ous power If the current is sinusoidal the average

power is known to be P = 1 I 2 R
p( t ) = i 2 ( t ) R av
2
M

1 2
R I eff
2
= IM
2
For a sinusoidal signal
The effective value is the equivalent DC x (t ) = X M cos( t + )
value that supplies the same average power the effective value is
X
X eff = M
If current is periodic with period T 2
1
t 0 +T 1 t 0 +T 2
Pav =
T

p(t )dt = R T i (t )dt 1
For sinusoidal case Pav = VM I M cos( v i )
t0 t0 2
I eff : Pav = Pdc
If current is DC (i (t ) = I dc ) then Pav = Veff I eff cos( v i )
Pdc = RI dc
2

effective rms (root mean square)

t 0 +T t 0 +T
1 1
I eff = i
2
= (t )dt
2 2 (t )dt
I eff i
T t0
T t0
Nota: rede 230 V (AC) => Vm aprox 325 V
Definition is valid for ANY periodic
signal with period T
LEARNING EXAMPLE Compute the rms value of the voltage waveform

t 0 +T
T =3 1
= x
2
X rms (t )dt
T t0

One period The two integrals have the

same value
4t 0 < t 1

v (t ) = 0 1< t 2
4 ( t 2) 2 < t 3

T 1 3

v (t )dt = (4t ) dt + (4( t 2)) 2 dt

2 2

0 0 2
3 1
16 3 32
= 3 t = 3
2
v ( t ) dt 2
0 0

1 32
Vrms = = 1.89(V )
3 3
LEARNING EXAMPLE Compute the rms value of the voltage waveform and use it to
determine the average power supplied to the resistor

T = 4( s ) i (t )
R = 2

R
t 0 +T
1
= x
2
i 2 (t ) = 16; 0 t < 4 X rms (t )dt
T t0
I rms = 4( A)

Pav = RI rms
2
= 32(W )
LEARNING EXTENSION Compute rms value of the voltage waveform

T =4 t 0 +T
1
= x
2
X rms (t )dt
T t0

v = 2t

2
12 1 8
Vrms = ( 2 t ) 2
dt = t 3 = (V )
40 3 0 3
LEARNING EXTENSION Compute the rms value for the current waveforms and use
them to determine average power supplied to the resistor
t 0 +T
i (t ) 1
= x
2
X rms (t )dt
T t0

R = 4 R Pav = I rms
2
R

T =6
1 2 4 6
8 + 32 + 8
2
I rms = 4dt + 16dt + 4dt = =8 P = 8 4 = 32(W )
6 0 2 4 6

T =8

1 2 6

2
I rms = 16dt + 16dt = 8 P = 32(W )
8 0 4
 THE POWER FACTOR

+
I M i V
Z L V z
M v
I

v
i
V = ZI V = Z + I
v = z + i
1 Papparent = Vrms I rms
P = VM I M cos( v i ) = Vrms I rms cos( v i )
2
P
pf = = cos( v i ) = cos z P = Vrms I rms pf
Papparent 90 z < 0
current leads
pf z
(capacitiv e)
0 90 pure capacitive
0 < pf < 1 90 < z < 0 leading or capacitive
1 0 resistive 0 < z 90
V
0 < pf < 1 0 < z < 90 lagging or inductive current lags
0 90 pure inductive (inductive )
 LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the power supplied by the power company.
Determine how it changes if the power factor is changed to 0.9
P = Vrms I rms pf

cos z = 0.707 z = 45
Current lags the voltage

Power company 480(V ) rms

88 103 (W )
I rms = = 259.3( A) rms
480 0.707
Plosses = I rms
2
R = 259.33 0.08 = 5.378kW 259.3 45( A) rms
VSrms = 0.08 I rms + VL
PS = Plosses + 88,000(W ) = 93.378(kW )
= 0.08 259.3 45 + 480
VSrms = 0.08 (183.4 j183.4) + 480
If pf=0.9
= 494.7 j14.7 = 495 1.7(V )
88,000
I rms = = 203.7( A)rms If pf=0.9
480 0.9
I rms = 203.7 25.8
Plosses = I rms
2
R = 3.32kW
VS = 14.47 j 7.09 + 480 = 494 0.82
Losses can be reduced by 2kW!
Examine also the generated voltage
LEARNING EXTENSION
PL = 100kW ,VL = 480(V )rms , pf = 0.707
P = Vrms I rms pf
Rline = 0.1
Determine the power savings if the power factor can be increased to 0.94
P
I rms =
Vrms pf
P 2 Rline 1
Plosses = 2
I rms =
Rline 2

Vrms pf 2
1010 0.1 1
Plosses ( pf = 0.707) = 2
2
(W )
480 0.707
= 2 4.34kW
1010 0.1 1
Plosses ( pf = 0.94) = (W )
4802 0.942
= 1.13 4.34kW

Psaved = 0.87 4.34kW = 3.77 kW

Definition of Complex Power
COMPLEX POWER
S = Vrms I rms
*

The units of apparent

and reactive power are inductive
Volt-Ampere

| S |= Vrms I ms
S = Vrms v [I rms i ]* | S |= P pf
capacitive
S = Vrms I rms v i
S = Vrms I rms cos( v i ) + j Vrms I rms sin( v i ) Another useful form
Vrms = ZI rms S = ( ZI rms ) I rms
*
= Z | I rms |2
P Q
Active Power P = R | I rms |2
Reactive Power Z = R + jX
Q = X | I rms |2
ANALYSIS OF BASIC COMPONENTS
RESISTORS

Q=0

INDUCTORS

CAPACITORS

Supplies reactive power!!

WARNING ( IF X 0)
 LEARNING EXAMPLE
Given :
PL = 20kW , pf = 0.8 lagging ,VL = 2200rms , Z L = 0.09 + j 0.3, f = 60 Hz
Determine the voltage and power factor at the input to the line

inductive

inductive

P = Re{S} =| S | cos( v i ) =| S | pf

capacitive

Q 2 = S L P 2 Q = 15kVA S L = 20 + j15(kVA) = 2536.87

2

S L = VL I L* VS = 248.63 + j 21.14 = 249.534.86

*
S 25,00036.87
*
VS
IL = L = = 113.64 36.86( A) 4.86
VL 2200
* IL 36.86
20,000 + j15,000
IL = = 90.91 j 68.18( A)
220 pf source = cos( 41.72) = 0.746
VS = (0.09 + j 0.3) I L + 2200 lagging
VS = (0.09 + j 0.3)(90.91 j 68.18) + 220(V )
LEARNING EXAMPLE Compute the average power flow between networks
Determine which is the source
j1

V A = 12030(V ) rms VB = 1200(V )rms

V A VB 12030 1200
I= =
Z j1
(103.92 + j 60) 120
I= = 60 + j16.08( A)rms
j
I = 62.1215( A)rms
S A = V A ( I )* = 12030 62.12 195 = 7,454 165VArms Passive sign convention.
Power received by A
PA = 7,454 cos(165) = 7,200(W )
S B = VB ( I )* = 1200 62.12 15 = 7,454 15VArms
PB = 7,454 cos(15) = 7,200(W )

A supplies 7.2kW average power to B

 LEARNING EXTENSION Determine real and reactive power losses and
real and reactive power supplied
0.1 j 0.25
inductive

40kW
pf = 0.84 lagging

P = Re{S} =| S | cos( v i ) =| S | pf
P 40 capacitive
| S L |= = = 47.62kVA | QL |= | S L |2 P 2 = 25,839(VA)
pf .84
|S |
S = VI * | I L |= L = 216.45( A) rms
| VL | I L = 216.45 32.86( A) rms
pf = cos( v i ) v i = 32.86
Slosses = ( Z line I L ) I L* = Z line | I L |2
Slosses = (0.1 + j 0.25)(216.45) 2 = 4,685 + j11,713VA
Balance of power
Ssupplied = Slosses + Sload
= 4.685 + j11.713 + 40 + j 25.839 = 44.685 + j 37.552kVA
LEARNING EXTENSION Determine line voltage and power factor at the supply end

0.12 j 0.18

60kW
pf = 0.85 lagging

P = Re{S} =| S | cos( v i ) =| VL | | I L | pf
S L = VL I L* | I L |=
P
= 320.86( A) rms
| VL | pf
v i = cos 1 ( pf ) v i = 31.79
I L = 320.86 31.79( A) rms = 272.72 j169.03( A) rms
VS = Zline I L + VL = (0.12 + j 0.18)(272.72 j169.03) + 220
VS = 283.15 + j 28.81(V ) rms = 284.615.81(V ) rms VS
5.81
The phasor diagram helps in visualizing VL
the relationship between voltage and current IL 31.79

pf source = cos(37.6) = 0.792

lagging
 1
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION VL = I capacitor
j C
Without capacitor :
Low power factors increase Sold = Pold + jQold =| Sold | old
losses and are penalized by pf old = cos( old )
energy companies Qcapacitor =| VL || I capacitor |
With capacitor
Typical industrial loads =| VL |2 C
are inductive Snew = S old + Scapacitor
= Pold + jQold jQcapacitor
=| Snew | new Qold Qcapacitor
tan new =
pfnew = cos( new ) Pold
1
cos =
1 + tan 2
Simple approach to power factor correction
 LEARNING EXAMPLE Economic Impact of Power Factor Correction

Operating Conditions

Current Monthly Utility Bill

Correcting to pf=0.9

New demand charge

Additional energy charge due to capacitor bank is negligible

Monthly savings are approx $1853 per month! A reasonable capacitor bank should
Itself in about a year
 f = 60Hz.
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the capacitor required to increase the power factor
to 0.95 lagging

Roto-molding 50kW ,VL = 2200rms

process pf = 0.8 lagging

P = Re{S} =| S | cos( v i ) =| S | pf
P 50
| Sold |= = = 62.5kVA | Qold |= | Sold |2 P 2 = 37.5( kVA).
pf .80
1 pf new
2
Q
cos new = 0.95 tan new = = 0.329 = new Qnew = 0.329 P = 16.43kVA
pf new P
Qcapacitor = Qold Qnew = 37.5 16.43 = 21.07 kVA

Qcapacitor =| VL || I capacitor | Qcapacitor 21.07 103

C = = = 0.001156( F ) = 1156 F
=| VL |2 C | VL |2
( 220) (2 60)
2
 LEARNING EXTENSION Determine the capacitor necessary to increase the
power factor to 0.94
PL = 100kW ,VL = 480(V )rms , pf = 0.707
Rline = 0.1, f = 60 Hz
P = Re{S} =| S | cos( v i ) =| S | pf
P 100
| Sold |= = = 141.44kVA | Qold |= | Sold |2 P 2 = 100.02( kVA).
pf .707

1 pf new
2
Q
cos new = 0.94 tan new = = 0.363 = new Qnew = 0.363 P = 36.3kVA
pf new P
Qcapacitor = Qold Qnew = 100.02 36.3 = 63.72kVA

Qcapacitor =| VL || I capacitor | Qcapacitor 63.72 103

C = = = 0.000733( F ) = 733 F
=| VL |2 C | VL |2
(480) ( 2 60)
2
 SINGLE-PHASE THREE-WIRE CIRCUITS
Power circuit normally General
used for residencial balanced
supply case

Line-to-line used An exercise in

to supply major symmetry
appliances (AC, dryer).
Line-to-neutral for lights
and small appliances
General case by source
superposition

Basic circuit.

Neutral
current
is zero

Neutral current is zero

 LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine energy use over a 24-hour period and the cost
if the rate is $0.08/kWh
Assume all
resistive Lights on
= 1Arms
= 30 Arms

P = Vrms I rms

I aA
31A
= 0.2 Arms
1A
Stereo on
KCL
Energy = p(t )dt = Paverage Time Outline of
I aA = I L + I R verification
E lights = 0.12kW 8 Hr + 0.12kW 7 Hr = 1.8kWh I bB = I S I R
E range = 7.2kW (2 + 1 + 1) Hr = 28.8kWh I nN = I S I L
E stereo = 0.024kW (5 + 3) Hr = 0.192kWh
Edaily = 30.792kWh Cost = $2.46 / day Esupplied = psupplied = Vrms I rms dt
 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Average effect of 60Hz current from hand to

hand and passing the heart

Required voltage depends on contact, person

and other factors

Typical residential circuit with ground and

neutral
Ground conductor is not needed for
normal operation
LEARNING EXAMPLE Increased safety due to grounding

When switched on the tool case is energized

without the ground connector the

user can be exposed to the full
supply voltage!

Conducting due to wet floor

If case is grounded then the supply is shorted and the fuse acts to open
the circuit

More detailed numbers in a related case study

LEARNING EXAMPLE
Wet
skin

150 400 150

Limbs
trunk
Ground prong removed

R(dry skin) 15kOhm 1

R(wet skin) 150Ohm
R(limb) 100Ohm 120
R(trunk) 200Ohm I body = = 171mA
701
Suggested resistances
Can cause ventricular fibrillation
for human body
LEARNING EXAMPLE Ground Fault Interrupter (GFI)

In normal operating mode the two currents induce canceling magnetic fluxes

No voltage is induced in the sensing coil

If i1 and i2 become different (e.g., due to a fault)

then there is a voltage induced in the sensing coil
LEARNING EXAMPLE A ground fault scenario

While boy is alone in the pool

there is no ground connection

x
Ground Vinyl lining (insulator)
fault

Circuit formed when boy in

water touches boy holding
grounded rail
LEARNING EXAMPLE Accidental grounding
Only return path in normal
150mA operation

New path created by the

grounding

Using suggested values of resistance the

secondary path causes a dangerous current
to flow through the body
LEARNING EXAMPLE A grounding accident
After the boom touches the live line the operator jumps down and starts walking
towards the pole

7200 V

Ground is not a perfect

conductor

10m
720V/m
One step applies 720 Volts to the
operator
LEARNING EXAMPLE A 7200V power line falls on the car and makes contact with it

7200V
Car body is good conductor

Tires are
insulators Wet Road

Option 1. Option 2:
Driver opens door and steps down Driver stays inside the car

R(dry skin) 15kOhm

R(wet skin) 150Ohm Ibody = 0
7200
Ibody = R(limb) 100Ohm
Rdry skin + 2 Rlimb + Rtrunk R(trunk) 200Ohm

I 460mA Very dangerous! Suggested resistances

for human body
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the maximum cord length
Rcord 13.1A = 5V
Rcord = 0.382

Minimum voltage for proper

operation

CASE 1: 16-gauge wire

m CASE 2: 14-gauge wire 2.5
m
4
ft ft
Rcord
L= = 95.5 ft L=
Rcord
= 152.8 ft
4 m ft m
2.5 ft

Working with RMS values the problem is formally the same as a DC problem
LEARNING EXAMPLE Light dimming when AC starts

40 A

I light 0.5 Arms V AN 100Vrms

Circuit at start of AC unit. Current

Typical single-phase 3-wire installation demand is very high

240
V AN = 120 = 119.5Vrms V AN 115Vrms
241

AC off AC in normal operation

LEARNING EXAMPLE DRYER HEATING AND TEMPERATURE CONTROL

Temperature is controlled by disconnecting the heating

element and letting it cool off.
Safety switch in case control
Vary power to thermostat fails.
heater

If temperature from dryer is high

than the one from thermostat th
open switch and allow heater to
cool off
LEARNING BY DESIGN Analysis of single phase 3-wire circuit installations
I a = 41.670 + 41.670 + 41.67 36.9 = 119.4 12.1( A)
I m = 41.67 36.9
S A = 1200 [119.4 12.1]
*

= 14.3812.1kVA = 14 + j 3kVA
S B = 1200 [41.67 36.9 ]
*

I n = 2 41.67 5000 = 536.9kVA = 4 + j 3kVA

| I L |= =| I H |
120 Rlines = 0.05
( )
Plosses = 0.05 | I a |2 + | I b |2 + | I n |2 = 1.147 kW
Ib = Im Option 1

Ia = 41.670 + 41.6736.9 = 79.07 18.4( A)

S A = S B = 1200 [79.0718.4]
*

= 9.518.4kVA = 9 + j 3kVA
Rlines = 0.05
In = 0
IL = IH ( )
Plosses = 0.05 | I a |2 + | I b |2 = 0.625kW
Psaved = 0.522kW
Ib = Ia $ / year = 366(@ 0.08$ / kWh) Steady-state
Power Analysis
Option 2