History Mid-Term Guide

The Renaissance and Reformation

What was the Renaissance?

• The rebirth of the arts, literature, and sciences – Focused on the
human experience
• Renewed curiosity about life in the present
• New focus on individual achievement
• Exploration
• Renewed study on Humanism, the worldly subject studied by
ancient Greek and Roman scholars.

Why did the Renaissance originate in Southern Europe

(modern Italy) as opposed to Northern Europe?
• The greater prosperity of Italian city-states encouraged
(financed) cultural activity (money=political and cultural power)
• The black death (or the black plague) delayed economic growth
in Northern Europe

Who were the “Big Names” of the Renaissance?

• Leonardo Da Vinci: Many interests: The Mona Lisa, The Last
Supper, Engineering
• Michelangelo: Pieta (Mary holding the dead Christ) David, The
Sistine Chapel
• Castiglione: The Ideal Courtier, A Model of the Well Mannered,
Well educated aristocrat
• Machiavelli: The Prince: In politics, the ends justify the means are
above all, maintain power (even at the expense of promises)

How did Gutenberg’s printing press affect Europe?

• Learning and Literacy increased
• Individual pursuit of religion increased (Protestantism was made
possible by the Gutenberg Bible)
• New ideas of all types spread more rapidly

Enumerate the key events in the Protestant Reformation

• Abuses of the Catholic Church
o The church (and the Pope) competed with Italian princes
for political power
o Popes maintained a lavish lifestyle
o The church required numerous fees including indulgences,
a fee to lessen the punishment for sins in the afterlife (to
decrease time spent in purgatory)
 • Luther’s Protest (The 95 Theses)
o Christians could be saved by faith alone (The catholic
church also required good works)
o The Bible is the only authority for Christianity (not the
church nor its officials)
o All Christians had equal access to God (people weren’t
reliant on the church)
o Impact: These ideas led to the creation of the Protestant
Church (and its many denominations)

Who was John Calvin?

• A Protestant leader who, like Luther, believed that “faith alone”
brought salvation (afterlife in Heaven)
• Believed in “Predestination” the notion that God had
predetermined who were sinners/saints
• Stressed hard work, honesty, discipline, and morality in daily life
• Like Luther, believed in education girls as well as boys (in order
to read the Bible and achieve salvation)

What was the English Reform?

• Background: Henry VII opposed the protestant reformation. He
denounced Luther and was recognized by the Pope as “Defender
of the Catholic Church”
• Henry had sought the annulment of his marriage to his wife of 18
years (Catherine of Aragon); The Pope rejected the request
• Henry withdraws the Catholic Churches in England from the
Pope’s authority; creates the Anglican Church; receives
annulment; the groundwork is laid for additional struggles
between advocates for Catholicism and Protestantism

What was the “Catholic Reformation?

• Goal: Revive the moral authority of the Catholic Church (and

retain membership in the face of the protestant church)
• Key events:
o Faith and good works
o The Pope and church officials are a source of religious truth
(in addition to the Bible)
• The inquisition…
o Increased
o What is it? A Catholic Church court that allowed secret
testimony, torture, and execution to root out heresy
What were the levels of intolerance (in deaths) between
Catholic and Protestants?
• From 1450 to 1750 10,000s died as victims of witch hunts

How did our perception of the universe change during the

Scientific Revolution?
• Before Copernicus (Poland mid 1500s) Kepler (Germany late
1500s) and Galileo (Italy late 1500s) people relied on the
Catholic Church’s view that the Earth was the center of the
universe (based on a theory by the Ancient Greek Ptolemy) This
conceited with the church’s view that God would never place his
children anywhere but the center of the universe.
• During the Renaissance, a heliocentric view was adopted (the
sun was the center of the solar system)

What new methods of learning or scientific inquiry were

adopted during the Renaissance?
• The Scientific Method
1. State the problem
2. Gather information
3. Form a hypothesis
4. Experiment to test the hypothesis
5. Record and analyze the data
6. State the conclusion
7. Repeat the test
• Francis Bacon emphasized experiment and observation
• Rene Descartes emphasized human reasoning

Landmarks of Western Art: The Renaissance

If Renaissance means “rebirth”, what is being reborn?

• The classical world of Rome and Greece

As the classical philosophies were rediscovered a shift from a

theocratic perspective to a humanist perspective occurred.
Explain
• Man was in control. He could harness nature and work with it in
harmony

How might you draw together Leonardo’s many

accomplishments in engineering, anatomy, and art as a
commentary on the human condition?
• Man was in control of his environment, rather than God

In Leonardo’s The Last Supper, the guests are grouped in 3s

rather than individually. What religious or humanist
significance might there be to this choice?
• The Holy Trinity
• A room filled with light
• Humanist element: Conversation

The posture of Michelangelo’s David is intended to convey two

positive features of this Biblical figure. What are they?
• Physical Strength: Contra Posture: Poised for action
• Mortality: in a state of affliction

What is the informal name of the architectural feature that

signified the church or papal authority?
• Raphael

Who is the third great artist of the High Renaissance (who also
painted within the Vatican)?
• Raphael

The Age of Absolutism

1550-1800

Major Theme: Absolute monarchs forged the precursors to modern

nation-states with strong central governments. Whereas absolutism
might serve as a model for the 20th Century Fascism or totalitarian
Communism, the struggle between monarchs and Parliament in
England was an important step in the development of modern
democracy

Section 1: Spain, 1500-1600s

Section Concepts: Absolutism, divine right, Catholic Reformation,

Inquisition (Reign of Terror), Empire Building, Armada (Militarism),
Money Supply and Inflation

Content Overview

1. Background: Charles V and the Hapsburg Empire

• Charles inherited a huge European Empire
• Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire (also the Netherlands)

As a Catholic, Charles battled Protestantism in the German

states, but lost; the German princes could choose their own
religions.
The Ottoman Turks served as Charles’ primary opponent to the
south; the Ottomans were a major Islamic power

Charles abdicates (surrenders) his throne and divides his

empire
• Ferdinand (brother) becomes Holy Roman emperor and gains
central Europe
• Philip II (son) controls Spain

2. Philip II and Divine Right

Goals:
• Expand Spain
• Strengthen Catholicism (attack Protestantism at
home through Inquisition and abroad with Armada)
• Make his own power absolute: gain complete
authority over government and people based on
divine right (God)

The wars of Philip II

• Battle of Lepanto (1571): Spanish defeated Ottomans
at sea; Ottomans remain a power on the
Mediterranean.
• Dutch Netherlands declare independence from Spain
(1581)
o Northern Protestants defended faith
o Protestants and Catholics opposed high taxes
and Spanish autocratic rule

Protestant England and Queen Elizabeth I

• Philip views England as an enemy

o England is a Protestant nation
o English supported the Dutch against Spain
o Elizabeth encouraged piracy against the Spanish,
especially treasure ships bound from America; Francis
Drake, the most daring “Sea Dog” was knighted by
Elizabeth

• Philip sends armada of 130 ships, 20,000 men, 2400 pieces of

artillery to England; lighter, faster English ships damage armada
which is then scattered by a savage storm
• Spain’s naval supremacy slips as England and France gain power

Siglo do oro: Spain’s Golden Century

• El Greco: painter who studied in Renaissance Italy; featured
 religious themes, landscapes of Toledo, and Spanish nobles
• Cervantes: Don Quixote, Europe’s first modern novel

3. Causes for the economic decline of Spain

• Lack of strong leadership
• Costly overseas wars drained wealth out of Spain
• Treasure from America greatly increased money supply
o Fueled inflation
o Led Spain to neglect farming and commerce
• The government heavily taxed the emerging middle class,
weakening a dynamic group that otherwise might have
supported royal authority
• The expulsion of Jews and Muslims deprived Spain of many
skilled artisans and merchants

Section 2: France under Louis XIV

How did leaders in France use tensions between the Catholic

majority and the (minority Protestant) Huguenots? (Divide and
Conquer)
Leaders on both sides used the strife to further their own ambitions

Events on St. Bartholomew’s Day (genocide and Persecution)

Huguenots and Catholic nobles gathered to celebrate a royal wedding,
and violence erupted resulting in the massacre of 3,000 Huguenots. In
the next few days, thousands more were slaughtered. It symbolized
the complete breakdown of order in France for many people.

Although he chose to convert to Catholicism, how did Henry IV

aid his fellow Protestants? (Tolerance)
He issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which granted religious
toleration and allowed Huguenots to fortify their own towns and cities.
(“Paris is well worth a mass”)

Henry’s primary goal and 4 measures designed to assist it:

(Promote social welfare)
A chicken in every pot—a good Sunday dinner for every peasant—
Henry built the infrastructure for a national economy and the royal
bureaucracy upon which Absolutism was built.
o Royal officials administered justice
o Improved roads
o Built bridges
o Revived agriculture
o (PRIMARY GOAL) heal his shattered land
Why did Cardinal Richelieu seek to destroy the power of the
Huguenots and nobles? (Genocide/Persecution)
o They were two groups that did not bow to royal authority
o He smashed their walls and outlawed their armies

Identify and describe the two primary means Louis XIV

employed to strengthen his own power (Divine
Right/Absolutism)
o He expanded the bureaucracy and appointed “intendants”, royal
officials who collected taxes, recruited soldiers…(positions often
went to middle class men—cementing ties between the
monarchy and the middleclass creating a counter part to the
nobility).
o He also built Europe’s largest army. The state paid, fed, trained,
and supplied 300,000 soldiers to enforce Louis’ policies (and to
foster allegiance)

6 Key policies introduced by Colbert, the king’s economist

(New Ruling Class/Militarism)
o New lands cleared for farming
o High tariffs were put on imported goods
o Encouraged mining and other basic industries
o Encouraged overseas colonies
o Built up luxury trades such as lace making
o Regulated trade with the colonies to enrich the royal treasury

What does the extravagance of Louis XIV and Versailles say

about the power of the French monarch?
(Symbolism/Absolutism)
It states that the French monarch could do basically anything he
wanted to; he also wanted to show/prove that he was the “sun king”
(show his power)

It reinforced how absolute his power was – he could use 1.5 billion
dollars and 10,000s of workers for several decades according to his
whim

What purpose did the levee play in securing Louis’ power?

(Absolutism/Divide & Conquer)
Nobles became preoccupied with gaining the king’s favor by
performing menial tasks at his rising and before bed (It replaced nobles
battling for power by means of war.

Interpret Louis’ statement “I am the State,” and compare it to

the title of “Sun King” (Absolutism/Symbolism)
His statement meant that he controlled everything in his kingdom.
“Sun King” means that he stands at the center of the nation.

Several art forms that elevated France to model for all Europe
(Patronage)
o Painting
o Music
o Architecture
o Ballet
o Decorative Arts
o Drama

Describe the general result of Louis’ military ventures (Balance

of Power)
At first he did gain some territory. His later wars were disastrous
though because rival rulers joined forces to check French ambitions
(France and English)

What major principle developed as a counter to France’s power

and ambition? Who led this movement? (Balance of Power)
o A distribution of military and economic power that would prevent
any one country from dominating Europe
o Dutch and English

Why did Louis revoke the Edict of Nante? What negative

impact did this have on France? How does it parallel a move by
Philip II of Spain? How might this apply to the U.S?
o Louis saw France’s Protestant minority as a threat to religious
and political unity
o The persecution of the Huguenots was perhaps the king’s most
costly blunder. The Huguenots had been among the hardest
working and prosperous of Louis’ subjects. Their loss was a
serious blow to the French economy
o Philip II’s expulsion of Muslims and Jews had hurt Spain (Many
were skilled artisans and merchants)
o We forced Native Americans out of their lands

What was Louis XIV’s successor’s motto? What might it

foreshadow?
o “After us, the deluge”
o It might foreshadow the deluge during the reign of the next king
(A collapse of government or even revolution)
 The Rise of Austria and Prussia

What were some of the issues sparking the 30 years war?

o The Hapsburg king of bohemia sought to suppress protestants
and assert royal power over local nobles, and a few protestants
tossed 2 royal men out a window killing them
o Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor, and he tried to roll
back the reformation
o Political motive out-ruled religion

In what condition did the peace of Westphalia and the 30 Years

War leave Germany?
They had been divided into 360 different states

How did the Hapsburgs respond to the situation?

They focused on expanding their own lands

How did the Hohenzollerns create the new German state of

Prussia?
They took over the states between them

Rivalries that existed within the larger context of alliances and

the balance of power:
o Britain vs. France
o French & Indian War

Characterize Russia in the early 1600s

Even though Western Europe was going through their Renaissance
period, Russia was unaffected for they were highly isolated and the
“time of troubles” had plunged them into a state of disorder & foreign
invasions

How did Peter modernize Russia?

He visited the West and closely studied the manners & homes of the
people. He’d visited the art galleries and factories, and brought all of
the back to Russia.

Considering Peter’s admiration for the English Parliament,

what is ironic about Peter’s own approach to the political
process?
To persuade Russians to Westernize he became the most power
monarch in Europe

Peter’s Goals:
o Strengthen military
 o Expand Russian Borders
o Centralize royal power

Describe serfdom under Peter

He tied peasants to land owned by nobles and serfs were forced to do
labor

How did Peter pay for his sweeping reform?

He adopted mercantilist policies, such as encouraging exports

Several changes that had symbolic meaning

o Boyars had to shave beards
o ^^ had to wear Western European clothes
o Dances were held

How did Peter respond to palace guards who had resisted the
new order?
He tortured 1000 rebels and executed them

What was the result of Peter’s goal of increasing military

power?
He created the largest standing army in Europe

Why did peter want a warm-water port so desperately? What

prevented him from achieving this goal?
1. To increase Russia’s ability to trade with the West (it’s frozen 1/2
of the year)
2. The nearest one was the Black Sea and gain the port (it was
controlled by the Ottoman Empire)

Explain the symbolism of the city of St. Petersburg

It became a symbol of how Peter had a great desire to forge a modern
Russia

How far east and south did Russian pioneers settle in the early
1700’s?
As far east as the Pacific Ocean. As far south as the Caspian Sea

How would Russia’s relations with the west be changed forever

following Peter?
Catherine the Great was the new ruler. Russia would move from
isolation to engagement with Western Europe

Catherine the Great’s rise to power

o Peter did not name a successor
 o Power struggles among
the Romanovs began
o Nobles reasserted their
power
o Catherine, a 15 year old
German princess married
an heir to the throne,
Peter III
o Russian military officers,
the Orlovs, murdered
Peter III
o With their support,
Catherine ascended to the
throne

What dramatic reform did Catherine introduce into Russian

education?
State sponsored education for boys & girls

How did the peasants fare under Catherine’s rule?

Catherine gave the boyars tax-exempt status; she allowed them to
increase their stranglehold on the peasantry and offered government
troops to suppress peasant revolts

What major goal of Peter’s did Catherine Achieve?

She defeated Ottoman Turks & achieved Peter’s goal for a warm-water
port on the Black Sea

Why did Poland struggle in the late 1700’s (in contrast to

Russia and western Europe)?
Polish monarchs were unable to centralize their power and diminish
the influence of their nobility

What was the result of Poland’s vulnerability?

o They were unable to withstand the increasing might of Russia,
Prussia, and Austria
o Catherine the Great, Frederick the Great, and Joseph II agreed to
a partition of Poland to avoid war
o Poland ceased to exist from 1795 until restored after WW2
(1981)

Philosophy in the Age of Reason

How did the Scientific Revolution lead to the Enlightenment?

They used methods of new science to solve the problems of human
society

Vocabulary:
Natural Law- Laws that govern human nature

Social Contract- An agreement by which they gave up the state of

nature for an organized society

Natural Right- Rights that belonged to all humans from birth

Philosophe- Thinkers who applied the methods of science to better

understand and improve society

Physiocrat- Thinkers who focused on economic reforms

Laissez faire- A policy allowing business to operate with little or no

government interference

Philosopher Title of Work Key Ideas

Hobbes Leviathon o People were naturally
cruel, greedy and
selfish
o If not strictly controlled
they would fight, rob
and oppress one
another. Without laws
life would be “solitary,
cruel, poor, nasty,
brutish, and short
o To escape that, people
entered social contract.
Locke Two Treaties of o People were basically
Government reasonable and moral.
Further, they had
natural rights including
life, liberty, and
property
o People followed
government to protect
their natural rights
Montesquie Spirit of laws o The British had
u protected themselves
against tyranny by
dividing the various
functions and powers
of government among
Leg. Exe. And Jud.
 Branches
o Each branch served as
a check to the other
Voltaire Candide o Corrupt officials,
aristocrats, inequality,
injustice, superstition,
slave trade, religious
prejudice
o Opposed inequality
(slavery), Believed in
freedom of speech (“I
do not agree with a
word you say, but I will
defend to the death
your right to say it”)

Diderot Encyclopedia o Criticized divine right,

traditional religions,
and praised freedom of
expression
o Change general way of
thinking, denounced
slavery
Rousseau Social Contract o People were naturally
good, corrupted by evil,
Society planned too
many limitations
o The good of the
community should be
placed above the
individual
o “Man is born free, but
everywhere in chains
Wollstonecr Vindication of the o Women should be able
aft Rights of Women to decide what is in her
own interest
o Equal education for
girls and boys
o Woman should
participate with men
o Girls should receive
equal education to
participate equally with
men
Smith Wealth of Nations o Free market should be
allowed to regulate
business activity
o Suppliers will seek to
meet demands
o Rejected mercantilism
o Urged laissez faire
o Supply & Demand
o Free trade without
government
interference
o Government should
only provide goods and
services not profitable
for private businesses
o “It is not from the
butcher, brewer, or the
baker, that we expect
out dinner, but from
their regard to their
own self interests.”
(they only make food to
make money)

Enlightened Despots and Britain at Mid-Century

Compare and contrast the following despots (Kings and

Queens with absolute power)

o Joseph II: Most radical--- Disguised himself as a peasant to

improve their lives
o “The peasant emperor” Joseph actively investigated the
needs of people to improve their lives

o Frederick II: “First servant of the state”, Frederick assisted

desperate peasants with seeds and tools, worked to create a
rational, efficient government bureaucracy, and to allow
religious tolerance between Catholics and Protestants (not
Jews)

o Catherine the Great: German origin, Catherine saw herself

as a westernized and Enlightenment leader. In fact, serfdom
intensified in Russia as it was ending in Western Europe
Explain Great Britain’s rise to global power. (What led to their
success?)
o Geography: Island nation in costal position to control trade in
continental Europe; Establishes outposts in Asia and North
America during Renaissance
o Success in war- The British navy allowed Britain to defeat
France and gain additional territory important for trade
o Favorable business climate: Few trade restrictions
o Britain profited heavily from slave trade to Spanish America

The formation of Constitutional government in Britain

o Two parties, Cabinet System, Prime Minister
o Political Parties: Tories (Aristocrats) and Whigs (urban
business men who favored the Glorious revolution and
Parliament control over the monarch)
o Cabinet System: Assisted king (initially assisted George I who
spoke German) and approved by House of Commons represented
greater control of Monarch by Parliament
o Suffrage: Although gradually expanding, the right to vote was
held by very few males with property

• Describing the lives of the vast majority of people

(peasants) during the Enlightenment
Lives of most people were unchanged

The Moderate and Radical Stages of the Revolution

The political crisis of 1789 coincided wit the worst famine in

memory. Starving peasants roamed the countryside or flocked to
towns, where they swelled the ranks of the unemployed. As grain
prices soared, even people with jobs had to spend up to 80% of
their income on bread

The Great Fear: Rumors of attacks on towns and villages, maybe by

government troops, sparked peasant attacks on nobles who were
trying to re-impose medieval dues. Records were burned and grain
was seized

Paris: Paris was swept up in revolutionary fervor. Numerous factions

competed to gain power.

Moderates: Marquis de Lafayette headed the National Guard, a

middle-class militia that wore the tri-color, created to defend the
National Assembly against royal troops.
Radicals: The Paris Commune replaced the royalist government of
the city. Some in the commune called for an end to the monarchy

Nobles in the National Assembly give up special privileges: dues,

hunting rights, exemption from taxes. (In reality, they’d already lost
them, but now it was the law)

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: Equality before

the law, taxation based on ability to pay, freedom of religion, equal
access to public office based on merit

Women March on Versailles: Women shouting “bread:, seized

King Louis XVI and then Queen Marie Antoinette and forced them to
move to Paris. “Now we won’t have to go so far when we want to
see our king” Louis remained essentially on house arrest for 3 years

The Assembly placed the French Catholic Church under government

control. Church officials and priests became elected, salaried
employees of the state. Many convents and monasteries were
closed and much church property was sold to pay off the
government’s debt (mostly to the Bourgeoisie)

Constitution on 1791: Limited monarchy; Assembly had power to

tax, declare war, write laws; tax-paying male citizens could vote

The King’s family flees to the border, disguised , but are caught and
escorted back to Paris

People view this flight as disloyalty to the revolution and the New
France.

(Englishman) Edmund Burke: On the French Revolution “When

ancient opinions and rules of life are taken away we have no
compass to govern us.” Burke predicted “ Preventative murder and
confiscation” would take place

Prussian and Austrian kings threatened to intervene to protect the

royal couple (Marie was the sister of the king)

Radicals (sans culottes, Jacobins) gained majority in the Legislative

Assembly. Eager to spread the revolution and destroy tyranny
abroad, the Assembly declared war on Austria, Prussia, and then
Britain. (the fighting began in 1792 and lasted until 1815)

Radical Days
The Monarchy Abolished

Street names that had religious reference were changed

September massacre: bloody mobs kill nobles in the prison for

fear of them gaining power

Right to vote extended to all male citizens

Radicals seized national assembly, abolished monarchy, declared a

republic, and created the national convention

Both the king and queen are put on trial and executed for being
traitors

Louis 17th died in prison leaving no heir to the throne

The Convention Defends the Republic

Guillotine is considered humane
Execution of Rope Perrie ended the reign of terror

Committee of public safety (12 members) created to deal with crise,

had absolute power

All citizens must contribute to the war effort (Leveon Masse)

Modernation under the directory—New 5 main directory 2 house

rectory & new constitution

Bourgeoisie dominated this stage of the revolution

France made peace: Prussia and Spain; war with Austria and Great
Britain

Corrupt leaders only cared about themselves and didn’t solve

France’s problems

Bread prices rising caused argument that the directory suppressed

Revival of Royalist feelings & the election of 1797 – majority of the

people whom were elected wanted a constitutional monarchy

Women in the Revolution

Political Activities for women – women were very active in

streets and salons

No equality for Women

Olympe de Gouges- “Woman is born free, and her rights are the
same as man”

The execution of Olympe de Gouges – opposite reign of terror

Changes in Daily Life

New title “Citizen” applied to all people

Slave revolt forces government to free slaves

Fashions- elaborate fashions and powdered wigs gave way to

clothes and simple haircuts

Children were named with names that occurred during the

Revolution, constitution

Nationalism- A strong feeling of pride and devotion to one’s

country spread throughout festivals, songs, and dances

Compulsory Education- Religious schools were replaced with

state

The Age of Napoleon Begins

Napoleon’s Rise to Power

Following a successful series of battle campaigns against the
Austrians and British, Napoleon converted his popularity into
absolute power. The Directory, unable to solve France’s chief
problems, fell to a coup d’etat led by Napoleon.

The consulate replaced the Directory. Soon, Napoleon emerged as

“First Consul” and “Consul for life”

Napoleon crowns himself Emperor of the French

At each stage Napoleon held a plebiscite; the French supported him

each time

Napoleon on his rise to power:

• “Nothing has been simpler… it is owing to the peculiarities of the
times.”
 • “Since one must take sides, one might as well chose the side
that is victorious, the side which devastates, loots, and burns

The Napoleonic credo

Order, security, and efficiency replaced liberty, equality, and fraternity

Reverses to the Revolution

• Concordat of 1801: Church remained under state control, but
granted religious freedom
• Women lose newly gained rights; man regained complete control
over wives and children

Napoleon’s support of Enlightenment or Revolutionary

Principles
• Citizens (males) gained equality before the law, enjoyed religious
tolerance, and benefited from advancement based on merit
• Napoleon engineered economic recovery by controlling runaway
prices, developing new industry, and building roads and canals.

The French Revolution and Napoleon

The First Estate: Church controlled 10% of the land, collected tithes,
and paid no taxes. Clergy, high church officials, were wealthy. Parish
Priests were poor as peasants. Churches ran public services.
Philosophes criticized church interference with politics, and intolerance
of dissent. Clergy condemned philosophes for undermining religion and
moral order.

The Second Estate: Held top jobs in government, army, courts, and
the church while others struggled with little outcome. Rural nobles
struggled when prices rose. Nobles also did not pay taxes

The Third Estate: Included bourgeoisie – middle class business

people – also city living factory workers. 90% of the third estate were
peasants. For low wages, a slight increase in money for bread led to
starvation. Third estate paid taxes. Carvee, unpaid labor to repair
roads & Bridges, Enlightenment ideas led to challenging inequality to
the Third Estate

Three major causes of France’s economic troubles

• Deficit
o Deficit spending on wars and a lavish court lifestyle
o Government borrowed heavily
 o Half of taxes paid interest of the debt
• Poor Harvest
o Poor harvest led to inflation (Low supply increased costs)

• Failure to Reform
o Louis XIV left France in debt when he died in 1715; Louis
XV ran up more debt. Louis XVI tried to fix it
o When the first two estates learned of Nicker’s plan to tax
them, they forced the king to dismiss him & call a meeting
of the Estates General, where they hope they could
influence the king’s future attempts at reform

In preparation for a meeting of the Estate’s General, Louis XVI

requests the estates to prepare notebooks of grievances.
Provide five complaints listed among the cahier. Lastly, explain
how these grievances might evolve into class revolution?
• Fairer taxes
• Freedom of the press
• Regular meetings of estates general
• Reduce leather costs (shoes)
• Right to hunt or kill animals that damage crops
• Leave service and receive a reward (servant girls)

How is it that the Third Estate, representing the largest

number of people, could be outvoted by the other two estates.
Describe the voting procedure
Each estate had one vote; typically, the first two estates would join on
an issue and outvote the third (representing the mass majority of the
population)

How did the National Assembly emerge from the calling

Estates General?
The Third Estate wanted all three estates to meet for each to have 1
vote. Following weeks of a statement, the Third declared itself National
Assembly with the power to draft a constitution. The king locked them
out of their meeting hall. In response the delegates met at an indoor
tennis court and agreed not to disband until a constitution was written
(the constitution oath)

Of what significance was the storming of Bastille?

People in Paris heard that troops were coming to occupy the city. More
than 800 people went to the Bastille, a medieval fort turned into a
prison, to get weapons. The commander of the fort refused their entry.
98 people were killed. The mob gained entry, beheaded the
commander and rescued prisoners. Though the actual purpose was to
obtain weapons (which were not stored there). The storming of the
Bastille remains a symbol of the revolution and is still celebrated today
(July 14th)

The Downfall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna

Many Europeans saw Napoleon (rightly) as a foreign oppressor; this
perception spurred nationalism in conquered countries. Eventually,
nationalism would become such a strong force that multi ethnic
empires would be challenged.

The Spanish tactic of “Guerrilla warfare” (little war) drained French

resources and strained French troops within Spain.

Spanish resistance encouraged Austria to resume hostilities against

the French

Russia withdrew from Napoleons Continental System. Russia was

angered by three of Napoleon’s tactical moves. Tsar Aleksandr
disapproved of Napoleon’s marriage to Marie Louise (The Austrian
monarch’s daughter) and the creation of a French Austrian Alliance. He
further resented the ill effects of The Continental System on Russia’s
economy. Finally, the tsar coveted Poland and disliked the expansion
of the Duchy of Warsaw at the expense of the Russian Empire. Russia’s
withdraw from the Continental System provoked a vicious attack from
Napoleon

Russians responded to Napoleon’s 600,000 troops with a “scorched

earth” policy. As they retreated from the French, the Russians took all
they could carry and burned all that was left behind. Soldiers even
burned crops, villages, and pretty much all of Moscow

Short on supplies and battered by the cold Russian winter, Napoleon

abandoned Moscow and fled to Paris. The retreat was so desperate
that French soldiers, seeking shelter, constructed huts by stacking
corpses like logs. Of the 600,000 that began the invasion of Russia,
only 10,000 reached France alive

Russians, Prussians (Germans), Austrians, and the British formed the

Quadruple Alliance. Combined forces defeated Napoleon at Leipzig,
Confederation of the Rhine (Germany) (1813)

Napoleon was exciled to the Mediterranean island of Alba (near

Corisca). Napoleon returns to Paris to depose Louis XVIII (Louis XVI’s
brother) and succeeds. Louis holds power for 100 days

Allies reassemble and defeat Napoleon at Germany (Belgium). He is

exciled to the island of St. Helena (considerably west of present day
Angloa Africa). He died there in 1821.

The Congress of Vienna, 1815

Hosted by Prince Clemon’s van Metterich in Vienna, Austria

Primary goals: To established a balance of power in Europe to counter

French domination and to restore legitimate power to their thrones

Unintended Consequence: Not considering national boundaries when

encircling France with powerful empires, the Congress of Vienna
rekindled the nationalism previously sparked by Napoleon

History Concepts
• Original idea, rejection of idea, blending the two previous
ideas
• Pendulum swings between Conservatism and Liberalism
• Great actors on the world stage, like Napoleon, determine
the fate of millions
• History is an evolutionary process, moves from one stage
to the other, higher, stage
• A broad sweep of people pushing and shoving against
each other then receding back