2.

A field is a triple (F, +, ·) consisting of a set F, a binary operation “+” called addition and a binary
operation “·” called multiplication such that for a, b, c ∈ F:

(i) Addition and multiplication are associative and commutative:

a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c, a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c,

a + b = b + a, a·b=b·a
(ii) There is an additive identity 0 ∈ F and a multiplicative identity 1 ∈ F:

a + 0 = a, a·1=a

(iii) There is an additive inverse −a ∈ F. If a �= 0 then there is also a multiplicative inverse a−1 :

a + (−a) = 0, a · a−1 = 1

(iv) Multiplication is distributive over addition:

a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c

a. For n ≥ 2, define an equivalence relation R on Z by R = {(a, b) ∈ Z × Z : a ≡ b mod n}. For a ∈ Z,

let [a] = {b ∈ Z : aRb} denote the corresponding equivalence class. Let Zn = {[0], [1], . . . , [n − 1]}.
Define binary operations “+” and “·” on Zn by setting [a] + [b] = [a + b] and [a] · [b] = [a · b] for
a, b ∈ Z. Show that these operations are well defined and show that Zn is a field if and only if n is prime.

Solution.

The proof contains two parts. First, we want to show that if n is prime, Zn is a field. Then
we want to show that if n is not a prime, Zn is not a field. Let n be a prime number. Let a, b, c ∈ Zn .

First, addition and multiplication are associative and commutative (we can use associativity and
commutativity inside the square brackets since it is operations on the ring of Z).:

[a] + [b] = [a + b] = [b + a] = [b] + [a] [a] · [b] = [a · b] = [b · a] = [b] · [a]

[a] + ([b] + [c]) = [a] + ([b + c]) = [a + (b + c)] = [(a + b) + c] = ([a + b]) + [c] = ([a] + [b]) + [c]
[a] · ([b] · [c]) = [a] · ([b · c]) = [a · (b · c)] = [(a · b) · c] = ([a · b]) · [c] = ([a] · [b]) · [c]

Next, there exists a unique additive identity [0] and a unique multiplication identity [1] in Zn .

[a] + [0] = [a + 0] = [a] [a] · [1] = [a · 1] = [a]

Next, there exists an additive inverse -[a] ∈ Zn for all [a] ∈ Zn , and there exists a multiplicative inverse
[a]−1 ∈ Zn given that [a] �= [0].
[a] + (-[a]) = [a − a] = [0]
But for the mutiplicative inverse it’s a bit more complicated. Euler’s theorem gives us a relatively easy
proof. According to Euler’s theorem, if gcd(a, n) = 1, then aφ(n) ≡ 1 mod n, where φ denotes Euler’s
totient function. Divide both sides by a (gcd(a, n) = 1 ∧ n is prime ⇒ a �= 0), we have aφ(n)−1 ≡ a−1
mod n. Now since n is prime, we can compute φ(n) = n − 1, and thus aφ(n)−1 ≡ an−2 ≡ a−1 mod n.
From this we can conclude that each [a] ∈ Zn has an inverse, which is [an−2 ] ∈ Zn .

And last, multipliaction is distributive over addition:

[a] · ([b] + [c]) = [a] · [b + c] = [a · (b + c)] = [a · b + a · c] = [a · b] + [a · c] = [a] · [b] + [a] · [c]

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 Since Zn satisfies all the requirements when n is prime, our first part is complete. To prove the Zn is not
a field when n is not a prime, we just need to provide a counter-example. Let n = 4, a composite number.
Note that [2] does not have a multiplicative inverse: [2] · [0] = [0], [2] · [1] = [2], [2] · [2] = [0], [2] · [3] = [2].
Hence it is not a field. Our proof is now complete.

�
b. Let F be a field. A subset E ⊆ F is a subfield of F if 1 ∈ E and E is closed under
√ addition,
√ multiplication,
taking additive inverses and taking multiplicative inverses. Show that Q[ 2] = {a + 2b : a, b ∈ Q} is
a subfield of R.

Solution.
√
This proof contains four parts. We want to show that Q[ 2] is closed under addition, multipli-
cation, taking additive inverses and taking multiplicative inverses. Let a, b, c, d ∈ Q.
√ √ √ √ √
(a + 2b)√+ (c + 2d) =√(a + c) +√ 2(b + d), since (a + c), (b + d) ∈ Q, (a + 2b) + (c + 2d) =
(a + c) + 2(b + d) ∈ Q[ 2], ie. Q[ 2] is closed under addition.
√ √ √ √ √
(a + 2b) · (c
√+ 2d) = (ac + √2bd) · 2(bc√+ ad), since (ac + 2bd), (bc + ad) ∈ Q, (a + 2b) · (c + 2d) =
(ac + 2bd) · 2(bc + ad) ∈ Q[ 2], ie. Q[ 2] is closed under multiplication.
√ √ √
The additive inverse for (a + 2b) is simply (−a − 2b) which is indeed an element of Q[ 2].
√
The multiplicative inverse for (a + 2b) is
√
1 a − 2b a √ b
√ = 2 2
= 2 2
− 2 2
a + 2b a − 2b a − 2b a − 2b2

Since
a b √
, 2 ∈ Q[ 2],
2a2
− 2b a − 2b 2
√
1 a − 2b a √ b √
√ = 2 2
= 2 2
− 2 2 2
∈ Q[ 2].
a + 2b a − 2b a − 2b a − 2b
√
By definition, Q[ 2] is a subfield of R.

�
c. Show that if F is a finite field with an even number of elements, then 1 + 1 = 0 in F. Hint: First
show there is a ∈ F such that a �= 0 but a + a = 0.

Solution.

This proof contains two parts. First, we want to show that there exists a ∈ F such that a �== 0 but
a + a = 0.

Let F be a finite field with an event number of elements. By field axiom, there exists an addi-
tive identity, ie. there exists 0 ∈ F such that for all a ∈ F, a + 0 = 0 + a = a. There also exists a
multiplicative identity, ie. there exists 1 ∈ F such that for all a ∈ F, a · 1 = 1 · a = a. The field axioms
also state that every element a ∈ F has an additive inverse, call it -a, where a + (-a) = 0.

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Since 0 + 0 = 0, 0 is its own additive inverse. If we don’t consider 0, there are an odd number
of elements left in F. If we pair them up, there will certainly be one element left alone, which allows
us to conclude that this element is its own additive inverse, otherwise the field axioms are violated, ie.
there exists a ∈ F such that a �= 0 but a + a = 0.

Next, use field axioms, we can derive the following equations:

a+a=0 Hypothesis
(a + a) · a = 0 · a Multiply a to both sides
(a + a) · a = 0 0×a=0

Since a �= 0, a + a = 0. Since there exists a multiplicative inverse a−1 ∈ F where a · a−1 = 1, we have
(a + a) · a−1 = 0 · a−1 = 0, that is, 1 + 1 = 0. Our proof is completed.