Safety Notes

CHE 681 SAFETY & LOSS PREVENTION
Semester jan07-april07 Engr Zar

Chapter 4
TOXIC HAZARDS
A substance when introduced into or absorbed by a living organism can destroy life or injure
health.
Corrosive substance is a substance when in contact with the living tissue can destroy them.
Exposure refers to the amount of a toxic substance to which an individual is exposed
Acute implies immediate/short-term exposure duration e.g Bacterium Clostridium Botulinum
LC50 = 0.00016 mg/kg
Chronic implies persistent of prolonged or repeated harm.
The toxic chemicals can enter the body through :
(a)Respiratory system by inhalation to the lungs through nose/mouth
(b)Digestive tract by ingestion to the stomach through nose/mouth
(c)Skin including eyes when intact/damaged by absorption to the blood circulatory system
Inhalation :
(a)Air is drawn through the nose and upper respiratory tract where it is filtered and warmed to
body temperature.
(b)On reaching the lungs the oxygen passes through the walls of alveoli where it is taken up by
the blood (98% by the haemoglobin & 2% in blood plasma).
(c)Catalytic oxidation occurs on reaching the tissue to produce carbon dioxide, water and
energy.
(d)Exchange of oxygen for carbon dioxide in blood gives carboxy-hemoglobin which returns
in venous blood to the lungs for carbon dioxide - oxygen exchange across alveolar walls and
expiration of air laden with carbon dioxide.
(e)The respiration rate is controlled by a sensing carbon dioxide concentration in the venous
blood.
(f) At the upper respiratory tract, these are removed - water soluble gases, dust greater than 3
mm and mists.
Entry through digestive tract via:
(a)Material inhaled and held in or returned to the oral cavity
(b)Smoking in a contaminated atmosphere
(c)Eating and driving in contaminated surrounding.
Entry by skin (including the eyes) can occur also by many chemicals such as solvents and
pesticides for example nitro-and amino compounds, many organic solvent, acids, alkalis,
oxidizing agents and dehydrating agents.
The effect of chemicals in the body depend on:

(a)The way in which the chemical enters the body
(b)The metabolic processes within the body
(c)Dosage level
(d) Environmental consideration
(e) Physical properties of the chemical
(f) Chemical properties of the chemical
Exposure to a chemical leads to absorption into the body which leads to an effect on the body
that can be measured which leads to harm which may have an irreversible effect which leads to
disease and ultimately to death.
Explosion 1
Air borne chemicals affect the respiratory system at 3 different stages:
i) Water soluble materials such as aldehyde, ethylene oxide, alkaline dusts and mists, acid
mists, ammonia, chromic acid and chromates, hydrofluoric acid and fluorides. Hydrochloric
acid, sulphur dioxide and trioxide can cause irritant to upper respiratory tract and resulted in
inflammation, swelling or eruption of tissue.
ii) Less soluble material such as fine dust and mists, halogen gases, sulphur and phosphorus
chlorides, methyl and ethyl sulphates and ozone can cause irritation to the lungs. More harmful
chemical such as nitrogen dioxide can cause damage to alveolar walls and possibly suffocation
due to flooding of blood in lungs.
iii) Chemical asphyxiants act through reduction of partial pressure in inhaled air (alveolar).
Those are carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium, hydrogen, methane, and ethane and dinitrogen
oxide. These chemicals can cause oxygen deficiency in blood by reaction with haemoglobin,
inhibition of tissue oxidation by haemoglobin with cellular catalyst, respiratory paralysis and
destruction of blood cells. Systemic poisons dissolve in blood can affect specific organs such as
halons - intestines, aromatic hydrocarbon blood vessels, carbon disulphide, methanol,
thiophene - central nervous system, toxic metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, antimony,
manganese) - central nervous system, toxic non-metal inorganic (arsenic, phosphorous,
selenium, sulphur, fluorides central nervous system.
Toxin may be eliminated from the body through:

(a) Vomiting
(b) Breathing
(c) Urine
(d) Faeces
(e) Sweat
Dose Response Relationship

Dose Response Relationship is the basis for toxicology considerations.
The graph above is plotted from the data from the specific test conditions on test animals
reaction upon various dosages of chemicals. The dosages level are reported as:
Quantity per unit of body weight - LD
Quantity per unit of air volume respired - LC
Quantity per unit of exposed skin surface - LD
(a)LD50 - in the dose of a substance that will be fatal to 50% of a defined test animal
population by any route of body entry other than inhalation - mg/kg body weight
(b) LC50- is the lethal concentration of the substance in air that is likely to cause death to 50%
of the test animal population in a known length of time.
Explosion 2
Relative Toxicity Classification - National Safety Council US
Classification Rat Oral Rat 4 hr Rabbit Skin Equivalent
LD50 (g/kg) LC50 (ppm) LD50 (g/kg) Human Oral
LD50 (g/kg)
Extremely 0.001 1.0 0.005 1 grain

toxic
Highly toxic 0.001-0.05 10-100 0.005 - 0.043 1 tsp

Moderately 0.05-0.5 100-1000 0.044-0.34 1 oz
toxic
Slightly toxic 0.5-5 1000-104 0.35-2.81 1 pt

Pratically non- 5-15 104 -105 2.82 - 22.6 1 qt
toxic
Relatively > 15 > 10 > 22.6 > 1 qt

harmless
Some toxicity values is given below:

Chemicals LD50 mg/kg
Potassium Cyanide 10
Tetra Ethyl lead 35
Lead 100
DDT 150
Aspirin 1500
Table Salt 3000
Since low level exposure to most chemicals is not harmful, it follows that there is a threshold
level below which there is either no effect or potentially beneficial effect.
Explosion 3
Threshold Limit Value (TLV) is the minimum concentration of a substance that cause harm to a
person at the workplace.
mg/m3 = (ppm x mol.wt /24.5)
TLV - TWA - Time Weighted Average - is the concentration for a normal 8 hour workday of a
substance which all the workers may be repeatedly exposed.
n
tc
TWA i i
i 1 t i
Where ti = exposure time at concentration 1 (hr)
ci = concentration of chemicals (ppm)
TLV -STEL - concentration to which workers can be exposed continuously for a short period of
time without suffering irritation, chronic or reversible tissue damage or narcosis that could
increase the likelihood of accidental injury, impair self rescue, materially reduce work
efficiency and without exceeding the daily TWA. Time is 15 minutes or 0.25 hour
n
tc
STEL i i
i 1 0.25
TLV - C - concentration that should not be exceeded during any part of the working exposure.
When more than one hazardous substance presents the combine effect must be considered. Each
hazardous substance will contribute to the overall hazard as though the substance was
singularly present. If the sum of the mixture exceeds unity, then the threshold limit of the
mixture has been exceeded.
n
c
TLV mix i
i 1 TLV i
Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs) are reference values intended as guidelines for evaluation
of potential health hazard in the workplace. Monitoring is carried out through urine sample and
blood sample. The BEIs are level of determinants that are likely to be observed in specimens
from health workers who have been exposed to chemicals at the TLV exposure level.
The BEIs values are expressed in units that are based on the type of samples being measured.
The BEIs from urine sample are based upon mg/g of creatinine (C41-170N3). The BEIs from
blood are based upon a percent of haemoglobin. The BEIs from breath samples are in ppin of
exhaled air.
Problem 1: A worker is exposed to Toluene once a day for a 5 day working week. The average
duration of exposure to Toluene is about 3.5 hrs per day. Measurement using direct reading
equipment showed that the average concentration of Toluene is 350 ppm (Permissible Exposure
Limit = 200 ppm)
Problem 2: A worker is exposed to asbestos fibres. Results of 8 hrs for 2 samples taken are as
shown: PEL = 1 fibre / ml
Results Time
1.1 fibre/ml 200 mins
1.3 fibre/ml 230 mins
Explosion 4
What is the degree of exposure assuming similar exposure for the unmeasured time and zero
exposure for the unmeasured time period?
Explosion 5
Chapter 5
HAZARD & OPERABILITY STUDIES (HAZOP)

Is a procedure for the systematic critical examination of the operability of a process.
The potential hazard may arise from deviations from the intended design conditions
Suitable for complex processes & facilities where potemtial exists for making operability
improvement.
Provide better understanding about the plant operations & should lead to improved plant
efficiency.
A formal operability study is the systematic study of the design vessel by vessel & line by
line using Guide Words / Key Words to help generate thought about the deviations from
the intended operating conditions can cause situations
Definition:
o Node: a point to point distance where the HAZOP is considered
o Intention: define how the particular part of the process was intended to operate
o Deviations: departures from the design intentions, which are detected by the
systematic application of the guidewords
o Cause: reasons why & how the deviations can be shown to have a realistic cause it
is treated as meaningful
o Consequences: the results that follow from the occurrence of a meaningful
deviation
HAZOP PROCEDURES
1. Beginning
2. Select a vessel
3. Explain the original intention
4. Select a line
5. Explain the intention of the line
6. Apply guide word
7. Develop a meaningful deviation
8. Examine possible causes
9. Examine consequences
10. Detect hazard or operating problems
11. Make suitable records/improvement action
12. Mark line as having been examined
13. Repeat steps 6 12 for other guide words
14. Exercise end
EXAMPLE:
Explosion 6
Storage
A Valve
A
Reactor Storage C
C
Storage B
Valve
B
FAULT TREE ANALYSIS

A method by which a particular undesired system failure mode can be expressed in terms of
component failure modes and operator actions.
The system failure mode to be considered is termed top event and the fault tree is developed
in branches below this event showing its causes.
The basic gate and event symbols are shown below:
Gate Symbol Gate Name Causal Relationship
AND Gate Output event occurs if all input events
occurs simultaneously
OR Gate Output event occurs if any one of the
input event occurs
Rectangle Any event
Example 1:
Sulphuric acid is pumped from an atmospheric storage tank T1 to a pressurized process
vessel V1. Two pumps can perform this service where P2 is driven by an electric motor and
P2 is the bypass pump driven by diesel engine. In the event of emergency P2 can be
switched into service. If P2 fails the operator has 4 minutes to switch to P1 before a potential
hazard occurs. There is a low flow alarm L1 to the process vessel. The PFD is shown below
in Figure 5.1
Explosion 7
Before carry out FTA FOR FAILURE TO TRANSFER SULFURIC ACID we first must
understand:
1. Transfer failure can be due to overall storage system failure and pump system failure.
2. Storage system failure can be due to T l and V 1.
3. Pump system failure can be due to P1 and P2.
4. Failure of P1 can be due to electric failure and pump corrosion failure.
5. Failure of P2 can be due to Failure of level alarming system, starting failure, operator
error and corrosion failure.
After this, construct the FTA
Explosion 8
Explosion 9
Example 2:
Explosion 10
EVENT TREE ANALYSIS
Is an inductive logical model that identifies possible outcomes from a given initiating event
(event that initiate accident).
Begin with an initiating event and work towards a final result.
ETA considers the response of operators and safety system to the initiating event.
The method provides information on how a failure can occur and the probability of
occurrence.
This technique is best used for analyzing complex processes involving several layers of
safety systems or emergency procedures.
ETA is less comprehensive as compared to FTA because ETA only considered single
initiating event whereas FTA considered multiple failure events.
Steps to construct ETA
1. Identify initiating event.
2. Identify the safety functions to mitigate the initiating event.
3. Construct the event tree.
4. Describe accident sequence outcomes and their probabilities.
5. The outcome of the coming tree branch is the multiplication of the current outcomes and
the respective coming tree outcomes.
Example:
From the previous FTA example of acid sulfuric the following probabilities will be used in
this exercise.
1. P2-fails and becomes the initiating event. Thus probability of P2-fails is 1.0.
2. The low-level alarm L1 working successfully probability is 0.998.
3. The operator response to alarm is in success at probability 0.952.
4. The operator successfully start back P1 at 0.995.
Explosion 11
Example 2:
Explosion 12
Explosion 13
Chapter 6
RISK ASSESSMENT
Quantified Risk Assessment (QRA) is defined as the identification of causes of possible
accidents followed by a technical analysis to determine the likelihood of occurrence and
potential consequences of those accidents.
5 Specific Elements Involved:

1. Hazard identification - Check list, Preliminary Process Hazard Analysis & HAZOP.
2. Frequency estimation - Historical data, FTA & Reliability and Availability studies.
3. Consequences analysis - ETA and Incident categorization/definition.
4. Risk Evaluation - Methods Combine frequency and consequence.
5. Sensitivity analysis - to prioritize further studies of risk, evaluate the significant of risk levels
and set a schedule for implementation. Methods - Compare relative risk estimates, Prioritize
further studies and evaluate absolute uncertainty.
Elements of Risk Management Program

1. Hazard Identification
2. Risk Assessment
3. Administrative controls
4. Engineering controls
5. Emergency response planning
6. Operational and emergency training
7. Accident and incident investigation
8. Near miss review
9. Internal and external audits
10. Feedback and iteration
Explosion 14
Explosion 15
The Short-Cut Risk Assessment Method (SCRAM)
This method is to evaluate the incident scenarios within the area of identification of emergency
control, dangerous disturbance and consequence analysis. It generates a list of possible incident as
top event together with an indication of their incident scenario record on a risk evaluation sheet.
The Risk rating is = L + S
Where L = exponent of the likelihood
S = severity category
At present 5 categories are defined as assigned against likelihood varying in frequency from 1 to
10-5 per year as shown in Table below.
Table: Risk Prioritization

Severity Risk rating
category -2 -1 0 1
1 None None None C
2 None None C B
3 None C B A/B
4 C B/C B A
5 B B/C A A
A = Immediate action needed
B = Further study probably required
C = Further study may be necessary
Severity Category:
Catastrophic consequences: severity 5
1. Catastrophic damage and severe clean up cost
2. Loss of normal on site occupancy for 3 months
3. Loss of normal off site occupancy for 1 month
4. Severe national pressure to shut down
5. 3 or more fatalities of plant personnel
6. Fatality of member of public or at least 5 injuries
7. Damage to site of special scientific interest or historic buildings
8. Severe long term or environmental damage in a significant area of land
9. Acceptable frequency 0.0000 1 / yr
Severe consequences: severity 4

1. Severe damage and severe clean up cost
2. Major effect on business with loss of occupancy for 3 months
3. Possible damage to public property
4. Single fatality or injury to more than 5 plant personnel
5. A one in ten chance of public fatality
6. Short term of environmental damage over a significant area of land
7. Severe media reaction
8. Acceptable frequency 0.000 1 / yr
Major consequences: severity 3

1. Major damage and severe clean up cost
2. Minor effect on business but no loss of building occupancy
3. Injuries to less than 5 plant personnel and one in ten chance of public fatality
4. Some hospitalization of public
5. Short term of environmental damage to water land flora and fauna
6. Considerable media reaction
Explosion 16
7. Acceptable frequency 0.001 /yr
Appreciable consequences: severity 2

1. Appreciable damage to plant
2. No effect on business
3. Reportable ness misses accident under CIMAH-UK regulation
4. Injury to plant personnel
5. Minor annoyance to public
6. Acceptable frequency 0.01 / yr
Minor consequences/near misses: severity 1

1. Near miss incident with significant quality released
2. Minor damage to plant
3. No effect on business
4. Possible injury to plant personnel
5. No effect on public, possible smell
6. Acceptable frequency 0.1 / yr
RISK CRITERIA
The risk of an event is the likelihood of a specific undesired event occurring within a given
period or in particular circumstances.
The individual risk is the frequency at which an individual may be expected to sustain a given
level of harm from the realization of a specific hazard.
The societal risk is the likelihood of accidents involving multiple casualties.
Risk evaluation is the complex process of determining the significance or value of the identified
hazard or risk to those concerned with or affected by the decision.
Causes of Death in England and Wales (1985)
Death from Disease 96.8% Death from Accident and Violence 3.2%
Heart 165,000 Suicide 4,000
Other circulatory 30,000 Homicide 630
Carebrovascular 70,000 Accidents at home 4,500
Respiratory 56,400 Road accidents 5,500
Cancer 140,000 Other transport 250
Giving birth 50 Sport and recreation 200
AIDS 1800 Others 2800
Others 90,850 Accident at work 370
Lightning 1
Individual Risk (IR)

IR = FPcPp
Where: F = frequency of an undesired event
Pc= probability of the nearest person being killed
Pp=probability of that person being present
Occupational Risk (OR)
FAR (Fatality Accident Rate) is defined as the number of fatalities expected per 108 exposed
hours and correspond to the number of death among a group of 1000 workers.
FAR for some types of workers are:
Occupation Disease FAR
Shoe industry Nasal/nose cancer 6.5
Printing trade worker Lung cancer 10
Explosion 17
Uranium mining Lung cancer 70
Coal carbonizers Bronchitis cancer 140
Asbestos worker Lung cancer 160
Cadminum worker Prostate cancer 700
Nickel worker Nasal sinus cancer 330
Approximation: IR = 202 x 10-5 FAR
Societal Risk (SR)

SR is the likelihood of accidents involving multiple casualties (three or more). See the F-N
graph below. Note F refer to the frequency of events greater than or equal to the number of
fatalities N in any incident.
Criteria For Acceptable Risk
Explosion 18
Acceptable Risk Values
Tolerable refers to willingness to live with a risk to secure certain benefits and in the confidence
that it is being properly controlled. This imply that the risks should be monitored and balanced
against possible benefits and whenever possible reduce to as low as reasonably practicable /
ALARP.
Target Values of Maximum Risk Level
HSE Dangerous Dose

A dangerous dose represent a dose of toxic gas or heat from explosion which cause severe
distress to everyone. Thus for land planning the following risk categorization is used by the
Health Safety Executive UK.
Explosion 19
PLANT MAINTENANCE
Aspects to well-conceived & organized maintenance
o Long-term care of equipment, buildings and grounds
o Normal, routine attention to service and appearance
o Restoration or improvement in service and appearance
PRINCIPLES OF MAINTENANCE
Deterministic equipment problems
o Predictable over the life of the equipment
o Low uncertainty
o Pump operation, compressor operation
Probabilistic equipment problems
o Unpredictable
o The elapsed time between the maintenance activity and equipment failure can be estimated
and used to generate an optimum maintenance schedule
o Vehicle oil change, lightbulb replacement and replacement of protective coatings
Criteria for Equipment maintenance inspections
Equipment overhaul, which is part of preventive maintenance, restores and raises the equipment
and components to a much-improved condition
Effective maintenance programs should be well planned, organized, implemented, and
controlled to facilitate maintenance activities
Components of reliable maintenance programs
o Safety of maintenance personnel
o Ease of inspection and repair
o Quality of the maintenance service
o Availability of the maintenance materials
o Low equipment damage potential
o Minimal downtime for operation
o Protection of employees, facilities and surrounds
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Performance of periodic scheduled maintenance to assure optimum, cost effective, and safe
operation throughout the life expectancy of the equipment and the facility
Periodic inspection, overhaul, repairs, and replacement
Reduced unscheduled shutdowns and minimizing the system damage when equipment fail
Routine walk around inspection
Time, supplies, personnel, and money spent on preventive maintenance is much greater value
to the operating facility than all of the necessary resources spent on avoidable repairs and
cleanup
PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE
Assumes that the most equipment failures are probabilistic and indeterminate
Checking equipment at predetermined intervals
Requires accurate, reliable data and information that will be used as the basis for maintenance
decisions
UNSCHEDULED MAINTENANCE
Often costly and time-consuming
The cause should be determined and corrected through either future preventive or predictive
scheduled maintenance, if practical.
Explosion 20
TURNAROUND MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
Ideal time to overhaul major equipment
CONFINED SPACES
Have limited access and ventilation, Permit is required for entry
Tanks, silos, boilers, manholes, pipelines, process vessels
LOCKOUT AND TAGOUT PROCEDURES

All energy sources must be isolated
HOT WORK
Operation that can produce a spark or flame
Work location, wind direction, and presence of flammable
Hot work permits should be obtained before starting any work that could involve a source of
ignition
Explosion 21
Chapter 7
FIRE
Complex chemical between fuel, oxygen & heat
The typical heat of combustion:
Fuel types Heat of combustion (Btu/lb)
Coal 12,000 13,000
Hydrocarbon liquids 17,000 20,000
Hydrocarbon gases 20,000 23,000
Hydrogen 60,000
FIRE TRIANGLE CONCEPT
F He
FIRE
Oxygen
Fuel must be present in desirable concentration limit for combustion.
Oxygen supply must be above required minimum concentration levels
Ignition source must be above required temperature or energy level
Fuels Liquid (Gasoline, acetone, ether, pentane)

Solid (Plastics, wood dust, fibbers, metal particles)
Gases (Acetylene, propane, CO, H2)
Oxidizers Gases (O2, F2, Cl2)
Liquids (Hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid)
Solids (Metal peroxides, ammonium nitrite
Ignition Sparks, flames, static electricity, heat
Sources
Example: Wood, air and a match or Gasoline, air and a spark
FIRE EXTINGUISHING
Fire can be extinguished by:
o Starvation of fire separate fuel source from fire
o Smothering suffocate the fire by reducing oxygen supply
o Cooling reduce the flame temperature by using water or other means
The Fire Tetrahedron:
Oxygen Fuel
Fire
Chain Reaction Heat
Product of fire are:
o Fumes gases e.g CO2, SOX & NOX
o Smokes fine particles such as dust, carbon etc
o Heat
Explosion 22
o Light
Flammability Limit
0 Flammability limit 100
FLAMMABILITY CONCEPT
A B
C
A Highly flammable zone: very fast explosions / detonations which cannot be protected by
pressure relief system
B Flammable zone: consequences depend of various factors. Possible for relief system to
work
C Non-flammable zone: safe conditions with respect to fire
THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND INERT GAS ON FLAMMABILITY

LIMITS (FL)
Pressure
o A reduction in the static pressure below 1 atm can cause a narrowing of the
flammability limit until the limit coverage
Pressure (Psi) 14.7 500 2000 3000
Weak Limit % Fuel 4.5 4.0 3.6 3.2
Rich Limit % Fuel 14.0 52.9 59 60.0
Temperature
o Increased in T widen the flammability limit.
o Higher T will allow sufficient concentration of vapour to enable ignition to take place
when the flash point exceeded
Inert Gas
o Inert gas narrows the limit due to its suppression of flammability capability
UFL & LFL

UFL Upper Flammability Limit
LFL Lower Flammability Limit
Substances LFL (% in air) UFL (% in air)
Ethane 3.0 12.5
LFLi = vapour pressure at flash point/760mmHg
Log VP = A B/(T+C)
Explosion 23
1 1
LFLmix UFLmix n
n
yi

yi
LFL
i 1 i 1 UFLI
I
Flash point is a point where it indicates the T at which a liquid will give off enough
flammable vapour to ignite.
CATEGORY OF CERTAIN CHEMICAL

Compound Flammability Category
Methane Highly flammability
Chloro-Methane Flammable
Dicholoro-Methane Less Flammable
Chloroform Not flammable
Carbon Tetrachloride Fire Extinguisher
FLAMMABLE & COMBUSTIBLE LIQUID CLASSIFICATIONS

Class Definition
Flammable IA Flash point < 73F, Boiling Point < 100F
Flammable IB Flash point < 73F, Boiling Point >= 100F
Flammable IC 73F<= Flash point < 100F
Flammable II 100F<= Flash point < 140F
Flammable IIIA 140F<= Flash point < 200F
Flammable IIIB Flash point >= 200F
SOURCE OF IGNITION
Maintenance / construction flame
Naked flames, embers and fires
Frictional heat or sparks
Transport vehicles or other engines
Electrical equipment or wiring and batteries
Electrostatic discharges
Smoking materials, matches and lighters
Lightning, sun on glass
Heat sources
Spontaneous heating and exothermic reaction
Welding and cuttings
Hot surfaces
TYPES OF FIRES
Jet Fires
o Occurs when a flammable liquid or gas is ignited after it is released from a
pressurized or punctured vessel or pipe.
o The pressure generates a long-flame which is stable under most conditions
o For a two-phase jet, a part of the liquid may rain-out onto the floor and give rise to
pool fire.
o The duration of the fire is depends on the release rate and sources capacity and the
flame length is directly proportional to the flow rate.
Explosion 24
Flash Fire
o When a cloud of flammable gas and air is ignited.
o The speed of burning is a function of gas concentration and wind speed.
o The common example is fire due to gas leak and mistakenly ignited using the
cigarettes lighter.
o Damage is caused by thermal radiation and oxygen sudden depletion.
o Typical flame propagation is 4 m/s and increased with wind speed.
o Flash fire is transient (short period) in nature and the steady burning period is even
shorter and thus it is difficult to determine its emissive powers and incipient fluxes.
Pool Fires
o Occur on ignition of an accumulation of liquid as a pool on the ground or on water
or other liquid.
o A steady state burning is rapidly achieved as the flame vapor to sustain the fire is
provided by evaporation of the liquid by heat from the flames.
L = Flame length (m)

= Tilt angle from vertical
D = pool diameter (m)
D* = elongated flame length due to wind
o Correlation by Thomas for length of flame:
0.6
Ma
L 42 D

a gD
Ma = burning rate per unit area kg/m2/s
g = 9.81 m/s2
Explosion 25
a = ambient air density = 1.206 kg/m3
o For non circular pool fire, an effective pool diameter
De 4 area of pool /
0.5

o The tilt angle:
cos1 U mg / D 0.333
0.5
U = wind speed, m/s

= Vapour density, kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
m = mass burning rate of fuel, kg/s
o The elongated flame dimension in the direction of the wind (D*) to the diameter of
the pool (D) to the Froude Number (FR):
D * / d 1.5( FR) 0.069
FR U R / gD
FIRE IN THE PROCESS INDUSTRIES
Fire damage occurs more frequency than losses by explosion but the explosion is generally
less extensive.
Pool fire is less dangerous than flash fire but longer in duration.
Possibility of fire Hazard:
1) Stored raw materials and products and packing materials not properly segregated
according to their category.
2) Combustible insulation materials made for vessels, pipeline and cables.
3) Combustible building construction and linings.
Protection can be achieved by:
1) Elimination or segregation of combustible materials
2) Use of incombustible materials for construction and insulation of vessels
3) Control of ignition sources
4) Stringent operational procedures
5) Automatic detection and extinguish of fire
6) Incombustible and durable insulation for steel structure
7) Compliance to international code of fire protection and fire fighting
FIRE HAZARD TO PLANT

Radiation
o Radiation is a function of emissivity of the flame, the distance from the flame to the
target surface, effective fire area, the view factor, absorptivity, atmospheric
transmittance and the fraction of the combustion energy radiated. The typical flux limit
used by the industry are listed below:
Explosion 26
o A tank, which is adjacent to another, can fail due to the following:

1. Heat input raising the product surface temperature above its flash point
2. A flammable mixture reaching a source of ignition or vice versa
3. Over temperature damage to the tank shell or roof leading to the tank failure
Explosion 27
BUNDING
The purpose is to retain any liquid which has spilled from a tank so that it can be dealt
within a controlled manner. The other purposes are:
1. Permits possible recovery of the spilled materials
2. Confines and limits the area of spillage
3. Reducing environmental damage
4. Avoiding fire spread
5. It reduces material evaporation
6. Extent of any consequent flammable cloud
7. Limited the chance of ignition
8. Limited the area on fire
9. Easier to extinguish fire
Bund Specific Guidelines
1. Volume - 100% of the content of the largest tank in the farm
2. Wall - 1.8 - 2.3 meters (minimum cost)
3. Material - Concrete or compacted slope earth
4. Inter tank spacing - For pool fire:
o Low hazard material - 0.51D
o High hazard and low hazard materials - 1 D
o High hazard material - 1.5 D
o D - Tank larger diameter
THERMAL RADIATION HAZARD TO PERSONNEL

A dose of thermal radiation on human skin can bring about a thermal denaturation of
skin proteins in the epidermis and destroy the cell structure and collagen protein in the
under lying dermis layer.
Burn severity can be divided into 3 degrees:
o 1. First degree bur (1) - is a mild level causing reversible reddening (erythema).
No blister (a swell containing clear liquid on skin) formed and only the epidermis is
affected. Skin reverts to normal within 24 hours. Flaking or scaling on the skin
occurs only several days in severe case.
o 2. Second-degree burn (2) - is characterized by the formation of blister -
(vesication). The blister depth may be shallow with only the surface layer of the
skin damaged. In more severe case the whole of the dermis is damaged.
o 3.Third degree burn (3) - is a deep burn characterized by the destruction of the skin
layers and part of the subcutaneous tissue (tissue beneath skin)
THERMAL DOSE
Thermal dose = Exposure time (s) x Heat load (W/m2)4/3 x 10-4
Explosion 28
THE PROBIT APPROACH

An estimation to calculate the percentage of population exposed to adverse effect that will
suffer from a certain type of consequences.
The probit approach function that has been derived for 1 and 2 bum as well as lethality due
to heat load is given in Table 4.15.
Pr = Probit value W/m2

T = effective exposure time (s)
Q = Heat load (kW/m2)
PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE

Heat radiation
1. Seeking protection behind obstacles
2. Run away from fire
Pool and Jet Fire
1. Find shelter
2. Escapes if possible
3. Evacuate the area soonest possible
Tank Fires
Usually developed slowly and can be approached by the fire men from cross wind or up
wind direction
Flash Fire
1. Usually flame speed and spread is very fast and fumes may enter the shelter
2. Evacuation is not possible
3. Usually 20-30 minutes before BLEVE
4. A relief valve can reduce the BLEVE time further
RADIATION FROM A POOL FIRE

View factor is defined as the fraction of total radiation emitted from one surface which is
incident on another.
The flux radiated per unit area from a black body :
q T
b
4
o = Stefan-Boltzmann Constant, 5.73 x 10-8 kWm-2K-4

o T = absolute temperature, K
The flux radiated per unit area from a black body:
o And for a grey body: q T 4

, = emissivity
Explosion 29
In general radiation will fall on a target by: qt q f Ft f

o qt = radiation flux on target, kW/m2
o qf = flame surface flux, kW/m2
o Ftf = view factor
o = Atmospheric transmivity e kL / 1000
o L = distance between source & receptor, m

o k = 0, no attenuation, k = 1 km-1, light haze
k = 2 km-1, dense haze
The total incident heat flux, falling on a receptor is
q RFT 4
o R = Radiative fraction of the heat of combustion

R = 0.2 (Flares & jet flames)
R = 0.3 (Pool fires & fireballs from vessels bursting below relief valve pressure)
R = 0.4 (Fireballs from vessels bursting above relief valve pressure)
The view factor, F must be selected with great care for serious studies, 0<F<1. For spherical
source: F A /(L ) 2
A = projected surface area as viewed by the receptor
A D / 4 2
The total incident heat flux: q 94 RD2 / L2
EXPLOSION
Is a process involving the production of a pressure discontinuity blast wave resulting from a
rapid release of energy.
Explosion 30
Damages are governed by the magnitude & duration of this pressure wave.
Object /people are subjected to transient crushing pressure and transient wind
Explosion can be brought about by chemical reaction such as polymerization reaction,
exothermic reaction and others.
A detonation is a spontaneous reaction caused by temperature rise due to a shock wave.
Detonation of hydrocarbons can reach speed of about 2000 - 3000 m/s which can result a
pressure of 20 bar.
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSION
Physical Explosion - simply due to significant pressure release from an enclosed container
such as steam boiler and air receiver.
1) Chemical Explosion - A rise due to unstable / uncontrolled reaction occurring internally

inside the chemicals structure such as uncontrolled exothermic reaction and polymerization
reaction.
2) Flammable Vapor Explosion - Happen due to escapes of flammable fluids leads to
subsequent combustion or encountering a source of ignition of fireball, flash fire and vapor
cloud explosion.
3) Dust Explosion - Dust consist of solid particles (<10um) and they settle slowly in air. If the
solid particles are combustible, a flammable dust-air mixture may be formed. Dust particles
have a large surface area to mass ratio. Drier particle can ignite easier than the wet particles.
4) Electrical Explosion -Due to a high and sudden voltage discharge to earth
Explosion 31
CAUSES AND PREVENTION

Causes of the Failure Prevention Under Normal Loading Prevention Under Exceptional loading
- Inadequate design - Standard design code

- Inadequate construction - Suitable materials of const.
- Inadequate support - Proper instruction and test
Corrosion deterioration Regular inspection

Erosion Non destructive testing (NDT)
Fatigue
Embrittlement
Missile impact Appropriate construction

Vehicle collision installation location
Crane collapse
Other external cause
Over pressurization Pressure control

Over pressure relief
Safety interlock system
Internal overheating by fire Temperature controller

Over pressure relief
Safety interlock system
External overheating by fire Fire prevention
Avoid flame impingement
Fire resistance insulation
Spray cooling system
Explosion 32
INTERNAL EXPLOSION
For the isothermal case
W = RT In (P1/ P2)
W = Work done kJ/kg.mol
R = Gas constant Kg.mol/kJ
T = Initial temperature K
P1 =Vessel pressure N/m2
P2 = Final pressure, atmospheric N/m2
The internal energy of an ideal gas cannot change in an isothermal process, thus
dU = dQ dW = 0 and Q=W
U = Internal energy
Q = Total heat
W = Total work
For a mechanical reversible non flow process and with
P = RT/V
Q = W = PdV = RTdV/V
Intergration at constant temperature from V1 to V2
Q = W = RT In V2/V1
Since P1/P2 = V2/V1 thus
Q = W = RT In P1/ P2
For the adiabatic case (no heat transfer between the system and its surrounding) the
corresponding expression is
W = (P1vl/ -1)(1 - (P2/P1)(-1)/)
However both of the equations correspond to the energy available when the gas goes from
initial pressure P1 down to Po=0 An improved version of these equations is
W=[P1vl/( -1)][{1-(P2/P1)(-1)/} + (-1)[P2/P1]{1-(P2/P1)(-1)/}]
V1 = initial volume of materials, m3
= Ratio of specific heats
CHEMICAL EXPLOSION
Possible means of protection include the use of
1. Heat sinks - dilution with miscible solvent or quenching agent such as water
2. Control of temperature below self-accelerating decomposition value (SADV)
3. Addition of chemical stabilizer, inhibitors
4. Avoidance of decomposition or polymerization catalysts
5. Venting or dumping to a safe place
6. Segregation by location - e.g. explosion proof cell/wall
3 Modes of Fuel-Air Explosion

1. Spontaneous ignition - when the flammable mixture is brought to a condition of temperature
and pressure such that flame appears and after that continue with a decay period.
2. Deflagration - when flame is initiated in 1 locality by a source of ignition & spread at a
subsonic speed. Sonic speed 340 m/s at s.t.p
3. Detonation - when a deflagration tends to so that ultimately a sonic flame velocity is reached
and combustion occurs in the wake of a shock wave.
Explosion 33
In dust explosion, fuel is the finely divided combustible solid particle suspended in air.
Protection is by avoiding flammable suspensions by inerting the atmosphere in plant and
vessel with N2 and CO2 and by removing deposits in building to avoid the secondary
explosion. Ignition sources, its spreading and effect should be always controlled.
TYPES OF FLAMMABLES AND THEIR CONTROL

1) VCE
Vapor cloud explosion is coming from the release of flammable material. When it
escapes it will accumulate and form a "cloud" like morning smog which can give rise to a
major hazard. Ignition source may cause large flame or fireball. If the cloud is left
sufficiently for mixture with air, explosion might occur. Protection may be achieved by
the following methods:
1. Water spray application to disperse the cloud to prevent ignition or flame
propagation
2. Recapture the release by tailored extraction system i.e use fume hoods
3. Suitable design of electrical equipment by using the following coding and
zoning:-
ZONE 0 - Flammable materials release is continuous
ZONE 1 - Flammable materials release is intermittent - venting
ZONE 2 - Flammable materials release is occasionally i.e shut down
2) Fire balls
Fireballs can be produced during boil-over, flash fire and detonation of a gas vessel. The
fire is burning with sufficient rapidity to cause the burning mass to rise into the air as a
ball.
3) BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion)

Is a major container failure which occurs at a time when the contained liquid is at a
temperature well above its atmosphere. Boiling point.
The liquid boils explosively after the vessel has failed and if the liquid is flammable, it
will ignite and produce a fireball.
Cause is usually the external flames impingement (influences) on the shell of the vessel
above the liquid level inside the vessel. This weakens the container and leads to sudden
rupture of the shell caused by the loss of tensile strength of the containers materials. For
example a steel plate of 10mm will decrease 80% of its yield strength after fire exposure
of 30 minutes.
Explosion 34
In the case of a pool fire action onto a vessel can be graphically:
PROTECTION AGAINST BLEVE

1) Do not empty the contents as it is used to absorb heat as to protect the vessel wall against
fire.
2) Drain the material from the outside base of the vessel as to reduce the impinged flame
onto the vessel.
3) Wet the vessel surface with water as to reduce the surface temperature.
Explosion 35
4) Insulate the vessel and support.

5) Remote depressurizing system as to reduce the internal pressure.
6) Fill up the empty area inside the vessel as to reduce the internal temperature and pressure
as also strengthen the whole vessel structure against fire.
HAZARD OF BLEVE
1) Fireballs with thermal radiation with some rain out can form pool fire nearby surrounding
area.
2) Missiles and major fragmentation can be created due to explosion.
3) Rocketing vessel part can cause direct fire and damage to the nearby buildings
4) Over pressure from the minor shock wave can destroy soft and fragile materials such as
glass, roof etc.
Explosion 36
Chapter 8
REASONS TO PLAN FOR EMERGENCY

a. Emergency will happen; it is only a question of time.
b. Proper implementation of an appropriate emergency response plan could
minimize loss and protect people, property, and the environment.
c. Planned procedures, understood responsibility, designated authority, accepted
accountability, and trained experienced people are required to minimize losses
caused by an emergency.
d. It may be too late to plan when emergency occurs.
e. Lack of preplanning can turn emergency into disaster.
FAILURE OF MITIGATION AND ESCALATION OF EVENTS

Stages in the failure of mitigation
o Failure to avoid a significant release of material
o Failure of countermeasures for a release
o Failure to avoid escalation by fire
o Failure to avoid escalation by explosion
o Failure to avoid escalation by toxic release
o Inadequate emergency response
o Inadequate post- accident response
FAILURE TO AVOID A SIGNIFICANT RELEASE OF MATERIAL

A release of process material can occur by
o Rupture due to mechanical limitation being exceeded
o Rupture or discharge due to defective or deteriorated material of construction
o Loss through an abnormal opening to atmosphere
o Change in a planned discharge, emergency discharge or vent
Continued action to avoid significant release include:
o Alarms, detection and warning system
o Computer control system
o Emergency shutdown and process abort systems
o Emergency relief and relief treatment
o Emergency isolation and interlocks
o Emergency depressurising and transfer of material Emergency input of material
and inerting
FAILURE OF COUNTERMEASURES FOR RELEASE

The main countermeasures for a release of a process material include
o Appropriate modification of plant items which are part of the process and
o Installations of measures which are secondary safeguards
Some of these measures include
o Catch tanks
o Incineration
Explosion 37
o Burning at flare
o Adsorption or absorption/scrubber
o Physical barrier
o Vent at safe place
o Drainage or related system
o Ignition source control
o Adsorption pool
FAILURE TO AVOID ESCALATION BY FIRE

A fire may take time to develop.
The presence of a significant flammable mixture requires either a significant flammable
release or its accumulation after release.
Failures may include failure to dilute the mixture with steam or water curtain, a failure of
inerting or ventilation system, and inadequate natural dilution by contact with air or
inadequate dilution with extinguishing materials or vaporizing liquid.
Failure to control ignition source can be either the ignition source enters the mixture or a
flammable mixture reaches the ignition source.
Secondary escalation by fire may arises due to
o Explosion, conduction, convection and radiation
o The release of material following accidental damage by impact with jet stream,
moving equipment or impact with missiles, failing objects etc.
o Failure of fire-protection materials and insulation
FAILURE TO AVOID ESCALATION BY EXPLOSION

The hazards of an explosion are due to overpressure, thermal radiation and missiles.
Failure to avoid explosion may be due to:
o The presence of explosive substances
o The presence of high T, high P or heat source
o A failure to avoid detonation or ignition
o A failure to avoid initiation of a reaction
o An explosion inside the equipment
o An explosion outside the equipment
FAILURE TO AVOID ESCALATION BY TOXIC RELEASE

Failures may include
o Accumulation after release or failure to disperse
o Further loss of toxic due to fire, explosion or evaporation or decomposition
o Further reactions producing toxic material
o Failure of emergency relief treatment systems
INADEQUATE EMERGENCY RESPONSE

Any individual should take immediate action on discovering an incident or potential
emergency.
The first step is self protection - get out of the way or put on protective equipment for safe
escape if available, assess the situation and determine what has gone wrong.
Warn others and report to supervisors. Do not hide the event.
Explosion 38
On-site problems of emergency response include:

o Inadequate alarms and detection of release
o Inadequate warnings, protective equipment etc.
o Inadequate response or activation of response
o Inadequate action to mitigate the consequences of release
o Inadequate time available
o Inadequate restrictions on entry
o Inadequate search and rescue plan
o Inadequate removal or protection of vital equipment
EMERGENCY PLANNING ELEMENTS

Hazard Identification and Assessment and Control
o Safety and health risks vary with the type of industry and the magnitude of the
emergency
o The real and potential hazards at the workplace must be identified and the safety
and health risk that they posed be assessed.
o Close scrutiny of all workplace buildings, transport and storage facility, chemical
& physical processes, safe operating procedures, list of chemicals/hazardous
substances etc.
o Typical categories of emergency may include events involving flammable
materials and explosives and events involving toxic or corrosive materials.
Developing Procedures/Action Plan
o Prevention is the best action plan
o Make sure all operations are safe and comply with OSH legislation.
o All persons at work must be aware of the Safe Operating Procedures (SOPs)
o Emergency Response Plan have to be written up, communicated to all concerned
and tested for effectiveness.
o Different emergencies are likely to require different response actions.
SPECIFIC STEPS FOR COPING WITH EMERGENCY SITUATIONS.

For a volatile toxic release
o The release should be deluge with water,
o The people who will possibly be affected by the toxic cloud should be warned to
close their windows or evacuated, and police with protective equipment should
check the homes that have been affected.
For a flammable fire
o Access to the area should be controlled
o The fire should be prevented from spreading
o The fire should be extinguished by professionals using proper personal protective
gear and fire fighting equipment.
For a chemical spill
o The spilled substance should be contained
o Medical personnel with protective equipment should be available to administer to
those affected
Explosion 39
o A rescue team with protective equipment should collect the spilled material in
containers
Organizing the Procedures into written ERP Document
o Guide all levels of management in responding to emergency
o Ensure the safety of all personnel
o Minimize danger within and outside operations
o Provide specific procedures for the varied type of emergencies
o Ensure the lines of communication or notification are clearly defined
o Provide details related to alternatives whether for people, equipment or
procedures
o Provide for safely resuming operations as soon as possible
Disseminating Salient Points of Emergency Plan Document to all employees
o Recognizing a possible emergency
o Immediate action- evaluate situation to mitigate its effects if possible
o Know how to set off emergency alarm or call emergency telephone number
o Obey commands of Emergency Floor wardens
o Evacuate the buildings if necessary
Provision of Training to Key Emergency Response & First Aides.
o Selected personnel should receive appropriate training.
o There should be regular testing and update to manage change.
o First Aiders should be selected, trained and their skills kept current with regular
updates.
Provision for Periodic Testing, Evaluation, Modification & Update of ERP
o ERP is a dynamic or living document therefore it is subjected to improvements
o Emergency drills should be regularly conducted, the responses by the various
categories of Responders recorded and evaluated for effectiveness.
o Changes should be made where required
Working closely with outside agencies
o Outside help from fire brigade, Police, Hospitals and Local District Administrator
may be required.
o It is prudent to have these agencies involvement in Emergency Drills to foster
effective working relationship.
ON-SITE PLANS
The emergency plan details how the accident is to dealt with, the name of the person
responsible for on-site safety and the names of the persons authorized to take action under the
plan.
Incident Controller
o To proceed to the scene of the incident and take control.
o assesses the emergency and decides if the major emergency is to be activated.
o Directs all operations within the affected area with priorities to secure the safety
of personnel, minimize damage to plant, property and environment and to
minimize the loss of material.
o Ensures the affected area is searched for casualties, and all non-essential workers
are evacuated to an appropriate assembly point.
o Action is taken to shut the plant down.
Explosion 40
o Means of controlling releases and spillages must be considered.

o The rescue and fire-fighting operations are directed
o Established appropriate communications and all activities of the site main
controller are taken until the arrival of the designated person.
o Closing the emergency after consulting the site main controller and the
emergency services.
The Site Main Controller (SMC)
o The SMC goes to emergency control centre and takes overall control of the
emergency in the works.
o All outside emergency services are called in upon declaration of emergency.
o Key personnel are called in.
o The emergency response is then co-ordinated in communication with the
emergency services.
o Arrangement for a chronological record of the emergency be maintained is made.
o Arranging for relief of personnel and provision of food.
o The emergency duties end on cessation of the emergency.
Spokesperson
o A senior manager is appointed as the sole authoritative source of information.
OFF-SITE PLANS
Based on those events identified by the company which would affect people and the
environment outside the premises.
Company is required to provide the necessary information on the nature, extent and probable
effects of such incidents
The plan addresses public safety, lists the agencies to be contacted and describes the actions
to be taken, such as evacuation of areas surrounding the facility and co-ordination of external
agencies with facility personnel
The local authority needs to be satisfied that the information provided is sufficiently detailed,
unambiguous and comprehensive for the dangers to be understood so that the necessary
protective measures can be provided.
The chief executive of each emergency planning authority designates an emergency planning
officer to mastermind the plan
The emergency services, fire authorities, police, ambulance service have duties to deal with
emergencies and accidents of all sort
The plan ensures co-ordination of existing services and their readiness for the specific hazards
and problems which may arise in an incident
Key personnel are identified, their duties and proper training achieved
An emergency co-ordinating officer may be designated to take overall command of the off-
site activities
Suitable emergency control centre
A central point of control is designated to review statements and photographs for release to
the media, to evaluate safety and liability considerations of releases, and to keep required or
other appropriate records
Sets out the immediate action to be taken to protect those in danger and arrangements for
caring for those affected by an incident.
Explosion 41
AUDITS
Is a procedure for a periodic, systematic, documented, and objective evaluation of operations
and practices in meeting safety, health and environmental requirements
Benefits
o Recognition of existing workplace conditions
o Better regulatory compliance
o Correction of identified hazards
o Reduction of risk and liabilities
o Increased productivity & efficiency
o Control of costs
o Improved employee & community relations
Planning an audit
Activities of an audit
o Preaudit activities
o On-site activities
o Postaudit activities
Explosion 42

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CHE 681 SAFETY & LOSS PREVENTION

Semester jan07-april07 Engr Zar

The effect of chemicals in the body depend on:

Toxin may be eliminated from the body through:

Dose Response Relationship

Extremely 0.001 1.0 0.005 1 grain

Highly toxic 0.001-0.05 10-100 0.005 - 0.043 1 tsp

Slightly toxic 0.5-5 1000-104 0.35-2.81 1 pt

Relatively > 15 > 10 > 22.6 > 1 qt

Some toxicity values is given below:

HAZARD & OPERABILITY STUDIES (HAZOP)

FAULT TREE ANALYSIS

Rectangle Any event

5 Specific Elements Involved:

Elements of Risk Management Program

Table: Risk Prioritization

Severe consequences: severity 4

Major consequences: severity 3

Appreciable consequences: severity 2

Minor consequences/near misses: severity 1

Individual Risk (IR)

Approximation: IR = 202 x 10-5 FAR

Societal Risk (SR)

Criteria For Acceptable Risk

Acceptable Risk Values

Target Values of Maximum Risk Level

HSE Dangerous Dose

LOCKOUT AND TAGOUT PROCEDURES

FIRE TRIANGLE CONCEPT

Fuels Liquid (Gasoline, acetone, ether, pentane)

0 Flammability limit 100

THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND INERT GAS ON FLAMMABILITY

UFL & LFL

CATEGORY OF CERTAIN CHEMICAL

FLAMMABLE & COMBUSTIBLE LIQUID CLASSIFICATIONS

L = Flame length (m)

U = wind speed, m/s

D * / d 1.5( FR) 0.069

FIRE HAZARD TO PLANT

o A tank, which is adjacent to another, can fail due to the following:

THERMAL RADIATION HAZARD TO PERSONNEL

THE PROBIT APPROACH

Pr = Probit value W/m2

PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE

RADIATION FROM A POOL FIRE

o = Stefan-Boltzmann Constant, 5.73 x 10-8 kWm-2K-4

o And for a grey body: q T 4

In general radiation will fall on a target by: qt q f Ft f

o = Atmospheric transmivity e kL / 1000

o L = distance between source & receptor, m

o R = Radiative fraction of the heat of combustion

A = projected surface area as viewed by the receptor

The total incident heat flux: q 94 RD2 / L2

1) Chemical Explosion - A rise due to unstable / uncontrolled reaction occurring internally

CAUSES AND PREVENTION

- Inadequate design - Standard design code

Corrosion deterioration Regular inspection

Missile impact Appropriate construction

Over pressurization Pressure control

Internal overheating by fire Temperature controller

3 Modes of Fuel-Air Explosion

TYPES OF FLAMMABLES AND THEIR CONTROL

3) BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion)

In the case of a pool fire action onto a vessel can be graphically: