Contribution to Airflow Effect Investigation Over

Photovoltaic Surfaces: Temperature and Velocity

contours
Marini-Kragi, I.*1, Nieti S.2, Grubii-abo F2., Papadopulos3, A.M.
1
Department of Numerical Modeling and Computer Application, University of Split, Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture
2
LTEF-Laboratory for Thermodynamics and Energy Efficiency, University of Split, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical
Engineering and Naval Architecture
3
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Process Equipment Design Laboratory
*Corresponding author, e-mail: imarinic@fesb.hr

AbstractIn this paper, the effect of wind airflow over a
monocrystalline photovoltaic panel (PV) was examined in
relation to general velocity and temperature contours. The
analysis was obtained using the developed numerical CFD model
that was validated by available experimental results. The airflow
velocity ranged from 0.5 m/s up to 4.0 m/s and the gained results
are specified for different longitudinal cross-sections of the PV
panel. The obtained results gave detailed insight into velocity
profiles and temperature stratification over the PV panel surface,
where specific discovered effects were addressed. The provided
research results in this paper are important for the development
of a novel or improved existing cooling techniques for PV panels
where the final effect is a targeted increase in average PV panel
efficiency.
Keywords fluid dynamics; photovoltaic;, numerical analysis;
solar energy.
I. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the research of renewable energy systems, i.e.
energy concepts (for example, Dui et al. [1], Lund [2], Nieti
et al. [3,4], Rezaie et al. [5]))and technologies is in the focus of
the research community in order to restrain energy
consumption and harmful effects on the environment.
Photovoltaic technology, Singh [6] is especially attractive in
market terms and already widely present, however, not as it
should be due to a relatively low efficiency and high initial
investment. Therefore, investigation and further development
of photovoltaic technology is particularly interesting and
important to boost market implementation. The major possible
improvement of photovoltaic technologies is related to the
research of novel materials for photovoltaics, that are
acceptable both from a technical and economic point of view,
Major et al. [7], Chen et al. [8]. MPP tracking strategies, (Chao
et al. [9], Abu Eldahab et al. [10], Ahmed et al. [11]) are also
contributing to increasing the share of photovoltaic
technologies on the market.
The delivered output from the PV system, as well as
efficiency in general, is extremely sensitive with respect to
possible and usually variable (stochastic) working regimes, i.e.
general surrounding circumstances. One of the most influential
parameters on PV panel performance is the PV panel operating
temperature as it significantly affects efficiency and by that
delivered electricity. On the other hand, the average operating
temperature strongly depends from the surrounding
circumstances. Therefore, in order to set the base for an
additional improvement of existing photovoltaic technologies,
an important step is to examine the effect of different working
circumstances on the PV panel performance.
Fluid dynamics conditions over a photovoltaic surface have
got a direct effect on PV panel heat transfer and which finally
affects PV panel performance. Numerical modelling of fluid
and thermal phenomena related to photovoltaics can provide
useful data and insight into both heat transfer and fluid
dynamics issues Dolye et al [12], Tzer-Ming et al. [13]. The
thermal aspect is also important from a purely thermodynamic
point of view, i.e. First law of Thermodynamics, the PV panel
can be apprehended as a kind of heat engine. Namely, the
incoming solar irradiance is converted into useful electrical
work, i.e. electricity with low conversion efficiency (around
10% to 15% on average, depending from the exact
geographical location). The rest of incoming solar irradiation is
absorbed into the PV panel (around 85% approximately) and
that absorbed part of incoming solar irradiation basically
represents a heat load that needs to be removed from the PV
panel (if we want to achieve an increase in efficiency). Heat is
transferred via conduction through the PV panel and from the
PV panel surfaces via thermal radiation and heat convection.
Roughly, around 50% of heat is rejected from the PV panel
surface by heat conduction and the rest by convection
(however, it all depends from the general circumstances as for
instance, a convection heat release can be higher in magnitude
than thermal radiation for windy conditions).
For market available PV technologies (i.e. poly or mono
siliceous based), the temperature degradation in the PV panel
electrical efficiency usually ranges from 0.25 %/C to 0.5%/C,
Nieti et al. [14]. For example, the operating temperatures in
PV panels for typical Mediterranean climate conditions are
between 50C to 60C in periods of highest solar irradiation
levels. For geographical regions with the highest levels of solar
irradiation, the operating PV panel temperature can go over velocity additionally in the close region of the PV panel) as
60C or even more. Therefore, there is an obvious necessity for well as surrounding air temperature (thermos-anemometer).
reduction in the operating temperature, however, in an The specific position of the temperature sensors is shown in
economically reasonable manner. Fig. 2 (TC-thermocouple sensor and CAP-capacitive sensor).
Finally, the main objective of this paper is to examine the
effect of airflow over a PV panel surface and its implications
on air velocity and temperature contours in the close region of
the PV panel. To obtain the herein proposed analysis, we used
the already developed and experimentally validated CFD
model related to PV panels, Nieti et al. [15]. The gained
results provide a useful contribution when trying to understand
the causal relation between variable operating conditions that
affect PV panel performance.

II. BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND

NUMERICAL MODELING
As already mentioned, this paper is focused on further
research contribution based on the usage of an already
developed numerical model and provided experimental
approach in Nieti et al. [15] (where all specific details are
generally related to the numerical modeling and experimental
approach). Therefore, the used experimental approach as well
as numerical modeling will briefly be addressed as a base for
further research contribution for the herein considered topic.

A. Experimental setup
For the experimental setup, we used two commonly used
poly and mono-crystalline photovoltaic technologies (Si-
based). The nominal electrical power output of the tested PV
panels was 50 W with dimensions of 550x650 mm for poly and
650x600 for mono panel. A specific experimental setup is
presented in Fig. 1. The panel was fixed at an angle of 20 and
was power loaded with a halogen lamp to ensure realistic
operation conditions.
Fig. 1. Experimental setup, Nieti et al. [15]
The configuration presented in Fig. 1 was tested under
typical Mediterranean climate conditions in the geographical
location of Split (Croatia). Experiments were obtained in
series from May to July of 2015 in order to get sufficient
experimental samples. PV panel temperature was monitored
on several spots at the front side and backside of the PV panel.
It is important to emphasize that we directly measured the
temperature of siliceous as the PVF layer was drilled to reach
the siliceous layer (to get the exact temperature of siliceous).
The PVF layer temperature was also monitored (and air
Fig. 2. Position of temperature sensors for backside and front side of PV
panel, Nieti et al. [15]
Solar irradiance was measured using a pyranometer and it
ranged from around 800 W/m2 and sometimes over 900 W/m2
for clear sky weather conditions. The surrounding air
temperature ranged from 21C up to 29C with the average air
velocity being at around 1.0 m/s up to 1.5 m/s. Furthermore,
measurements were obtained between 11:00 and 14:00 in
order to catch the period of highest solar irradiation (in periods
of most intense thermal and fluid flow phenomena). The
guaranteed measurement errors ranged from 0.2% to 0.3%
for the temperature sensors, 0.6% for the measurement of
solar irradiance and 3.0% for wind velocity measurements.
B. Numerical modeling
A PV panel involves complex heat transfer processes and
the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) technique was used
for their modeling. The CFD model in this paper was based on
a model from Nieti et al. [15], which was verified (to a
reasonable degree of accuracy) using experimental data. This
model is based on the Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes
equation with a two-equation turbulence model. The system of
governing equations is composed of continuity, momentum,
and energy equations, Eqs. (1-3). The continuity and
momentum equations are:
( u j )
0 (1)
t x j
 ui ui u j p height (y-direction) was selected to be three times the panel
t x j xi
ui u j 2 uk
ij Rij fi
x j x j xi 3 xk x j
u u 2 u
Rij ui u j t i j k
ij
x j xi 3 xk (3)
2
k ij
3
where , p and u are the mean flow density, pressure and
Cartesian velocity components respectively; xi
Cartesian coordinate; is the molecular viscosity; The
specific body force fi includes external body forces such as
gravity in this case. Rij is Reynolds stress tensor according to
the Boussinesq eddy viscosity hypothesis. Turbulent viscosity
and turbulence kinetic energy k are obtained from the selected
(SST) turbulence model, Menter [16]. The continuity and
momentum equations have to be solved together with the
energy conservation equation, Eq.(4):
e T
( e p )u j ( k kt ) Sh (4)
t x j x j x j
where h is enthalpy; k thermal conductivity; kt is the thermal
conductivity due to turbulence and is defined by the turbulence
model; T is the temperature; Sh is the volumetric heat source;
and e (specific total internal energy) can defined by:
p u2
e h
2
The main objective of this CFD is to isolate the effect of
convection heat transfer and investigate the effect of fluid flow
and convection on backboard temperature. This means that
radiation and other multi physics effects are not directly
modelled. The effects of radiation were assumed as a constant
heat source Sh, which corresponds to 600 W/m2 of heat
generation at the PV cell (and which proved to be a reasonable
approach for the numerical modelling).
C. Computational domain
The PV panel is composed of multiple (solid) parts with
different thermal properties. A simplified scheme of the PV
panel is implemented in this paper as illustrated in Fig. 3. The
modelled elements are: glass, PV cell, backboard (PVF) and
aluminum frame.
The PV panel was set at an angle of z=20 with respect to
the horizontal plane. The numerical simulation PV panel was
set at a height of 0.5m which is approximately equal to the
overall PV panel length Lp=0.55m. In addition to solid
regions, it is necessary to create a computational domain for
the fluid surrounding of the PV panel. The fluid computational
domain is a cuboid which envelops the PV panel with the solid
regions subtracted. The size of the fluid domain was relatively
determined in relation to the overall length of the PV panel.
The stream-wise length (x-direction) was set to L=10Lp, the
length H=3Lp domain length while the width (z-direction) was
(2) W=7Lp. The faces of the computational domain are assigned
as inlet, outlet and wall as illustrated in Fig 4. From the inlet to
the panel, the domain spans 3Lp while from the panel to the
outlet the domain spans 6Lp.
is the
a) b)
Fig. 3. Photovoltaic panel elements, photovoltaic cell (PV), backboard (TE),
aluminum frame (AL) and glass cover (GL) illustrated as: a) overall geometry
b) detailed section (A-A) view.
The described mathematical model was solved in the
computational domain, numerically using the finite volume
method. This requires a mesh construction which previously
discretizes the continuous computational domain. The selected
mesh elements in the fluid zone were tetrahedrons with thin
prism elements in the near wall boundary layer. The cross
section of the computational mesh at central x-y plane is
illustrated in Fig 5. The largest tetrahedron size was limited to
70 mm while at the PV panel the element size was set to 5 mm
with an adaptive refinement where required. The prismatic
layer has 10 elements in height with the first element being at
(5) 0.01 mm in height. The solid regions were discretized using a
combination of tetrahedron and hexahedron elements as
illustrated in Fig 6. The size of the mesh elements for the
aluminum frame and backboard was 2 mm and 5 mm for the
glass and panel the size.
is composed of multiple (solid) parts with different thermal
properties.
The constructed mesh is now used as input to a CFD solver,
here a commercial software ANSYS FLUENT, Allegrini et al.
[17], Menter, [18]. Before solving the problem, boundary
conditions and interfaces between multiple solid and fluid
domains have to be setup. In fluid domain, all walls and
contact with solid domains were prescribed with no-slip
boundary conditions. Inlet velocity (vx,in) is normal to the
boundary (positive x direction) and its value was set to the
respective constant value which was varied in simulations.
The pressure outlet was set to 101 kPa. Initial conditions were
constant fluid velocity, constant fluid and solid temperature at
300 K. The heat source was setup at the PV cell with 600
W/m2. This paper only used steady state analysis and the
convergence criterion was set to 10-4.

Fig. 4. Cross-section of mesh elements in fluid region: a) whole domain b)
elements near PV panel surface, c) prismatic inflation layer near PV panel no-
slip wall and d) solid region
III. AIRFLOW EFFECT OVER THE PV PANEL SURFACE:
NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION
In order to examine the effect of airflow over the PV
surface, we have used the previously elaborated developed
CFD model. The air velocity over the PV panel was variated
from 0.5 m/s up to 4.0 m/s with a fixed airflow temperature of
27C (we presented specific results for the case of 0.5 m/s and
4.0 m/s air velocity and for different chosen longitudinal cross-
sections of the PV panel). In the figures, Fig.5., we show
results for velocity contours together with the flow direction
vector over the PV panels for different magnitudes of imposed
air velocity. The results are presented for two specific cases:
imposed air velocity 0.5 m/s in Fig. 5a and Fig. 5b and
imposed air velocity 4.0 m/s in Fig. 5c and Fig. 5d. The results
are shown for two distances from the edge of the PV panel
(longitudinal cross-section of the PV panel). The first chosen
distance from the edge of the PV panel was 50 mm (purposely
close to the edge of the PV panel to examine edge influence on
air velocity distribution). The second chosen distance was 325
mm (which is the section approximately at the middle of the
PV panel
Fig. 5. Velocity distribution (contour) over the PV panel for imposed air
velocity of: a) 0.5 m/s (distance z=325 mm), a) 0.5 m/s (distance z=50 mm),
a) 4.0 m/s (distance z=325 mm) and a) 4.0 m/s (distance z=50 mm)
The first detail that can be noticed is the substantial
difference between velocity contours if we compare the
longitudinal cross-section close to the PV panel edge (50 mm,
Fig. 5b and Fig. 5d) with the one in the middle of the PV panel,
325 mm, Fig.5a and Fig. 5c). For low imposed air velocity (0.5
m/s) and longitudinal cross-section, the airflow bubble is
concentrated at the bottom of the PV panel and near the PV
panel edge (aluminum frame). A specific shape of velocity
contours, for the previously mentioned circumstances, is
somehow expected (direct cause for that effect is a specific
geometry of the aluminum frame and vicinity of the PV panel
edge in general). Further, if we check the longitudinal cross-
section in the middle of the PV panel (325 mm, Fig. 10) we can
notice a more developed velocity profile at the backside of the
PV panel and a more intense air bubble in general. From the
Fig. 5a and Fig. 5c, the specific region of velocity contours is
also noticeable, approximately in the middle of the PV panel,
with somewhat higher magnitudes of air velocities (when
compared with other regions of the PV panel). The cause for
the previous air velocity profile is associated with the heat
transfer phenomena, i.e. with the accumulated heat in the
siliceous layer and highest temperature gradients in the central
section of the PV panel. More detail regarding the thermal
aspect will be elaborated in the upcoming section of the paper.
By increasing air velocity, we can notice that there is no
significant difference between velocity profiles (Fig. 5a and
Fig. 5c), however, it is just the case for the longitudinal cross-
section close to the edge of the PV panel (50 mm). The middle
section of the PV panel shows a different shape of velocity
profile. Namely, if we compare Fig. 5a and Fig. 5c, it can be
noticed that by increasing air velocity (4.0 m/s) a specific air
bubble is also increased and being pushed towards the
upper region, i.e. towards the edge of the PV panel. Therefore,
an increase in air velocity only has an important effect in the
middle section of the PV panel and has a favorable impact on
the PV panel electrical efficiency (by reducing the operating
temperature of the PV panel).
Thus, in this section we showed and discussed the
influence of imposed air velocity on general velocity
distribution and stressed the main issues and general
characteristics. In the upcoming section of the paper, we will
briefly discuss thermal aspects in more detail as they are
interesting from various aspects.
A. Thermal aspect
Photovoltaic panels convert just around 10 to 15% of
received solar incoming radiation into electricity in average
(the rest is heat accumulated in the PV panel and finally
rejected into the surroundings). As already emphasized in the
introductory section, electrical efficiency strongly depends
from the PV panel operating temperature magnitude (higher
operating temperature, lower PV panel efficiency). In relation
to the previous, it can be expected that general airflow
conditions over the PV panel will affect the PV panel
temperature distribution.
Fig. 6. Temperature distribution (contour) over the PV panel for imposed air
velocity of 0.5 m/s (distance 50 mm)
Fig. 7. Temperature distribution (contour) over the PV panel for imposed air
velocity of 4.0 m/s (distance 50 mm)
The air flow effect over the PV panel is clearly noticeable
from Fig.6 to Fig. 9. Namely, for a low imposed wind velocity,
the side effect is a higher PV panel operating temperature
(which is expected due to weaker heat rejection from the PV
panel to the surroundings), Fig. 6 and Fig. 8. On other side, for
higher imposed velocities there is a significant decrease in the
PV panel operating temperature due to more efficient PV panel
cooling, Fig. 7 and Fig. 9 (as a direct result due to an increase
in the magnitude of heat transfer coefficient). The second
interesting effect that occurs also for low imposed air velocities
is detectable in Fig. 8. Namely, in Fig. 8, we can notice the
accumulation of hot air in the section just below the aluminum
frame (in the upper region of the PV panel). The reason for the
previous is the occurrence of a thermal draft on the backside
surface of the PV panel, i.e. air in the boundary layer, near the
PVF layer, is heated towards the upper region of the PV panel.
Finally, in circumstances of a specific aluminum frame
geometry, and low wind velocity, the final effect is an
accumulation of warm air in the considered upper region of the
PV panel. The previous finding is not favorable from the aspect
of PV panel efficiency due to the increase of PV panel
operating temperature. The mentioned effect also occurs for a
longitudinal cross-section that is 50 mm from the edge of the
PV panel but is less intense (for the same circumstances).
However, with a higher magnitude of imposed air velocity, the
previously addressed effect vanishes, Fig. 9 (as thermal drift on
the backside surface of the PV panel becomes weaker due to
more intense heat rejection in the surroundings). Also, for the
circumstances of higher imposed wind velocities, temperature
air contours are generally less intense, Fig. 7 and Fig. 9 (which
leads to lower PV panel operating temperatures and higher
panel efficiency).
Fig. 8. Temperature distribution (contour) over the PV panel for imposed air
velocity of 0.5 m/s (distance 325 mm)

Fig. 9. Temperature distribution (contour) over the PV panel for imposed air
velocity of 4.0 m/s (distance 325 mm)
IV. CONCLUSIONS
This paper represents the continuation of research activity
reported in Nieti et al. [15], where an experimental approach
was obtained together with the development of a numerical
analysis (CFD model). Further contribution to the elaborated
research study was a numerical analysis related to the effect of
imposed wind air velocity (over the PV panel) on velocity and
temperature contours. Two specific cases of imposed air
velocity were analyzed (0.5 m/s and 4.0 m/s) coupled with two
chosen longitudinal cross sections (50 mm and 325 mm distant
from the edge of the PV panel). Therefore, through the use of
the developed CFD model, certain interesting details are found
and addressed in detail (that are useful from a practical point of
view). Thus, regarding the general velocity distribution, it is
found that the most intense velocity profile occurs in the
middle section of the PV panel and in the case of higher
imposed wind velocity magnitudes. Further, in the longitudinal
cross sections that are close to the aluminum frame (edge of the
PV panel) the velocity profile is only more intense in the lower
sections of the PV panel. A specific thermal drift also occurs at
the backside surface of the PV panel as well as a hot air
bubble (i.e. separation of the airflow).
The thermal aspect analysis showed that critical
conditions are related to low wind activity. Namely, for the
previous conditions of weak heat rejection into the
surroundings, higher operating PV panel temperatures
generally occur. Interestingly, a found effect is the
accumulation of hot air in the upper sections of the PV panel in
the space between the aluminum frame and PVF layer.
However, the previous effect occurs in the sections that are at
least around 100 mm away from the edge of the PV panel. In
the case of higher imposed air velocities, thermal phenomena
are weak and less intense with an associated lower value of PV
panel operating temperature (which is certainly a favorable
effect).
Finally, the obtained results of the herein provided
analysis are useful from a practical point of view as they could
be used as a base for the development of efficient cooling
strategies for PV panels (to obtain an increase in PV panel
efficiency).
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Croatian Science
Foundation [grant number IP-2014-09-6130].
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