The Finite Element Method for the Analysis of

Non-Linear and Dynamic Systems

Prof. Dr. Eleni Chatzi

Lecture 1 - 17 September, 2015

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 1

Course Information
Instructor
Prof. Dr. Eleni Chatzi, email: chatzi@ibk.baug.ethz.ch
Office Hours: HIL E14.3, Wednesday 10:00-12:00 or by email

Assistant
Adrian Egger, HIL E13.1, email: egger@ibk.baug.ethz.ch

Course Website
Lecture Notes and Homeworks will be posted at:
http://www.chatzi.ibk.ethz.ch/education/method-of-finite-elements-ii.html
Suggested Reading
“Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures”, by T.
Belytschko, W. K. Liu, and B. Moran, John Wiley and Sons, 2000
“The Finite Element Method: Linear Static and Dynamic Finite
Element Analysis”, by T. J. R. Hughes, Dover Publications, 2000
Lecture Notes by Carlos A. Felippa
Nonlinear Finite Element Methods (ASEN 6107): http://www.
colorado.edu/engineering/CAS/courses.d/NFEM.d/Home.html
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 2
Course Outline

Review of the Finite Element method - Introduction to

Non-Linear Analysis

Non-Linear Finite Elements in solids and Structural Mechanics

- Overview of Solution Methods
- Continuum Mechanics & Finite Deformations
- Lagrangian Formulation
- Structural Elements

Dynamic Finite Element Calculations

- Integration Methods
- Mode Superposition

Eigenvalue Problems

Special Topics
- The Scaled Boundary Element & Extended Finite Element methods

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 3

Grading Policy

Performance Evaluation - Homeworks (100%)

Homework
Homeworks are due in class within 3 weeks after assignment
Computer Assignments may be done using any coding language
(MATLAB, Fortran, C, MAPLE) - example code will be
provided in MATLAB
Commercial software such as ABAQUS and SAP will also be
used for certain Assignments

Homework Sessions will be pre-announced and it is advised to bring

a laptop along for those sessions

Help us Structure the Course!

Participate in our online survey:
http://goo.gl/forms/ws0ASBLXiY

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 4

Lecture #1: Structure

Let us review the Linear Finite Element Method

Strong vs. Weak Formulation
The Finite Element (FE) formulation
The Iso-Parametric Mapping

Structural Finite Elements

The Bar Element
The Beam Element

Example
The Axially Loaded Bar

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 5

Review of the Finite Element Method (FEM)
Classification of Engineering Systems

Continuous Discrete
q|y+dy
q|x
dy
q|x+dx
dx
q|y
h1
h2

Flow
L of water
Permeable Soil

Impermeable Rock
 
∂2φ ∂2φ F = KX
k ∂2x + ∂2y =0
Laplace Equation Direct Stiffness Method

FEM: Numerical Technique for approximating the solution of continuous

systems. We will use a displacement based formulation and a stiffness
based solution (direct stiffness method).
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 6
Review of the Finite Element Method (FEM)
Classification of Engineering Systems

Continuous Discrete
q|y+dy
q|x
dy
q|x+dx
dx
q|y
h1
h2

Flow
L of water
Permeable Soil

Impermeable Rock
 
∂2φ ∂2φ F = KX
k ∂2x + ∂2y =0
Laplace Equation Direct Stiffness Method

FEM: Numerical Technique for approximating the solution of continuous

systems. We will use a displacement based formulation and a stiffness
based solution (direct stiffness method).
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 6
Review of the Finite Element Method (FEM)
How is the Physical Problem formulated?

The formulation of the equations governing the response of a system under

specific loads and constraints at its boundaries is usually provided in the
form of a differential equation. The differential equation also known as the
strong form of the problem is typically extracted using the following sets
of equations:

Axial bar Example

1 Equilibrium Equations
aL + ax q(x)=ax
ex. f (x) = R + (L − x) R
2
2 Constitutive Requirements
x
Equations
ex. σ = E  aL
ax
3 Kinematics Relationships
R
du f(x)
ex.  =
dx
L-x

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 7

Review of the Finite Element Method (FEM)
How is the Physical Problem formulated?
Differential Formulation (Strong Form) in 2 Dimensions
Quite commonly, in engineering systems, the governing equations are of a
2
second order (derivatives up to u 00 or ∂∂ 2 ux ) and they are formulated in terms
of variable u, i.e. displacement:
Governing Differential Equation ex: general 2nd order PDE
2 2 2
A(x, y ) ∂∂ 2 ux + 2B(x, y ) ∂x∂y
∂ u
+ C (x, y ) ∂∂ 2 yu = φ(x, y , u, ∂y
∂u ∂u
, ∂y )

Problem Classification Boundary Condition Classification

B 2 − AC < 0 ⇒ elliptic Essential (Dirichlet): u(x0 , y0 ) = u0

order m − 1 at most for C m−1
B 2 − AC = 0 ⇒ parabolic ∂u
Natural (Neumann): ∂y (x0 , y0 ) = u̇0
B 2 − AC > 0 ⇒ hyperbolic order m to 2m − 1 for C m−1
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 8
Review of the Finite Element Method (FEM)

Differential Formulation (Strong Form) in 2 Dimensions

The previous classification corresponds to certain characteristics for each
class of methods. More specifically,

Elliptic equations are most commonly associated with a diffusive or

dispersive process in which the state variable u is in an equilibrium
condition.
Parabolic equations most often arise in transient flow problems where
the flow is down gradient of some state variable u. Often met in the
heat flow context.
Hyperbolic equations refer to a wide range of areas including
elasticity, acoustics, atmospheric science and hydraulics.

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 9

Strong Form - 1D FEM
Reference Problem

Consider the following 1 Dimensional (1D) strong form (parabolic)

 
d du
c(x) + f(x) = 0
dx dx
d
− c(0) u(0) = C1 (Neumann BC)
dx
u(L) = 0 (Dirichlet BC)

Constitutive
Physical Problem (1D) Diff. Equation Quantities
Law
T=temperature
A=area Fourier
One dimensional Heat 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
�𝐴𝑘 � + 𝑄 = 0 k=thermal 𝑞 = −𝑘 𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑥
flow 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 conductivity 𝑞 = heat flux
Q=heat supply
u=displacement
A=area Hooke
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
Axially Loaded Bar �𝐴𝐸 � + 𝑏 = 0 E=Young’s 𝜎 = 𝐸𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 modulus 𝜎 = stress
B=axial loading

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 10

Weak Form - 1D FEM

Approximating the Strong Form

The strong form requires strong continuity on the dependent field
variables (usually displacements). Whatever functions define these
variables have to be differentiable up to the order of the PDE that
exist in the strong form of the system equations. Obtaining the
exact solution for a strong form of the system equation is a quite
difficult task for practical engineering problems.
The finite difference method can be used to solve the system
equations of the strong form and obtain an approximate solution.
However, this method usually works well for problems with simple
and regular geometry and boundary conditions.
Alternatively we can use the finite element method on a weak
form of the system. This weak form is usually obtained through
energy principles which is why it is also known as variational form.

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 11

Weak Form - 1D FEM

From Strong Form to Weak form

Three are the approaches commonly used to go from strong to weak

form:
Principle of Virtual Work

Principle of Minimum Potential Energy

Methods of weighted residuals (Galerkin, Collocation, Least

Squares methods, etc)

Visit our Course page on Linear FEM for further details:

http://www.chatzi.ibk.ethz.ch/education/
method-of-finite-elements-i.html

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 12

Weak Form - 1D FEM
From Strong Form to Weak form - Approach #1
Principle of Virtual Work
For any set of compatible small virtual displacements imposed on the body
in its state of equilibrium, the total internal virtual work is equal to the
total external virtual work.

Z Z Z X
Wint = ¯T τ dΩ = Wext = ūT bdΩ + ūST TS dΓ + ūiT RC i
Ω Ω Γ i
where
TS : surface traction (along boundary Γ)
b: body force per unit area
RC : nodal loads
ū: virtual displacement
¯: virtual strain
τ : stresses

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 13

Weak Form - 1D FEM

From Strong Form to Weak form - Approach #3

Galerkin’s Method
Given an arbitrary weight function w, where

S = {u|u ∈ C 0 , u(l) = 0}, S 0 = {w |w ∈ C 0 , w (l) = 0}

C 0 is the collection of all continuous functions.

Multiplying by w and integrating over Ω

Z l
w (x)[(c(x)u 0 (x))0 + f (x)]dx = 0
0
[w (0)(c(0)u 0 (0) + C1 ] = 0

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 14

Weak Form - 1D FEM
Using the divergence theorem (integration by parts) we reduce the
order of the differential:

Z l Z l
0
wg dx = [wg ]l0 − gw 0 dx
0 0

The weak form is then reduced to the following problem. Also, in

what follows we assume constant properties c(x) = c = const.
Find u(x) ∈ S such that:

Z l Z l
0 0
w cu dx = wfdx + w (0)C1
0 0
S = {u|u ∈ C 0 , u(l) = 0}
S 0 = {w |w ∈ C 0 , w (l) = 0}
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 15
Weak Form
Notes:

1 Natural (Neumann) boundary conditions, are imposed on the

secondary variables like forces and tractions.
∂u
For example, ∂y (x0 , y0 ) = u̇0 .
2 Essential (Dirichlet) or geometric boundary conditions, are imposed
on the primary variables like displacements.
For example, u(x0 , y0 ) = u0 .
3 A solution to the strong form will also satisfy the weak form, but not
vice versa. Since the weak form uses a lower order of derivatives it can
be satisfied by a larger set of functions.
4 For the derivation of the weak form we can choose any weighting
function w , since it is arbitrary, so we usually choose one that satisfies
homogeneous boundary conditions wherever the actual solution
satisfies essential boundary conditions. Note that this does not hold
for natural boundary conditions!

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 16

FE formulation: Discretization
How to derive a solution to the weak form?

Step #1:Follow the FE approach:

Divide the body into finite elements, e, connected to each other
through nodes.

𝑥1𝑒 𝑥2𝑒

Then break the overall integral into a summation over the finite
elements:
" #
X Z x2e Z xe
2
w 0 cu 0 dx − wfdx − w (0)C1 = 0
e x1e x1e

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 17

1D FE formulation: Galerkin’s Method

Step #2: Approximate the continuous displacement using a discrete

equivalent:

Galerkin’s method assumes that the approximate (or trial) solution, u, can
be expressed as a linear combination of the nodal point displacements ui ,
where i refers to the corresponding node number.
X
u(x) ≈ u h (x) = Ni (x)ui = N(x)u
i

where bold notation signifies a vector and Ni (x) are the shape functions.
In fact, the shape function can be any mathematical formula that helps us
interpolate what happens at points that lie within the nodes of the mesh.
In the 1-D case that we are using as a reference, Ni (x) are defined as 1st
degree polynomials indicating a linear interpolation.

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 18

 1D FE formulation: Galerkin’s Method
Shape function Properties:

Bounded and Continuous

One for each node
Nie (xje ) = δij , where

1 if i = j
δij =
0 if i 6= j

The shape functions can be written as piecewise functions of the x

coordinate:
This is not a convenient notation.
 x −x
i−1 Instead of using the global coordinate
 , xi−1 ≤ x < xi
 xi − xi−1 x, things become simplified when


Ni (x) = xi + 1 − x using coordinate ξ referring to the
, xi ≤ x < xi+1



 xi+1 − x i local system of the element (see page
0, otherwise 25).

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 19

1D FE formulation: Galerkin’s Method
Step #3: Approximate w (x) using a discrete equivalent:

The weighting function, w is usually (although not necessarily) chosen to

be of the same form as u
X
w (x) ≈ w h (x) = Ni (x)wi = N(x)w
i

i.e. for 2 nodes:

N = [N1 N2 ] u = [u1 u2 ]T w = [w1 w2 ]T

Alternatively we could have a Petrov-Galerkin formulation, where w (x) is

obtained through the following relationships:
X he dNi
w (x) = (Ni + δ )wi
σ dx
i
Pe e 2 e x + e −x
δ = coth( )− e coth =
2 Pe e x − e −x

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 20

1D FE formulation: Galerkin’s Method
Step #4: Substituting into the weak formulation and rearranging
terms we obtain the following in matrix notation:
Z l Z l
0 0
w cu dx − wfdx − w (0)C1 = 0 ⇒
0 0
Z l Z l
(wT NT )0 c(Nu)0 dx − wT NT fdx − wT N(0)T C1 = 0
0 0
Since w, u are vectors, each one containing a set of discrete values
corresponding at the nodes i, it follows that the above set of equations can
be rewritten in the following form, i.e. as a summation over the wi , ui
components (Einstein notation):

!  
Z l X dNi (x) dN j (x)X
ui c wj  dx
0 dx dx
i j

Z l X X


− f wj Nj (x)dx − wj Nj (x)C1  =0
0 j j 
x=0

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 21

1D FE formulation: Galerkin’s Method
This is rewritten as,

"Z ! #
l
X X dNi (x) dNj (x)
wj cui − fNj (x)dx + (Nj (x)C1 )|x=0 = 0
0 dx dx
j i

The above equation has to hold ∀wj since the weighting function w (x) is
an arbitrary one. Therefore the following system of equations has to hold:
Z l X !
dNi (x) dNj (x)
cui − fNj (x)dx + (Nj (x)C1 )|x=0 = 0 j = 1, ..., n
0 dx dx
i

After reorganizing and moving the summation outside the integral, this
becomes:
" #
X Z l dNi (x) dNj (x) Z l
c ui = fNj (x)dx + (Nj (x)C1 )|x=0 = 0 j = 1, ..., n
0 dx dx 0
i

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 22

1D FE formulation: Galerkin’s Method
We finally obtain the following discrete system in matrix notation:

Ku = f
where writing the integral from 0 to l as a summation over the
subelements we obtain:

Z x2e Z x2e
e e
K = Ae K −→ K = NT
,x cN,x dx = BT cBdx
x1e x1e

Z x2e
f = Ae f e −→ f e = NT fdx + NT h|x=0
x1e

where A is not a sum but an assembly (see page and, x denotes

differentiation with respect to x.
dN(x)
In addition, B = N,x = is known as the strain-displacement
dx
matrix.
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 23
1D FE formulation: Iso-Parametric Formulation
Iso-Parametric Mapping
This is a way to move from the use of global coordinates (i.e.in
(x, y )) into normalized coordinates (usually (ξ, η)) so that the finally
derived stiffness expressions are uniform for elements of the same
type.

𝑥 𝜉
𝑥1𝑒 𝑥2𝑒 −1 1

Shape Functions in Natural Coordinates

X
x(ξ) = Ni (ξ)xie = N1 (ξ)x1e + N2 (ξ)x2e
i=1,2
1 1
N1 (ξ) = (1 − ξ), N2 (ξ) = (1 + ξ)
2 2
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 24
1D FE formulation: Iso-Parametric Formulation
Map the integrals to the natural domain −→ element stiffness matrix.
Using the chain rule of differentiation for N(ξ(x)) we obtain:
Z x2e Z 1
Ke = NT,x cN,x dx = (N,ξ ξ,x )T c(N,ξ ξ,x )x,ξ dξ
x1e −1

d  1 1
  −1 1

where N,ξ = 2
(1 − ξ) 2
(1 + ξ) = 2 2
dξ
dx x e − x1e h
and x,ξ = = 2 = = J (Jacobian) and h is the element length
dξ 2 2
dξ
ξ,x = = J −1 = 2/h
dx
From all the above,
 
c 1 −1
Ke =
x2e − x1e −1 1
Similary, we obtain the element load vector:
Z x2e Z 1
fe = NT fdx + NT h|x=0 = NT (ξ)fx,ξ dξ + NT (x)h|x=0
x1e −1

Note: the iso-parametric mapping is only done for the integral.

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 25
The Beam Element

Discussion & Limitations

What are some of the main Assumptions & Simplifications we
have performed so far in the Linear Theory?

What do you imagine are the added problems beyond this

realm?

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 26

The Beam Element

Discussion & Limitations

What are some of the main Assumptions & Simplifications we
have performed so far in the Linear Theory?

What do you imagine are the added problems beyond this

realm?

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 26

The Beam Element

Discussion & Limitations

What are some of the main Assumptions & Simplifications we
have performed so far in the Linear Theory?

What do you imagine are the added problems beyond this

realm?

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 26

The Beam Element
The beam element belongs in the so called Structural Finite Elements
Why?

F-16 Aeroelastic Structural Model

Exterior
model
95% are
shell
elements

Internal structure
zoom. Some Brick
FEM model: and tetrahedral
150000 Nodes elements

http://www.colorado.edu/engineering/CAS/Felippa.d/FelippaHome.d/Home.html

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 27

Beam Elements

Two main beam theories:

Euler-Bernoulli theory (Engineering beam theory) -slender beams

Timoshenko theory thick beams

Euler - Bernoulli Beam

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 28

Beam Elements
Euler Bernoulli Beam Assumptions - Kirchhoff Assumptions
Normals remain straight (they do not bend)
Normals remain unstretched (they keep the same length)
Normals remain normal (they always make a right angle to the neutral
plane)

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 29

Beam Elements - Strong Form

υ´ υ´
υ

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 30

Beam Elements - Strong Form

Equilibrium

– distributed load per unit length

– shear force

Combining the equations

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 31

Beam Elements - Strong Form

(1)
Free end with applied load

(2)

(S) (3)
Simple support

(4)

Clamped support
(5)

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 32

Cheat Sheet

Basic Formulas-Shape Functions

The order of the shape functions is chosen based on the problem’s strong
form. Moreover, the shape functions are usually expressed in the
iso-parametric coordinate system

Bar Element
d 2u
For the standard bar element, the strong form is AE + f (x) = 0. The
dx 2
d2u
homogeneous form is AE dx 2 = 0 which is a 2nd order ODE with known solution:
u(x) = C1 x + C2 , i.e., a 1st degree polynomial.

The shape functions N(ξ) are therefore selected as 1st degree polynomials:

1
 
(1 − ξ)
 → u1
N(ξ) =  2

1 
→ u2
(1 + ξ)
2

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 33

Cheat Sheet
Basic Formulas-Shape Functions

Beam Element
d2 d 2υ
 
For the standard beam element, the strong form is EI 2 + f (x) = 0.
dx 2 dx
2 2
 
d d υ
The homogeneous form is EI 2 = 0 which is a 4th order ODE with
dx 2 dx
known solution: u(x) = C1 x3 + C2 x 2 + C3 x + C4 , i.e., a 3rd degree polynomial.

The shape functions H(ξ) are therefore selected as 3rd degree polynomials:
1
 
(1 − ξ)2 (2 + ξ)
 4  → u1
 1
 
 (1 − ξ)2 (1 + ξ)  → θ1

 4
H(ξ) = 

 1

 (1 + ξ) (2 + ξ)  → u2
2 
 4 
 1  → θ2
2
(1 + ξ) (ξ − 1)
4
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 34
Cheat Sheet
Basic Formulas-Stiffness Matrices

Going from Strong to Weak form yields the expressions of the equivalent
stiffness matrix for each element:
Bar Element
Z L
dNj (x) dNi (x)
Kij = AE dx
0 dx dx

Using matrix notation, the definition of the strain-displacement matrix

dN(x)
B= , and the definition of the Jacobian (since we are looking for
dx
dx x e −x e
derivatives in term of x and not ξ ultimately): J = dξ = 2 2 1 = h2 we
obtain:
Z L  
EA 1 −1
Ke = BT EABdx =
0 h −1 1

where h is the length of the element.

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 35
Cheat Sheet
Basic Formulas-Stiffness Matrices

Going from Strong to Weak form yields the expressions of the equivalent
stiffness matrix for each element:
Beam Element
L
d 2 Hj (x) d 2 Hi (x)
Z
Kij = EI dx
0 dx 2 dx 2

Using matrix notation, the definition of the strain-displacement matrix

d 2 H(x)
B= , and the definition of the Jacobian (since we are looking for
dx 2
dx
derivatives in term of x and not ξ ultimately): J = dξ = 2l we obtain:
 
Z L 12 6l −12 6l
EI  6l 4l 2 −6l 2l 2 
Ke = BT EI Bdx = 3  
0 l  −12 −6l 12 −6l 
6l 2l 2 −6l 4l 2
where l is the length of the element.
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 36
Strong Form - 2D Linear Elasticity FEM

Governing Equations

Equilibrium Eq: ∇s σ + b = 0 ∈Ω
Kinematic Eq:  = ∇s u ∈Ω
Constitutive Eq: σ =D · ∈Ω
Traction B.C.: τ · n = Ts ∈ Γt
Displacement B.C: u = uΓ ∈ Γu

Hooke’s Law - Constitutive Equation

Plane Stress Plane Strain
6 0
τzz = τxz = τyz = 0, zz = zz = γxz = γyz = 0, σzz 6= 0
   
1 ν 0 1−ν ν 0
E  E
D= ν 1 0  D=  ν 1−ν 0 
1 − ν2 (1 − ν)(1 + ν)
0 0 1−ν 2
0 0 1−2ν
2

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 37

2D FE formulation: Discretization

Divide the body into finite elements connected to each other through
nodes

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 38

2D FE formulation: Iso-Parametric Formulation

Shape Functions in Natural Coordinates

1 1
N1 (ξ, η) = (1 − ξ)(1 − η), N2 (ξ, η) = (1 + ξ)(1 − η)
4 4
1 1
N3 (ξ, η) = (1 + ξ)(1 + η), N4 (ξ, η) = (1 − ξ)(1 + η)
4 4

Iso-parametric Mapping

4
X
x= Ni (ξ, η)xie
i=1
X4
y= Ni (ξ, η)yie
i=1

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 39

Bilinear Shape Functions

Z Z Z
Ktot · d = f tot where Ke = BT DBdΩ, fe = N T BdΩ + N T ts dΓ
Ωe Ωe ΓeT

*The total stiffness Ktot is obtained via assembly of the element matrices Ke .
The same holds for the force vectors.
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 40
Axially Loaded Bar Example

A. Constant End Load

Given: Length L, Section Area A, Young’s modulus E

Find: stresses and deformations.

Assumptions:
The cross-section of the bar does not change after loading.
The material is linear elastic, isotropic, and homogeneous.
The load is centric.
End-effects are not of interest to us.

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 41

Axially Loaded Bar Example
A. Constant End Load

Strength of Materials Approach

From the equilibrium equation, the axial force at a random point x
along the bar is:
R
f(x) = R(= const) ⇒ σ(x) =
A
From the constitutive equation (Hooke’s Law):
σ(x) R
(x) =
=
E AE
Hence, the deformation δ(x) is obtained from kinematics as:
δ(x) Rx
= ⇒ δ(x) =
x AE
Note: The stress & strain is independent of x for this case of
loading.
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 42
Axially Loaded Bar Example
B. Linearly Distributed Axial + Constant End Load

From the equilibrium equation, the axial force at random point x

along the bar is:
aL + ax a(L2 − x 2 )
f(x) = R + (L − x) = R + ( depends on x)
2 2
In order to now find stresses & deformations (which depend on x)
we have to repeat the process for every point in the bar. This is
computationally inefficient.
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 43
Axially Loaded Bar Example
From the equilibrium equation, for an infinitesimal element:
∆σ dσ
Aσ = q(x)∆x + A(σ + ∆σ) ⇒ A |{z}
lim + q(x) = 0 ⇒ A + q(x) = 0
∆x dx
∆x→0

du d 2u
Also,  = , σ = E , q(x) = ax ⇒ AE 2 + ax = 0
dx dx

Strong Form

d 2u
AE + ax = 0
dx 2
u(0) = 0 essential BC

du 
f(L) = R ⇒ AE = R natural BC
dx  x=L

Analytical Solution

ax 3
u(x) = uhom + up ⇒ u(x) = C1 x + C2 −
6AE
C1 , C2 are determined from the BC
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 44
Axially Loaded Bar Example
An analytical solution cannot always be found
Approximate Solution - The Galerkin Approach (#3): Multiply by the weight function
w and integrate over the domain

Z L d 2u
Z L
AE wdx + axwdx = 0
0 dx 2 0

Apply integration by parts

L du l
Z L
d 2u
Z  
du dw
AE
2
wdx = AE w − AE dx ⇒
0 dx dx 0 0 dx dx
Z L  Z L
d 2u

du du du dw
AE 2 wdx = AE (L)w(L) − AE (0)w(0) − AE dx
0 dx dx dx 0 dx dx

But from BC we have u(0) = 0, AE du

dx
(L)w(L) = Rw(L), therefore the approximate
weak form can be written as
Z L du dw
Z L
AE dx = Rw(L) + axwdx
0 dx dx 0

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 45

Axially Loaded Bar Example
In Galerkin’s method we assume that the approximate solution, u can be expressed as

n
X
u(x) = uj Nj (x)
j=1

w is chosen to be of the same form as the approximate solution (but with arbitrary
coefficients wi ),
n
X
w(x) = wi Ni (x)
i=1

Plug u(x),w(x) into the approximate weak form:

L n n n Z L X n
dNj (x) X dNi (x)
Z X X
AE uj wi dx = R wi Ni (L) + ax wi Ni (x)dx
0 j=1
dx i=1
dx i=1 0 i=1

wi is arbitrary, so the above has to hold ∀ wi :

n Z L  Z L
X dNj (x) dNi (x)
AE dx uj = RNi (L) + axNi (x)dx i = 1...n
j=1 0 dx dx 0

which is a system of n equations that can be solved for the unknown coefficients uj .
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 46
Axially Loaded Bar Example
The matrix form of the previous system can be expressed as

Z L
dNj (x) dNi (x)
Kij uj = fi where Kij = AE dx
0 dx dx
Z L
and fi = RNi (L) + axNi (x)dx
0

Finite Element Solution - using 2 discrete elements, of length h (3 nodes)

From theiso-parametric
 formulation we know the element stiffness matrix
e AE 1 −1
K = h . Assembling the element stiffness matrices we get:
−1 1

e 1
 
K11 K12 0
Ktot =  1
K12 1 2
K22 + K11 2 
K12 ⇒
2 2
0 K12 K22

 
1 −1 0
AE 
Ktot = −1 2 −1 
h
0 −1 1
Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 47
Axially Loaded Bar Example

We also have that the element load vector is

Z L
fi = RNi (L) + axNi (x)dx
0

Expressing the integral in iso-parametric coordinates Ni (ξ) we have:

dξ 2
= , x = N1 (ξ)x1e + N2 (ξ)x2e , ⇒
dx h
Z L
2
fi = R|i=4 + a(N1 (ξ)x1e + N2 (ξ)x2e )Ni (ξ) dξ
0 h

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 48

Axially Loaded Bar Example

After the vectors are formulated we proceed with solving the main equation
Ku = f ⇒ u = K−1 f.
The results are plotted below using 3 elements:

Notice how the approximation is able to track

the displacement u(x), despite the fact that in
reality the solution is a cubic function of x
(remember the analytical solution).
Since the shape functions used, Ni (x), are
linear the
P displacement is approximated as:
u(x) = i Ni (x)ui , where ui corresponds to
nodal displacements.
The strain is then obtained as
du dN
= ⇒= ui where in slide 25 we have
dx dx
dN
defined B = to be the so-called
dx
strain-displacement matrix.

Institute of Structural Engineering Method of Finite Elements II 49