Professional Documents
Culture Documents
COURSE: WS1020
CENTRAL WORKSHOP
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MADRAS
CHENNAI – 600036, INDIA
TRAINING MODULE: ELECTRICAL
1. LEARNING OBJECTIVE
2. INRODUCTION
1
3. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN
2
Pushbutton Switch (N.O) Momentary switch - normally open
SPST Relay
Relay open / close connection by an
electromagnet
SPDT Relay
Resistor (IEEE)
Resistor reduces the current flow.
Resistor (IEC)
Potentiometer (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.
Potentiometer (IEC)
Variable Inductor
3
AC Voltage Source AC voltage source
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
SPST Switch module, Tube light holder module, Fuse module, Fuse, Power cable, Casing and
capping, Tube light, Thermal starter, Choke, Multi strand wire (Red and Black color wires) for
circuit connection and working board.
TOOLS REQUIRED:
Screw driver, cutting plier, nose plier, wire stripper, nipper, line tester, knife and insulation tape.
4
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
OBSERVATIONS:
After confirming the circuit connection when switch “S1” is switched ON, the tube light started
glowing.
RESULT:
7. REFERENCES
1. B.L.THERAJA and A.K.THERAJA (2005 Ed), A Textbook of Electrical Technology
Volume 1, S. Chand publishers.
2. S.K. BHATTACHARYA and BRIJINDER SINGH (1996), Control of electrical
machines, New age international publishers.
5
TRAINING MODULE: ELECTRONICS
1. LEARNING OBJECTIVE
2. INRODUCTION
Some of you may be encountering electronic circuits and instruments for the first time. Others may have
‘played around’ with such stuff if, for example, you were ever bitten by the ‘ham radio’ bug. In either
case, this sequence of laboratory experiments has been designed to introduce you to the fundamentals of
modern analog and digital electronics. To that end, our goal is that by the end of the lab session, you will
be able to design and build any little analog or digital circuit you may find useful, or at least understand it
well enough to have an intelligent conversation about the problem with any person who has knowledge
about electronics. A basic knowledge of electronics will also help you to understand and appreciate the
quirks and limitations of instruments you will be using in research, testing, development, or process-
control settings.
2.1.1 Multimeter
The Multimeters are the general purpose meters which can be used to measure
i) Voltage – ac and dc
6
ii) Current – ac and dc
iii) Resistance
Switches on the meter are used to select both the function and
the range of the meter.
Make sure that the meter is adjusted to the correct function
and initially set the meter to a less sensitive range than is
needed. (Note all meters are not provided with auto range and
over load cut out)
Before measuring the resistance, check the meter at zero
resistance by shorting the two leads and when the instrument
is not in use, always return the
selection knob to to the normal “off” position to avoid
draining the battery.
7
Digital multimeters have better accuracy and resolution. They usually have auto ranging, and auto
zero facilities, which means the user need only to set the function switch and get the reading.
The digital mutimeter converts an input signal into equivalent digital display. The signal input might
be a dc voltage, an ac voltage, a resistance or an ac or dc current. Advanced meters will also have
facilities to measure capacitance and frequency.
The current clamp has two jaws which are opened to allow clamping
around an electrical conductor. This allows the electrical current in the
conductor to be measured, without interrupting the flow of current.
The most common form of current clamp comprises a split ferrite ring. A
wire coil is wound round one or both halves, forming the secondary
winding of a current transformer. The conductor through which the
current to be measured forms the primary.
The other type is based on Hall effect and is more sensitive and both DC
and AC can be measured.
Power merely absorbed and returned in load due to its reactive properties is referred to as
reactive power. Reactive power is symbolized by the letter Q and is measured in the unit of Volt-
Amps-Reactive (VAR).
The ratio between real power and apparent power in a circuit is called the power factor. Where
the waveforms are purely sinusoidal, the power factor is the cosine of the phase angle (φ)
between the current and voltage sinusoid waveforms. Equipment data sheets and nameplates
often will abbreviate power factor as "cosφ" for this reason.
For the purely resistive circuit, the power factor is 1, because the reactive power equals zero. For
the purely inductive circuit, the power factor is zero, because true power equals zero. The same
could be said for a purely capacitive circuit.
The true power can be calculated from the formula P = V×I×cos φ , where V is the rms voltage,
I is the rms current and cos φ is the power factor.
2.1.3 Oscilloscope
Oscilloscope is the most versatile of the test instruments. It can be used for waveform analysis,
signal frequency measurement, peak to peak voltage measurement and the most important for
signal tracing.
The heart of an oscilloscope is the cathode ray tube (CRT). The working of a CRT depends upon
generation of electrons by a heated cathode, focusing it to a thin beam and making it to travel
towards positively charged anode. The electron strikes on a glass screen, coated with phosphor
which gives off light, making spot on the screen.
The brightness of the spot can be controlled and so its position. The spot can be deflected to any
part of the screen by applying a varying electric field to the deflection plates – four of them
arranged in pairs, called X-plates and Y-plats. The Y-plates deflect the spot vertically up or
down, while the X-plate move it from side to side.
To use the oscilloscope, carefully observe all the controls on the front panel. The essential
controls are Intensity or Brightness control, Focus control, X and Y position control and Trigger
control.
1
Vertical and horizontal position controls to midway round
Triggering is probably the most complicated function performed by the scope. To create a stable
image of a repetitive waveform, the scope must ‘trigger’ its display at a particular voltage,
known as the trigger ‘threshold’. The display is synchronized whenever the input signal crosses
that voltage, so that many images of the signal occurring one after another can be superimposed
in the same place on the screen. The level knob sets the threshold voltage for triggering.
You can select whether triggering occurs when the threshold voltage is crossed from below
(‘rising-edge’ triggering) or from above (‘falling-edge’ triggering) using the trigger control
knobs and switches. You can also select the signal source for the triggering circuitry to be
channel 1, channel 2, an external trigger signal, or the 240 V AC power line.
For voltage measurement, count the number of centimeters on the vertical scale from negative
peak to the positive peak and then multiply this number by the settings of the volts per
centimeter switch. For example, if the volts/cm switch is set to 5V/cm, and the waveform
measures 4.8 cm from peak to peak, the waveform voltage is 4.8 x 5 = 24.0 V peak to peak.
For frequency measurement, the method is to measure the time period of one complete cycle on
the screen i.e. the horizontal distance between two identical points on the neighbouring waves.
This distance multiplied by the setting of time/cm switch to calculate the period of one cycle.
The reciprocal of this time is the frequency of the waveform. For example, if the peaks of the
waveform are 5 cm apart and time/cm switch is set to 200 ms/cm, the time of one cycle is 5 x
200ms = 1 s and the frequency is 1Hz.
2
2.2. ELECTRONIC DISCRETE COMPONENTS
2.2.1 Resistors
Usually resistors are little cylinders of carbon, carbon film, metal film, or wound-up wire,
encased in an insulating coating, with wire leads sticking out the ends. Often the resistance is
indicated by means of colored stripes according to the resistor color code (Table 1). Resistors
1 1 1
come in various sizes according to their power rating. The common sizes are W, W,
8 4 2
W, 1 W, and 2 W. You can easily verify this linear relationship between voltage and current
using the fixed 10 kΩ resistance provided between the two ends of one of the breadboard’s
‘potentiometers’. A potentiometer is a type of resistor that has an adjustable ‘center tap’ or
‘slider’, allowing electrical connections to be made not only at the two ends, but also at an
adjustable point along the resistive material.
Resistors in series: In a series circuit, the current flowing is the same at all points. The circuit
diagram shows two resistors connected in series with a 6 V battery. The same current, 3 mA,
flows through each of the two resistors.
Resistors in parallel: In a parallel circuit, the voltage across the parallel branches is the same.
The circuit diagram shows two resistors connected in parallel with a 6 V battery. The same
voltage, 6 V, appears across each of the two resistors.
2.2.2 Capacitors
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors
separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the conductors, an
3
electric field is present in the dielectric. The value of capacitance is given by C = (εoεrA) / d;
where εo permittivity of free space and has the value εo= 8.854 × 10−12 F/m, εr is relative
permittivity, A is area and d is distance between the plates.
Capacitors come in a variety of types, categorized according to the type of dielectric used, which
determines how much capacitance can be squeezed into a small volume. Electrolytic and
tantalum capacitors are polarized, which means that they have a positive end and a negative end,
and the applied voltage should be more positive at the positive end than at the negative end – if
you reverse-voltage a polarized capacitor it can burn out, or even explode! Paper, mica, and
ceramic capacitors are unpolarized and can be hooked up in either direction.
The fundamental rule governing the behavior of capacitors is Q = CV, where Q is the charge
stored on the capacitor at a given time, V is the voltage across the capacitor at that time, and C is
the capacitance. Current can flow into or out of a capacitor, but only to the extent that the charge
on the capacitor is changing. In other words, the current into or out of a capacitor is equal to the
time derivative of the charge stored on it.
2.2.3 RC Circuits
4
Differentiator using RC Network
5
2.2.4 Transformer
A Transformer is a static apparatus consists of two or more
inductors. First inductor is powered by AC, inducing an AC voltage
across the second inductor. If the second inductor is connected to a
load, power will be electromagnetically coupled from the first
inductor (connected to power source) to the load. The powered
inductor in a transformer is called the primary winding. And
whereas the unpowered inductor in a transformer is called the
secondary winding.
Transformers “step up” or “step down” voltage according to the
ratios of primary to secondary wire turns. A transformer designed
to increase voltage from primary to secondary is called a step-up
transformer. A transformer designed to reduce voltage from
primary to secondary is called step-down transformer.
Losses in the Transformer;
i) Copper loss: It is I2R loss in the primary and secondary winding.
ii) Core loss: A time varying current in transformer, which causes a time varying magnetic
field in its core, causes energy losses in the core material which are dissipated as heat, due to
two processes:
– Eddy current: From Faraday’s law of induction, the changing magnetic field can induce
circulating loops of electric current in the conductive metal core. The energy in these
currents is dissipated as heat in the resistance of the core material.
– hysteresis: Changing or reversing the magnetic field in the core also causes losses due to
the motion of the tiny magnetic domains it is composed of. The energy loss is proportional
to the area of the hysteresis in the BH graph of the core material.
By being able to transfer power from one circuit to another without the use of interconnecting
conductors between the two circuits, transformers provide the useful feature of electrical
6
isolation. Transformers designed to provide electrical isolation without stepping voltage and
current either up or down is called isolation transformers.
230V V2 RL = 80Ω
V1
50Hz
If a junction between P-type and N-type semiconductor material is created within a single
crystal, in such a way that the crystalline structure is preserved across the junction, the result is a
junction diode. Electrons from the N-region migrate across the junction into the P-region, filling
holes as they go. This creates a net charge build-up around the junction – positive in the N-
region and negative in the P-region – leading to an internal electric field as shown. Once the
holes are filled, the junction region becomes devoid of charge carriers and thus acts as an
insulator, preventing further current flow.
If an external field is applied in the same direction as the internal field, the ‘depletion region’
(region around the junction devoid of charge carriers) increases in size, so current does not flow.
On the other hand, if an external field is applied opposite to the internal field, free charge
carriers flow toward the junction. Electrons flow into the N-type material from the metal contact.
7
A PN junction thus allows current to flow easily in one direction but blocks current flow in the
reverse direction.
When the P-type material is at a more positive voltage than the N-type material, the diode is said
to be ‘forward-biased’. When the P-type material is more negative than the N-type material, the
diode is said to be ‘reverse-biased’.
VR
VR ID 1 kΩ
1 kΩ
1N4004
V 1N4004 VD
V VD
V-I characteristic of the diode under forward and reverse condition can be obtained by using
above circuit.
IN4001 7805
V2 1 3
+5V
9V + 2 10uF
1000uF
230V V1
50Hz
9V
7905
2 3 -5V
1
10uF
1000uF +
8
• “Operational Amplifier,” was used in the computing field to describe amplifiers that performed
various mathematical operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication differentiation and
integration
• By the proper selection of feedback components, operational amplifier circuits could be used to
add, subtract, average, integrate, and differentiate.
Ideal Practical
few kHz.
Unity Gain frequency f1: the gain at unity
Cutoff frequency fc: the gain drop by 3dB from dc gain Gd
GB Product : f1 = Gd fc
Hence Av = 1. Vin
i
It provides an excellent impedance-level Ri
transformation while maintaining the signal voltage level. V f iR f
The “ideal” buffer does not require any input current and Vo V f
can drive any desired load resistance without loss of signal
Vo iR f
voltage.
Vi R f
Vo
Ri
10
Vo Rf
A
Vi Ri
Such a buffer is used in many sensor and data acquisition system applications.
Rf
Ri
V o
V ~in +
By ohms law
Vin
i
2.3.10 Non-inverting Ri
Amplifier
V f iR f
Its uses feedback and the input signal is applied to the non- Vo Vi V f
inverting input terminal of the op-amp
Vo Vi iR f
Rf
Vi R f
Ri
Vo Vi
Ri
V
o
+ Rf
Vo
A 1
Vin ~ Vi Ri
2.3.11 Differential Amplifier
2.3.12 Comparator
+
• If Vin >Vref , Vo = +ve
Vin
Saturation
Comparator compares a signal voltage on one input
11
of an op-amp with a known voltage called the reference voltage on the other input .
• It is open loop op-amp, with two analog inputs and a digital outputs; the output may be (+) or (-)
saturation voltage , depending on which input is larger
0.8V
Logic 0 0 0 0
0V
t
2.3.15 AND Gate
1. The AND gate performs logical multiplication, commonly known as AND function.
2. The AND gate has two or more inputs and single output.
3. The output of AND gate is HIGH only when all its inputs are HIGH
4. If X and Y are two inputs, then output F can be represented mathematically as F = X.Y
5. Here dot (.) denotes the AND operation
X Y F=(X.Y)
X 0 0 0
F=X .Y 0 1 0
Y 1 0 0
1 1 1
2.3.16 OR Gate
X X Y F=(X+Y)
F=X+Y
0 0 0
Y
0 1 1
1 0 1
12
1 1 1
1. The NOT gate performs the basic logical function called inversion or complementation. NOT
gate is also called as inverter.
2. The purpose of this gate is to convert one logic level into the opposite logic level.
3. It has one input and one output.
4. When a HIGH level is applied to an inverter, a LOW level appears its output and vice versa.
5. If X is the input, then output F can be represented mathematically as F = X',
6. Here dot ('). denotes the NOT (inversion) operation.
X Y=X'
F= X 0 1
X
1 0
X Y F=(X.Y)’
X
0 0 1
F=(X .Y)’ 0 1 1
Y 1 0 1
1 1 0
2.3.19 NOR Gate
1. An Exclusive-OR (XOR) gate is gate with two or three more inputs and one output.
2. The output of a two-input XOR gate assumes a HIGH state if one and only one input assumes a
HIGH state.
3. If X and Y are two inputs, then output F can be represented mathematically as F = X Y
13
4. Here denotes the XOR operation. X Y and is equivalent to X.Y' + X'.Y
X Y F=(XY)
X
F=XY 0
0
0
1
0
1
Y 1 0 1
1 1 0
1. Universal gates are the one, which can be used for implementing any gate like AND, OR and
NOT.
2. NAND and NOR gates are called Universal gates.
3. But there are few rules that need to be followed when implementing NAND or NOR based other
gates.
4. To facilitate the conversion to NAND and NOR logic, we have two new graphic symbols for
these gates.
X X
F=(X .Y)’ F=(X+Y)’
Y Y
X X
F
F Output
Inputs
Y
Y
2.3.22 Multiplexer
Enable
E
1. A multiplexer (MUX) is a digital switch which connects data
from one of n sources to the output. Select SEL
2. A number of select inputs determine which data source is Multiplexer
connected to the output. Data
3. The block diagram of MUX with n data sources of b bits wide Y output
n data D0
and s bits wide select line is shown in below figure. Sources D1
4. MUX acts like a digitally controlled multi position switch
where binary code applied to the select inputs controls the Dn-1
input source that will be switched on to the output as shown
in figure below. At any given point of time only one input
gets selected and is connected to output, based on the select input signal.
5. The operation of a multiplexer can be explained better using a mechanical switch as shown in
figure below. This is a rotary switch can contact with any of the inputs and which is connected to
the output. As you can see at any given point of time only one input gets transferred to output.
2.3.23 De-multiplexers
Outputs
Input
got s bits wide select input, one data input of b bits wide and n data
D0
Data
outputs of b bits wide. Source Di D1 outputs
Dn-1
14
4 The operation of a De-multiplexer can be explained better using a mechanical switch as shown in
figure below. This is a rotary switch can contact with any of the outputs and which is connected
to the input. As you can see at any given point of time only one output gets connected to input.
3.1 Soldering
Clean Surface
Flux
Recommended solder type
Recommended soldering Iron type and wattage
Recommended soldering Iron tip
Good timing
3.3 Flux
3.4 Solders
15
• Thicker connection such as connectors requires more heat from soldering iron so we need
higher wattage soldering iron.
• Lighter connections like IC pins requires less heat so requires only less wattage irons.
• Don’t rub the tip with file or abrasives
• Pencil type tips are suitable for 20W to 60 W soldering iron for electronic works.
• Very importantly – remember to tin it at the end of the session just after switching off, otherwise
the casing will be damaged and the tip will go rusty and will not solder properly in future uses.
• Use properly grounded tip to protect sensitive components like MOSFETs and ICs.
• Cleaning
• Tinning
Tinning is the Process of coating fresh
solder to a cleaned soldering iron tip. It
helps to reduces oxidization and
increases the amount of heat transfer to
the connection.
• Soldering.
• Wetting
Wetting is the penetration of solder into
the surface of metal parts. Actually, it is
the process, which gives physical
strength and good electrical connections.
• Desoldering is done to remove the solder from a joint, because of replacement for a faulty
component or for fixing a dry joint.
• Desoldering Pump
The usual way is to use a desoldering pump which works like a small spring-loaded
pump, only in reverse! (More demanding users using CMOS devices might need a pump
which is ESD safe.)
A spring-loaded plunger is released at the push of a button and the molten solder is then
drawn up into the pump. It may take one or two attempts to clean up a joint this way, but
a small desoldering pump is an invaluable tool especially for PCB work.
• Desoldering Wick
An excellent alternative to a pump is to use desoldering wick which are packaged in
small dispenser reels.
This product is a specially treated fine copper braid which draws molten solder up into
the braid where it solidifies.
The best way is to use the tip of the hot iron to press a short length of braid down onto
the joint to be de-soldered.
The iron will subsequently melt the solder, which will be drawn up into the braid. Take
extreme care to ensure that you don't allow the solder to cool with the braid adhering to
the work, or you run the risk of damaging PCB
copper tracks when you attempt to pull the braid +5V
7 3 TP1
When the circuit is first turned on, the discharge input (pin TP2
IC 555
7) is disconnected from ground and output (Pin 3) is set RB
6
TP3 2
1 5
16
C
0.01F
high because the trigger input (pin 2) is below 33% Vcc Voltage.
The threshold input (Pin 6) is used to detect the voltage across the capacitor. The voltage across
the capacitor reaches 66.6% of Vcc, the output is set low and the discharge input is connected
back to ground.
f = 1 / (0.693 (RA+2RB)C)
Now, the capacitor starts discharging though resistor RB.
When the voltage across the capacitor reaches 33% of Vcc, the cycle repeats and creates a series
of output pulses.
An astable circuit triggers from previous output pulse whereas a monostable circuit requires an
externally applied trigger
The astable 555 timer circuit can be used in the following applications:
modulate transmitters such as ultrasonic and IR transmitters
create an accurate clock signal
turn on and off an actuator at set time
intervals for a fixed duration
The length of the output pulse depends on the charging time of capacitor. This rate is determined
by the charge capacity of the capacitor C, and resistance R.
The monostable 555 timer circuit can be used in the following applications:
An R-2R Ladder is a simple and inexpensive way to perform digital-to-analog conversion, using
repetitive arrangements of precision resistor networks in a ladder-like configuration. A string
resistor ladder implements the non-repetitive reference network.
17
Advantage: Higher impedance values can be reached using the same number of components.
Disadvantage: R-2R resistor ladder only increases linearly with the number of bits as it needs
only resistors.
10k
+12V
10k 10k 10k
2
- 7
6
741
3
20k 20k 20k
20k 20k
+ 4
-12V
D0 D1 D2
D3
D0 2 D1 4 D2 8D3
Vo R f ( )
R R R R
+5V
conversion. 330
½ 7486
1k
The comparator bank feeds a logic
circuit that generates a code for
5
each voltage range. 0 + 7 G2 D1
324
6
-
Direct conversion is very fast 330
1
1k 3
2
3 ¼ 7486
+ 1
324
2
- 11
G1
1k
18
TRAINING MODULE: COMMUNICATION
1. LEARNING OBJECTIVE
2. INRODUCTION
Optical fiber has rapidly become the most popular medium for long distance transmission of
data, voice and video signals. Optical fiber is usually a glass core / glass cladding fiber for
long distance communication. However, Plastic Coated Silica fiber or Plastic core / Plastic
cladding fiber may be used for short haul communication systems.
The primary advantage of optical fiber is the large bandwidth that it offers. Since the
carrier is an optical signal with a frequency exceeding 1014 Hz, it is conceivable that
bandwidths of the order of 10,000 GHz can be supported.
A second advantage of optical fiber is the low attenuation (loss) of the signal passing
through it.
Optical fibers are immune to Electromagnetic and Radio Frequency Interference (EMI
and RFI) since optical fibers are made of perfect dielectric with a totally opaque jacket.
A fiber does not radiate electromagnetic energy and thus optical fiber communication is
relatively secure.
19
2.1.2 General Applications of Optical fiber
Used in the transmission of signaling information for railways.
Used for communication between NC (Numerically Controlled) machines on a factory-
floor.
Used in a variety of local networks, and for communications within tanks, ships and
aircraft.
1. As the Optic Fiber Trainer is powered from 230V mains, observe electrical safety.
2. The Optical Transmitters are LASER sources. So, DO NOT stare at the light emanating
out of fiber for longer period. Also DO NOT focus LASER beam on you or other
student colleagues.
3. OFT is provided with many jumpers, shorting plugs and patch cords. Handle them
carefully without losing any, as the entire functioning of the unit depends on these
jumpers.
1. Ensure that all shorting-link post pairs A & B in the OFT are shorted with shorting plugs.
2. Ensure that all jumper posts A 1 & B of Jumpers in the OFT are shorted using shorting
plugs. This is the default setting for the jumpers.
Optical Fiber is primarily used for digital communication today. A fiber optic digital
communication system usually consists of the following:
20
4. Connectors, couplers and splices
5. Timing recovery unit
6. Line coder
7. Line decoder
8. Voice Video Coders & Multiplexers
9. De-multiplexer & Voice Video Decoders
1. Once OFT is switched ON, LEDs L8 or L9 or both in the marker detection block will be
on, indicating that there is no link established.
3. Connect the 1m fiber between LED1 (in the Optical Tx1 block) and PD1 (in the Optical
Rx1 block). (Unscrew the caps of the LED and the Photo Diode a few turns and gently push
the fiber in until firmly seated, then tighten the caps.) Set the GAIN knob to its minimum
position.
21
4. Now slowly increase the gain until L8 and L9 go off (in the marker detection block). Press
the RESET switch. Now LEDs L8 and L9 should both be off.
6.2 To verify if link established
1. Toggle the switches SWO to SW7 (in the 8-bit data transmit block) and see the
corresponding LEDs LO to L7 (in the 8-bit receive block) toggling. The OFT now has a
working fiber-optic link set up.
2. Connect one of the telephone handsets to the telephone socket PHONE 1. Blow into the
mouthpiece. You should hear the blowing sound in the earpiece, without any other noise. OFT
is now installed and ready for use.
The basic multiplexer in optic fiber trainer has twelve 64 kbps channels which are time
multiplexed. Time Division Multiplexing is also the basis of time-switching used today in
Telecom switches. While multiplexing, say the voice signal from port 1, is transmitted before
the voice signal from port 2. But at the receiver, the first received signal can be fed to port 2,
and the later signal to port 1, resulting in switching between the two ports.
PROCEDURE
1. During power on, both even and odd marker patterns at the marker generator and
marker reference blocks will be set automatically as follows: Even marker in both blocks:- all
bits set to zeros and odd marker in both blocks:- 6th bit set to one and other bits are don't care.
2. Ensure that the marker patterns are set to the above power-on default settings. Turn
on at least one of the Switches SW0-SW7 in the 8-bitdata transmit block. This ensures that
the multiplexer is correctly aligned.
3. When the optical link is working, the LEDs L8 and L9 in the marker detection block
will be OFF without any flicker. Toggle SW0 and observe the toggling of L0. The digital link
and the TDM MUX-DEMUX are now set up.
4. Connect the telephone handsets at PHONE 1 & PHONE 2.
5. OFT is now being used in the loop-back mode. The data and voice channels
multiplexed on the Transmit side are de-multiplexed on the Receive side of the Trainer. The
22
voice input at the mouthpiece is now being looped back through the fiber to the earpiece. Check
this by disturbing the fiber link by removing the fiber from PD1, while speaking into the mouth-
piece of one of the handsets. Note that you can now no longer hear yourself in the earpiece.
(The best way to check this is to blow into the mouthpiece while you disturb the link). Use
oscilloscope (CRO) provided to you to observe Time Division Multiplexed wave form by
connecting “Tx frame clock” in CRO channel 1 and “Tx Data” in CRO channel 2. The CRO
display in channel 2 should be similar to one given as Figure 2 (FRAME WITH MARKER
AND SLOTS).
6. TIME SWITCHING OF VOICE: Establish the fiber link again. Remove the
shorting plugs of the voice enable shorting links S7 and S8 in the timing & control block on the
Transmitter side. Using the patch cords, interchange the voice slots by interconnecting the Slot
Select 1 signal [post A of S7] to the Voice Enable 2 [post B of S8] and the Slot Select 2 signal
[post A of S8] to the Voice Enable 1 [post B of S7]. Voice 1 and Voice 2 are now cross-
connected and a conversation can be carried out between two people using the two phones. The
two slots carrying voice data are now time-switched to provide the necessary connection. Carry
on a conversation, while at the same time turning data switches SWO-SW7 on and off, to
observe the simultaneous transmission of eight bit data in one channel and two voice channels
on the link.
7. Reconnect the shorting links S7 and S8 to restore the original connection. However,
now remove the shorting plugs of the voice enable shorting links S27 and S28 in the timing &
control block on the Receiver side, and cross-connect them as explained before. Note that once
again the Voice 1 and Voice 2 are cross-connected. Now remove S7 and S8 again and cross-
connect as before. Note that Voice 1 Microphone signal is now connected back to Voice 1
speaker again. Switching at both Transmitter and Receiver ends cancel out each other.
FIGURE 2. FRAME
WITH MARKER
AND SLOTS
PROCEDURE
The power-on default marker patterns are explained already. Now to modify that default
pattern the following steps are used:
To program the even marker in the marker generator block: connect the program
marker post P5 in the 8-bit data transmit block to the marker program post P6.
Now the OFT is in marker program mode, and the 8 bits in the marker generator
block correspond to the settings of the data switches SW0-SW7. Toggle the switches
to set them to the required pattern. The marker will also be set to the same pattern.
To confirm the marker setting, remove the patch cord from the signal posts. OFT
now comes out of programming mode.
Similarly program the other markers in the marker generator and marker reference
blocks, suing their respective marker program posts and the program marker post P5.
1. Ensure that the odd & even markers are all set to zeros using the procedure given above.
Ensure that the shorting link S31 is shorted to select the single marker type. Set up the
fiber optic digital link and ensure that the multiplexer /de- multiplexer is working.
2. The start of the frame is determined by a marker. In this case, the marker is a bit pattern
which is always placed in slot 0 as shown in Fig 2, and its occurrence signals the start of
a new frame. Set the even marker in the marker generator block to 11000011. Ensure
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that the even marker in the receiver block has the same data bit pattern as the even
marker in the Transmitter block. You will observe the multiplexer /de- multiplexer
working, as the marker bits are compared with those in the even marker in the receiver
block. Now change one bit in the even marker in the receiver block (say bit 5). Check if
the de- multiplexer is working. Press the RESET switch. Observe that the
communication is lost. Change the even marker in the receiver block back to the setting
of the even marker in the transmitter side. Check the functioning of the de- multiplexer.
3. Now set the switches SW7 - SWO as 11000011. Press the RESET switch several times
till you find the receive LEDs L7-LO all lighting up. Press the RESET Switch several
times again. You will find that while most of the time L7-LO correspond to SW7-SWO,
sometimes all the LEDs light up. This is when a data slot has been falsely accepted as a
marker. The voice communication will now be totally disrupted. Check this by listening
on a handset. Change anyone of the switches SW7-SWO. Notice that the OFT system is
working again.
4. The marker is supposed to be a unique bit pattern in the data stream which is identified
at the receiver to signal the beginning of a frame. What happens if the bit pattern is
contained elsewhere as data (either in one slot or sharing two slots)?
5. To avoid this situation, the receiver circuit is usually designed to detect a marker
repeating itself once in a frame. It is only the repetition of the marker bit pattern over
several frames which allow the bit pattern to be accepted as the marker. It is highly
unlikely that a random data stream will have this pattern repeating at the same position
in every frame. However, to avoid even such an unlikely possibility, which we generated
deliberately in steps 3 above, the marker is sometimes chosen to be different in alternate
frames; i.e. a certain bit pattern is taken as a marker called the even marker, and another
bit pattern with at least one bit different from the above is taken as the odd marker. The
"even marker" is to be the marker in say every even frame and the "odd marker" in the
odd frames. Data inserted in the frame is extremely unlikely to have this pattern
repeated. OFT allows setting up a Double marker, where the odd marker consists of
only 1 bit, i.e. bit 6, which would normally be set to be the opposite of the corresponding
bit in the even marker.
6. Disconnect the shorting link S31 to activate double marker detection. Program the even
marker pattern as 10011011 and odd marker pattern as - 1 - - - - - - in both the marker
generation and marker reference blocks. Bits other than 6 in the odd marker are 'don't
care'. Press the RESET switch. Operate the data switches and observe the multiplexer
operation. Note that both L8 and L9 are OFF when both markers are locked. Now make
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bit 6 of the odd marker at the Rx side ZERO without changing the odd marker in the Tx
side. L9 will now turn ON indicating loss of alternate marker only. Turn bit 6 of the odd
marker back to ONE. Change one of the bits of the even marker in the Rx side without
changing the even marker in the Tx side. Again note that L9 goes ON, indicating
alignment with only the odd marker and loss of the even marker. Now turn bit 6 of the
odd marker at the Rx side to ZERO. Note that both L8 and L9 go ON, indicating loss of
both the markers. Correct the odd and even markers at the Rx side to once again lock the
frame. L8 and L9 now go OFF.
The marker is a repetitive bit pattern placed in some predefined positions in one
or more (multiple) frames. The receiver searches for this pattern in the received data.
Once this pattern is found for several successive frames (or multi-frames), the receiver is
considered to be locked, and de-multiplexing is carried out. Locking on to the correct
marker is crucial to correct de-multiplexing. We saw in the experiment that all
communication is totally disrupted when the receiver locks on to a false marker.
REFERENCES
26
TRAINING MODULE: PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS
1. LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Pneumatics and Hydraulics comes under fluid power in engineering. It is the technology that
deals with the generation, control & transmission of power using pressurized fluids. It is
used to push, pull, regulate or drives virtually all machines
Fluid power system using liquids as transmission media are called Hydraulic systems
(Hydra for water & aulous for a pipe in Greek).
Fluid power system using gases as transmission media are called Pneumatic systems
(Pneuma for wind or breath in Greek).
Pneumatics and hydraulics actuators can perform linear and rotary motions. Pneumatics
and hydraulics cylinders give linear motion as output. Pneumatics and hydraulics motors
give rotary motion as output.
3. APPLICATIONS
Earth moving and material handling equipments such as excavators, cranes, trucks for
pushing, pulling, digging, etc.
Extrusion cylinders/rams in steel and plastic processing industries.
Airplane controls such as landing wheels actuation.
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Machine tools slides movement (CNC Lathe and Milling, Surface and Cylindrical
grinding, Broaching, Power hacksaw machineries etc).
Hydraulic brakes, hydraulic jacks,
Tractors, crop harvesters and robots etc.
4. Comparison between Pneumatic and Hydraulics system
It is essential to be careful when using pneumatics to build circuits and follow the essential
safety rules.
Never blow compressed air at anyone.
Don’t turn the main air supply on until the circuit is connected up. Disconnected pipes
can whip round and cause injury.
If air is leaking from a joint – turn the air supply off.
Always turn air off before altering the circuit.
Keep fingers away from the moving piston rods.
Check all hoses are connected properly before switch on the Pump.
Check the Pressure relief valve setting is within the operating pressure limit as excessive
pressure may cause bursting of tubes.
Do not spill hydraulics oil on the floor as it may cause slipping, falling. Clean up spills
immediately.
Check all hydraulic hoses, tube lines and fittings are in proper condition before
operating the hydraulic machine and be sure all line connections are tight.
Keep fingers away from the moving piston rods.
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Before disconnecting the tubes, relieve all hydraulic pressure and discharge the
accumulator.
Do not bring any flame near the oil tank as it may cause fire accidents.
Do not disconnect hoses when the pump is running as severe burns from hot fluid can
result.
Clean your hand with soap and water after completing the experiment.
Fig .1 and 2 show the symbols of components used in pneumatics and hydraulics system as per
international standards. These symbols are used in building circuits in this laboratory course.
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Figure 2: Symbols used in Hydraulics system
6.2 Valve Symbol Description
Table 1 Lettering and numbering system used for ports in valves
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7. TYPICAL PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS SYSTEM
Figure 4 shows the basic components in a pneumatic system. The following components are
used to construct a basic pneumatic system.
1. Compressor : to generate pressurized air
2. Air tank : to store high pressure air
3. Control valves: to control and change the direction of air
4. Actuator : to produce desired output of the pneumatic system
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Figure 5: List of components used in the above hydraulics system
Actuators
(Cylinders, Motors)
Input elements
(Push button valves, Roller lever valves,
Switches)
Supply elements
(Compressor, Reservoir, FRL unit)
Figure 6: Signal flow in a pneumatic system
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9. EXERCISES ON BASIC PNEUMATICS CIRCUITS
9.1 Exercise: Design and simulate a pneumatic circuit to operate a single acting cylinder
by pressing a push button operated 3/2 way valve
Aim: - To operate a single acting cylinder by using a 3/2 push button operated valve.
Components required:-
4. Connecting tubing’s
5. Pressure source
Procedure:-
Observation:- When the push button is pressed piston moves out (Forward stroke) with
maximum speed and the piston returns automatically when the push button is
released which is due to spring force. As long as the push button is pressed, the
actuator is in forward stroke.
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9.2 Additional circuits for practice
9.2.1 Design a pneumatic circuit to operate a single acting cylinder at variable speeds by using
one-way flow control valve.
9.2.2 Design a pneumatic circuit to operate a single acting cylinder from two different places by
using a shuttle valve and two 3/2 way push button valves.
9.2.3 Design a pneumatic circuit to operate a single acting cylinder by using a ‘two pressure
valve’ for two the safety of the operation by using two 3/2 way push button valves.
9.2.4 Design a pneumatic circuit to operate forward stroke of a double acting cylinder manually
by using 3/2 way push button and return stroke automatically by using 3/2 way roller
operated limit valve.
9.2.5 Design a pneumatic circuit to operate a double acting cylinder for the continuous forward
and return motion by using two 3/2 way roller operated limit valves, one 5/2 way double
pilot operated valve and one push button 3/2 way valve.
10. 1 Design a hydraulic circuit for speed control of a double acting actuator
Aim: - To design and operate a hydraulic double acting cylinder at variable speeds by using 4/2-
way manually operated valve
Components used:-
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Figure 8: Circuit diagram for speed control of a double acting cylinder
Observation:-
When the lever operated valve is turned ‘ON’ position, the piston extends.
When the flow control valve is adjusted, speed of the piston is varied in both the
directions.
10.2 Additional circuits for practice
10.2.1 Design and operate a hydraulic motor by using a 4/3-way lever operated valve.
10.2.2. Make a regeneration circuit to double the extension speed of a single-rod double acting
cylinder.
REFERENCES
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