PASSAGE I

Menstruation Station: An Analysis of Menstrual Taboos

August - December 2016
Mei Harrison
Rivera
I. Introduction

The world’s population is roughly 7.4 billion people, and roughly 49.6% of those people

are women (Bauer). Women are biologically equipped to birth the next generation and are

arguably the backbone of humanity because of this. Men and women are vastly different in

regards to their biological makeup and social constructions. One of the major contributing factors

of these differences is embodied within the reproductive system and its functions. Menstruation

is a key component of the female system as it serves to monitor hormone levels in correlation

with fertility. Every month, the uterus of a woman creates a thick lining in preparation for a

fertilized egg - an embryo that will develop into a fetus and after nine months, a baby. If an

embryo does not arrive, there will not be a pregnancy, and thus the lining is shed in the form of

menstruation. Menstruation is the process in which a woman undergoes the discharging of blood

and other materials from the lining of the uterus at consecutive intervals of about one lunar

month from puberty until menopause, except during pregnancy (Chamberlain). While it may

occur in a cycle, menstruation is not always predictable. Humans are one of the only species that

menstruate and do so as frequently as once a month. Most females have their first menstrual

cycle, or period, from the ages of ten to sixteen years old and will continue to have them monthly

until around the age of fifty, when menopause begins, which ceases menstruation (Mayo).

In biological terms, both a woman and man are required for the act of reproduction, but

the woman is the carrier of the offspring. Without women, there would be no population, which

demonstrates their need for equality in society. From prehistory through the Post-Classical Era,

women were often viewed as solely child bearers, homemakers, and husband-pleasers. As the

world has progressed, women have begun to hold importance in society and even hold the same

1
positions as men with equal status in many societies. Though women increasingly gained

equality with men, specifically in male-dominated communities, there are still areas where they

are discriminated against and criticized because of their gender. One of these reasons is

menstruation. ​While women hold such importance in the world both biologically and

culturally, many women are still subject to certain menstrual taboos in countries such as:

The United States, India, and Namibia and these are influenced by practices and beliefs

from educational systems, culture, and religion.

A taboo is defined by Merriam Webster as, “a social or religious custom prohibiting or

forbidding discussion of a particular practice or forbidding association with a particular person,

place, or thing.” The breaking of a taboo in many cultures is viewed as questionable and in some

cases, criminal. It is possible for taboos to change and disappear, but, it is extremely difficult to

change taboos as they are fundamental ideas that are often deeply ingrained in the history, life,

and morals of the people. Menstruation taboos serve as an example of this; as they only pertain

to half the population, it is extremely difficult to persuade an entire population to discredit them.

II. Educational Taboos Concerning Menstruation

Several issues and concerns regarding menstruation are related to education. While

women in the United States and many Western countries have teacher unions, proper sanitation,

and relatively free resources up to the university level, many other nations aren’t gifted with

these luxuries. These luxuries are often correlated to education access and success, which affects

health topics like menstruation. According to UNESCO, in 2010, 61 million primary school-age

children worldwide were not enrolled in school. Of these children, 47% were never expected to

2
enter school, 26% attended school but left, and only the remaining 27% are expected to attend

school in the future (United Nations Educational Scientific And Cultural Organization).

Additionally, several studies have shown that women who receive more education are more

likely to know the affects of safer sexual practices and, on average, have fewer children.

Countries like India and Namibia suffer from the lack of additional luxuries, which causes

problems inside communities, specifically for women.

In the United States, specifically in primary and secondary school, differing forms of sex

education are taught in order to inform students about the various factors and topics. The United

States is a developed country in the Western hemisphere and is often considered one of the

strongest nations. The U.S. is also a leader in health and sanitation as well as progressing into the

future. Sexual education in the United States often follows a format of either abstinence-only,

abstinence-plus, comprehensive, or holistic. The form of education is often decided by the

school’s district or the school itself. In 2016, 23% of sex education courses taught in U.S. public

schools were abstinence-only, which is up two percent from 1988 (Livni). A 2014 study by the

CDC found that on average, 39.5% of schools teach human development issues (e.g.

reproductive anatomy and puberty) which is apart of required instruction. Additionally, proper

sanitation systems are available in 93.7% of schools (School Health Policies and Practices

Study). These show how the United States while being developed, still maintains a stigma

around menstruation in education.

There are several menstrual taboos that exist which can be related to the the educational

systems that are implemented in the United States. One of the largest taboos highlights the vast

difference between comfortability and “period talk” between males and females. Most women

3
feel most comfortable speaking to their female family members, friends, coworkers, and other

women in general about their menstrual cycles. In contrast, many men still do feel somewhat

uncomfortable speaking to their female family members, significant others, friends, and

counterparts about periods. Furthermore, when males do speak about menstruation, they tend to

do so in a joking manner, which can lead to a decrease in self-confidence and comfort for women

in talking about their cycles with others. Boys who joke out of ignorance may cause girls to feel

uncomfortable about their bodily function. This issue can be traced back to primary sexual

education courses.​ ​In the United States, 97% of schools teach human sexual anatomy, sexual

activity, sexual reproduction, safe sex, birth control, and other related topics with male and

female students in separate classrooms. Instructing boys and girls separately can perpetuate the

aura of stigma and add to the mystery of these topics. These types of decisions are made by

individual school districts, which are strongly influenced by parent voice. Parents often play a

large role in what specifically is taught in schools and how that is achieved. In the Irvine Unified

School District, a series of surveys have taken place which ask parents and students about

coeducational sex education classes. In the poll of parents, 57% said human sexuality and

development should be taught in separate classes for boys and girls, while 76% of the student

poll said they don’t object to a class with students of the opposite sex (Newman). This current

practice of segregated sex education classes promotes the taboo of steering away from speaking

about periods with the other sex.

As topics such as menstruation are often taught in school, there is a large population of

parents who don’t feel the need to teach their children about it. This doesn’t always come from a

feeling of awkwardness, but more from a feeling of non-essentiality. This disregarding behavior

4
can lead to girls not knowing what to do when they receive their first menstrual cycle.

Additionally, some girls may have their lack of knowledge create drastic unwanted

consequences, like pregnancy. They may feel embarrassed, concerned, out-of-place, and end up

trying to hide evidence from their parents. This may cause worry for parents, but it is often a

taboo that is resolved individually within a family. This specific taboo isn’t necessarily severe

for long periods of time, except in extreme cases, but it does reflect the nature of the society to

rely on education to fully teach and ensure comprehension of the student’s body and changes that

occur.

With over 1.2 billion people​ ​and counting, India is beginning to rise in international

power and influence. With the growth of the country, it is important to look specifically at

education. India has about a 4% expenditure of its total GDP (about $8 trillion) to education, a

literacy rate of 71% (81% male, 61% female), an average school life expectancy of eleven to

twelve years, and a 59% male participation in secondary school compared to 49% for females.

India is also one of the poorer countries in the world due to its large economic wage gap,

immense poverty, and educational flaws. For women and girls, life can be especially difficult as

they often are lower on the social hierarchy and struggle to gain recognition in society. There is

evidence to demonstrate that this has been changing over time and women now are beginning to

gain respect.

India is often cited for it’s numerous amount of taboos specifically regarding

menstruation. Many of them come from educational standards and normalities. One of the most

common is the overall knowledge and awareness that girls have about menstruation, both before

and after they start. A study done in Bangalore, India tried to investigate the views around

5
menstruation and practices during menstrual cycles of selected high school girls in a rural area.

The study found that “99.6% of the girls had heard of menstruation and 57.9% had acquired this

knowledge before attaining menarche. 73.7% knew that menstruation was a normal phenomenon

but only 28.7% had knowledge regarding menstruation [and] 48.1% did not know that

menstruation was related to pregnancy,”(BR, Goud, Shanbhag D, Shilpa R, D’Souza N,

Josephine P, and Singh J). Most girls around the world learn about these topics either from their

mothers or at school. India, a nation with long-restored strict moral values, often can track issues

back to them. Mothers, who often take the responsibility to teach their daughters, lack clarity or

precision when addressing these topics, if they do so at all. It is common for mothers to assume

that reproductive health information won’t be beneficial until marriage or they rely on another

person to do it. Traditionally, in India, women are often the homemakers, housewives, and

caregivers who raise children. Men are not expected or even encouraged to speak to daughters

about such taboo topics, unless it relates to serious health problems or a potential marriage. Even

then, they frequently rely on the other females in the family to fill them in, never the girl herself.

As the educational system in India is not defined with specific guidelines of content, many

schools opt out of teaching sex-ed. In most cases, if there is any sex-education course offered in

school, it is abstinence-focused. In 2012, just 45% of teachers in India were female, which is the

highest it had ever been (Chhapial). Before and during this gradual shift towards equality in the

ratio of male to female teachers, men had made up the majority. As men make up the majority of

teachers, and were taught not to speak about menstruation and sex with females, this results in a

lack of education to girls about menstruation.

6
 As Indian ​metropolises​ are advancing, the urban cities in India are moving towards more

a more modernist worldview. This is a stark contrast to the majority of the country, which is

made up of rural villages where a separation between the Western modernized world exists.

These villages often live in a strong patriarchy with several sanitation, educational, and social

disparities. Modernized resources and materials are especially scarce in these rural areas.

Feminine products are manufactured in the larger cities or imported in, but are difficult to

transport to secluded areas. Due to this, most women use everyday materials like cloth or

washrags to maintain the blood. This lack of access to resources stems from the shortage of

conversations about menstruation and menstrual education. As communities neglect to speak

about it, progress is lost that could be made improving the sanitary situations in rural areas.

Due to the lack of education around menstruation and sex-education in general, there are

a few profit and nonprofit organizations working in both urban and rural India to offer classes to

young girls about menstruation and sex. In addition, there have been reports of the Indian

government attempting to outsource the responsibility to outsiders. This is a solution that does

seem to be making improvement, but primarily in the urban cities with families of the richer

class. While this is important, most of the problems surrounding taboos exist most strongly in

rural regions of the country where basic sanitary needs still aren’t met as well as the necessary

menstruation and sex education courses.

Namibia is a country located in Southern Africa and shares borders with countries such as

Angola, South Africa, and Botswana. It has a population of about two million people and a sex

ratio of 0.96 males/female. The average school life expectancy is eleven years with a literacy rate

of 82% (79% male, 85% female) for the population. Being an African country, the nation isn’t

7
always seen in the most positive light according to health, education, government, or trade. Once

the country gained independence from South Africa, the government worked to create a unified

structure for education. Currently, Namibia allocates more than 20% of its national budget to

education, which is about six to seven percent of the total GDP. This is one of the highest of

GDP expenditures to education in the world. The Constitution of Namibia guarantees that

primary education is free and compulsory for all until completion of primary schooling or age

sixteen. This brings the assumption that the education is pure and successful to its students.

Although, there are still taboos around menstruation that exist that relate back to the educational

system.

One of the major problems for girls in developing countries is the lack of access to

sanitary products at school. Sanitary products can range from sanitary napkins, tampons, period

panties, and menstrual cups, which in theory all serve the same purpose. However these

products’ shape, effectiveness, cleanliness, and price differ. Due to this, Namibia’s women most

commonly use sanitary napkins or pads as they are the cheapest and most effective for the

standard life in urban cities. Access to these products can be difficult, specifically for women in

rural areas. An analysis of Namibian lifestyle said, “in many rural communities, young girls are

not lucky enough to have access to tampons or pads on a regular basis. Because of this, they are

forced to use various materials such as t-shirts, layered cloths or even toilet paper to soak up the

menstrual blood...” (Nekomba). This statement emphasizes how, while there is an influx in

modernization in urban areas with respect to menstruation, there are still millions of women who

don’t get proper sanitation to take care of menstrual needs, specifically in school settings.

Additionally, Nekomba reports that the average Namibian girl in school misses three days a

8
month due to her period. ​A few days missed a month can add up over four plus years, especially

with a year-round school system. ​The lack of resources in rural communities and schools are

drastic, which causes girls to think they’re not valued or important as society cannot provide the

items they need. This creates a taboo that menstruation, while normal, should be looked down

upon in embarrassment and shame, which adds to the issue of educating girls about their body

and its functions.

Namibia is working diligently to build up it’s reputation and view from the rest of the

world, which is almost predisposed from its identity as an African country. While the country is

developing quickly and beginning to increase female empowerment, this hasn’t stopped the

continuing menstrual taboos. Due to the lack of proper and sanitary resources, many girls find

themselves unable to attend school while menstruating. According to the Ministry of Education,

in 1994, only 262 schools out of 1,553 schools, or 17% had book collections. In the north of the

country, many schools don’t have books or electricity and are referred to as “tree schools”. These

schools hold classes outside, in the shade of trees due to the lack of communal buildings (Ivon).

When class is taught outside, the only restroom option is outdoors. With scarcity of restrooms,

sinks, or trash cans, controlling one’s period at school can become detrimental. This condition in

hundreds of schools cause many girls to stay at home while menstruating. Similar issues exist in

women’s workplaces in regards to resources. All of this creates a convention that females must

remain solitary when menstruating, which for many girls may make them fall behind in school or

work.

Menstruation for women is often a private topic in Namibia, as it is for most developing

countries. When a student is menstruating, there is a fear of embarrassment from teachers,

9
friends, and fellow students. This fear is instilled in most of the female population, which can

add to the pre-existing gender standards. First Lady Madam Penehupifo Pohamba stated that

girls often fear asking for money from parents to buy sani​tary towels and tampons as the matter

is considered a taboo as it is deemed to be of a "sexual nature" (Tjitemisa). This​ idea of

menstruating to be of a sexual nature is rooted in the education of girls about their bodies.

Menstruating every month is frequently explained as how a woman can tell she is not pregnant.

This direct instruction imprints the idea that menstruation is not to be spoken about, just like sex.

Adding to the fear of embarrassment or being different, Namibian girls are greatly affected by

educationally influenced menstrual taboos.

III. Cultural Taboos Concerning Menstruation

Culture is a broad word and is used to describe individuals or groupings in a variety of

ways. It can be understood in the context of geographical setting, ethnicity, language, religion,

common beliefs, and independent categorization. Mostly, culture is defined as the beliefs,

customs, and arts of a particular society, group, place, or time. Due to this, a wide array of

interpretations and connotations are made about a certain culture. Each person and the culture(s)

they belong to shape who they are, how they act, and what they believe in.

The United States is often cited as a melting pot of cultures. This is in part due to the

country’s history of people immigrating from many different countries, all from differing races

and backgrounds. Each of these people hoped to experience freedom, have access to new

opportunities, and a chance at a better life (Millet). The diverse population, both in history and in

current times is reflective of the unconventional culture of the nation. Most nations are

10
identifiable by a majority culture, but the U.S. differs in that there are several majority cultures to

define the population.

While the culture of the United States may be a fusion of several, there are a few

uniformities in culture that influence the people. Specifically, most menstrual taboos are rooted

in the cultural aspect of the nation. Language plays a huge role in taboos as they can change and

affect the ways these taboos come across. Euphemisms are indirect words or expressions

substituted for topics considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant

or embarrassing. Chris Bobel, an associate professor of women's and gender studies at the

University of Massachusetts, Boston and the president of the ​Society for Menstrual Cycle

Research​ spoke in an National Public Radio (NPR) interview that stated that from 2010 to 2015,

the word “menstruation” was mentioned three times more in five major national news outlets

than in all previous years (Gharib). As news and media outlets become more comfortable with

menstruation, it sends a message to the people that it is human and okay to speak about publicly.

A survey performed by Clue, a health app, in partnership with the International Women’s

Health Coalition found that there are over 5,000 euphemisms for menstruation and related

matters (George). Although the U.S. is advanced in its reactions towards menstruation, many

people still don’t feel comfortable calling it that in public or outloud, particularly in the presence

of the opposite sex. Euphemisms are the bridge used to be able to talk about menstruation more

openly and with less embarrassment. The ​Cosmopolitan​, an international fashion magazine for

women called 2015 “the year the period went public” (Cauterucci). Referring to an increase in

acceptance of menstruation in the public eye. In the United States, most common euphemisms

for menstruation include: ‘shark week’, ‘Aunt Flo’, and ‘that time of the month’. Each

11
euphemism holds its own story and history for the culture. Most are lighthearted and simply

humorous, but each shows the effect that periods have on language and conversation. ​Christina

Cauterucci​, a journalist for ​The Slate Group ​stated that:

“The more ridiculous phrases open a healthy space for fun and irony that exposes

misogynist absurdity, imagining women as iron-hungry werewolves evolving

with the cycles of the moon. Women should never have to dilute their period talk

with euphemisms for the comfort of delicate male ears. But we shouldn’t let a

culture of shame take away the period’s potential for poetry, either,” (Cauterucci).

Her analysis of menstruation-related euphemisms is one counter to many other scholars.

In George Orwell’s “Politics and the English Language,” he looked at the ways in which bloated

writing, like euphemisms serves the purposes of totalitarianism. In the essay he wrote, “When

there is a gap between one’s real and one’s declared aims, one turns as it were instinctively to

long words and exhausted idioms… When the general atmosphere is bad, language must suffer”

(Weisberger). This expanded on the idea the euphemisms works against the truth and in the face

of menstruation, it emphasizes the uneasy feeling of it in conversation. Cauterucci challenges

this idea by classifying period euphemisms as a move forwards in society as it shows the humor

that can be found in the topic. As euphemisms seem to be strongly influencing the U.S. culture,

they are as influential in several other world regions in a less so-called ‘fun’ way.

As a South Asian country, India has a very geographical culture in addition to the

influences of history on the culture. With a rich history reaching back almost five millennia, the

impact historical values and stories have had on the current culture of India are significant. With

12
regard to female menstruation, most of the taboos that existed in the country, even before it

became a sovereign nation still survive today.

Culturally in many parts of India, menstruation is still considered to be dirty and impure.

The myth dates back to the Vedic times and is often been linked to Indra's slaying of Vritra. The

scripture that rules most Hindus’ lives states the condition of Indra as a warrior who rules the

heavens. The slaying of Vritra, who was of the highest, brahmin caste, brought on guilt that

carries on to appear every month in women as a menstrual flow (Garg, Suneela and Anand,

Tanu). The inclination of Indian people to consider the bodily function as dirty is also indicated

in rural practices. Several small villages in rural India have what are considered ‘menstrual huts’,

or gaokor on the outskirts of the village. These are basic houses that many women are subjected

to live in for the duration of their cycle. Often times, there will be several women in the hut at

once, which can affect hygiene. As the huts are public property, they are rarely cleaned. In

Hinduism, the major religion of India, women are not allowed to cook while menstruating, thus

these huts lack kitchens and the responsibility of food is left to family members to bring along

with other necessities. An observational survey with Dr. Dilip Barsagade, the founder of Society

of People’s Action in Rural Services and Health (Sparsh), an NGO brought the practice of these

huts to the attention of the National Human Rights Commission or NHRC. While visiting over

200 menstrual huts in tribal India he found that, “nearly 98% lack even a proper bed, leave alone

electricity and other basic amenities. Most of the ​gaokors​ have temporary bathrooms made with

bamboo,” (Kaur). Menstrual huts are a place of isolation and often solidarity, which can

emphasize the conception that menstruation is a woman’s issue and should not be spoken about.

A pre-existing stigma of menstruation is only solidified with the menstrual huts taboo.

13
 Living in a historically patriarchal world, women in India are exposed to many culturally

imposed values and responsibilities. Cooking and preparing meals is a major task most women

are given in addition to most other household tasks. This is troubling for many Indians because

in several major religions in India cooking while menstruating brings the threat of contamination

and dirtying it. Thus, as women are unable to cook, men may view menstruation as burdensome

and treat it as such. Furthermore, sex is considered a duty for the wife to be able to please her

husband (Mythri Speaks). Menstruation deems a restriction on sex for some, thus women are

incapable of fulfilling their roles as wives, which disappoints husbands. As mentioned later, most

of India’s menstrual taboos derives from religious codes.

Namibia’s culture is incredibly unique to its people with beautiful traditions and customs,

but it also includes some restrictions that stand strong. This coincides with the intertwined

relationship between actions and cultural beliefs. As a result of this, taboos often hold much

importance to natives. Although the nation has only been independent and sovereign for

twenty-six years, the specific traditions performed are rooted back hundreds of years even before

it was first colonized by Germany and later by South Africa during the apartheid-era.

In contrast to India, most of Namibia’s menstrual taboos relate to sex and marriage, rather

than away from them. Young girls in rural Namibia are accustomed to arranged marriages, which

can be planned even before birth. Most frequently, the actual marriage will not take place until

the girl has had her first menstrual period and has learned to cope with it. Traditional Namibian

culture in the Kavango region teaches that girls should report only to their grandmother when

they obtain menarche. This begins an isolation period where the adolescent can not be seen or be

in the presence of any man. During this time, the girl will spend her time with the grandmother

14
learning about future duties as wife and mother, sex and sexuality, and the importance of

obeying her husband. Generally, the grandmother will also work to try to enlarge the vagina of

the girl in order to make her first male penetration less painful. Progress is checked and the

isolation ends when the grandmother sees fit. When the isolation ends, the girl is bathed and her

body is covered in ashes in order to make her skin whiter and smoother. Lastly, a celebration

with traditional dances and songs will take place, all which would precede the girl’s marriage

(LaFont, Suzanne and Hubbard, Dianne). Additionally, in most areas, married women are

morally not allowed to refuse sex unless they are menstruating. In other regions, there are similar

practices, but may differ in time length, what is addressed, and the customs and procedures

performed. These taboo-affected traditions are still used today, but often in secluded areas and

under private quarters.

These specific rules and traditions reflect the value placed on familial relations and

patriarchy in specific. Giving the responsibility to the elderly represents the high respect for them

and the trust the girls must put into their family to know what is right for them. As men serve as

the head of the household, and make most of the decisions in society, women were treated to a

lesser degree up until recently in the past ten years. This plays into the value placed on men and

the precedent they take over women. All of this proves the drastic differences in gender and

shows where standards lie. Not only does it strip away many of their rights, but it infringes on

girl’s natural menstruation habits.

Namibia, working towards full compliance with the Southern African Development

Community (SADC) Protocol, is urging its citizens to close the gender gap. The current prime

minister of the nation, ​Saara Kuugongelwa-​Amadhila​ is working hard in order to build up the

15
representation of women in top jobs and in the government. The SADC’s goal in ​Gender and

Development requires 50/50 gender representation in parliaments, which seems achievable as

Namibia currently stands at 47% ​(Haidula). ​A rapid increase in female representation occurred in

the past decade as em​powerment began and females began to receive more attention from

schooling and the government. Kuugongelwa-Amadhila quoted the Namibia Labour Force

Survey for 2013 that , “women's monthly mean wages (in Namibia dollar terms) are on average

16% less than that of men,” (Haidula). This concept is relevant in every country, but the

implications differ and the efforts made to close the wage gap vary. With regard to menstruation,

this amplifies the continuing discrimination of women. If women know that they are at a

disadvantage in the workforce, this may encourage them to prefer to stay home or to fear of

being targeted while at work.

IV. Religious Taboos Concerning Menstruation

For many regions of the world, religion dictates much of the daily life and lifestyle of the

people. Religion often concerns the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe and contains a

moral code and certain beliefs that governs the conduct of human affairs. Different religions

have different values, rules, traditions, customs, beliefs, point of origins, founders, and followers.

Each of these things determines the way in which the religion functions and how followers act

and think. In many circumstances, religion shapes the pattern of life and can influence what is

seen as right and wrong in a culture. This is important in menstruation as religion frequently

dictates taboos and practices.

16
 The United States doesn’t have a single majority religion due to its history of being a

melting pot of cultures. The nation is known for being a place of religious difference, a place

with no political or governmental ties to a religion which is demonstrated in the laws and

creation of the country. The nation’s founders were dominantly Christian, but today religious

make up is composed of a 70% Christian and other denominations, 6% non-Christian, and 23%

unaffiliated (Wormald). The U.S. Constitution is a wholly secular document. There isn’t mention

of Christianity or Jesus Christ. In fact, the Constitution refers to religion only twice. Once in the

First Amendment, which bars laws "respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the

free exercise thereof," and in Article VI, which prohibits "religious tests" for public office

(Americans United for Separation of Church and State). The nation holds a reputation of having

and upholding a separation between church and state. Nevertheless, there are religious influences

on the American people, historically and today, no matter their religion.

Menstrual taboos can sometimes be traced to religion, but often times they are followed

in secrecy, often overlooked or not thought of as taboos, or without acknowledgement that they

come from religion.As the majority of the American population identifies as Christian, focus will

be put there. In the early years of the United States, when it was still under British rule,

“Women were forced into a separate menstrual hut during their periods

and were not allowed to come out of it. According to a British Medical Journal

published in 1878, it was believed that menstruating women could actually cause

bacon to decompose. Women were prevented from cooking, churning butter,

baking bread and from praying in the church,” (Patel).

17
 Once again, a theme of women as housewives persists but is countered with a taboo of

impurity. In journalist Renee Pinkston’s article, “​Menstrual Taboos – Anthropology of Gender​”,

she writes:

“One of the most well known ideas of menstrual taboo within Christianity

is in the Catholic denomination. Within this sector of Christianity, women are not

allowed to have any high standing within the church; women are in fact, excluded

from the sanctuaries of many dioceses in the United States,” (Sridhar).

While this may seem like a gender based taboo, it is rooted in the idea that women are

unclean, especially during their menstrual period. Orthodox Christians are commonly viewed as

most likely to obey these rituals in the developed country. Several other practices exist in the

modern times of the United States. Catholic schools in the United States constitute the largest

number of non-public schools in the county and the students are often come to face the taboos.

Most Catholic schools have unwritten rules that menstruating women aren’t expected to take

gym classes and that absences from school are accepted (M Guterman, P Mehta, and M Gibbs).

This was mirrored in public schools for a while, but currently it is not an accepted reason to miss

class time, unless there is a serious medical condition. This notion puts in the head of girls that

menstruation should be treated like an illness or ailment. Using menstruation, a natural bodily

function, as an excuse brings down confidence in women and verifies that menstruating gives

cause to not participate in activities. This all connects back to early ideals of women and

menstruating in the country. For the most part in the United States, menstrual taboos hold true

for individual religions of the people, but are less intense in that they hold less value all together

in the advanced culture as a whole.

18
 In contrast to the United States, India and it’s people are strongly influenced by the

religions of the nation. There are four major religions of India including; Hinduism, Buddhism,

Jainism and Sikhism. There is also a small population that follows Christianity and Islam. The

country is also the birthplace of these four major religions, which emphasizes their importance.

In 2011, only 0.2% of the Indian population does not identify with a religion and most Indians

recognize, accept, and celebrate all religions that aren’t their own. Strictness on religious

following of rituals, traditions, and taboos differ from family to family but values remain

constant (“Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner,

India”).

Menstrual taboos have held strong in almost every religion throughout the years and are

only beginning to change in favor of women now. In the biggest religion, Hinduism, women are

restricted from entry into any kitchen, into the temple or room of worship (puja), and are

confined into their room during the menstrual days. They have separate beds, different clothes

and different utensils for eating (Patel). A woman must be ​“purified” before she is allowed to

return to her family and day to day chores of her life. ​These customs, or rules, have been

acknowledged for thousands of years. The separation and disregard for women during their

period often is cited to come from the Hindu text, which highlights the act of a male god, Indra

made by killing someone of the highest caste. Due to this, it is believed that women bleed every

month to show their guilt from Indra. Less conventional Hindus might consider these taboos as

blaming women for the actions of another, while more conventional women view the restrictions

as a sacrifice towards the Gods.

19
 In Buddhism, menstruation is considered “a natural physical excretion that women have

to go through on a monthly basis, nothing more or less” ​(Buddha Dharma Education

Association). In India, Hinduism has ma​de significant influences on Buddhists, some which have

adopted rituals from Hindus. Some common taboos include women being banned from

participating in folk rituals, avoid temples, cannot meditate, nor can they have contact with

priests, and take part in ceremonies, such as weddings. Each of these comes from the idea that

the blood is unclean. When a woman stops menstruating, it coincides with acceptance into the

first level of reaching nirvana. It is believed that they prove their ability to control their bodies

and eradicate the greatest barrier to enlightenment (M Guterman, P Mehta, and M Gibbs). This

puts menstruation into the hands of the commonly inferior, and almost neglects the importance

of menstruating for female anatomy and health. Female Buddhist may then feel as if they were

born with defects due to their gender and feel as if their life and body is set against them.

On the smaller scale in India, Muslims follow The Holy Quran, which forbids women

from having intercourse during menstruation and also from fasting. They cannot enter the

Mosque nor recite the Quran. Islam is one of the largest world religions and these taboos don’t

come from a place of inequality, but sanitation. Islam upholds an idea of purity that must be

obtained in order to worship and reach to Allah. Both men and women must perform ritual

washing post-coitus or any ‘impure’ act. Menstruation is more ongoing, and cannot just be

stopped on command, thus women must wait for their periods to end before they can resume

performing ritual acts of worship (Ahmed). Women have various responses to these taboos. For

one, they may see it as an act of relaxation for them, but others view it as a restriction to talking

to Allah. Sikhism is a religion in India that focuses on coping with everyday problems is vastly

20
different than every other Indian religion. Sikhs, or Punjabis were taught by their founder, Guru

Nanak that treating women as impure during menstruation was wrong and undignified. Sikhism

allows women to pray and perform religious and house duties without restrictions. This was the

first religion to stand against the norms of menstruation and allow women an equal place in the

world. Menstruation is seen as essential as given by the gods (Role of Women in Sikhism).

Each of these menstrual taboos in India holds importance in the daily life of most Indians

even if it’s to a small degree. Today, these taboos are held to a lower standard, but they hold such

historical and cultural importance that they are important to note. Just as the world is advancing,

the norms and understanding of women are changing for the better.

The Namibian constitution calls for freedom of religion and the country is a secular state.

Although, around 90% of the population are Christians and most are active participants in

churches. There are other religions including Judaism, Buddhism, and Baha’i, although each of

these are poorly represented in the total population (“Religious Beliefs in Namibia”). Similar to

India, religion is extremely important to everyday life and thus its beliefs and rituals are mostly

followed through.

Menstrual taboos in Namibia are similar to those in the United States as they share a

major religion, but there are some key differences that mostly come from development concerns.

In Namibia, many Christians will celebrate a girl’s first period with a party or celebration as the

mark of becoming a woman and being able to reproduce. The bearing of children and children in

general are seen as a gift from God, thus the first cycle is praised. But, after the first period,

women are once again put into a shame category where even though they are fertile, they should

be hidden (LaFont, Suzanne and Hubbard, Dianne). While menstruating, school and work is not

21
always a requirement in most families as it is viewed as a resting period and that no one should

have to be apart of that. All of this makes women feel less significant and important if society

does not need them for up to one week every month.

V. Conclusion

In conclusion, menstruation is a vital and key part of every woman’s life, but the views

and opinions it receives by various people often oppose one another. Something that is so human

and connected to giving life is often viewed as a burden, dirty, and impure. The United States, a

country often pinpointed as an advanced and modern country still holds many menstrual taboos

that affect young girls. Separated sex education classes enforces females only feeling

comfortable speaking about periods with other females. Additionally, culturally wage gaps and

gender roles continue to enforce the patriarchy in the society. And although the country does not

have a single religion, there are some influences on what is deemed appropriate in the world

according to menstruation. India, a country with a large, dynamic history and societal set-up is

very different from the U.S. In terms of menstruation, India’s poverty in rural areas often affects

how women are educated and how menstruation is taught and handled. Culturally, India is so

diverse that it is hard to single out influences that aren’t connected to religion, but they often

work hand in hand with religion. India is home to four major religions where most of the

population is involved in one. Each religion has it’s own rules and values, all which treat women

and menstruation in different ways. Namibia, an African country is working towards improving

its reputation around the world. Education is free to all, but women do still tend to suffer with

access to bathrooms, trash cans, and sinks all which are needed in order to handle their periods.

22
Namibia has a few old and dated practices around menarche with heightens the importance of

family and patriarchy in society. Lastly, as a majority Christian country, Namibia is affected both

by menstrual taboos and by it’s history as an African country. While women hold such

importance in the world both biologically and culturally, many women are still subject to certain

menstrual taboos in countries such as; The United States, India, and Namibia and these are

influenced by practices and beliefs from educational systems, culture, and religion. Each of these

things all are mostly negative, with little regard of respect for females and their bodies. This

could lead to a conclusion of how menstrual taboos are preventing women from achieving

gender parity. Countries would develop further if these menstruation taboos did not hold back

women from contributing to the community and economic growth of their specific nations.

23
 Works Cited
Ahmed, Beenish. "Bloody Hell: Does Religion Punish Women for Menstruating? | VICE
| United States." ​VICE​. VICE, 20 June 2015. Web. 04 Dec. 2016.
Americans United for Separation of Church and State. ​Is America A Christian Nation?
Religion, Government and Religious Freedom​. Washington: Americans United for Separation of
Church and State, 2016. Print.
Bauer, David. "Men on Earth Now Outnumber Women by 60 Million." ​QUARTZ​. N.p.,
18 Oct. 2016. Web. 21 Oct. 2016.
BR, Goud, Shanbhag D, Shilpa R, D’Souza N, Josephine P, and Singh J. "Perceptions
regarding Menstruation and Practices during ..." International Journal of Collaborative Research
on Internal Medicine & Public Health, n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.
Buddha Dharma Education Association. "Buddhist Studies: Women in Buddhism
Questions and Answers." ​BuddhaNet​. Buddha Dharma Education Association, n.d. Web. 04 Dec.
2016.
Cauterucci, Christina. "Euphemisms for Periods Can Be a Wonderful Thing." ​Slate
Magazine​. The Slate Group, 01 Mar. 2016. Web. 27 Nov. 2016.
"Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner,
India." ​Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner,
India​. N.p., 2011. Web. 08 Jan. 2017.
Chamberlain, Katie. "What Is Menstruation? - Definition & Cycle |
Study.com."​Study.com​. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Oct. 2016.
Chhapial, Hemali. "Teacher's Day: 45% of Teachers in Schools Are Women - Times of
India." ​The Times of India​. N.p., 5 Sept. 2012. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.
Garg, Suneela and Anand, Tanu. "Menstruation related myths in India: strategies for
combating it." ​Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care​. Medknow Publications & Media
Pvt Ltd, June 2015. Web. 08 Jan. 2017.
Geertz, Alexandra, Lakshmi Iyer, Perri Kasen, Francesca Mazzola, and Kyle Peterson.
"Menstrual Health in India - Country Landscape Analysis."​Mensturalhygieneday.org​. Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation, May 2016. Web. 2 Nov. 2016.
George, Rose. "The Taboo of Menstruation." ​The New York Times​. The New York
Times, 2012. Web. 05 Oct. 2016.
Gharib, Malaka. "Why 2015 Was The Year Of The Period, And We Don't Mean
Punctuation." ​NPR​. NPR, 31 Dec. 2015. Web. 27 Nov. 2016.
Haidula, Tuyeimo. "Namibia: 42 Percent Women in Top Jobs." ​AllAfrica.com​. All
Africa, 08 Mar. 2016. Web. 04 Dec. 2016.
Ivon, Wetu Wutuka. "Namibia - Preprimary Primary Education." ​Namibia - Preprimary
Primary Education - Schools, School, Children, and Students - StateUniversity.com​. N.p., n.d.
Web. 16 Nov. 2016.

24
 Kaur, Gagandeep. "Banished for Menstruating: The Indian Women Isolated While They
Bleed | Gagandeep Kaur." ​Women's Rights and Gender Equality​. Guardian News and Media,
2015. Web. 30 Nov. 2016.
Kettaneh, Audrey, Scott Pulizzi, and Marina Todesco. "Puberty Education & Menstrual
Hygiene Management." ​United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization​ 9th
ser. (2014): n. pag. Web. 16 Nov. 2016.
LaFont, Suzanne and Hubbard, Dianne. ​Unravelling Taboos: Gender and Sexuality in
Namibia​. Windhoek, Namibia: Gender Research & Advocacy Project, Legal Assistance Centre,
2007. 2007. Web. 17 Oct. 2016.
Livni, Ephrat. "Study: Abstinence-Only Sex Ed Up." ​Abc News​. Abc News, 26 Sept.
2016. Web. 4 Nov. 2016.
M Guterman, P Mehta, and M Gibbs. "Menstrual Taboos Among Major Religions." ​The
Internet Journal of World Health and Societal Politics.​ Internet Scientific Publications, 2007
Volume 5 Number 2. 04 Dec. 2016.
Mayo Clinic Staff. "Menopause Symptoms." ​Diseases and Conditions​. Mayo Clinic, 07
Jan. 2015. Web. 07 Nov. 2016.
Millet, Joyce. "Understanding American Culture - From Melting Pot to Salad Bowl."
Cultural Saavy​. N.p., 2013. Web. 16 Nov. 2016.
Mythri Speaks. "Unearthing Menstrual Wisdom – Why We Don’t Go to the Temple, and
Other Practices." ​Mythri Speaks​. Word Press, 28 May 2015. Web. 04 Dec. 2016.
Nekomba, Netumbo. "How Sanitary Pads Are Changing Lives in Rural Areas." ​The
Namibian​. The Namibian, 17 Feb. 2015. Web. 13 Nov. 2016.
Newman, Maria. "Separate Sessions for Boys, Girls : Irvine to Segregate ..." Los Angeles
Times, 20 July 1989. Web. 20 Oct. 2016.
Patel, Aditi. "Menstrual Taboo – Why Girls Can't Go To Temple During Menstruation?"
Womenpla.net​. Women Planet, 2014. Web. 04 Dec. 2016.
"Religious Beliefs in Namibia." ​StudyCountry​. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Dec. 2016.
"Role of Women in Sikhism." ​WaheguruNet​. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Dec. 2016.
"School Health Policies and Practices Study." ​Center for Disease Control​. U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2014. Web. 20 Oct. 2016.
Sridhar, Nithin. "Views of Menstruation in Religions and Cultures around the World |
IndiaFacts." ​IndiaFacts​. India Facts Research Centre, 19 Apr. 2016. Web. 04 Dec. 2016.
"The World Factbook." ​Central Intelligence Agency​. Central Intelligence Agency, n.d.
Web. 02 Nov. 2016.
Tjitemisa, Kuzeeko. "Namibia: Menstruation Forces Girls Out of School." ​All Africa​. All
Africa, 10 July 2014. Web. 16 Nov. 2016.
United Nations Educational Scientific And Cultural Organization. "Reaching
out-of-school Children is Crucial for Development." UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). 07
Nov. 2016.

25
 Weisberger, Bernard. "When Euphemism Disguises Truth: George Orwell's Foresight |
BillMoyers.com." ​BillMoyers.com​. Moyer & Company, 21 Dec. 2014. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.
Wormald, Benjamin. "Religious Landscape Study." ​Pew Research Center's Religion &
Public Life Project​. Pew Research Center, n.d. Web. 04 Dec. 2016.
"11 Facts About Education Around the World." ​DoSomething.org​. N.p., n.d. Web. 07
Nov. 2016.

26