ii

THE WORK REPORTED HEREIN WAS DONE AS PART OF

RESEARCH PROJECT 211, 120

The rapid development of concepts is the direct result of wholehearted teamwork by

members of the clastic sediments research group and other colleagues at the Laboratory and in
Shell Oil Company. The authors are pleased to have the privilege of synthesizing and
summarinzing the data and concepts, and they, of course, accept full responsibility for errors or
omissions.
 iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Purpose of Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
External Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Internal Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Self-Potential Log as a Measure of Lithologic Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Classification of SP Log Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Relation of SP Log Shape to Parameters of a Sand Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Symmetrical Descriptive Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Simplified Descriptive Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Sand Body--Concepts and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Definition of Sand Body or Sand Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Depositional Regimen of a Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Major Classes of Sand Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Characteristic SP Log Shapes of Sand Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Genetic Sand Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Cut and Fill Sand Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Alluvial point bar sand unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Alluvial-deltaic point bar sand unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Distributary channel sand unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Offlap Fill-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Delta-marine fringe sand unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Barrier bar sand unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Cut and Onlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Transgressive sand on unconformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Amplified Sand Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Cut and Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Point bar buildup in alluvial valley or on alluvial plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Offlap Fill-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Delta-marine fringe buildup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Barrier bar buildup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fill-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Submarine canyon fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Graded bed buildup by turbidity currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Hybrid Sand Units (Systematic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Progradational Buildup of Alluvial Sands over Delta-Marine Fringe . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Progradation Laterally of Distributary Channels through Delta-Marine Fringe . . . . . . 16
Marine Transgression over Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Limitations and Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
 iv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Following
Page
Figure 1 - Symmetrical Descriptive Classification of Basic SP Log Shapes . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 2 - Simplified Descriptive Classification of Basic SP Log Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 3 - Three-Dimensional Representation of Basic SP Log Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 4 - Sand Zones (or Sand Bodies) as Represented on the Electric Log . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 5 - Types and Categories of Sand Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 6 - Index of Basic SP Log Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 7 - Genetic Sand Units; Idealized Examples of Alluvial Point Bar, Delta-Marine Fringe,
Fringe, Barrier Bar, Transgressive Sand on Unconformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 8 - Genetic Sand Units; Idealized Examples of Alluvial-Deltaic Point Bar, Distributary
Distributary Channel Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 9 - Amplified Sand Units; Idealized Examples of Alluvial Point Bar Buildup, Delta-Delta
Delta-Marine Fringe Buildup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 10 - Amplified Sand Units; Idealized Examples of Barrier Bar Buildup, Turbidity Current
Current Buildup of Graded Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 11 - Hybrid Sand Units; Idealized Examples of Progradation of Alluvial over xxxxxxxxxx
Delta-Marine Fringe, Progradation of Distributary through Delta-Marine Fringe,xxxxxxxx
Marine Transgression over Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 12 - Selected SP Log Shapes in Recent Sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 13 - Subsurface Examples of Bell-Shaped SP Logs in Alluvial and xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Alluvial-Deltaic Point Bar Sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 14 - Subsurface Examples of Cylinder-Shaped SP Logs in Alluvial Deltaic xxxxxxxxxxxx
Point Bar Sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 15 - Subsurface Examples of Bell- and Cylinder-Shaped SP Logs in xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Distributary Channel Sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 16 - Subsurface Examples of Serrate Funnel-Shaped SP Logs in xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Delta-Marine Fringe Sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 17 - Subsurface Examples of Smooth Funnel-Shaped SP Logs in xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Barrier Bar Sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 18 - Subsurface Examples of the Electric Logs of Transgressive Sands on xxxxxxxxxxxx
Unconformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 19 - Subsurface Examples of SP Log Shapes in Alluvial Valley Buildup and xxxxxxxxxx
Delta-Marine Fringe Buildup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 20 - Subsurface Examples of SP Log Shapes in Barrier Bar Buildup xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
(from A.R. Campbell) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 21 - Subsurface Examples of SP Log Shapes in Submarine Canyon Fan and xxxxxxxxxxx
Turbidity Current Buildup of Graded Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 22 - Subsurface Example of SP Log Shape in Progradation of Alluvial Buildup xxxxxxxx
over Shoreline Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 23 - Subsurface Examples of Progradation of Distributary Channel Sands xxxxxxxxxxxxx
through and over Delta-Marine Fringe Sands and Marine Transgressive Sand on xxxxxxx
Delta-Marine Fringe Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 24 - Transverse Section of Alluvial or Alluvial-Deltaic Point Bar Sandstone Unit, xxxxxx
Upper Cretaceous Muddy Sandstone, Cheyenne County, Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 25 - Transverse Section of Alluvial-Deltaic Point Bar Sandstone Unit, xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Upper Cretaceous, Tuscaloosa Q Sand, Little Creek Field, Louisiana . . . . . . . . . 10
 v
Figure 26 - Isopach Map and Longitudinal Section of Distributary Channel Sand Unit, xxxxxxxx
Upper Miocene G2 Sand, Main Pass Block 35 Field, Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 27 - Isopach Map and Longitudinal Section of Distributary Channel Sand Unit, xxxxxxxx
Miocene M Sand, West Lake Verret Field, Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 28 - Isopach Map and Longitudinal and Transverse Sections of Barrier Bar xxxxxxxxxxx
Sand Unit, Upper Miocene, T1 Sand, South Pass Block 24 Field, Louisiana . . . . . . 13
Figure 29 - Transverse Section of Alluvial Valley Fill, Pennsylvanian "5300-Ft" Sand, xxxxxxxx
Denton Creek Field, Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 30 - Longitudinal and Transverse Sections of Hybrid Sand Unit; Shallow Marine xxxxxxx
Sand Characterized by the Even Upper Contact of the Sand, and Distributary xxxxxxxxxx
Channel Fill Characterized by the Very Irregular Lower Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
 EPR MEMORANDUM REPORT 51

February 1959

SAND CONDITIONS AS INDICATED BY THE SELF-POTENTIAL LOG*

BY

B.W. WILSON AND R.H. NANZ

ABSTRACT

An examination of electric logs reveals that certain self-potential (SP) curves of sand
zones have characteristic shapes that are of common occurrence. These characteristic shapes
reflect significant lithologic properties which are a function of the depositional origin of the
corresponding sand body. Consequently, the shape of the SP curve is indicative of the mode of
formation of certain sands. From this knowledge the external form and trend and the primary
internal characteristics of the sand body can be estimated.
The parameters of an SP log believed to represent genetically significant properties of a
sand body are (1) serrate or smooth SP curve indicating presence or absence of shale-sand
interbeds and (2) sharp or gradational SP changes indicating whether the upper and lower
contacts of the sand body are abrupt or gradational. On the basis of these log properties, an
objective and systematic classification of the basic SP log shapes is presented.
An alternative objective classification with simpler terminology is offered on the basis of
(1) serrate or smooth SP curve as above and (2) "bell-shaped" SP curve indicating decrease in
bed thickness or grain size upward, "funnel-shaped" SP curve indicating increase in bed
thickness or grain size upward, and "cylinder-shaped" SP curve indicating no particular change.
Depending on the simplicity or complexity of their mode of formation, sand bodies are
divided into three major classes: (1) genetic sand units, (2) amplified sand units, and (3) hybrid
sand units. The recognition of these classes is an aid in the prediction of sand body properties.
SP log shapes believed to be typical of certain kinds of sand bodies are presented as (1)
idealized illustrations showing log shapes along with depositional sequence and probable
depositional processes, (2) selected log shapes of Recent sand bodies of known genesis, and (3)
subsurface examples of log shapes believed to be characteristic of a particular type of sand body.
Before the origin of sand bodies can be confidently predicted from the SP log, calibration
with known geologic conditions is necessary. Such calibrations have been made in some
geologic provinces, but additional work is necessary in others. The character of the SP curve
may be considerably affected by post-depositional effects such as cementation and compaction,
and under such conditions satisfactory interpretation of sand genesis may not be possible. More
difficulties should be expected in older rocks, but typical SP log shapes have been observed in
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Tertiary strata.
 2

INTRODUCTION

Purpose of Report

Data collected in the past few years by operating and research workers indicate that the
characteristics of the self-potential (SP) log 01--ve important clues to the origin of subsurface
sands. From the log character and its genetic implication, information can be gathered about (1)
external features, including the trend, distribution, thickness, and shape of the sand body; and
(2) internal characteristics, including grain size, sorting, interbedding, and sand continuity.
The ability to determine the properties of a sand body in the subsurface is a function of
the kind and amount of sample material available and the limitations of interpretations based on
geophysical logs. In some regions sample material is so rare or of such a nature that the
knowledge of sand bodies must be derived largely from the electric log. For these reasons, and
especially because the electric log is the common tool of the subsurface geologist, the subject of
this report deserves considerable emphasis and research effort.
The report is designed to gather together the various types of data bearing on the
problem, and to report the progress and status of the concepts.
Basic Principles

External Features

The use of SP electric log characteristics to estimate the subsurface trend and distribution
of sand bodies is based on the premise that a sand body deposited under a particular set of
depositional and tectonic conditions has (1) a characteristic vertical sequence of sediment
properties, (2) a distinctive external form, and (3) a preferred orientation or distribution relative
to the depositional framework of the basin. For example, if one can deduce from an electric log
that the sand body penetrated is a river deposit, and if he knows from his regional studies that the
depositional slope is in a certain direction, he can estimate the configuration of the sand body
and infer that the trend is parallel to the depositional slope.

Internal Characteristics

The use of the SP log to estimate the internal characteristics of sands, especially
permeability and porosity, is based on the premise that a sand body deposited under a particular
 3
set of depositional conditions has (1) a characteristic range of grain sizes and degrees of sorting,
(2) a characteristic lithological variability or "lenticularity," and (3) a characteristic permeability
and transmiscibility to fluid flow. For example, alluvial sands tend to be considerably coarser
grained than deltaic sands, and alluvial sand bodies are less homogeneous and have more
interruptions of sand continuity than barrier bars.
Deductions concerning permeability and transmiscibility based on the knowledge of
primary rock properties are subject to error if the sands contain important amounts of secondary
cement or if the sands are severely compacted.

Historical Notes

Following World War II, interest was renewed in methods for predicting the subsurface
trends of potential reservoir sands. Subsurface studies in the Areas were resumed on a large
scale, and investigations of sand bodies both in the Recent and subsurface were begun in the
newly created E and P Research Laboratory. It was recognized that the electric log character of
various sands was different, but generally applicable concepts for interpretation were lacking.
At the EPR Laboratory, early studies of grain-size variations in reservoir sands, together
with early studios of Recent sediments, indicated that the sand deposits of meandering rivers
should grade from coarse to fine upwards. It was noted that the grain-size changes correlated
with changes in the self-potential curve of the electric log. Attention was then directed to barrier
bar deposits in the Recent where a slight increase in grain size upward was noted. The contrast
between these two types of sand bodies in this respect was striking. Although no grain-size
measurements in a subsurface sand body of known barrier bar origin were then available, sand
bodies of supposed shoreline origin which displayed the predicted self-potential characteristics
could be found.
At the same time that these ideas were developing, many examples of characteristic self-
potential variations were also being found by Shell geologists in operations. The concept of
"alluvial" and "barrier bar" SP types became established.20,25,26,27 Within the past few years
knowledge in this field has expanded at a great rate. Detailed subsurface studies have shown that
characteristic self-potential variations are also to be expected for distributary channel deposits
and for delta-marine fringe sands.10,15,17,22,30,35
 4
The subsurface studies have been successful largely because of parallel studies of similar types
of Recent sediments (Bernard, 1955; Bernard and Major, 1956a, 1956b; Bernard, Major, and
Parrott, 1958a, 1958b; Bernard and Parrott, 1958; Bernard, Major, Parrott, and Anderson, 1958;
Major and Bernard, 1956). Recently, Widco electric logs have been run in shallow borings
through sand deposits of various environments, and the data obtained have provided a firm basis
for the concepts (Bernard, Major, and Parrott, 1958b; Bernard, Major, Parrott, and Anderson,
1958).
Self-Potential Log as a Measure of Lithologic Variations

The self-potential log for a permeable sand associated with shales is primarily a function
of two electrical phenomena (Archie, 1953). The most significant of the two is the
electrochemical potential caused by the combination of liquid-junction potential and membrane
potential of the system

The other primary effect is the electrokinetic or flow potential due to the passage of mud
filtrate into the permeable formation. The flow potential is a minor effect in comparing the self
potential of two portions of a sand formation because it is controlled mostly by the mud cake.
The first detailed comparison by the EPR Laboratory of self-potential and textural
properties of a reservoir sand was the study of zone 19b in the Seeligson field (Nanz, 1950). The
conclusion reached was that the self-potential correlated directly with the content of interstitial
silt and clay.
If one assumes that (1) the salinity of the formation water is constant and different from
that of the mud, (2) the mud column is uniform, (3) the hydrocarbon saturation is not so great as
to suppress the self-potential, and (4) the flow potential variations are negligible, differences in
self-potential within a sand formation should be directly proportional to the interstitial content of
surface-active clay minerals. It is likely that the amount of surface-active clay is proportional to
the total interstitial material which is, in turn, related to the conditions of deposition. The weaker
the depositing current, the finer the average grain size and the greater the likelihood that fine
material is deposited with the grains either as interstitial material or as interlaminated layers.
The logic for the contention that depositional conditions are reflected by the self-potential
can be summarized as follows:
 Depositional Environment
|
Magnitude and Variation of Depositional Currents
________________________________________|_______________________
| |
Grain Size Content of Interstitial or Interlaminated*
Material |
|
Content of Surface-Active Clay Minerals
|
Self-Potential

*Caution should be used in the interpretation of thickness and number of sand laminae or interbeds, for there is a lower limit
beyond which the self-potential does not record the thickness accurately. This may be in the order of 1 foot or less.

The observed self-potential characteristics of sand formations are far more systematic than one would
expect from the seemingly tenuous explanation just advanced. In many sand bodies the correlation is good
between vertical grain-size distribution and the SP deflection.

The resistivity curves of petroleum-bearing sands may also reflect grain-size differences, because
resistivity is primarily a function of hydrocarbon saturation, other factors such as mud resistivity and
degree of cementation being equal. Because of capillary forces, saturation is directly related to pore
size, within limits, and pore size in relatively uncemented sands is proportional to grain size.

The relationships predicted by this line of reasoning are not as common as one would expect. The main
reasons for this are that (1) hydrocarbon saturation for a given pore-size distribution is a direct function
of distance above the free water level, and (2) invasion of resistive mud filtrate into the formation
obscures the true resistivity, as indicated on the normal curves.

CLASSIFICATION OF SP LOG SHAPES

Relation of SP Log Shape to Parameters of a Sand Body

The interpretation of sand genesis is based on the recognition of certain significant properties of the sand
determinable from the SP curve. The following four pertinent properties can be determined from the SP
curve:
1) Homogeneity of the sand unit; the sand unit may be comparatively massive without shale
interbeds, or it may consist of interbedded sand and shale.
2) Vertical variation of grain size or degree of interbedding of shale; the grain size of the sand or
thickness of shale interbeds may increase or decrease in a systematic and characteristic manner in a
direction normal to the bedding.
3) Nature of the lower contact; the lower sand-shale contact may be gradational or abrupt.
4) Nature of the upper contact; the upper sand-shale contact may be gradational or abrupt.

These four properties of a sand unit are not mutually exclusive. Sand and shale interbeds may be thought of
as zones of marked grain-size change, and a gradational sand-shale contact is a function of vertical sequence
of grain size or thickness of interbeds. Notwithstanding this interrelationship, no two of the parameters are
equivalent. The determination of the properties listed above is believed to be genetically significant and
adequate for the estimation of mode of formation for many sand bodies.
 6
2) Vertical variation of grain size or degree of interbedding of shale; the grain size of the
sand or thickness of shale interbeds may increase or decrease in a systematic and characteristic
manner in a direction normal to the bedding.
3) Nature of the lower contact; the lower sand-shale contact may be gradational or abrupt.
4) Nature of the upper contact; the upper sand-shale contact may be gradational or abrupt.
These four properties of a sand unit are not mutually exclusive. Sand and shale interbeds
may be thought of as zones of marked grain-size change, and a gradational sand-shale contact is
a function of vertical sequence of grain size or thickness of interbeds. Notwithstanding this
interrelationship, no two of the parameters are equivalent. The determination of the properties
listed above is believed to be genetically significant and adequate for the estimation of mode of
formation for many sand bodies.
Symmetrical Descriptive Classification
The close relationship of the shape of the SP curve to certain lithologic properties
indicates that a classification of characteristic SP log shapes is at the same time a classification of
lithologic parameters. If these parameters are genetically significant, a classification of some
common SP log shapes might aid in the interpretation of the origin of a sand from the electric
log.
A genetically significant classification of SP log shapes can be made on the basis of (1) the
degree of interbedding and (2) the nature of the sand-shale contacts. A relatively homogeneous
sand with few or no shale interbeds is indicated by an SP deflection with a smooth curve. A sand
unit consisting of interbedded sand and shale has a serrate SP curve. A sharp sand-shale contact
is indicated by an abrupt change in the SP curve. A gradual change from sand to shale is marked
by a progressive decrease in the magnitude of the SP deflection--a gradational change toward
the shale line.
Although the qualities of the SP log described above are assumed to reflect genetically
significant properties of sand bodies, the classification of SP log shapes is objective in that it is
based only on observable characteristics of the log. On the basis of a smooth or serrate SP curve,
indicating presence or absence of sand-shale interbeds, and abrupt or gradational SP curve
boundaries, related to the nature of the sand body contacts, the basic SP log shapes have been
arranged as shown in Figure 1.
 7
This classification is systematic and precise and affords a complete and symmetrical
arrangement of the basic SP log shapes. For these reasons the classification has considerable
appeal, but it has the disadvantage of a somewhat involved and unwieldy terminology. As each
basic SP shape is distinguished on the basis of three criteria, a lengthy phrase, such as "serrate
curve with an abrupt upper and gradational lower boundary," must be used to describe it. To
rectify this, short and systematic abbreviations, such as "A/G Sm or A/A Se," are offered for
each basic SP shape. The abbreviations are a convenience for plotting SP log shapes on maps
and afford a more precise way to describe thick complex log shapes such as "G/G Se/Sm/Se.”
Abbreviations appear to satisfy the terminology requirements of personnel continually working
with log shapes, but for those not actively engaged in such studies, abbreviations may be
awkward and unhandy to use. The symmetry of the classification, although admirable from the
point of view of organization and ease of remembrance, has resulted in two theoretical basic SP
log shapes, "G/G Sm and G/G Se" of Figure 1, for which no natural examples have as yet been
found.
Simplified Descriptive Classification

An alternative classification, although somewhat arbitrary and less systematic and precise,
is offered on the basis of greater simplicity of terminology and facility for communication
(Figure 2). The SP curve for a massive sand unit is smooth and for an interbedded sand unit is
serrate. A bell-shaped SP curve indicates a vertical sequence of decreasing grain size and/or
thickness of interbeds upward and an abrupt lower contact; a .funnel-shaped SP curve indicates
increasing grain size and/or thickness of interbeds upward and an abrupt upper contact; a
cylinder-SP curve indicates no systematic change in grain size or thickness of interbeds and
abrupt upper and lower contacts.
The words "bell," "funnel," and "cylinder" are used as nouns and "smooth" and "serrate"
as modifying adjectives, and this combination affords a simple and convenient terminology.
Moreover, these names should create mental images which make them easy to remember and
use. The SP deflection on the electric log can be thought of as a two-dimensional representation
of conditions in three dimensions in the strata. The` surface resulting from rotation of the SP
 8
curve about the well bore as an axis is a true image of the stratal properties. Such three-
dimensional surfaces are aptly described by the terms "bell," "funnel," and "cylinder" (Figure 3).
SAND BODY-CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY

Definition of Sand Body or Sand Zone

In this report a sand zone or sand body is defined as a more or less well-defined interval
composed essentially of sand (Figure 4). In the definition the need for a general term, the
previous use of the term, and the limitations of subsurface techniques have been considered. In
subsurface work, contacts between different lithologies, either abrupt or gradational, can
normally be recognized. On the other hand, the contact of one sand on another is difficult to
determine and normally goes unrecognized. Consequently, a sand body, as broadly defined
above, may be a simple sand unit of one origin or it may be a composite sand unit consisting of
several sands of diverse origin. The ability to predict sand properties from an understanding of
sand origin depends in part on the simplicity or complexity of the depositional history. It is
important to distinguish between a sand deposited in a single occurrence of a particular
environment from a sand deposit which contains sand-on-sand contacts and was built up during
reoccurrences of the same environment or in different superposed environments.

Depositional Regimen of a Sand

The origin of sediments is most commonly related to environment of deposition.

Depositional environment (def.) - the aggregate of all external conditions and influences
affecting or associated with the deposition of a particular interrelated sedimentary sequence
(includes all physical-chemical and organic-inorganic effects).

Depositional environment is a general all-inclusive term used in connection with many

diverse processes. In connection with the origin of sand deposits, a word with more restricted
meaning is needed, and the more precise term "depositional regimen" is proposed.
Depositional regimen (def.) - an individual system of interrelated and interacting currents
with characteristic velocities, directions, and stabilities, and the associated transportation and
deposition of sedimentary particles which give rise to a characteristic type of sand body with
particular internal sequence, texture, and sedimentary structures.
 9
The depositional currents appear to be of paramount importance in the development of the
external form and internal features of a sand body. Other environmental processes and conditions
are either of subordinate importance, or their effect, though considerable, is comparatively
indirect. Such factors as the salinity, pH and Eh of an environment are not of prime importance.
On the other hand, water depth and tectonic activity in the sedimentary basin and source area are
of great importance, but their influence is indirect. The type, strength, direction, and locale of
currents are in some degree functions of water depth and tectonics, which, thereby, are included
in some degree and partially reconciled in the concept of depositional regimen.

Major Classes of Sand Bodies

Sand bodies or sand zones can be divided conveniently into three major classes on the
basis of their mode of development.
1) Genetic sand unit - a sand body deposited during a single occurrence of a particular
depositional regimen.
2) Amplified sand unit - an aggradational sand body consisting of superposed sands deposited
during reoccurrence of a particular depositional regimen.
3) Hybrid sand unit - an aggradational sand body consisting of superposed sands deposited in
more than one kind of depositional regimen.
The major classes of sand bodies are divided into types on the basis of whether
deposition is accompanied by nearly concurrent erosion, "cut and fill," or is mainly "fill-in"
without significant erosion. In general, "cut and fill" deposition occurs more under continental
conditions and "fill-in" more under marine. These types of sand bodies are subdivided into
categories on the basis of origin in a distinctive depositional regimen or in a particular
combination of depositional regimens (Figure 5).

CHARACTERISTIC SP LOG SHAPES OF SAND UNITS

A particular SP log shape is a reflection of the properties of a stratal sequence which is in

turn the product mainly of the current conditions at the time of deposition. If the depositional
currents constitute a definite current system, and this system is of common occurrence, the
corresponding stratal sequence will also be common. The SP log shapes described here are
 10
believed to be characteristic of familiar often-repeated sandstone sequences relatable to known
depositional regimen.
The authors have utilized the combined experience of Shell geologists who have studied
Recent sediments and ancient strata in outcrop and in the subsurface, and have prepared
idealized illustrations for the different types of sand units showing the relationship of SP shape to
lithology and the responsible depositional processes (Figures 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 ,and 11). Some of the
pictured relationships are firmly established. Others are put forth more as probabilities than as
actualities.
SP logs have been made in Recent sediments with a Widco logger,5,7,9 and examples
typical of genetic sand units are shown in Figure 12. From normal operational electric logs, SP
log shapes characteristic of different types of sand units have been collected in Figures 13, 14,
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 23 (Table 1).
Genetic Sand Units

Genetic sand units are principally of two main types, "cut and fill" and "offlap fill-in." "Cut and
fill" sand units are those deposited in channels incised into the underlying strata by currents of
the depositional regimen. "Offlap fill-in" sands are accreted to the coast in pre-existing
depositional localities. Less abundant and less understood are "onlap" sand deposits and "fill-in"
sands which may build up with little indication of offlap or onlap deposition. The major genetic
sand units are listed by type in Figure 5.
Cut and Fill Sand Units

On the electric log, these sands are characterized by an abrupt basal contact produced by erosion
and subsequent deposition of sand on shale.
Alluvial point bar sand unit (Figure 7a) - characterized by a smooth or slightly serrate bell-
shaped SP curve resulting from an abrupt lower contact, decrease in grain size upward, and
gradational upper contact. The bell-shaped curve is generally smooth, but the upper part tends to
be slightly serrate because of thin shale interbeds.
The alluvial point bar sequence and characteristic SP log shape have been well established by
studies of Recent deposits in the Brazos River (Figure 12)6,7,8 and of subsurface examples
(Figures 13, 24).27
 11
Alluvial-deltaic point bar sand unit (Figure 8a) - characterized by smooth bell-shaped or
cylinder-shaped SP curve resulting from an abrupt lower contact, a slight decrease in grain size
upward, and an abrupt or slightly gradational upper contact.
The alluvial-deltaic point bar sequence and characteristic SP shape have been observed in
the modern upper deltaic plain of the Rio Grande (Figure 12 ),5,7,9 and in the subsurface in the
Oligocene Frio, Seeligson field, south Texas,25,31 the Upper Cretaceous Tuscaloosa, Little Creek
field, southwest Mississippi,and elsewhere (Figures 13, 14, 25).
Distributary channel sand unit (Figures 8b, 11b) - characterized by several SP shapes.
A somewhat serrate bell-shaped SP curve, representing abrupt lower contact, sand and shale
interbedding with upward decrease in grain size or thickness of interbeds, and a gradational
upper contact, is representative for some distributary channel sands. Such sands may result from
gradual filling of the channel by progressively weaker depositional currents.
This type of distributary channel sequence and the bell-shaped SP log have been observed in the
subsurface (Figures 15a, 15b, 26).10,30,35
Another type of distributary channel sand unit, believed to be common in the Miocene of the
Gulf Coast, is represented by smooth and serrate cylinder-shaped SP curves. The two shapes may
be intermingled throughout the sand unit, or one or the other may predominate. The smooth
cylinder-shaped SP indicates a homogeneous sand with an abrupt lower erosional contact and an
abrupt upper contact; the serrate cylinder represents sand and shale interbeds with an abrupt
lower erosional contact and an abrupt upper contact. Much of the deposition probably occurred
at the bottom of the channel, and the formation of a thick deposit was possible because of
continuous subsidence during deposition. The distributary sand units which contain both serrate
and smooth cylinder-shaped SP curves apparently were deposited in channels with nonuniform
current velocities resulting in contiguous deposition of sands and silty clays (Figure 8b).
In some cases a generally smooth cylinder-shaped SP may have a gradational upper boundary
represented by a relatively thin zone of serrate bell-shaped SP development in the upper part of
the sand (Figure 11b). Such an SP curve may represent distributary channel deposition
coincident with subsidence in the lower part and distributary channel fill due to abandonment in
the upper part.
 12
In distributary channel sand units, the types of SP log shapes and their distribution have not
been adequately investigated and are only partially understood. The SP log shapes described are
characteristic of distributary channel deposits which have been observed in subsurface examples
(Figures 15, 27).10,17,35 The suggested processes of deposition are interpretive and may require
considerable modification in the future. A coring program, which will improve our
understanding of deposition in distributary channels, is now in progress in Recent distributaries
of the Mississippi Delta complex (Bernard, Project 211,110, personal communication).
Offlap Fill-in

Delta-marine fringe sand unit (Figure 7b) - characterized by serrate funnel-shaped SP

curves, indicating a gradational lower contact, sand and shale interbedding with a general
upward increase in thickness of beds and grain size, and an abrupt upper contact. The interbeds
of sand and shale are related in large part to the flood cycles, sand being deposited by the
stronger currents of flood stages and silty clays by the weaker currents of low water stages. The
upward increase of grain size and thickness of beds is a function of the progressive decrease in
distance between the depositional site and the distributary mouth source as a result of normal
deltaic advance.
If the shale interbeds are less than one or two feet thick, the serrate character may be
subdued so that the SP curve resembles the smooth funnel of a barrier bar.
Considerable data on Recent delta-marine fringe sands have been gathered (Figure 12),5,7,9 and
work is continuing. Fringe sands are very abundant, especially in the Gulf Coast, and numerous
subsurface examples have been observed (Figure 16).10,15,17,22,35
Barrier bar sand unit (Figure 7c) - distinguished by a generally smooth funnel-shaped SP curve
which is produced by a homogeneous sand increasing moderately in grain size upward and
having a gradational lower contact and an abrupt upper contact. The gradation in grain size is
most probably directly related to decreasing wave energy with increasing water depth. The wave
and longshore currents which deposit barrier bars appear to be more constant and uniform than
most other sand-depositing current systems, and, consequently, the smooth funnel is probably the
most nearly diagnostic SP shape.
 13
Barrier bars with smooth funnel-shaped SP curves have been observed in the Recent (Figure 12) 5, 7, 9
and are fairly numerous in the subsurface (Figures 17, 28).14,28
Cut and Onlap
Transgressive sand on unconformity (Figure 7d) - the classical sequence above an
unconformity, conglomerate or coarse sandstone grading upward into fine sandstone and
siltstone, might be expected to have a fairly smooth bell-shaped SP curve representing an abrupt
lower erosional contact, few or no shale interbeds, and a gradational upper contact.
Such sequences have been observed and are probably most common in orogenic basins
where large headlands are exposed to and cut back by vigorous wave action.62 The headlands
must contain materials capable of supplying coarse detritus in order for conglomerates and
coarse sandstones to be deposited on the unconformity, and subsidence must accompany
transgression for a thick deposit to form. Although the figured SP shape has not yet been
observed, it should be expected and watched for, particularly in orogenic-type basins.
In a paralic-type basin such as the Gulf Coast, most transgressive units are thin deposits
of fine sand or silt and have no characteristic SP log shape. However, transgressive sands tend to
be uniform over comparatively large areas and are often used as correlation datums. If, after the
examination of a number of electric logs, the top of a thin sand appears to be uniform so as to
afford a possible datum, the sand is most probably a transgressive unit. In some cases, the SP
development in a transgressive deposit indicates a characteristic lateral gradation from silt to
sand in a shoreward direction (Figure 18e and 18.f). Transgressive sands are normally rich in
calcareous fossil material and are slightly coarser grained and more poorly sorted than closely
associated regressive sands. Consequently, they may be characterized on the electric log by a
higher resistivity (Figure 18a, 18b, 18c, and 18d) or by fluid invasion (Figure 4).
The properties of some transgressive sands have been investigated in the Recent9

(Bernard, Major, Parrott, and Anderson, 1958), and in the subsurface.1,10,17,22,28,30

Amplified Sand Units

Important types of amplified sand units are built up by "cut and fill," by "offlap fill-in,"
and by "fill-in" with no particular relationship to the position of the shoreline. "Cut and fill"
 14
deposits are represented by thick formations of sandstone which were deposited on an alluvial
plain. "Offlap fill-in" deposits of large size have been formed by superposition of deltaic
sediments because of subsidence during progradation of the delta and by aggradational buildup
of barrier bars. The most important "fill-in" deposits are submarine canyon fans and graded bed
sequences deposited by turbidity currents.
Cut and Fill
Point bar buildup in alluvial valley or on alluvial plain (Figure 9a) - characterized by
a fairly smooth composite SP curve, the lower and larger portion cylinder-shaped and the upper
portion bell-shaped. The contact relationships and overall sequence are the same as in the genetic
unit, but the coarser basal sands are much thicker. This thick development is accomplished by
the return of the depositing stream to the area at successively higher base levels. At each new
level the depositing stream selectively removes fine sands and silty sands because these fine
materials occur in the upper part of the point bars deposited by the preceding stream. Because the
depositing stream has a higher base level, it deposits the coarse lower material of the point bars
in a position laterally equivalent to that of the fine upper sands being removed from the
preceding point bars. In this way, a considerable thickness of coarse point bar gravels and sands
can be built up with only a comparatively thin interval of fine-grained sands and silty sands on
top.
Alluvial buildups largely of point bar deposits are common in the geologic column
(Figures 19a and 29).28
Offlap Fill-in
Delta-marine fringe buildup (Figure 9b) - represented by an SP curve consisting of
several adjoining serrate funnels. The division between one funnel and another is not large, and
such divisions can seldom be carried very far laterally. Consequently, the funnels are necessarily
grouped together as one sand body. Each individual funnel is believed to represent a phase of
fringe sand deposition during deltaic advance. One funnel succeeds another because of a local
halt in deposition, a minor delta retreat due to continuing subsidence, and resumption of
deposition and delta advance. A limited area is affected at any one time, but apparently such
processes can result in large and complex sand bodies consisting largely of buildup of delta-
marine fringe sands.
 15
Delta-marine fringe buildups are especially abundant in the subsurface Miocene of the
Gulf Coast (Figure 19b, 19c, 19d, and 19e).10,15,35
Barrier bar buildup (Figure10a) - represented by a series of partially separated smooth
funnel-shaped SP curves or by an exceptionally thick smooth cylinder-shaped SP with a
gradational lower contact and an abrupt upper contact. In the latter case, the individual barrier
bars are so completely merged that their individual identity is lost. Such barrier bar buildups
should be expected in interdeltaic areas where the position of the shoreline has been stabilized
for a considerable period by tectonic control.
Barrier bar buildups have been reported in the Tertiary of California11 and in the
Oligocene Frio of Texas along the Vicksburg flexure (Figure 20).23
Fill-in
Submarine canyon fan - may be represented by a thick smooth or slightly serrate
cylinder-shaped SP curve. Both the lower and upper contacts are normally abrupt. There is no
orderly sequence in the fan, which consists predominantly of very poorly to moderately sorted
coarse conglomerates and cobbly mudstones (isolated pebbles and cobbles in a mud matrix).
The fan develops in relatively deep water at the break of slope near the foot of a
submarine canyon. It consists of the initial deposits from relatively high velocity turbidity
currents flowing down the submarine canyon and contains the coarsest materials transported by
the currents because these are deposited at the first break in slope.
These deposits have been observed in outcrops and in subsurface strata of Tertiary age in
California (Figure 21a).13,18,19,33
Graded bed buildup by turbidity currents (Figure 10b) - the graded bed is the genetic
unit of most turbidity deposits, but as a genetic unit it is too thin and too indistinctly separated
from other graded beds to be useful. Consequently, the sand body formed by turbidity currents is
a buildup consisting of superposed graded beds.
A buildup of graded beds is characterized by slightly serrate or smooth cylinder-shaped
SP curves which may range from thin to very thick. Whether the SP curve is slightly serrate or
smooth may be in large part a matter of log quality. The slightly serrate cylinder is the ideal
shape. The serrations represent the individual graded beds; the abrupt upper and lower contacts
are produced by sharp boundaries between the graded bed sequence and the overlying and
underlying deep water, fine grained shales.
 16
Graded beds deposited by turbidity currents have been studied in the Recent, but have
been most thoroughly investigated in outcrops and in the subsurface (Figures 21b, 21c,
21d).12,13,18,19,34
Hybrid Sand Units (Systematic)

Certain hybrid sand units appear to develop through a definitive sequence of events and
can be termed "systematic." Some systematic hybrid sand units can be recognized from their
appearance on the electric log.
Progradational Buildup of Alluvial Sands over Delta-Marine Fringe (Figure 11a)
The characteristic SP shape is compound, with the lower part a serrate funnel and the upper part
a fairly smooth bell. Both the lower and upper contacts are gradational, but the gradation should
take place over a long interval at the base and a considerably shorter interval at the top. A
comparatively thick interval of massive sand, represented by a smooth cylinder-shaped SP may
occupy the central portion of the sand body. Such a massive sand zone should consist of the
better developed sands from the upper portion of the fringe sequence together with the thick
lower sands of the overlying alluvial sequence. The grain size and thickness of beds increase
upward into the alluvial sands and then decrease.
The progradational sequence of alluvial sands on delta-marine sands has been observed in
outcrop studies, but the corresponding SP shape has not been verified. As the sequence does
exist, the SP shape described is to be expected and looked for. An example of progradation
buildup of alluvial sands over shoreline deposits has been described (Figure 22).21
Progradation Laterally of Distributary Channels through Delta-Marine Fringe
(Figure 11b)
The characteristic SP curves are laterally equivalent with different character-serrate
funnels representing delta-marine fringe and serrate to smooth bells and cylinders distinguishing
distributary channel sands. Such an association is the normal situation in deltaic deposits. During
deltaic progression, distributaries advance toward the sea by cutting their way through pre-
existing deltaic sediments. As the distributary channels normally cut deep into the subaqueous
deltaic sediments, most fringe sands are dissected by distributary channel sands.
Distributary channel sands with laterally equivalent delta-marine fringe have been
observed in the Recent7,8,9 and are abundant in the subsurface Tertiary strata of the Gulf
 17
Coast.10,15,17,22,30,35 In some cases the distributary channels have prograded laterally
through some fringe deposits and over others (Figure 23a, 23b, and 23c).
Marine Transgression over Delta (Figure 11c)
After a delta has been abandoned and deposition has ceased, compaction of the aqueous
deltaic clays together with continued basin subsidence causes a general marine transgression
over the deltaic area. As the sea transgresses, the upper part of the deltaic sequence is cut away
by wave action, and much of this material is redistributed as a transgressive sand or silt on or
near the unconformity. A transgressive sand may be in direct contact with the underlying deltaic
sands or may be separated by a thin bed of shale. A transgressive sand in direct contact is
difficult to distinguish on the electric log, but the poorer sorting, higher silt and clay content, and
high fossil content characteristic of a transgressive sand may be apparent in a reduced SP and a
high resistivity. A thin persistent sand above a deltaic sand body is immediately suspected as a
transgressive deposit and may be further characterized by a high resistivity.
Transgressive sands over deltaic deposits have been extensively studied in the Recent6,7,8
and in the subsurface (Figures 23d and 30).10,15,17,22,30,35

LIMITATIONS AND QUALIFICATIONS

At the present time, the origin of many sand bodies can be successfully estimated from
the character of the SP log alone. This is possible because the SP log shapes have been calibrated
against known geologic conditions. However, the interpretation of SP character requires
qualification. For sand bodies of different geologic ages and in different sedimentary basins from
those in which SP log shapes have been calibrated, additional calibration may be necessary
before interpretations of adequate reliability can be obtained. The geologic calibration of an SP
log entails a paleontologic, petrologic, and sedimentologic study of samples (conventional and
sidewall cores and good cuttings) and correlation of the results with the appropriate SP log
shapes. The character of an SP log must be calibrated satisfactorily before it can be used safely to
infer the origin of sand bodies.
 18
In the determination of sand genesis, SP log shapes are characteristic rather than diagnostic,
and greater precision and reliability are obtained by utilizing additional information.
Interpretations from the electric log should be made in conjunction with sample data whenever
possible. An SP log shape, which permits several alternative interpretations, may become nearly
diagnostic when used in conjunction with other geological information. For example,a smooth
cylinder-shaped SP is characteristic of cut and fill sand bodies in a delta, but if the shape is
associated with a deep water fauna it indicates a turbidity current deposit of graded beds. A
coordinated study of sample material along with SP character may result in recognition of
depositional cycles, a difficult feat from the study of electric logs alone. Once the depositional
cycle is recognized, the origin of sand bodies can be more easily and accurately estimated from
the electric log. Even the depositional environment for shales may be predictable, not that the SP
curve of shale is characteristic, but because the depositional sequence is understood.
Lack of information concerning basin tectonics and paleogeography handicaps the
estimation of sand origin. Not until the stratigraphic framework is established for an area, as it
has been for many petroleum provinces, can the SP curve be used safely to determine the
probable origin of the sand bodies. The stratigraphic framework of a basin gives some indication
of the types of depositional regimen which were active in the basin and of their general position
during different periods. Such information helps to eliminate alternative interpretations of sand
origin from the SP log.
The character of the SP log may not be of genetic significance for all types of sand bodies
or in all depositional basins. Although a close correlation between vertical distribution of grain
sizes and deflections on SP logs has been found for many sandstones, no such relationship has
been found for conglomerates or conglomeratic sandstones. Furthermore, the development of an
ideal SP log shape depends upon the presence of surface-active clay minerals and the absence of
distortions which might be produced by extensive cementation and compaction. In certain basins
which lack significant amounts of montmorillonite, which is the most surface-active clay, or
where cementation and compaction effects are excessive, the shapes of the SP curve may not as
yet be interpretable. Basins in which the character of the SP log is least usable are likely to be
those which contain older strata, especially Paleozoic. The montmorillonite clays are much less
 19
abundant in the older strata, probably because of diagenesis, and cementation and compaction
effects commonly are more severe.
It should be pointed out that this paper is a beginning in SP log-shape interpretation, and
no doubt improvements in technique and additional calibrations under known geologic
conditions in other geologic provinces will eliminate some of the present limitations. Even more
promising, however, is the progress being made in geological calibration and interpretation of
other types and combinations of geophysical logs (Eddy and Sneider, 1959).

CONCLUSIONS

In many basins of deposition, estimations of sand genesis can be made rapidly and
inexpensively from studies of self-potential logs. Considerable geologic information can be
obtained with a minimum of effort by such studies, and data can be secured for wells from which
no sample material is available.
The determination of sand genesis from the electric log is an estimation and as such is
subject to error. The reliability of interpretation among other things is a function of the precision
with which the calibration of the SP log shapes has been accomplished and of how much is
known of basin tectonics and paleogeography. Reliability can normally be improved by study of
appropriate sample material.
Sand bodies with characteristic SP log shapes have been observed in Paleozoic and
Mesozoic as well as Tertiary strata. The techniques for determining sand genesis from the SP
curve are most widely applicable to younger sand bodies, which normally are less affected by
diagenetic changes, but are also satisfactory for some older sand bodies.

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Geological Studies, West Lake Verret Field, St. Martin Parish, Louisiana. Part II - Depositional
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2. Archie, G.E., 1953, Practical Petrophysics. Part I - Principles, Shell TS, Houston, Jan. 1953,
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3. Bernard, H.A., 1953, Application of Studies of Recent Sediments to Older Rocks, Shell EPR
Memo Report 13, Sept. 1955.
 20
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11. Castano, J.R., 1955, Integrated Stratigraphic Analysis of Gatchell Sand, Coalinga Area,
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EPR Memo Report 32, Oct. 1957.
 21

19. Hsu, K.J., and Castro, M.J., 1957, Pliocene Deep Sea Strata, Ventura Basin, California, Geol.
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30. Shelton, J.W., and Parrott, B.S., 1958, Genesis and Trend of G2 Sand Zone, Main Pass Block
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31. Stevenson, W.L., 1958, Depositional Patterns of the Frio Sands of the Seeligson Area, Shell
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32. Stokesbary, W.A., 1958, Personal Communication on Transgressive Sand Sequence in the
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33. Taylor, J.C., 1954, Personal Communication on Submarine Fans in Upper Tertiary of Brea
Canyon Field, Los Angeles Basin, California, Shell Pacific Coast Area, 1954.
 22

34. Taylor, J.C., and Pontius, D.C., 1958, Personal Communication on Turbidity Current
Deposited Graded Beds in the Saticoy Field, Ventura Basin, California, Shell Pacific Coast Area,
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35. Wilson, B.W., and Parrott, B.S., 1958, Sediment Distribution and Its Control in the Lower
Producing Sands, South Pass Block 24 Field, Louisiana (Abstract), Proc. Prod. Geol. Conf.,
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