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Teaching aids in hydrology

Second edition

A contribution to the
International Hydrological
Programme

Unesco
Technical Papers in Hydrology 27
In this series:
1. Perennial ice and snow masses. A guide for compilation and assemblage of data for a world inventory
2. Seasonal snow cover. A guide for measurement,compilation and assemblage of data.
3. Variations of existing glaciers. A guide to international practices for their measurement.
4. Antartic glaciology in the International Hydrological Decade.
5. Combined heat, ice and water balances at selected glacier basins. A guide for compilation and
assemblage of data for glacier mass balance measurements.
6. -
Textbooks on hydrology analyses and synoptic tables of contents of selected textbooks.
7. Scientific framework of world water balance.
8. -
Flood studies an international guide for collection and processing of data.
9. Guide to world inventory of sea, lake,and river ice.
10. Curricula and syllabi in hydrology.
11. Teaching aids in hydrology.
12. Ecology of water weeds in the netropics.
13. The teaching of hydrology.
14. Legends for geohydrochemical maps.
15. Research on urban hydrology,vol. 1.
16. Research on urban hydrology,vol. 2.
17. Hydrological problems arising from the development of energy.
18. Urban hydrological modelling and catchment research,international summary.
19. Remote sensing of snow and ice.
20. Predicting effects of power plant once-throughcooling on aquatic systems.
21. Research on urban hydrology,vol. 3.
22. Curricula and syllabi in hydrology.
23. Dispersion and self-purificationof pollutants in surface water systems.
24. Experimental facilities in water resources education.
25. Teaching the systems approach to water resources development.
26. Study of the relationship between water quality and sediment transport.
27. -
Teaching aids in hydrology Second edition.
 A contribution to the
International Hydrological
Programme

Teaching aids in hydrology

,’
I.d.
.

Second edition

A report by IHP Working Group

“Teaching aids in hydrology”
Chairman :U.Maniak,
Federal Republic of Germany
Editor :P.W.Jowitt,
United Kingdom

Unesco
The designations employed and the presentation of the material do not imply
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning
the legal status of any country or territory,or of its authorities, or concerning
the frontiers of any country or territory.

Published in 1985 by the

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
7,place de Fontenoy,75700 Paris
Printed by Presses Universitaires de France,Vendbme
ISBN 92-3-102304-7
OUnesco 1985
Printed in France
Preface

Although the total amount of water on earth is generally assumed to have remained virtually
constant, the rapid growth of population, together with the extension of irrigated agriculture
and industrial development, are stressing the quantity and quality aspects of the natural
system. Because of the increasing problems, man has begun to realize that he can no longer
follow a "use and discard" philosophy - either with water resources or any other natural
resource. As a result, the need for a consistent policy of rational management of water
resources has become evident.
Rational water management, however, should be founded upon a thorough understanding of
water availability and movement. Thus, as a contribution to the solution of the world's water
problems, Unesco, in 1965, began the first world-wide programme of studies of the hydrological
cycle - the International Hydrological Decade (IHD). The research programme was complemented
by a major effort in the field of hydrological education and training. The activities under-
taken during the Decade proved to be of great interest and value to Member States. By the end
of that period, a majority of Unesco's Member States had formed IHD National Committees to
carry out relevant national activities and to participate in regional and international co-
operation within the IHD programme. The knowledge of the world's water resources had substan-
tially improved. Hydrology became widely recognized as an independent professional option and
facilities for the training of hydrologists had been developed.
Conscious of the need to expand upon the efforts initiated during the International Hydro-
logical Decade and following the recommendation of Member States, Unesco, in 1975, launched a
new long-term intergovernmental programme, the International Hydrological Programme (IHP), to
follow the Decade.
Although the IHP is basically a scientific and educational programme, Unesco,has been aware
from the beginning of a need to direct its activities toward the practical solutions of the
world's very real water resources problems. Accordingly, and in line with the recommendations
of the 1977 United Nations Water Conference, the objectives of the International Hydrological
Programme have been gradually expanded in order to cover not only hydrological processes con-
sidered in interrelationship with the environment and human activities, but also the scientific
aspects of multi-purpose utilization and conservation of water resources to meet the needs of
economic and social development. Thus, while maintaining IHP's scientific concept, the objec-
tives have shifted perceptibly towards a multidisciplinary approach to the assessment, planning,
and rational management of water resources.
As part of Unesco's contribution to the objectives of the IHP, two publication series are
issued : "Studies and Reports in Hydrology" and "Technical Papers in Hydrology". In addition to
these publications, and in order to expedite exchange of information in the areas in which it is
most needed, works of a preliminary nature are issued in the form of Technical Documents.
The "Technical Papers in Hydrology" series, to which this volume belongs, is intended to
provide a means for the exchange of information on hydrological techniques and for the coordi-
nation of research and data collection. Unesco uses this series as a means of bringing together
and making known the experience accumulated by hydrologists throughout the world.
Contents

I INTRODUCTION .................................. 1

1.1 Purpose .................................... 1

1.2 Origins .................................... 1
1.3 Scope and limitations ............................. 1
1.4 Content .................................... 2

I1 TEACHINGHYDROLOGY ............................... 3

2.1 Improvement of the learning process ...................... 4

2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
Motivation of learning
Educational technology
- -- .
- - - -
Teaching methods . . . . . . . . .
-- .......................
.......................
.......................
5
5
6
2.2 Organisation of teaching activities ...................... 7
2.2.1 Organisation aspects . . . . . . . ........................ 7
2.2.2 Teaching aspects . . . . . . . . . ....................... 7
2.2.3 Evaluation of the teaching process ....................... 9
2.2.4 Study tours ........... ....................... 10

111 DATA AND DATA MANAGEMENT ............................ 13

3.1 Origin of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 14

3.2 Hydrological instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 19
3.3 Transfer of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 19
3.4 Storing and cataloguing of data ............... ......... 20

IV THE USE OF HYDROLOGICAL MODELLING ....................... 25

4.1 Basic statistical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4.2 Principles of hydrological models ....................... 28
4.2.1 Basic deterministic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

V VISUAL PRGSENTATION OF HYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION - -- ---- - ----

* * * 43

5.1 Graphical representation of hydrological variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.1.1 Coordinate dependent diagrams ......................... 43
5.1.2 Line diagrams, area diagrams and isometric diagrams .............. 52
5.2 Hydrologicalmaps ............................... 56
5.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.2.2 Technical points, cartography ......................... 57
5.2.3 General classification of hydrological maps .................. 58
5.2.4 Classification of fields of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.2.5 Records .................................... 62
5.3 Hydrological mapping and interpretation from aerial photographs . . . . . . . . . 63
5.3.1 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.3.2 Evaluation of results ............................. 65
5.3.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
VI AUXILIARY AIDS AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY ................... 67

6.1 Textbooks .................................. 67

6.2 Visual aids ................................. 67
6.3 Audio-visual aids .............................. 67
6.3.1 Video equipment ............................... 67
6.3.2 Video techniques in the teaching process ................... 68
6.4 Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.4.1 Computational facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.4.2 Computers as teaching aids .......................... 71

REFERENCES ....................................... 73
I. Introduction

1.1 Purpose

This Technical Paper has been prepared by the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) Working
Group on Teaching Aids; it serves several purposes, all of which are geared to the production
of successful technology transfer between teacher and student to the benefit of hydrological
practice and mankind.
The Paper is a companion to other Technical Papers produced by the Working Group and
serves as a guideline to these Papers and the many other publications produced by Unesco in
the field of hydrological education.
It is also intended that this paper should stimulate interest in hydrology and its teaching.
Thus, illustrative examples are interspersed in the text for the purpose of demonstrating how
particular ideas can be conveyed from the teacher to the student. These examples emphasise the
benefit of appropriate didactic tools, accompanying more traditional teaching methods and making
use of the panoply of hydrological models.
The parallel between the evaluation and presentation of hydrological information in both
practice and teaching is also emphasised and dealt with at some length. The collection,
processing and dissemination of hydrological information is aast against the requirements of
hydrometry, statistics, hydraulic/hydrological models, systems analysis etc. Where possible,
guidelines for teaching and practice are outlined.
A curricular description of the basic hydrological sciences (mathematics, physics,
chemistry, computer science, the biological and earth sciences) is not attempted within this
Paper but can be found in the relevant Unesco publications.

1.2 Origins

The Council of the International Hydrological Decade (IHD) initiated the steps which led to
this publication when it established the Working Group on Education and Training. This Group
produced the first version of the Unesco publication 'Teaching Aids in Hydrology'. When this
went out of print the Intergovernmental Council of the IHP declined to reprint it and decided
instead to replace it with a more up-to-date publication.
The IHP Working Group on Teaching Aids was entrusted with this task and for this purpose
established a team of Authors consisting of Messrs Maniak (Chairman), Gilbrich, Jowitt, Kovsr,
Lecher and Lindh. Mr Meijerink of the Netherlands contributed the material on photohydrologi-
cal mapping and interpretation. The team of Authors held three sessions between 1979 and 1981.
The Federal Republic of Germany financed additional meetings and also the sheet of the
International Hydrogeological Map of Europe annexed to this report.

1.3 Scope and Limitations

Hydrology is both a quantitative and qualitative science; it is multidisciplinary. In this

Paper attention is concentrated on the quantitative aspects in the sense that qualitative
methods are discussed only where they have a direct influence on the understanding of
particular models of hydrological behaviour. Thus descriptive hydrology as part of the
earth sciences is broached only to the extent necessary to understand the water cycle and the
hydrological processes within it. Topics which, traditionally at least, have not been
regarded within the mainstream of hydrology are given only cursory attention. Water quality,

1
for example, is covered by several other Unesco publications. The hydrologist is usually just
a part of an interdisciplinary team concerned with problems in which water is the integrating
feature. It is necessary that the hydrologist is aware of the role played by international
organisations such as WMO, WHO, FAO and Unesco in specific parts of the water cycle.

1.4 Content

Despite the fact the hydrological character, level of water resource development and data
availability range from region to region, the methods of water resource planning and operat-
ion, in which teaching has to be expressed, enjoy a common basis. Understanding the hydrology
of an area and the resolution of its water resources problems is achieved by a progression from
data reduction, statistical analysis, hydrological modelling and systems analysis. Correspond-
ing to this is the requirement for the hydrologist to have equal facility with hand/graphical
calculation methods and more sophisticated computer-orientated techniques. It is also vital
for the hydrologist to understand how the principles of hydrology are connected and manifest
within the hydrological cycle. This Paper is intended to reflect all of these aspects,
pointing out the prerequisites necessary for the study of applied hydrology; it is meant to be
a teaching aid to inspire both teacher and student and not merely a learning aid for the sole
benefit of the student.
Chapter 2 describes the philosophy of hydrological teaching. Chapter 3 discusses data and
data management and its relevance and availability for the teaching process. The role of hydro-
logical modelling is detailed in Chapter 4. An important aspect of hydrological teaching,
learning and practice is the effective communication of hydrological information in various
visual forms and so Chapter 5 describes at some length the variety of visual presentation meth-
ods, ranging from simple graphical procedures to the highly sophisticated methods of photo-
hydrology and hydrological map interpretation. Finally, Chapter 6 describes the role of
auxiliary teaching aids and educational technology.

2
11. Teaching hydrology

Education undoubtedly plays a most important role in the advancement of our capabilities to
resolve hydrological problems. Earlier teaching methods in hydrology and water resources
management mostly contained elements of the so called 'component approach' - describing single
hydrological components in relative isolation. The present advanced teaching methods in
hydrology should include these components within the systems approach, integrating the mutual
interactions between various hydrological processes; the multidisciplinary character of modern,
advanced hydrology must be stressed.
Hydrological training should be broad enough to convey sufficient knowledge not only of
the natural sciences but also of the social sciences, enabling the hydrologists to communicate
effectively in an interdisciplinary environment. The hydrologist should have a sound knowledge
of modern operational mathematics; he should have basic training in operations research,
systems analysis, statistics and probability, computer technology and management science.
In completing this Technical Paper, the Team of Authors have made some use of the ideas
of experts published in the earlier publication, 'Teaching Aids in Hydrology' (Unesco, 1972a),
as well as material published in the Proceedings of the International Seminar on Water Resources
Education, Unesco/IWRA, 1975), Papers on the International Workshop on Hydrological Education,
(CSVH, 19811, and last but not least, the authors' own experience.
Whilst the teaching aspects have been dealt with above, aspects of the transfer of know-
ledge are mentioned here for completeness and to draw attention to the fact that a definite
strategy is needed. The successful use of water resources depends on the level of investment,
the effectiveness of investments and the selection and application of appropriate technologies.
The constraints which will be faced are financial, the availability of industrial infrastract-
ure and the availability of trained and motivated manpower. Financial and infrastructure
constraints can often be overcome by the use of appropriate technology combined with proper
education, training and motivation. Thus, the training and motivation of persons working in
the field of water is, without doubt, the most important topic to be considered in meeting the
goals of the IHP. That is to say, even if adequate funds are made available, the efforts can-
not be successful without proper education, training and motivation.
The transfer of knowledge subsumes all of the sub-topics such as the training of experts,
education, transfer of information, and the preparation of teaching materials and instructional
manuals. In other words, it is an hbrella term which describes at the most general level the
objectives of the IHP. Progress in this transfer of knowledge has been substantial in recent
years and shows what can be accomplished using modern communications technologies as opposed to
old methods of teaching. By combining these modern technologies with well-planned training at
the local level, it is believed that the problems of education and training can be overcome with
great benefits for the achievement of the goals of IHP.
It is important to recognise the different rates of development associated with education
in general, hydrological science, educational technology, and the capability to make use of
information (see Figure 2.1).
The figure tries to show that:
a. the hydrological sciences are still developing and no upper limit can be envisaged;
b. the art of teaching is older than the hydrological sciences but has been developing SO
slowly that, at some point, hydrological education will no longer be able to cope with
all the knowledge available;
C - the need for transferring hydrological knowledge to developing countries became apparent
when they gained independence; technology transfer evolved slowly in the beginning;
nowadays communication technology is developing more rapidly than science so that more
information can be transferred that can be absorbed;

3
 c I

T
time
-
Fig. 2.1 - Development of education and science in hydrology.

d.
although the developing countries have increased their capability to receive and digest
more information, they cannot yet cope with the increase in information and the gap becomes
ever wider and wider.
The task of the future will be to harmonise the trends visualised in the four lines of
the graph and in particular, to increase the capability of the developing countries to make
use of the information at their disposal.

2.1 Improvement of the Learning Process

The aim of all teaching/learning activities is to improve the state of knowledge and level of
understanding, though it is recognised that 'Teaching should be intended to promote learning by
an individual, rather than doing something to an individual' (Unesco/IWFW, 1975).
When the teacher is the source of information, and the student is the object of the
teacher's influence, then it is possible to say that relations shown in Figure 2.2 express
their mutual abilities to make themselves understood. Communication is the transfer of a
message from one to another. Feedback is a secondary message indicating how well the first
message was understood (Unesco/IWRA, 1975).
Deliberating over the fundamental issue of how to improve the learning process, it is
important to consider those factors which substantially affect the degree of success of the
teaching process:
a. motivation of learning
b. education technology
c. teaching methods

[f

So~~cE
.
IN FORMATI ON
H COMMUNICATION
r

EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
I -[ 1 RECFIoPJ
INFORMATION

Fig. 2.2 - Diagram of the learning process.

4
2.1.1 Motivation of Learning

One of the most important roles of the teacher is to inspire and motivate the student to
learn. The relevance of motivation to learning must not be overlooked. First of all, i't is
important to emphasise the professional motives in the teaching of hydrology compared with
other disciplines. From the teaching point of view, the professional interest of civil
engineering students is different from that of pure science students. Obtaining good grades,
avoiding failure and satisfying sponsors are always present as partial motives in teaching
institutions, but as primary motives these should be replaced by more realistic ones which
link the learning activity to potential career success. Even so, students must have frequent
opportunities to experience success in learning.
In seeking guidelines for the development of effective education, the starting point is to
realise the following important factors in a teaching /learning process (Unesco/IWRA, 1975).
- Repetition - Repetition is an important factor in the learning of information and skills.
- concentration - Concentration of the student is necessary to learning and a situation must
be provided such that information is presented when the student is alert and attentive.
- Association - Association of new material with other concepts known to the student is an
important aid to learning. Few people have the capacity to remember or understand facts
and concepts that are unrelated to some previous knowledge.
- Unit Steps- Unit steps presented in a structured sequence have been found effective. The
size of the unit depends on the type of material studied and on the intellectual capacity
of the ztudent.
- Use of a communication method appropriate to the objective- A complex subject requires a
variety of learning activities and the same method of communication cannot be effective
for all aspects of the subject. It would be a waste of time to lecture students on how
to develop laboratory skills which can only be developed by practising them. Clearly
defined course objectives give important guidance to the choice of the learning activities
for each part of the course.
- Use of a multiplicity of approaches - People differ in their response to different
approaches to a subject. With the current emphasis on technology in education there is an
unfortunate tendency to seize upon one device and use it to the exclusion of all others.
Some people may learn best through a lecture approach, some through a video approach, and
others through workshops or laboratories. It seems desirable that a variety of approaches
be available so that students will have an opportunity to respond to the approach that most
suits them.

2.1.2 Educational Technology

The principal communication medium, and so far the most efficient source of information
available at any time to the students, is textbooks and reference books dealing with various
topics in hydrology (see section 6.1).
The use of other communication media resulting from rapid technological advances is being
incorporated into the teaching of hydrology. These include:
- films
- slide and overhead projection
- closed circuit TV
- audio techniques
- interactive computer methods etc.
Education technology is not only a set of communication media and instruments but 'the
organised design and implementation of the learning system, taking advantage of, h t not ex-
pecting miracles from, modern communication methods, visual aids, classroom organisation and
teaching methods I . (Unesco/IWRA, 1975) .
The choice of modern teaching methods must be well received, taking into consideration the
subject and the purpose of the teaching. The follodng two tests have bePn proposed to deter-
mine whether or not any advanced educational technology should be used (Unesco/IWRA, 1975):
- the teaching/learning task to be performed should be essential to the course of instruction
to which it is applied;
- the task could not be performed as well as , if at all, by the students without the tech -
nology considered.
The application of these criteria will restrict the use of novel teaching methods to
situations where they are of real benefit. Experience has shown that teaching efficiency is
not always enhanced by the use of the most advanced educational technology. A commonsense
appraisal of the type and complexity of the problem to be discussed and the standard of the

5
students will often suggest the most appropriate teaching medium. However, it is possible to
recommend quite unequivocally, extensive use of slides, overhead projection and films. Over-
head projection is a common and effective aid in teaching technology.

2.1.3 Teaching Methods

The starting point for considering the teaching methods used in hydrology should be a clear
determination of the learning objectives; a statement of these objectives makes it possible to
assess the efficiency of the learning process and helps the students to monitor their own
progress.
A whole host of existing methods share a common goal: to use the best means in an accept-
able time to help the student comprehend the subject matter. The teaching methods used in
hydrology are either conventional (based on classical learning psychology) or use various
advanced experimental teaching methods. These will be outlined fuxther here.
Regardless of the categories of education (undergraduate,postgraduate or post-experience
studies), the common form of study consists of lectures, exercises and projects, group discuss-
ions and tutorials. Lecture organisation is primarily influenced by the number of students, the
subject matter, and the technical facilities available in the lecture room. A well-planned and
well-delivered series of lectures should offer the student not merely the essential knowledge,
but a modification of what they find in their textbooks; when the lectures touch upon recent
developments, they should serve as a source of stimulation and inspiration.
Conventional lectures should make adequate use of visual teaching techniques (Section 6.2).
A drawback here is that lectures usually do not allow for two-way communication or continuity of
interaction. Compared to other forms of teaching, the degree of student activity in lectthres is
usually very low. Exercises, group discussions, workshops, seminars and so on allow far more
active forms of student participation in the teaching/learning process. The main objective of
these activities is to encourage the students to identify the problems and recommend their
solution. Such working sessions provide an opportunity for two-way communication and good
learning experience. They undoubtedly require careful preparation and well-trained leaders.
The value of group discussion is well-proven, involving active student participation and
with the advantages of good feedback between the teacher and his students. According to the
authors' experience, the optimum number of students for a group discussion is usually between
six and ten.
The teaching procedures used during exercises and workshops will again depend on the type
of tasks to be undertaken. However, the logical strucbure should grow from the same base:
a. definition of the problem;
b. identification of the possible solutions
C. choice of the optimum solution
d. implementation of the solution
e. solution assessment and discussion
Audio-tutorial approaches are detailed in Unesco/IWRA, 1975 and are briefly reviewed here.
'The program of learning should be organised in such a way that the students can proceed
at their own pace, filling in gaps in their background information and omitting the portions
which they have covered at some previous time. It should make use of every educational device
available and attempt to align the exposure to these learning experiences in a sequence which
will be most effective and efficient. The kind, the number, and nature of the devices involved
will be dependent on the nature of the subject matter under consideration.
In the audio-tutorial system,the instructor's voice is available to the student to direct
and supplement his study effort. This does not mean that a taped lecture is given. It refers
to an audio programming of learning experiences, logically sequenced to produce the most effect-
ive student response. Each study activity has been designed to provide information or a skill
leading to a proper performance of the next activity or else to build on the foundation of
knowledge previously laid. The overall set of integrated experiences includes lectures,
reading of test or other appropriate material, making observations of demonstration set-ups,
doing experiments, watching movies, and/or any other appropriate activities helpful in under-
standing the subject matter.'
A particularly well-structured system of learning is the Personalised System of Instruction
(PSI) method summarised in Unesco/IWRA (1975). To implement the PSI method, course material is
divided into units, each containing a reading assignment, study questions, references, study
problems and any necessary introductory or explanatory material. The student studies the units
sequentially at the rate, time and place he prefers.
The basic features of the PSI method are:
a, Self-pacing, which permits a student to move through the course at a speed commensurate
with his ability and other demands upon his time.

6
b. The unit-satisfaction requirement for advance, which lets the student go ahead to new
material only after demonstrating mastery of that which preceded.
C. The use of lectures as vehicles of motivation, rather than sources of critical information.
d. The related strass upon the written word in teacher-student communication.
e. The use of proctors (tutors), which permits repeated testing, immediate assessment, almost
unavoidable tutoring, and a marked enhancement of the personal-social aspect of the
education process.
This system of instruction has been used in junior and senior level courses in some
universities with great success, as judged by student learning, motivation and enjoyment.
It is believed that the personalised system of instruction is successful because it is
built upon established principles of learning theory. Examples of both the special teaching
methods mentioned above and experience with their application are given in the literature
(Unesco/IWRA, 1975).
A common goal of all these methods is improving the learning atmosphere for the students,
but it is as well to remember that regardless of all the effort towards designed learning
systems, communications technology and behavioural motivation, one should not overlook the
personal influence of an outstanding teacher (Unesco/IWRA, 1975).

2.2 organisation of Teaching Activities

2.2.1 Organisation Aspects

Teaching activities in hydrology and water resources may be classified according to:
a. the form used in the transfer of information
b. educational status of the student.
The commonly accepted methods of direct transfer of knowledge include:
- university and college level training, either for degree or non-degree programmes
- short courses, for example domestic national courses oriented to specific needs, inter-
national and regional courses
seminars
-- conferences
study tours
- workshops
- technical assistance programmes
- practical or field training.
Three categories of teaching of hydrology are considered which relate to the status of the
student, i.e. undergraduate, postgraduate and professional training/post-experience studies.
However, few universities offer education leading to a first degree in hydrology. In most in-
stitutions hydrology is taught as a subsidiary subject within comprehensive courses such as:
- civil engineering
- forestry and agricultural engineering
- geology
- geography
As a result the multidisciplinary character and complex nature of hydrology is often
suppressed. In postgraduate teaching, many universities or colleges offer courses leading to a
Master of Sciences degree, or other diploma in hydrology. In these courses, the participants
are taught the modern analytical methods used in the solution of hydrological and water
resources problems and emphasis is placed on the interdisciplinary character of hydrology.
In addition, Unesco and several other international organisations sponsor special post-
graduate courses in hydrology, which are organised by universities and other educational
establishments. The participants are awarded either a diploma or certificate of attendance on
the basis of their satisfactory progress.
There are also universities and various institutes which offer post-experience courses or
workshop facilities for re-training or advanced education in the professions. Educational
programmes in hydrology require cooperation with various research and operational institutes and
outside agencies. Such cooperation can be of particular value in the professional development
of the students.

2.2.2 Teaching Aspects

A comprehensive survey of teaching activities promoting learning was given by Unesco (1972a) and
is presented in Table 2.1. The table can be used to:
- show the individual forms of teaching/learning process in the light of an assessment of
the possibilities of their use as various teaching aids.

7
3lassification Method

L a* Computer assisted learning

b* Teaching machines and programmed learning

2 a* Lecturing in class
b* Slides and overhead projection
C* Films and film loops
d* Laboratory and field demonstration
e* Diagrams and charts

3a Classroom exercises
b Classroom discussion
C* Laboratory exercises
a* Field exercises
e* Field trips
f Reporting by students on special topics
g Tutorials

1 a* Study of textbooks and lecture notes

b* Study of reference books

ja Homework assignments
b* Solution of problems by students using computational
facilities (in a computer centre)
C* Field and/or laboratory projects carried out by students

5 a* Theoretical research
b* Laboratory research
C* Field research

* - this method may be thought of a teaching aid applicable to some aspects of teaching activity
Table 2.1 : Methods to promote learning (modified after Unesco/IWRA, 1975)

- identify those forms of teaching which require more initiative and self-direction from the
learner (listed towards the bottom of the table).
- show the relative effort required of teacher and student. Some forms of teadhing place
increasing requirements on the preparation and planning of the teaching by the teacher
while reducing the requirements on the initiative and activity of the learner.
The selection and application of a particular teaching method will first of all depend on
the subject or problem and the objective being addressed. It also depends on the students,
their previous theoretical or practical foundations, knowledge etc. The choice is also affected
by the technical equipment and the facilities available in the lecture room.
The methods included in the table under classification 1 are those used increasingly in the
teaching of hydrology. They involve a form of interaction with the computer by way of a terminal
located in the lecture room. Shown on the display are simulations of some hydrological processes
and their changes resulting from varying the process parameters (Nemec, 1972).
The use of these methods is possible only after thorough teacher preparation and mainly
depends on both the available technical facilities and on the subject matter.
Classification 2 includes those activities which take place mostly in a classroom and
which are controlled directly by the teacher. According to the scope and depth of the matter
taught, lectures may be divided into:
- introductorylectures
- main lectures
- application lectures
Introductory lectures relate the subject-matter to previous lectures and to other subjects.
The objectives are formulated and the simple steps to achieve them are illustrated. Main
lectures should be the means of motivation for personal study. They should contain the mater-
ial for solving problems. These lectures have also to comprise an assessment of the subject
matter including all important aspects. The application lectures represent the advanced

8
teaching process and require good co-operation with the students. Previous knowledge is
necessary to solve the more comprehensive problems and to outline the solution to them. These
lectures place the acquired knowledge in context so that structured knowledge aimed at specific
problems is obtained. Case studies showing the students the application of basic theory as
well as the methodology for problem solving are also sometimes given. The problem can be
resolved later, either in exercises, individually at home, or in a computer centre.
Slides and overhead projection are very effective lecturing aids;overhead projection is
more convenient than slides; overhead transparencies are more easily made, updated, supple-
mented and annotated during the lectures. Films have been promoted successfully as teaching
aids for many years and can be used to show students complex or unusual events which they nor-
mally would not have the opportunity to see otherwise.
Laboratory and field demonstrations may be shown either directly or on film. Special la-
boratory apparatus has been made for teaching purposes. Demonstration equipment is used for
quantitative and qualitative studies of various hydrological phenomena (Unesco/IWRA, 1975).
Diagrams and charts of plotted information enhance retention by a student. Graphical
procedures based on the systems approach, or flowcharts explaining the algorithm of a discussed
problem are indispensable teaching aids, especially in computational hydrology.
The activities classified under item 3 of the table comprise various forms of the teaching/
learning process requiring more or less the same contribution from students and teachers alike.
In general, these activities are aimed at expanding the individual work of students.
Classification 4, incorporating textbook and reference book study, is undoubtedly the
principal way of acquiring information and consolidating knowledge. This form is individual-
istic; the method of study of printed (or written) material depends on the individual student,
his study habits and capabilities. It is important that the sought information is available
whenever required. Often it becomes important to compare information or approaches in order to
understand the complex relationships between the fields of study.
Classification 5, the assignment of problems to be done by students individually as home-
work, is widely used with good results by many teaching institutions. The nature of the pro-
blems assigned as homework depends on the subject-matter of the course and may range from very
simple examples to complex problems taken from professional practice. Students are often given
problems to be solved individually with the use of a computer. Program and data inputs to the
computer are undertaken in a variety of ways:
- batch reception of a deck of cards,
- user-operated card reader facility,
- interactively from a terminal.
Computerised problem-solving not only enhances the knowledge of students in the field of hydro-
logy and related subjects but also stimulates their logical thinking in algorithm design and
improves facility in computer programming.
The nature of hydrology itself also requires field and laboratory projects that can be
performed by students. These establish the link between theory and practice. The main object-
ive of field and laboratory studies is to acquaint students with the operation and maintenance
of instruments and evaluation of experiments.
Classification 6 (research) can usually only be allocated to able students with special
interest in the subject. For this reason it does not rate as a widely used method for teaching
purposes.
Naturally, any teaching method must be accompanied by feedback and the teacher must judge
the student's ability to grasp the subject-mattex. This control takes the form of tests,
examinations and/or discussion of reports.
An outline of a typical postgraduate course is given in Figure 2.3 (CSVH, 1981). TWO
phases of the study process are distinguished:
a. acquisition of the necessary special knowledge of the discipline;
b. demonstration of the acquired knowledge, application of the subject-matter in practical
examples, discussion within a team.
The basic elements of this study plan are those explained in the above text. The design of
the teaching/learning process is very general and may serve as a basis for the determination of
teaching plans for postgraduate hydrological courses.

2.2.3 Evaluation of the Teaching Process

The previous text shows that it is often rather difficult to select an appropriate teaching
method to match the hydrological topic under discussion, the level of understanding of previous
topics and the facilities in the teaching rooms and laboratories.
It is possible though to state the general principles involved in the selection of teaching
methods which allow students to achieve the expected results. Undoubtedly undergraduate and

9
 1. Phase (Acquisition) 2. Phase (Demonstration o f proficiency, argumentation
t- I -

E E
ML
W AL EN
E - E sp -
Distribution o f
course material,
references, study (a) independent problem solving
and design work
problems, t i m e (b) team work
schedule (productive personnel study)

IL introductory 1 ecture TT tutoring, testing, supervision

ML main lecture E exercises
AL application lecture W workshops
RT readiness test SP solving o f problems
0 defence o f the paper o r design C consultation
APS acquisition by personal study EN examination

Fig. 2.3 - General outline of the teaching/learning process (Modified after Dyck in CSVH, 1981).

postgraduate courses should both stimulate and guide students in independent work and study.
The teaching process should be controlled so as to motivate and develop creative ability. In
the planning and management of students' independent work, it is important to set out specific
and appropriate objectives and related tasks, time schedules and the methods of supervision.
The PSI method outlined earlier has produced good results but not without some justified
reservations, especially with regard to the keeping of a time schedule within a syllabus and
the confusion between the roles of tutors and lecturers. Nonetheless the system may be
recommended for application with the reservation that the study tasks are well-defined in terms
of both time and structure.
Each topic or sub-topic should be accompanied by an indication of the purpose of the study
unit, the level of prior knowledge required for its completion, a suggested study procedure and
reference list, some means of self-assessment and, finally, an indication of how the lecturer
will review and control the student's progress.

2.2.4 Study Tours

Hydrological education is incomplete without study tours and field trips. These activities
enable students to see various structures and processes in natural and existing conditions.
The main aims of the hydrologically oriented study tour should be to:
- acquaint students with new techniques and recent developments in hydrology at research
institutions and to see the results of research work and field experiments;
- make students familiar with various aspects of the organisation of the hydrological
services and their normal field practices;
- show the multiple facets of water use by visiting various water resources structures and
projects and to emphasise the interdisciplinary character of hydrology;
- make personal contacts promoting the exchange of practical experience, etc.
The enormous advantage of study tours is the opportunity to observe the interrelationship
of hydrological practice and research, and to combine them with personal experience. On the
other hand, in organising such study tours, the relatively high costs and long distances to be
covered must be balanced against the educational benefits. In the planning of a study tour
programme, the following aspects should not be neglected:
- professional orientation of the participants relative to the course;
- the uniqueness or representativeness of the site or location to be visited;
- interconnection of theoretical aspects in lecture courses with the practical applications;
- duration of the study tour, distances to be travelled, and costs.

10
 Previous experience from field trips generally shows that participants are more receptive
during a shorter trip (one or a few days only). An appropriate daily programme is equally
important. In this respect, there can be no general advice on how field trips should be
organised, but a realistic time schedule is a principal prerequisite for the success of any
study tour or field trip.
The benefit of study tours can be enhanced when the participants play an active plart, as
they should in any form of teaching/learning. A well-planned tour with clearly stated object-
ives, together with a well-defined itinerary and time schedule(given to the participants in
advance) brings positive results. The benefits are further increased if the participants
write a report discussing the activities and hydrological problems of the sites visited.

11
111. Data and data management

The efficient and economic planning of water resources influences all aspects of national
development. Satisfactory solutions to many water resources problems require readily access-
ible and reliable observational data on the elements of the hydrological cycle and related
factors. The collection, transfer and storage of such data is essential in providing inform-
ation for developing and managing water resources.
Table 3.1 gives the primary use of hydrological data for various water management projects.
This table shows the basic need for relevant data for the most frequent cases to be treated and
resolved in water resources management. Figure 3.1 shows how the relative importance of
different types of data may change with the degree of development of the country.

Table 3.1 : Primary use of hydroloqical data in particular water management projects

13
 "
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

Fig. 3.1 - The changing pattern of data use for a developed country from 1928 to 1969.
(After Unesco, 1972 C).

The growing significance of water resources management and planning makes it imperative to
design and use more ingenious systems for the collection, transmission and processing of
hydrological data. An example of such a sophisticated data system is given in Figure 3.2
(Unesco, 1972~). The data acquisition comprment of such a system presents two aspects: the
network design and the instrumentation/sensor equipment. Both these aspects form the basic
elements of the whole system and therefore should be kept at an interrelated technical level.
Temporary data logging is usually a component of the instrumentation in the form of a field
logger. It should be noted that the sensor and the local field logger often cannot be consider-
ed separately from the transmission (communication) system. The following elements of both
components must be considered (Nemec, 1972):

Sensors: physical element-sensing units, their range and accuracy, timing of observation
and transmission, display, power supply
output I digital (paper or magnetic tape), analogue (voltage, graphical, visual
Transmission: automatic or non-automatic

The processing and dissemination phases should be related and will often depend on a
particular computer, its hardware and software system.
Mention should be made of the efforts undertaken by the World Meteorological Organisation
within the framework of the HOMS project (Hydrological Operational Multipurpose Subprogramme),
which is a uniform proceduxe 'providing an international systematic framework for the integrat-
ion of the many techniques and procedures in the collection and processing of hydrological data
for use in water resources systems' (WMO, 1981).

3.1 Origin of Data

Data are required to define the input and output from the hydrological system. In addition,
the analysis and prediction of the response of a catchment to an input requires information on
its physical characteristics, including relevant human influences.
It is not the purpose of this section to describe the observational procedures applied in
the collection of basic and special hydrological data; these instructions are treated exhaust-
ively by the World Meteorological Organisation ( W O , 1971b).
Here, in line with the overall aim of the present treatise, the task is rather to place
these problems within the context of "aids for teachina data manaaement".

14
 EXPLANATION
DATA F L O W
I Cornrnuniation)
-----
PLANNING A N D
PROGRAMMING

REOUCTION A R E A OF M U T U A L
SYNTHESIS I N T E R E S T TO THE DATA
'A, m ANALYSIS L
'A , PROCESSING A N D DATA
ACQUISITION ACTIVITIES

RESOURCE EVALUATION
R E S O U R C E DEVELOPMENT
RESOURCE M A N A G E M E N T

COMMUNI CAT1 O N DI SSE M IN AT10N

RADIO FlJBLl CAT1 O N
MICROWAVE MlCROFl LM
T E L E PH 0NE DIGITAL
TELEGRAPH OUTPUT
MAIL

Fig. 3.2 - Diagram of the automatic data system. (After Unesco, 1972 c)

The appropriate classification of data depends on its intended purpose. In the teaching
and modelling of hydrological processes it is often convenient to separate the data into those
which measure the catchment inputs and outputs, the catchment's physical characteristics, and
those that determine the nature and rate of processes within it.
Typical examples of the type of information contained within each classification are shown
in Table 3.2 (Fleming, 1975).

Class 1: Hydrological and Meteorological Data monitor the changes in water mass and energy in
the atmosphere, land and the sea. These include precipitation, evaporation, river stage and
discharge, groundwater levels, radiation, temperature, air kmmidity, vapour pressure, wind
speed and direction, cloud cover, sediment transport, ice phenomena, etc. Some of the data
may come from stations in networks set up to meet the daily needs of hydrological forecasting
and water management.
Since hydrological processes, like all natural processes, are evolutionary, any selected
sampling interval should be consistent with the time variability of the individual processes
and take into consideration the purpose of the acquired data. For example, pan evaporation rate
may be satisEactorily measured on daily interval. However, runoff measurement from a small
mountainous catchment will, most probably, require streamflow measurement at one-hour time
intervals, or less, in order to provide adequate information on the response.
Quantitative and qualitative properties of the measured hydrological and meteorological
data are also influenced by the density of the observation network. Heterogeneity of physio-
graphical conditions, together with the wide ranae of various water resources problems to be

15
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17
solved, render impossible the design of a universally valid observation network, especially for
precipitation and streamflow. Furthermore it is now commonly accepted that any theoretical app-
roach must be supplemented by an element of judgement (WM0,1972). In general, stations of such
Observation networks should be located so that the collected data will be useful in developing re-
lations between the hydrological and meteorological factors, and the significant physical para-
meters such as the slope, elevation, morphology, geology, land use and soil types. The minimum
density of both precipitation and streamflow networks are indicated in the literature (WM0,1972).

Class 2: Physiographical Parameters consist of information representing the physiographical

conditions of the river basin and which can be defined analytically or in geometric terms.
These data are required to define the retention characteristics of a catchment. Surveying the
catchment to define the existing physical features of area, slope, drainage, network, vegetation,
etc. will provide information on factors affecting its response. These data are incorporated
into equations for calculating the rate at which water moves from the land surface. Table 3.2
shows examples of the physical parameters, which can be grouped as follows (Fleming, 1975):
- land surface
- natural drainage channel network
- urban drainage channel network
- reservoirs

Class 3: Process Parameters consist of information related to the processes influencing the
movement and distribution of water in the land phase of the hydrological cycle. In many cases
the data are difficult or impracticable to measure directly and have to be determined indirectly
from other data. They represent the rates at which individual processes of the hydrological
cycle take place (interception, infiltration, interflow, percolation and groundwater flow).
They may be monitored at various points but integral values for a non-homogeneous catchment may
be established only with the use of more complicated and advanced simulation techniques. Some
examples of process parameters are shown in Table 3.2.
The collection and processing of all three groups of data using a sophisticated automatic
system is shown in diagrammatic form in Figure 3.3
In all data handling operations it is necessary to consider and monitor data quality.
Erroneous data can lead to errors of judgement or even cast doubt on inferences drawn from the
more reliable parts of the record. In order to minimize sources of errors in sets of data
collected from a network of stations, it is necessary to maintain (WMO, 1974):
- proper instrumentation and network design
- care in observation
- quality control in data processing
- data processing schedules.

-station
----identification
------
time signal
storage I - ’
periodic

1 continuous

ondemand
-
~
1
data proces-
sing by
com pu ter
I

process parameter
parameters identification
t feed back

process
analysis

Fig. 3.3 - Block diagram of the data system based on an automatic hydrometeorological station.

18
3.2 Hydrological Instruments

The hydrological equtpment listed fn Table 3.3 can be employed as a teaching aid in the classroom,
the laboratory or in practical studies. Climate stations, lysimeters, flow measuring structures
can usually be visited on study tours and are invaluable aids to teaching. Details of the
particular instruments and observation techniques are given in the forthcoming Unesco publication
'Experimental Facilities in Water Resources Education'. The application of this equipment for
different hydrological observations is described in many manuals and textbooks on hydrometry.
In order to obtain comparable observations most of the observation techniques and types of
instruments are standardised. Thus, the degree of instruction in instrumentation depends on the
needs of the country and will reflect climatic conditions.
The accuracy, usefulness and operation of current meters, flumes weirs etc. is best
appreciated by first-hand experience, just as the problems of sediment transport and sediment
sampling are more easily understood by experimentation on a laboratory flume.

3.3 Transfer of Data

It is not always possible in the classroom to show the full spectrum of instrumentation, data
collection and transfer. Thus, the demonstration of a measurement including data transfer and
processing should be restricted to important hydrological variables, e.g. stage, discharge,
rain and climatological data. By visiting meteorological stations and gauging stations, the
major facets of data collection, transmission and storage can be appreciated. Experimental
basins for water budget studies, erosion problems etc., together with lysimeters and further
special hydrological equipment, should be visited either within the regular courses or occasion-
ally during a study tour. An appreciation of measurement methods in the field can be supplement-
ed by films, slides etc., in the classroom. It is of mutual benefit for the student and/or
technician if he becomes well acquainted with the handling of the instruments, data collection
and processing. This fieLd-oriented teaching is an important link between hydrometry and use of
hydrological data.
The consequences of data loss or corruption through systematic or occasional errors in the
instrumentation or transmission systems should be emphasised, and where possible can be demon=
strated by appropriate instruction in the field.
Many hydrological networks have developed in response to particular local problems, without
taking into account future data requirements. Although an immense amount of hydrometeorological
data has been accumulated over the years, the quality, quantity and availability of hydrological
data is generally inadequate for present development needs and particularly so for forecasting.
The transfer and processing of data can be used as a teaching aid if it is considered as the
step from pure hydrometry to the quantitative description of the hydrological problems under
study. In this figurative sense, the hydrological stations may be broadly classified in the
following four categories (WMO, 1973):
a. Non-recording stations, where manual observations are made occasionally or during selected
time intervals.
b. Automatic hydrological observing stations, at which instruments make and record the observ-
ations automatically.
c. Telemetering hydrolgical observing stations, where instruments make and transmit the
observation automatically without recording them.
d. Telemetering automatic observing stations, at which instruments make, record and transmit
the observations automatically to the receiving centre.
Stations in each of these categories are described in numerous textbooks on hydrometry or
hydrology and a variety of illustrative examples on the design and operation of hydrological
networks, standards of observations, data quality control etc. is given in several manuals and
guides (WMO, 1971b, 1974).
The type of data required for a particular hydrological model obviously depends on the model
itself and its purpose. It is beneficial to the student if the acquisition, selection and
evaluation of data forms a part of the learning process.
The transmission of hydrological data depends on the demand of the user and may become
quite sophisticated (Figure 3.4). In general, the factors affecting the choice of a trans-
mission system are the speed with which data are required (e.g. for planning or operational
purposes) and the accessibility of the measurement site; transmission techniques are becoming
important as special teaching aids if analogue or digital transmission is used together with
digital computers for the evaluation of (laboratory ) experiments. This on-line data processing
requires checking of the data for completeness, correctness, errors etc.

19
 -
transmission of data by

C
Interrogation of outomat ic a Ily C
.-
+
recording instruments at
(regular)time intervals by 2
Central Office L
.-c
T
C
C

Automatically transmitted messages JI C

c
C
'c

Instantaneous
observations
Observations at spe
cified unit of change
- Observations at pre
determined time inter-
- L
C
+
6
iC

I Automatic transmission of continuous data I C

C
.-
U
C
Analogue trans - Analogue trans - Digital transmission 2
mission by wire mission with frequency - 1.
C

Fig. 3.4 - Data transmission systems.

3.4 Storina and Cataloauina of Data

Standardised procedures for storing and cataloguing of meteorological data have been recommended
internationally (WMO, 1973). Data banks of hydrological data are available in many countries.
The compilation of the data depends on the particular needs of the country, which is why inter-
national standards for the compilation of hydrological data are not widely practised. Hydrolog-
ical data may also be available at regional or national hydrological agencies/centres; national
statistical bureaux or information centres may also provide hydrological data.
Data stored in data banks will be fully corrected and it is seldom possible to reconstruct
raw data or autographic records. Autographic records are useful in the early stages of a study
but effective use of data, both in the class and in practice, really requires data in computer
compatible form; hard copies or microfilms are inadequate and time-consuming substitutes. The
data stored at a bank must be available for quick, effective and economic retrieval and analysis.
In view of the fairly high costs of software development and data collection, most data banks
serve the following objectives:
- to standardise and make accessible the data derived from planning, construction and operat-
ion of water resources systems, from control and administration etc.
- to integrate the actual collection of statistical and related data in a homogeneous form,
to prevent misuse of 'confidential' data.
The developing objectives are:
- to expand and improve existing data files through the collection of complementary data
- to organise new data files and homogeneous partial data bank systems for special applicat-
ions
- to include these partial data systems within completely integrated water resources data
banks.

20
 The state of development of a national data bank dictates the extent to which its data can
be used as a teaching aid.
For solving problems in the classroom a recourse to published data (year books etc) might
become necessary. The contents of such publications will depend on the need of the most
important and numerous users of the data. Besides these official publications, unpublished data
may be available which can be quite adequate for some teaching purposes.
If a computer is used in the teaching of mathematical models, access to a national data bank
becomes important; the data bank will usually store additional catchment and hydrological
information. The familiarisation of the student with the infrastructure and practice of a data
bank is important in relation to the work that will be encountered later in his career. Figures
3.5, 3.6, 3.7 show the relationship of the data bank to the monitoring network, the internal
functions of the data bank, and the interrelation of the data bank and other organisations. It
is beneficial to be able to show the students specific examples of data bank publications and
hydrological information.

Fig. 3.5 - Data system for water resources management in the catchment of the River Vah.
(courtesy of HMU, Bratislava).

:
2
 SPACE - TIME REFERENCE SYSTEM

~
1
DATA STORAGE SYSTEM
PHYSIOGRAPHIC

FILES FILES FILES

1 1

I
DATA PROCESSING SYSTEM
PHYSIOGRAPHIC METEOROLOGIC HYDROMETRIC

FILES FILES FILES

-
INFORMATION TRANSFER TECHNIQUES
CORRELATION
TECHNl OUES I Regression 1

t
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL FOR
PLANNING H Y D R O LOGY FORECASTING

Fig. 3.6 - Basiclayout of the physiographic land use, land cover and hydrometeorological
data bank of Canada (after Shen, 1976).

22
 I

State agencies Regional water Municipal and other

au thori ties licensed users
I I I I I

Fig. 3.7 - Data bank for water resources of the Federal Republic of Germany.

23
n!The use of hydrological modelling

Hydrological models are fundamental both to the teaching and professional practice of hydrology.
The hydrological model represents an important link between hydrological data, their evaluation
and the final presentation of the results of hydrological studies. Models of hydrological
phenomena allow the whole or part of the hydrological cycle to be simulated. Hydrological
models can be based on mathematical representations, physical experiments or electrical analogues
The main purpose of using hydrological models in the teaching process is not to duplicate
the complicated hydrological process in detail by a sophisticated model, but to demonstrate the
principal elements of the process, their combination into a simple or comprehensive model, and
the importance of the model in solving typical problems of engineering hydrology.
The verification of the output is inseparably connected to the quality of input data and
parameters used in the model, and to the degree that the model structure represents the primary
components of the hydrological process under study. It must be emphasised that the influence of
the input data and model parameters on the output must be demonstrated, e.g. by the variation of
parameters of a deterministic model or by the variation of time period of the observed data in
a stochastic model. By these means, the student learns to use hydrological models and develop
them into powerful tools in the process of decision making. The teaching of hydrological
modelling as an end in itself must be avoided. The teacher must necessarily restrict attention
to only a few of the large variety of hydrological models which have been developed in the past
twenty years for different purposes.
The demonstration of particular elements of models may require only simple equipment, but
the application of comprehensive models is dependent on the availability of suitable computers
and/or experimental facilities for physical or electrical analogues. It must be stressed that
several models may be able to solve a given problem, but the choice of a particular model is
often highly dependent on factors such as the size of computer, computer programs, experimental
facilities etc. It is often possible to adapt more complex models to illustrate salient
features and allow the student to gain some experience of using the model.
The following outline is commonly used in teaching hydrological models. The extent to
which different types of models are taught is dependent on the depth of knowledge and ability
of the students; the use of hydrological models as teaching aids in the training of technic-
ians and students is similarly refined.

4.1 Basic Statistical Analysis

A preliminary statistical analysis of hydrological measurements is the first stage after the
data collection and processing and precedes the application of hydrological models. At this
stage, the input data and parameters of models are determined. A basic analysis may suffice
for the solution of simple problems; for example the design of a hydraulic structure of
minor importance may require only streamflow records over a sufficiently long period. When
such a basic analysis can be done by hand or via simple computational facilities (e.g. pocket
calculators, slide rules, planimeters etc.), it becomes a teaching aid both for technicians
and students alike; this basic analysis forms the transition from the problems of data collect-
ion to an understanding of process behaviour. Stochastic modelling has its origin in this
basic statistical analysis of data series.
In general, basic statistical analysis is an important aid in the understanding of the
stochastic character of hydrological variables and of the correlation between variables.
General statistical information is assembled about the hydrology of a river regime or a
region. These analysos are also undertaken nationally and internationally, forming the base
for the publication of hydrological yearbooks. These basic statistical analyses are also

25
used to prepare hydrological maps (see Chapter 51, in which the regional variability of hydro-
logical variables is represented. All these forms of statistical summary and preliminary inter-
pretation are useful teaching material.
At the beginning of a hydrological study, a time interval (hour, day, month) is selected
which suits the proposed hydrological model and is compatible with the data. The observed data
(e.g. stage, discharge, precipitation etc.) are then abstracted as discrete/instantaneous values
or averages over the selected time interval.
Hydrographs, mass curves, and duration curves are employed in solving many problems of
applied hydrology, and numerous illustrative examples are shown in textbooks an hydrology,
! W O , 1974; Yevjevich, 1972a,b; Nemec,l972),In general, the time-averaged or discrete values of
discharge are ordered in the sequence of their occurrence over an observation period of a
month, year, etc., to form the hydrograph (Figure 4.1). The integral of the hydrograph over

L.0
N
I+
E
0
3.0
0
K
4
.
I
U
Y
n
2.0

1.0

212.36
200

150
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0
a
<
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0
100
W
2
c
3
a
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U
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50

/
I 1 I
1957 1958 1959 1960 ’ 1961 ‘YEAR

Fig. 4.1 - Basicstatistical analysis of monthly discharges

(a) Hydrograph (b) Mass curve (c) Frequency diagram (d) Duration curve

26
time is the mass curve, frequently used for designing storages or in water balance studies
(Figure 4.1). In the special form of the double mass curve it can be used for testing the
homogeneity of the data (Figure 4.2). The distribution of discharges according to their magni-
tude is graphically represented by the histogram of empirical frequencies (see Figures 4.1 and
5.8). The cumulative frequency diagram forms the duration curve over the given observation
period (month, half-year, year) (see Figures 4.1, 5.9 and 5.10). It is not primarily the
simple routines of the computations in these basic analyses, but the critical evaluation of
the observed data, the selection of suitable time intervals for discretisation and adequate
graphical representation which become important in teaching and which demonstrate impressively
the fluctuation, frequency and interdependence of hydrological variables.
The advent of digital computers has led to a situation where it is all too easy to produce
a confusingly large number of outputs, tables and graphs which at first sight all look alike,
with the increasing danger that the results are only readable by specialists. Thus it becomes
more and more important to present statistics in such a form that they are easily understand-
able by students and by non-hydrologists.
The following examples describe just a few techniques of basic statistical analysis applied
to water resources management.

200

N
0

-
e

0
C
0
100

Y
L

Cumuiative runoff at control gauge G1

Fig. 4.2 - Application of double mass curve for testing of homogeneity of monthly discharges.

Example 4.1: Application of mass curves for designing the storage capacity of a reservoir

The mass curve of inflow, which is the cumulative flow volume versus time, is plotted at say
monthly intervals over the period of discharge observations. As the slope of the mass curve at
any point denotes the discharge, a seasonally constant demand can be drawn as a straight line.
The maximum vertical ordinate between the mass curve and the demand line gives the storage
capacity that should be provided. If the storage capacity is limited, the volume of spill and
the period of complete drawdown can be determined using parallel lines at an interval equal to
the given storage (see Figure 4.1).

References: Linsley and Franzini, 1974; Nemec, 1972; Chow, 1964.

27
 Example 4.2: Estimation of water power potential using flow duration curves

The water power potential plant of a river is proportional to the product of discharge and head.
As the head Hi is dependent on the stage of the tailwater, which in turn, is a function of
discharge Q the duration curve of stage and discharge can be used for estimation of the
i'
theoretical water power potential. For any discharge of the flow duration curve, the respective
differences of stage in the upstream and downstream section are given by the stage duration
curves. The product QiHi is proportional to the daily water power. The integral over one year
is the yearly water power potential (see Figure 4.3).

References: Linsley and Franzini, 1974.

Fig. 4.3 - Estimation of hydro-power potential of a low head river power plant

4.2 Principles of Hydrological Models

The influence of different hydrological variables on the formulation of hydrological processes

can be demonstrated to the students by physical, analogue or mathematical models. Recently
mathematical models have taken over the most important tasks in problem solving in hydrology.
It should be noted that this chapter deals only with models to be used as teaching aids.
The purpose here is not to engage in a critical discussion or to provide specialised commentary
on individual models. In order to demonstrate their potential in the teaching of hydrology and
other related subjects, It is necessary to give several explanatory definitions and a descript-
ion of some of their basic features.
A model is a simplified representation of a complex hydrological system, or of a part of
the system. Progress in computational facilities has changed the direction of emphasis in
hydrology, and hcs radically changed the applications of mathematical models. Mathematical
models in all aspects of hydrology have become more complex and more descriptive of the physic-
al system.
A hydrological system is defined as a set of physical, chemical and/or biological processes
acting upon input variables to convert them into output variables (Dooge, 1968). In this
definition a variable is understood to be a characteristic of the system which may be measured,
assuming different values when measured at different times. A parameter is a quantity
characterising the hydrological system and which is usually assumed to remain constant in time.
If x(t) and y(t) denote the input and output variables, the mathematical model of the
system may be described by the general equation (Clarke, 1973):

28
where f(.) is a function whose explicit form must be given; 8 , e2
... are parameters (obtained
by measuring the hydrological prototype or by optimization melhods) . The variable E (t) express-
es the model error (i.e. differences from the prototype) at time t.
When any of the variables x(t), y(t) or &(t) is a random variable having some probability
distribution, then equation (4.1) is a stochastic model, otherwise it represents a deterministic
model.
Another general qualitative characteristic of the model is its linearity or non-linearity.
During the teaching process, it must be emphasised that the model is linear in the determinis-
tic sense when it maintains the validity of the principle of superposition; however, it may be
non-linear in the stochastic sense, when the relationships of parameters expressing the
behaviour of the system are non-linear (Clarke, 1973). At this juncture, explanations should
be accompanied by examples quoted from the literature.
An important aspect in the classification of models with a prevailing deterministic con-
cept is the spatial classification of the input/output variables and parameters. Lumped
models disregard any spatial dependency of these quantities, while geometrically distributed
models do incorporate this dependency. Spatial changes of variables and parameters are
solved at grid points of the selected geometric network. Probability distributed models
represent a combination of the two previously mentioned types of models, deterministic and
stochastic. They reflect spatial variability of the input variables or parameters. However,
these are considered neither non-relative to the configuration of the grid points of the
geometric network, nor relative to the prototype topography; rather, they are considered
in the context of a probability distribution of the occurrence of these quantities. Good
examples are given in many publications (Crawford and Linsley, 1966; Dawdy et al. 1972;
Becker, 1972 etc.).
A general classification of hydrological models is shown in Figure 4.4, though it should
be stressed that not all aspects, approaches or methods are represented.

MATHEMATICAL MODELS IN HYDROLOGY

. I
DETERM I N ISTICMODELS ]
i
r-----l
Component models Integrated models
(Conceptual1

Linear Non-linear

Linear or Lumped or Discrete or

non-linear distributed continuous

I STATISTICALMODELS AND METHODS I

Serial Markov Monte Carlo

Correlation Models Models

Fig. 4.4 - Mathematical models hydrology (modified after Fleming, 1975).

 Students, who as beginners are becoming acquainted with hydrological models, often ask why
there are so many models and what criteria are best for their classification, comparison and
evaluation. It is quite clear that for the wide range of hydrological processes, frequently
influenced by specific conditions which often make the dynamics of the particular process
unique, a multiplicity of models is required.
'The feature that all hydrological models have in common is that the observed output
variable y(t) deviates from its fitted value f (.) by a residual amount E(t) (see eq. 4.1);
the respects in which they differ are the assumptions made about the structure of a model f(.)
and the assumptions made about a residual E(t)' (Clarke, 1973). The use of these residual
errors in fitting mathematical models to prototype data is illustrated in Figure 4.5. An
intercomparison and evaluation of the best known conceptual models proposed for operational
use in hydrology was made by the WMQ in the period 1968 to 1974 (WMO, 197533). This project
involved the testing of ten operational conceptual hydrological models on six standard river
catchment data sets and their usefulness in providing a short term forecast of streamflow in

data yc(t)

Parameter
adjustment
Criterion or changes in
of accuracy model structure

Fig. 4.5 - The mathematical model concept.

various forecasting situations. The details of the tested models including specifications of
their purpose, data requirements, fitting criteria and references together with a description
of the model structure are contained in the quoted WMO monograph, which in this sense may be
used as a teaching aid. There are a number of other publications discussing mathematical
models in hydrology, and serving well the needs of teaching in hydrology (Fleming,,1975;
Clarke, 1973; Kutchment, 1972 etc.).
However, not all models developed far use in operational hydrology or intended for
scientific research are well suited as teaching aids. The use of the models in the teaching/
learning process will require the teacher to follow a set methodological approach relating to
the model's computer implementation. This approach largely consists of:
- the mathematical analysis of the problem (numerical or analytical solution)
- the aonstruction of a flow-chart
- the writing of the program for a digital or analogue computer
The procedure for the construction of a mathematical (simulation) model is illustrated by
a flow chart such as that shown in Figure 4.6.
The mathematical simulation of hydrological phenomena shares the same phases of model
development and implementation:
- Identification phase is the primary phase of model work. Its aim is to identify the model
structure and estimate model parameters
- Simulation phase is the secondary phase in model implementation, and may consist of short
term prediction in real-time for operational purposes, or long term prediction and data
generation for planning and design.

Conceptual hydrological models can be used...

'to considerable advantage as teaching aids in integrating the interaction between hydrological
processes, e.g. to demonstrate the effect of various hydrological phenomena on catchment
response. Use of hydrological models in teaching, however, requires a sound understanding of

30
 1
Formulate problem-examine system's
behaviour,analyse real-world data
I

1 Define problem reauirina simulation I

1

Formulate mathematical model

L .
Develop algorithms
t Reject

Accept
Program computer model

- Reject 1
Check program
Accept
Reject
(Check para=\ -
Accept
Conduct simulation experiments
?eject model I
Check results
Accept model
Reject simulation
{Compare p r e d i c w ) -
Accept sim u lat i on
I Apply sirnulation to solve problem 1

Fig. 4.6 - Phases in the construction of a mathematical model (modified after Hille, 1977).

the individual components of the whole system. Therefore, the use of models should be introduc-
ed into a course only after basic hydrological principles have been already taught with a para-
llel teaching of related subjects, such as hydraulics, soil science, geology and meteorology.'
(Fleming, 1975).

4.2.1 Basic Deterministic Concepts

The degree of equivalence of the model and prototype response is dictated by the deterministic
principles encompassed in a given approach. Since the model solution is rooted in the deter-
mination of physical parameters which describe the system, the deterministic approach is
frequently called the parametric concept.
It is always difficult to classify deterministic models according to the principles
governing their intrinsic structure or the simulation methods used.

'The formulation of a model is a continual process of modification, testing and remodification.

The model may begin by being largely empirical; as more is learnt about the physical behaviour
of the system under study, empirical components for the model will be replaced by others, more
firmly based in theory, and modification must be tested, where possible, by comparison of
forecast with observation'. (Clarke, 1973).
For this reason students must be told repeatedly that hydrological models must be
considered as something subject to constant supplementation and improvement and that it is
possible to combine both deterministic and stochastic approaches.

31
 According to the implementation technique, deterministic models in hydrology are based on
or more principles:
Mathematical models in which the system behaviour is represented by a set of equations and
statements expressing relations between the variables and parameters.
Analogue models in which simulation of hydrological processes is based on the analogy
between a response of the hydrological prototype (or its physical element), and its
electric, hydraulic or thermal counterpart.
Physical models which respect the scale similarity with the prototype.

4.2.1.1 Mathematical Models

Two basic approaches should be emphasised in the teaching process:

a. Component Modelling representing a mathematical simulation of a small component in the
hydrological cycle, while mutual interactions between other hydrological zones are substantially
suppressed. The development has been towards an understanding of the physical laws governing
the component. Such a major component might be infiltration, evapotranspiration, streamflow
routing, etc. Modelling of streamflow routing was among the first means of introducing
systems theory into hydrology (Dooge, 1959). In particular, linear systems theory substantiated
the scigntific basis of the unit hydrograph method and its broad application in hydrological
engineering, and also led to the rapid development of storage models. The superposition princ-
iple, mathematically expressed by the convolution integral, forms the basis of these models.
Different combinations of equal/unequal linear reservoirs in series or parallel can be introduc-
ed, showing how more complex models may lead to better prediction of prototype behaviour but at
the cost of an increasing number of estimated parameters. The students should be told emphatic-
ally that the so-called black-box approach in simulation of a physical system results in the
development of a relationship between the input and the output, without introducing any physical
relevance to the equations and parameters of the model. A clear example is needed in any
explanation of the structure and function of the black-box models (see examples 4.3 and 4.4).
Various structural schemes of linear and non-linear runoff and flood routing models are
described in the literature (e.g. TNO, 1966; DFG,1975; Kutchment, 1972). Examples from the group
of linear runoff models suitable for teaching purposes should include the Muskingum method,
Nash model, Kalinin-Miljukov model, etc. Suitable non-linear rainfall-runoff models are the
Kutchment-Borshevskij scheme, O'Donnell-Mandeville model, etc. (Kutchment, 1972; O'Donnell and
Mandeville, 1975; Fleming, 1975).
The teaching of these component models should be concluded with the procedures required to
determine the parameters using optimisation or estimation techniques followed by implementation
procedures with actual hydrological data. The application of component models of surface runoff
runs into the difficulties of mutual interaction between hydrological processes. This drawback
is reflected in a problem common to this group of models, namely the determination of time and
space development of effective (net) rainfall for individual isolated flood events. These draw-
backs limit the application scope of the models. For these reasons there is a tendency to
favour integrated (conceptual) modelling.

b. Integrated System Modelling involves the simulation of the whole hydrological system. Here-
in, the component theories are conceptually combined to represent a time-variant interaction
of processes constituting the hydrological cycle. This approach is often referred to in various
publications as conceptual modelling. An example of a conceptual system representation is given
in Figure 4.7; 'The conceptual approach is an integration of the component theories on a
continuous time basis.' (Fleming, 1975, see example 4.5).
Empirical relationships are still necessary since the subject has not yet produced a complete
set of analytical relationships between hydrological processes, and may never do so.
A necessary prerequisite of the deterministic approach, compared with the stochastic
approach, is the representation of the hydrological cycle as a determinate system quantitatively
expressed by mathematical functions governing the process. Model parameters are obtained either
from direct measurement, analyses of measured records, by trial and error, or by an automatic
optimisation procedure (see example 4.6). It is important to specify the criteria for model
performance and accuracy. A common criterion of accuracy is to minimise the sum of squared
errors between the recorded output from the catchment, and the simulated output from the model.
Lack of fit might be caused by:
- errors resulting from an over-simplified description of the physical processes in the model,
in contrast to the prototype,
- time and spatial variability of the input and the output data,
- errors in measurement of the input and output data.

32
 Potential evaporation (daily,monthly)
and lor relevant hydromet.data

Interception

I
Surface deten-

’
tion stogare
1

I
Upper soil zone
+
Total

.
1
Percolat ion

I
I Inactive I

Fig. 4.7 - Example of conceptual representation.

Digital hydrological simulation used for teaching purposes requires a suitable computer
with sophisticated software and well-experienced teaching staff capable of describing clearly
the simulation techniques to the students.
Any well-functioning mathematical model inherently contains some notable features in its
structure, and some of the principles on which such models are based can be demonstrated in the
teaching process. It is impossible to say unequivocally which of the existing models are
explicitly suitable for teaching use. From a number of existing conceptual models, those
particularly suitable for teaching were chosen. Any choice will, of course, depend on the
teacher and his practical experience.

Example 4.3: Solution of equations of surface runoff via matrix inversion (The Unit Hydrograph)

Surface runoff formation may be schematically described in discrete time steps by a set of
linear algebraic equations representing convolution of input to output via an impulse response
function (unit hydrograph). Given a set of known inputs and outputs, the system of equations
may be solved for the unknown transformation function of the catchment using matrix algebra.
At this point, it is appropriate to illustrate common principles of the unit hydrograph method,
and the methad of isochrones. By repeated iterations of the computation procedure, it is
possible to show how the ordinates of net rainfall as well as the ordinates of the unit
hydrograph can be refined to provide better model replication.

Ref. Snyder, 1961; TNO, 1966.

33
Example 4.4: Linear and non-linear storage models as examples of component modelling of
hydrological processes

Storage models are mostly applied to significant isolated rainfall-runoff events, particularly
for design purposes. Linear storage models are a particularly good aid in the solution of
practical bydrological problems. Their conceptual and mathematical simplicity makes them
particularly useful teaching aids. With these models it becomes necessary to explain the
superposition principle and the derivation of the convolution integral. The method of moments
used to obtain parameters in linear cascade models can also be considered and attention can
be given to the mutual overlap between the deterministic and statistical principles.
Once the students have become acquainted with the principles of linear storage models, it
is possible to introduce non-linear models. The principal differences between linear and non-
linear models should be emphasised.

References: DFG, 1975; Kutchment, 1972; O'Donnell and Mandeville, 1975.

Example 4.5: The Stanford Model as an example of an integrated model of the hydrological cycle

Some conceptual hydrological models can be classified as general purpose with the remainder as
special purpose models. From the teaching point of view, the classical representative of the
former type remains the Stanford Watershed Model (version IV and the Hydrocomp Simulation Prog-
ram). It gives an exhaustive description of the hydrological processes resulting in an
instructive algorithm structure (see Figure 4.7). The model may be used for a wide range of
catchment water regimes and describes all significant processes of the hydrological cycle:
Land surface processes: Interception, effects of impervious area, infiltration, overland flow,
detention storage, evaporation, snow accumulation and snowmelt.
Sub-surface processes: Interflow, soil moisture dynamics in both upper and lower zones,
percolation, groundwater storage and flow.
Channel processes: Basin configuration and storage, channel flow and routing.

The Stanford model contains over thirty parameters, at least four of which must be
optimised. The remaining parameters are evaluated from maps, surveys, or existing hydrometeor-
ological recorda. Instructions in its use are given in the Stanford Report (Crawford and
Linsley, 1966).
It is not the main purpose here to discuss the details of digital simulation, but rather
the contribution of the Stanford Watershed Model to hydrological education (Linsley et a1.,1969):
- Organising instruction around the flow chart (Figure 4.7) as a basic functional description
of the hydrological cycle.
- Providing greater opportunity for students to explore hydrological processes via digital
simulation
- Providing for a variety of research projects in hydrology.

There are other conceptual models which can be used as instructive examples, and which are
listed in the following references.

References: Clarke, 1.973; Fleming, 1975; Kutchment, 1972.

Example 4.6: Automatic adjustment of parameters using the Rosenbrock technique.

In a catchment model context, an obvious parameter-dependent function to be optimised is the

difference between the observed and computer output data from available input data. Other
objective criteria could be used alone or in any combination. Among various optimisation
techniques, the Rosenbrock method is most commonly applied for hydrological models. The
students should be shown how to achieve the minimum value of the criteria, searching in an
n-dimensional vector space (n being the number of parameters to be optimised) until some
function F (i.e. the model function) is optimised. For the sake of simplicity, it is preferable
to explain two parameter optimisation first. It is also important to emphasise that the
number of parameters to be evaluated by calibration should be consistent with the complexity
of model structure and the extent of the data set. If computational facilities are available,
the sensitivity of the model response to parameter changes should be demonstrated. It is
important that the student should appreciate the difference between the model's sensitivity to
particular parameters per se and the sensitivity of the (optimal) set of parameters to a specif-
ic data set.

References: Clarke, 1973; Fleming, 1975; Kutchment, 1972.

34
4.2.1.2 Analogue Models

Analogue models are most commonly based on an electrical analogy. The analogue model is
programmed into an analogue computer. In this type of model, there exists a direct correspond-
ence between the prototype system and the elements of the electrical network. The electrical
network, composed o € components capable of performing certain mathematical functions (integret-
ion, differentiation and arithmetic operations), constitutes the main operational part of the
analogue computer. Many processes occurring in the hydrologic system can be represented by time
and/or space dependent differential equations. The analogue computer is particularly suited to
their solution as it can integrate problem variables on a continuous basis. With the analogue
computer, the effect caused by a change in an input parameter or function is immediately observ-
able. Output from the analogue computer is capable of graphical representation in the form of a
continuous plot of the variable quantities involved. The student, as the operator of the
analogue model, can readily and directly visualise results. The effect of different combinat-
ions of the various components within the entire system can be explored easily to show the
changes in specific processes that might be necessary to meet prototype conditions.
Thus where a physical problem can be expressed by differential equations, the basic
components of an analogue computer may be interconnected in such a way that the voltages in the
resulting circuit are governed by the same equations, modified where necessary by scale factors.
By monitoring or recording voltages in the computer, a solution to the problem is obtained. The
basic components of a general purpose analogue computer are listed in Table 4.2.
In common with digital computation, the student often has difficulty in relating the
mathematical expression of the system to the prototype and vice versa. E~wever,compared to
digital computation, programming for an analogue computer is in some senses subject to a greater
measure of lucidness. The flow chart for the analogue computer (using symbols listed in Table
4.1) is very clear, giving instant ideas about the interlinkage of computer units (see examples

I SYMBOL I C o ~ ~ I ~E X P~L A N A TTI O N

1 U1
1 SUMMER
u,=-~,(u,+u,)
where; k, = 1 or 0.1

& -U,(O)

U,
INTEGRATOR
I
U,:-k, i;,dr+y(O)
where: u,(O] .... initial cond..
k,= 1. 10 or H)o

U1
SUMMATION
INTEGRATOR
t
uo=-k, (U,+U1+lOU,)dT+U,(0)
(for several input voltages 1

U,= f(Ui)
FUNCT1oN (for adjustment an output volt-
CONVERTOR age as some specified function
of its input voltage )
1
u,=a.u, (Osa'l)
(for mult iplication
METER
by any constant )
U,= u,.u,/lOO (voltoge?: 100)
MULTIPLIER (for multiplication
by another variable)
U,( t I generating
(for generating o function

Table 4.1 : Some basic components of a general purpose analog computer.

35
4.7 and 4.8 below). Facility with analogue computation requires practice. The general
sequence in model implementation is usually as follows(Christie, 1971):

1. Prepare a scaled computer diagram.

2. Label the components on this diagram (i.e. state the reference number of the actual
computer components to be used, and also state what the output voltage that each component
represents).
3. Wire-up on patch panel
4. Set potentiometers, initial conditions and timer.
5. Carry out a static check and possibly a dynamic check.
6. Compute (if overload occurs, modify scaling and repeat).

The display or recording of solutions can be carried out as follows (Christie, 1971) :
a. In continuous time
During the computation procedure (step 6) the output voltage from any component can be connected
to:
- an oscilloscope
- a high-speed pen recorder
- a high-speed ultra-violet recorder
- an X-Y plotter

b. In discrete time
At the end of the computing time any voltage may be monitored with a digital voltmeter and
printed .

More complex hydrological models, even in teaching situations within specialised postgrad-
uate courses, may be solved by using hybrid computers. These computers combine the advantages
of digital and analogue computers. However, hybrid computers are still rare, very expensive
and difficult to program. Therefore they are very seldom used as teaching aids. Table 4.2
shows a possible arrangement of analogue and digital computers for investigating a general
rainfall-runoff model.

Digital Part

Data reading or generating

I Interface

Digital to analogue
Analogue Part

logical operations data transfer

High speed solution of
differential equations
Result evaluation Analogue to digital
fitting criteria data transfer
storing data Timing

Table 4.2 : Interfaced digital and analogue components

The above text shows the suitability of using analogue models for the demonstration of some
hydrological problems, especially in modelling some components of the hydrological cycle.
Analogue models are sometimes implemented for flood routing through a reservoir (see Example
4.7), structuring of various storage models (see Example 4.8), and a number of groundwater
models (Bouver, 1967; Unesco, 1972a).
Models based on a non-electrical analogy represent a special category of analogue models,
particularly those models simulating groundwater flow.
Groundwater flow through a soil mass follows the Laplace equation:

where $ is the head,

and x, y, z are Cartesian coordinates

Equation 4.2, fundamental in groundwater flow models, describes steady potential flow. Its
basic characteristics include the fact that flow lines and equipotential lines are mutually
orthogonal. Models which demonstrate this phenomenon simply to the students are very useful.
Good examples of their use as teaching aids are described by Klaasen (Unesco, 1972a).

36
 The parallel-plates model (Hele-Shaw model), involves the laminar flow of a viscous
liquid between two parallel plates. It is restricted to two-dimensional flow problems but
particularly well-suited for teaching and demonstration in the class (see example 4.9).
The heat model is based on the analogy between heat flow through a conductor and ground-
water flow. Only two-dimensional problems are dealt with in practice; the model is less
suited to demonstration.
The electric model uses electric current passing through a conductor as the analogy.
Where the transmissivity (or permeability) is relatively constant, two dimensional steady flow
with complex boundary conditions can be easily demonstrated by using conducting paper (Tele-
deltos paper) cut to the shape of the boundary.
The membrane model, consisting of a tightly stretched membrane, simulates groundwater
flow for the solving of well flow problems.
The Sand-model consists of a trough filled with sand or any other coarse material, through
which the groundwater flow is reproduced to scale. In this kind of model three-dimensional
flow problems can also be solved but difficulties arise when the model is too small. Large
models are often too expensive. (Capillary action, enclosed air and organic growths may be
troublesome and require special treatment).

Example 4.7: Problem of flood routing through a reservoir

Reservoir lag occurs when the rate of outflow, Q, and the water level, h, in the reservoir are
governed by some form of outlet weir and the reservoir is subjected to a variable rate of in-
flow, I (the flood hydrograph). During any time interval, the change in storage equals the
volume entering, minus the volume leaving the reservoir:

A dh (I-Q)dt

so that for a simple spillway where A = kbh312

-
dh
dt
-
1 (I(t) - kbh3/2)
A
(4.3)
where A = surface area of reservoir
h = depth of water above spillway crest at time t
I = I(t) = rate of inflow
k = spillway coefficient
b = breadth of spillway
This problem can be easily solved by a general-purpose analogue computer. The unscaled
computer diagram for solution of the equation above is given in Figure 4.8. Graphs of I, Q and
h can be obtained by connecting a recorder to the appropriate point in the circuit. The effect
of varying the breadth of spillway can be seen very clearly and quickly by adjusting the po-
tentiometer representing kb (and perhaps also by adjusting the initial value of h). The
effect of variations in A (as a function of h) can also be included.

References: Christie, 1971; IASH-Unesco, 1969.

I
F G.
form Ut)
-kbhf
s
-hi
kb
I
A-ddth = I-kbh’
Fig. 4.8 - Simplified computer diagram for reservoir lag problems.
37
Example 4.8: Flood-routing problem using the Kalinin-Miljukov approach

With the Kalinin-Miljukov method a river channel is divided into "characteristic reaches" (a
catchment can also be divided into isochronal or other sub-areas); for each reach or sub-area
following from the principle of linearity, the continuity equation holds

(4.4

where k is a constant having dimension of time, and the other variables are as in the
previous example. By solving equation (4.4) for the initial conditions t = 0, Q = Po, then

e-t/k
Qt = etIk ltlI etIkldt + Q
0 0
(4.5)

Equation (4.4) and its integrated form (4.5) hold only for one characteristic reach. For n
reaches the recursive relations hold:

dQn
-- - 1(Qn-l - Qn)
dt kn
The problem may be easily resolved on an analogue computer.

L I1.c. 1
F G.

-dQ -1
dt'-k,(I-Ql) Note:If n is odd number
then Q. is negative
and the sign changer
should be connected

Fig. 4.9 - Simplified computer diagram for the Kalinin-Miljikov model.

Figure 4.9 shows a diagrammatic flow chart. From a mathematical viewpoint, the model is a
system of n ordinary differential equationgh each of which is of the 1st order. The final
unknown Q is considered as being of the n order. By setting different values of k1: k2 -.-
n
k on the potentiometers and by plugging in a continuous recording device (e.g. an oscilloscope)
a? selected points, the routing effect of the system can be followed.

References: Kutchment, 1972; IASH/Unesco, 1969.

These together with other single or multi-purpose models, partly overlap with the group of
physical models.

38
4.2.1.3 Physical Models

Physical models have been applied to investigate hydraulic and hydrological phenomena for many
years. For teaching purposes it is necessary to have models capable of simple demonstration
of some of these phenomena. In contrast to hydraulic phenomena, there are a number of
difficulties in the modelling of standard hydrological processes. These are caused by the
fact that Newton's law of dynamic similarity (which also assumes geometric and kinematic
similarities) between the model and the prototype is impossible to maintain. The difficulties
encountered in trying to maintain scale similarities are made more acute when modelling surface
runoff from artificial rainfall on a topograhic model of a catchment. Thus, the distortion of
dynamic similarity can relegate physical models to a mere demonstration of the qualitative
character of the phenomenon.
A number of single or multi-purpose physical models are used for teaching purposes by
universities or other training institutions. Some of these models are mentioned below.

Single purpose physical models

For simulation of the rainfall-runoff process and compilation of the hydrograph, it is possible
to use a surface runoff physical simulator, a catchment-topography model, and an outflow
measuring device. Such models are described in the literature (e.g. Nemec in Unesco, 1972a;
Grace and Eagleson, 1966). Despite difficulties arising from the impossibility of maintaining
full-scale similarity, and despite the unwanted capillary effect, these models may be used
successfully for high quality demonstrations of:
- the effect of rainfall duration and its intensity on the hydrograph form,
- non-linearity of the runoff process,
- the effect of physiographical features of the catchment,
- the effect of antecedent conditions on the runoff process.

Multi-purpose physical models

In the teaching of hydrology increasing use is made of multipurpose physical models or apparatus
capable of demonstrating various hydrological phenomena. Sellin and Treleaven (Unesco/IWRA, 1975)
described a simple self-contained laboratory facility. Successful experiments were reported on:
- rainfall-runoff flood hydrographs for a number of surface or subsurface conditions,
- single and multiple well abstractions with accompanying piezometric measurements,
- aspects of fluvial mechanics including meander patterns and sediment transport.
The authors describe the apparatus consisting of a 2 m by 1 m shallow tray capable of
holding up to a 200 mm depth of gravel, together with an overhead spray device (rain simulator),
accurate measurement devices for inflow to and outflow from the gravel bed, and a multi-tube
manometer bank.
Other equipment which sets out to demonstrate hydrological processes on a small scale, has
been developed (e.g. Armfield Eng., 1979, Figure 4.10). Such equipment can be used to show the
relationship between rainfall and runoff from catchment areas of varying permeability and the
abstraction of groundwater by wells both with and without surface recharge from rainfall.

Example 4.9: Simulation of groundwater flow through an aquifer (Hele-Shaw model)

In this analogue model viscous fluid flows between two parallel plates. For demonstration
purposes, coloured glycerine can be used as the fluid, with perspex plates, 1.5 mm apart, for
the model (see Figure 4.11).
Stokes has shown that the two-dimensional laminar flow of viscous fluid can be described
by the equation:
1 gd2 d@
---
v = - 12 v as (4.7)
(for definition of symbols see below).
Such flow also satisfies the Laplace equation (eq. 4.2). This can be confirmed experiment-
ally by tests carried out using the described physical model which can be used both vertically
and horizontally. The vertical model represents flow in a vertical soil section. It is
possible to simulate an unconfined aquifer, with seepage surface, free water table and rising
storage levels (Verruijt, 1970)

39
 4700 m m

view from left cut

side

Fig. 4.10 - Basic hydrology system.

fr CROSS SECTION A-A'

AI

Fig. 4.11 - Scheme of the parallel-plates model.

The horizontal model represents the flow through a certain layer of the aquifer. In such
a case, a comparison is made not of velocities but of the total discharges. Thus

in the field
dO
Q = qBh -kHB --
ds (4.8)
in the model 9dm3 dhm
Q m = S n Bmdm = -Bm 12v ds
m
-- (4.9)
The value of transmissibility kH, obtained from the field as basic hydrogeological data
representing the aquifer, is simulated by the model as:

sdm
-
12v

40
Symbols used: v = velocity in the direction of flow
g = gravity acceleration

dm
= separation of parallel plates
(+ = potential head

3.
as
= gradient in the direction of flow

k = coefficient of permeability
H = thickness of aquifer
B = width of flow region in a vertical plane
Q = discharge
q = specific discharge
h = height of groundwater table
V = kinematic viscosity
m = subscript denoting model

References: Verruijt, 1970; Thomas, 1973.

41
V Visual presentation of hydrological information

Graphic representation of the temporal and spatial variation of one or more hydrological
variables is one of the well known and most important teaching aids. The purpose of diagram-
matic presentation is to illustrate the essential features of complex phenomena and highlight
those factors which are influential to decision-making. A good representation will influence
decisions; the specialist can summarise a large quantity of data and inform the non-specialist
in a graphic way, allowing him to grasp the hydrological phenomena under study and int.erpret
the results accordingly. The teacher uses graphs, diagrams and maps to convey information to
the student in much the same way as the hydrologist communicates to a non-hydrologist. In
order that the student fully appreciates these methods it is of the utmost importance to
explain them actively by selecting illustrative examples from different fields in hydrology.
There should be sufficient time in the curriculum to encourage the presentation of results,
using auxiliaries such as descriptive geometry, cartography, statistics etc.
The level of public information is often a decisive factor in water resources development.
The decision process is facilitated if this information is self-explanatory and understandable
to the public. In contrast to a scale model test, which is illustrative in itself, the
presentation of results in tabular form or by a mathematical model will often be too abstract
for a non-expert with no adequate mathematical background. Thus, the preparation of information
in an adequate graphic form must be emphasised as it becomes a powerful tool in practical work,
and one which is often overlooked in many textbooks on hydrology.

5.1 Graphical Representation of Hydrological Variables

Graphical figures are invaluable in demonstrating the interdependence of two or more numerical
variables. They can often reveal the relationships between variables that would otherwise be
masked by the complexity of the relationship or even by the badly-ordered tabular form of the
data. In some cases such figures have only a subsidiary function to fill, and serve only to
supplement numerical tables and the accompanying text, not to replace them.
Data from a group of hydrometeorclgic measuring stations over a large catchment are
usually given in tables, with the stations, possibly subdivided into those of primary and
secondary importance, arranged alphabetically. Whilst graphical diagrams are usually used to
portray local values of the median, mean value, quantile etc. or to display time variations,
such diagrams are used increasingly in pertinent hydrological cartography to show spatial
variations (see also section 5.2; Hydrological Maps).

5.1.1 Coordinate Dependent Diagrams

1 - Right-angle coordinates

The most useful form of illustration of a numerical time series is the plot in a right-angled
two-axis coordinate system. In such time-dependent relationships both curvilinear plots as in
Figure 5.1 and straight-line polygonal plots as in Figure 5.2 may be applicable. The most
common example is the hydrograph which is often plotted in real-time as the analogue trace of
self-registering measuring instruments. From digital recorders only discrete (time-sampled)
values are available. Here the intervals between the measurements should be small enough so
that a constant rate of change can be assumed between them (Figure 5.2) and interpolation errors
kept small. If the sampling interval is increased the number of recorded data is reduced
considerably but as shown in Figure 5.2 there would be loss of information on the peak. If a

43
 Stage h lcml

Fig. 5.1 - Discharge rating curve.

At = 15 min
----- At = 6 hrr.

-. -. - bt = 9 hrc.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l j
0 16 24 0 16 2L time in h

Fig. 5.2 - Representation of a hydrograph by discrete values.

hydrograph over months or years exhibits a marked variation, it is usually advisable to plot
the trend-line at the same time in order to show the periodic, seasonal or random nature of the
deviations; for this, many methods have been developed from mathematical statistics (mean value,
,weighted average value, moving average, method of least squares, approximation through second
or higher order equations, asymptotic growth curve etc.).
Arithmetic axes are most preferred because they are understandable to all, but for
certain variables, for instance low-water analysis, k-valuations by the Muskingum method
(Figure 5.3), semi-logarithmic scales are advisable. On a semi-logarithmic scale system an
ascending straight line represents an exponential rate of increase. The decision between
arithmetic and logarithmic curve representations is not always made on the basis of available
diagram space but sometimes to aid interpretation.

44
 CO-axial graphs permit the display of the development of many events simultaneously. In
Figure 5.4 for instance, the quantity of previous rainfall (AP 1 , the number of the week (W),
the rainfall duration (D) and the amount of rainfall (PI are izterrelated.

@ K.29Eh
@ K = 31.1 h
@ K = 32.1 h
@ K = 39.8h

1-
6-
5t *
0% 10 20 PI 30 LO tlhl

Fig. 5.3 - Determination of the storage coefficient K from the decreasing part of flood
hydrographs.

Fig. 5.4 - Basin recharge (P-R,) =

f(APs,W,D,P) relation for Wietze river determined by
coaxial graphical method.
Time-series and spatial time-series

In hydrological statistics, special importance has been placed on the analysis of time-series.
The simplest example of such a time-series is the hydrograph. The analysis of such time-series
allows trends, periodic or seasonal or cyclic changes to be investigated. In addition, the
variations of short duration can be emphasised or eliminated.
A spatial equivalent to time-series would be the land-profile line, in which the
abscissa "time" is replaced by "location". Examples are elevation profiles that show river-
length profiles, hydrological longitudinal sections (Figure 5.51, or channel/valley cross-
sections for investigation of discharge characteristics. Temperature and precipitation profiles,
derived from isothermal and isohyetal maps can be set in relation to the elevation profile.
The time profile of a series is fixed as one-dimensional; the land profile line can be placed
in all possible directions and on the map plane it is two-dimensional and as a spatial contin-
uum, three-dimensional.

0
Discharge
9 IrnJ/sl
6 000 -
L
0
<
0
0
c
0

Yt
2a.2
Z C ! I
CO c .-
! !
3
0 6s
E Mean high water discharge l- I !
CO .;
U L MHQ ! I ! 3 000
I I I
2 000
1 000 I
c
1000
0 0

Unit discharge
q I l/skm21

LO
60
t 6o
10
20 20
0 0

Fig. 5.5 - Longitudinal section of discharge (river Rhine).

The autocorrelation determines the correlation relationships within a single time-series.

For instance, in a time-series of monthly precipitation or discharge, the value of one month is
serially correlated with the next month in the series; month 1 is correlated with month 2,
month 2 with month 3 etcand it is straightforward to compute the lag-one correlation coeffic-
ient rl i.e. the serial correlation coefficient with lag 1. The correlation coefficients r
(month 1 with month 3, month 2 with month 4), to r are similarly ascertained. The grapi
n
of rk versus k, where k = 1,2,3.. .n designatesr&e time lag, is called a correlogram (Figure
5.6). As well as autocorrelation, cross correlation diagrams can also be plotted to show the
temporal relation between values of two time-series.

46
 1.0

L 0.6

- 0.q

Fig. 5.6 - Correlogram of monthly precipitation.

Frequency Diagrams

As a rule, arithmetic scales are used for simple frequency distributions. For instance,
grouped classes of discharges are plotted on the abscissa, and the number of values assigned
to single classes are plotted on the ordinate. The points of the diagram are joined by straight
lines, or, for the most part, represented in the form of a histogram (Figure 5.7) in which the
total area represents the total number of values or 100% frequency.

60

LO

20

0
0 20 LO 60 60 100 0 IdhI
discharge

Fig. 5.7 - Frequency distribution of discharge.

Cumulative Frequency Diagram fSinyIe Mass Curve)

With the diagram of flood frequency, for instance,30ne no longer questions how many events
belong to a specific class (e.g. from 200 to 300 m /second), but how many events are above or
below a given value. The cumulative frequencies are plotted either directly or as a percentage
of the total number. A graph shows the well-known S-shaped form. If the frequency distribut-
ion has a central mode then such mass curves are often better suited for the matching of
frequency distribution functions than the simple frequency curves (Figure 5.8).
The well-known flow-duration curve is also a mass curve. If flow-duration curves are
plotted with arithmetically divided coordinate scales (Figure 5.9) the areas of low water and
flood water discharges are ill-defined and are better measured if probabllity paper with log-
n o m a 1 divisions are used, as in Figure 5.10.

Double Mass Curve

Cumulative data are plotted on both axes; for example, Figuse 4.2 relates cumulative runoff at
one site to another, with time as the independent variable.

47
 D a t u m or class of data x

0 11.5
Datum or class of data x

Fig. 5.8 - Density function and cumulative frequency.

River Marondava- Tsiandava /Madagascar 1968/69

I m3/s
50C

LOO

300

200

100
80
60
a. 60.9
LO
'-I--
2(
K (nonexcedancr)
100 90 80 70 SO 5b LO 30 20 10 0 % -lexcedancel
I
0 20 LO 60 80 100 200 300 365 Days

Fig. 5.9 - Flow duration curve of Morondava river, Madagascar.

48
 Flow duration curve of mean ddly
discharge(&) for River M o m n d a w -
Tsiandava IMadagascar I M / 6 9
platted on log. normal paper

9897 95 90 80 70 64 Y) Lo 1) 20 10 5 4

Fig. 5.10 - Flow duration curve.

Climatological diagrams
Diagrams are especially well suited for representing climatic data, and may, for example, facil-
itate the identification of different climatic zones. Temporal variations are well illustrated.
For example mean monthly temperature and precipitation values over the year can be set in
relation (see Figure 5.11). The relationship between the scales for precipitation and temper-
ature is arbitrary and based on climatic considerations which are not discussed here.

Manbus 27.1 O C 1771 m m /a

Precipitation P [ m m ]
3001

Temperature T ["C1
100 50

80 40

60

LO 1"
.*.::.:..**

'.:..*.*
..:
*:*.
:
.
T
/

t
30

2o
2o 1 Po
Fig. 5.11 - Diagram showing mean monthly precipitation and temperature over the year

49
 By using a ratio of 1:2 (or 1:3 in semi arid regions) for the temperature and precipitation
scales, the year may be classified into dry, humid, super-humid periods (Walter and Lieth, 1960).
In humid areas, the precipitation curve generally runs above the temperature curve; in arid
areas the pattern is reversed. One must be sure that the diagram for the southern hemisphere
begins with the month of January, in order to make possible a direct comparison between the two.
The hatched areas, where the precipitation curve lies above the temperature curve, indicate hum-
id months; stippled areas indicate arid months. At stations in the tropics and subtropics,
when the precipitation exceeds 100 mm in a month, the scale ratio may be reduced to 1:lO (one
scale division of the ordinate equals 200 mm precipitation). In the figure these super-humid
months are especially emphasised through dark shading.

Precipitation diagrams

This may show the precipitation distribution within the year or the differences from year to
year. For instance, the average number of days/month with at least 0.lmm precipitation (sub-
divided into rain and snow) can be plotted against the month (Figure 5.12). Likewise, tempera-
ture graphs, hydrographs and so on can be used to show annual and seasonal variations. Fpr
many purposes, it is advisable to emphasise especially the deviations of precipitation,
discharge etc. from the mean values computed over many years.

do s
.-.:.:. wi{h
. snow -
fall

Fig. 5.12 - Average number of days with precipitation and snow a.t IIannover, 1951-1970.
If climatological diagrams are plotted on maps, it is necessary to make sure that the
diagrams refer to single stations and not to areas. Such climatological diagrams are not to be
confused with real climatic maps (Walter and Lieth, 1960). The latter should show, through
isopaths, the extent of the climatic variation over large areas and permit a comparison with
other geographic phenomena over the same areas.
Climatic time-series diagrams are constructed in similar fashion to average climatological
diagrams. However, here the actual successive years are plotted along the abscissa, and the
individual monthly values are plotted on the ordinate (Figure 5.13). In this figure the
occurrence of particular dry years is clearly defined. In the same way, precipitation can be
compared to groundwater levels (Figure 5.14).

50
Precipitation P Imrnl
SAN JOSk
3001 Temperature T 1°C I

'JI A'S' O'N I D J

1977
I I F ' M I A 'M 'J I
1978
!A ' S ' O ' N
I DI J 'F 'M ' A 'M J
1979
'A ' S I
' 0' N ' 0 J 'F 'M 'A 'M
1980
'J '

Fig. 5.13 - Mean monthly temperature and precipitation from 1977 to 1980.

Rrcipitation
mm
1LO-

L
120-

' 1970 I 71 I 76 I 77 I 1978 '

Fig. 5.14 - Monthly values of precipitation at station Grasdorf and regional groundwater level
in the Leine Valley.

51
2. Triaxial ordinates

If three variables sum to a constant value, their relative proportions can be graphically
illustrated using triaxial ordinates. Such figures are used to classify soils according to
their components of clay, silt and sand (Figures 5.15). An alternative to counting outwards
from the angular points of the triangle, is to consider each side as a base (zero line) for one
of the three variables and measure the percentage value vertically to them; the highest value
(100%)is then the angular point opposite to the respective base line.

100
100 80 60 LO 20
Sand S ( 6 0 ~ 1 - 2 m m l . X

Fig. 5.15 - Soil texture triangle of the USDA (Marshall/Holmes, 1976).

3. Polar coordinates

Polar coordinates and related radial coordinate systems are convenient for representing some
types of data; for example, Figure 5.16 shows how an octagonal coordinate system can be used
to describe the frequency distribution of wind direction in each of the eight principal compass
bearings. The wind frequencies are represented in percentages, with the frequency of calm
indicated at the origin (3.5% in the figure).

5.1.2 Line Diagrams, Area Diagrams and Isometric Diagrams

One of the common uses of the line diagram is to show the magnitude and time of occurrence of
flood peaks, as shown in Figure 5.17. In essence, the top two diagrams, in which time is the
abscissa and magnitude the ordinate, are a set of distinct points of the complete hydrograph.
The lines joining each point to the abscissa are merely a visual device to aid connection of
the ordinate value to the abscissa. The lower diagram in the figure has rank on the abscissa;
the temporal distribution of the flood peaks is lost but a sense of the statistical distribution
is gained. Linear scales are used in this example but in special cases, for instance in the
presentation of very extreme flood values, geometric or logarithmic scales for the ordinate are
advisable. Additionally, the use of a strict scale on the abscissa is not always necessary;
for example, the annual maxima diagram in Figure 5.17 is often given with the events spaced
evenly at yearly intervals.

Bar graphs differ from the pure line diagram only through the width of the lines. Thereby the
figure is not changed in principle, but the impact is greater. (Figure 5.18). The basic
difference between line and bar diagrams is merely one of presentation. Bar diagrams are suited
for the comparison of quantities as well as the presentation of progressive series (climatolog-
ical diagrams and time-series diagrams are often represented as bar graphs).
 2x I

Fig. 5.16 - Wind rose (% of year and distribution for each month (whole year = 100%) for
Hannover from 1951 to 1970.

Band diagrams result from the segmentation of a complete quantity into smaller parts. These
figures can be portrayed in the normal way with a coordinate system (Figure 5.19). but can also
be plotted on both sides of a vertical or horizontal centre line. Such band diagrams are
optically very impressive, but have the disadvantage that, to some extent, only the group
lying next to the base line can be estimated accurately. The irregular base lines of the
adjacent groups lead to optical distortion of the arrangement. Through suitable selection of
cross-hatching, particular groups in these figures can be made to stand out.
In many situations (such as in maps, map legends, or schematic representations of water
resource systems) there is a need to represent visually the magnitude of various quantities
(for example, populations, water demands, reservoir capacities etc.). Plane and isometric
diagrams are ideally suited for this purpose. Both types of diagram permit a compact way of
representing a wide range of values; for plane diagrams the area denotes magnitude and for
isometric diagrams a trebling of the value of a variable can be achieved with only a doubling
of the diagram area.
Circles, squares and triangles are the most commonly used form of plane and isometric
diagrams (see Figure 5.20) .

55
 TIME IN Y E A R S

8 (PARTIAL SERIES DATA IN ORDER OF OCCURRENCE)

0
0
Z'

TIME IN YEARS
' DATA IN ORDER OF MAGNITUDE
IT

10 20 R A N K O F V A L U E io

Fig. 5.17 - Flood peaks in the Danube, Vienna-Nussdorf, 1961-1970.

54
 2oc In 0
ul

I
b
n
=,
e e
E 3
100
2
c
2
2a
U
W
CK
a
J
a
3
ze
zu
Q k
0

100

200

300
't
Fig. 5.18 - Deviation of annual precipitation from the mean
at Hannover from 1951 to 1970.

I
I
1970 1080 ' 1990
4
Emmcrrdorf ,
Gail -River 3( ~ i ~ l a c h ~

I \
Gaillitz

Fig. 5.19a - Band diagram of water demand. Fig. 5.19b - Band diagram of sediment size
distribution of river Gail.

55
 a) /total total
asable part 0

(L - scale foetor

W
Use of groundwater Id l'm Scale tar drinking water demand
by different consumers I 106mJ1 in o mop legend

C)

Square diogram S h i n 9 wotcr demand Triangle diagram showing reservoir Isometric diagram of regional oquifcr
of different users in o region capacity in a mop capacity ond exploited component

Fig. 5.20 - Use of plabe and isometric figures to represent magnitudes.

5.2 Hydrological Maps

The following section is not intended to constitute a treatise on hydrological mapping in view
of the availability of the Unesco/WMO publication "Hydrological Maps" (Unesco/WMO, 1977). For
questions on cartography and mapping techniques, the reader is referred to this publication.
Hydrological maps are treated here with regard to their value as a teaching aid.

5.2.1 Introduction

Whilst maps have always shown some hydrological information, such as river courses, swamps,
lakes etc., they are not proper hydrologicalmaps. The type of hydrological map at present
generally in use is still rather unsophisticated but the field of hydrological mapping is now
in a phase of rapid development. This fact not only reflects the large amounts of data
required to compile hydrological maps but demonstrates very much that hydrologists in many
cases have only just discovered the use of hydrological maps as a tool for their daily work and
as a teaching aid.
Hydrological mapping is rarely found in the curricula and syllabi of hydrology courses,
and civil engineers often have not been trained in the art of mapping. This perhaps explains
why hydrologists often prefer descriptions, tables and graphs although a map is much more
suitable for demonstrating phenomena and their quantitative aspects over an area. In contrast,
hydrogeologists, again as a consequence of their education, are much more used to preparing and
utilizing maps; geological mapping has a long tradition. Thus, it is not surprising that the
first hydrogeological maps were clearly derived from geological maps; real hydrogeological
maps showing the dynamics of groundwater are, however, rather new. Sophisticated types of maps
have been developed allowing the presentation of even three-dimensional phenomena such as
generally occur in groundwater; even the existence of several aquifers does not create serious
difficulties.
A physical map shows permanent features (rivers, mountains, etc.) and is one of the best-
known tools of geographers. Permanent features are amenable to mapping, but hydrology, as a
science of the hydrological cycle, deals with changing phenomena. A hydrological map, there-
fore, is not necessarily permanently valid and needs an explanation as to its origin, its way

56
of compilation and in some cases, even as to its purpose. Such an explanation would either be
in the form of a printed note beneath the map or an accompanying booklet, and might concern the
contents of the map, the reliability of data, the preparation of the map, its cartography, the
interpretation of the method of presentation and its legend.

5.2.2 Technical Points, Cartography

Scales

The following classification has been introduced and is widely used:

large scales : up to 100,000;

medium scales : 1 : 100,000to 1 : 500,000;
small scales : 1 : 500,000 and smaller.

Large-scale maps are generally prepared for or used in connection with special projects or
programmes, whereas very small-scale maps are normally used for teaching, scientific and demons-
tration purposes. For detailed studies or projects, large-scale maps (generally 1 : 25,000) are
used; for a general overview, maps of 1 : 1,000,000or much smaller are useful.

Cartography

In some cases hydrological maps call for specific requirements related to the character of the
phenomena presented. Discharge and quality of water in rivers need special forms of present-
ation since the phenomenon is not observed within an area but along the line of the river.
Hydrological maps, therefore, usually have an outstandingly rich choice of cartographic tools
such as:

symbols (points, triangles, etc.)

lines (different thicknesses, dashed, coloured);
curves (with symbols or other signs);
Dands (different thicknesses, structures, coloured);
diagrams (simple, compound, geometric figures);
isolines or area markings (colours, bands, shading, screens, overlays, superimposed
markings, area signs).

Base Maps

In general, hydrological maps are made using existing base maps on a given projection or scale.
Depending on the purpose of the maps, outline maps (showing only main items such as rivers,
towns, etc.) or normal topographical maps are used. Outline maps are preferred for small
scales; the larger the scale the more valuable is a basic map showing more detail. In
addition, in order to avoid confusion between the topographical detail of the base map and the
superimposed hydrological detail, map-makers prefer the base map to be printed in light grey
or brown rather than the customary black. Such maps are generally available at scales larger
than 1 : 200,000 and in particular at 1 : 50,000, 1 : 25,000 and larger. Since these maps are
very commonly used, they are normally inexpensive and have the advantage of being comparable
with other maps.
Course organisers are advised to have a stock of base maps of the region in which the
students are conducting their field work so that the students may map their results. Immediate
mapping in the field facilitates the visualisation of the project and helps to identify
mistakes on-the-spot; mapping irregularities are much more easily identified than errors in
tables.
The International Hydrogeological Map of Europe (1 : 1,500,000) is being published on the
same scale and with the same projection, background, sections etc., as the geological map, the
tectonic map and the deposits map, etc. The same principle is generally applied to atlases -
not only for economic reasons but also to facilitate comparison.

Legends

The choice of the scale may be regarded as the most important decision of the map-maker. The
scale influences the quality of presentation and also determines the detail included in the
legend.
In many countries standardised legends have been developed for specific reasons, particular-
ly in the field of climatic and geological maps. No recommendations exist for surface water.

57
 For hydrogeological maps, an international legend for hydrogeological maps (Unesco/IAHS,
1970) has been developed with a view to facilitating the preparation of maps. It recommends
certain symbols and modes of presentation for several phenomena of groundwater hydrology.

5.2.3 General Classification of Hydrological Maps

Network Maps

Network maps permit interpretation of the quality of the network, the universality of
observations and the representativeness of data. They contain all gauges and observation
stations for measurement of the chemical composition of water, temperature, discharge and
biological parameters. An indication of the meteorological network is frequently omitted
though this would be a very valuable addition for the hydrologist. Groundwater observation
stations should also be shown in a network map, although very often they are to be found in
maps compiled by different agencies. Network maps may also indicate the areal responsibilities
of water agencies or authorities and borders of administrative districts.

Maps Showing Hydrological Phenomena

Due to the changing character of hydrological phenomena, many maps describe momentary conditions,
averages, durations, variabilities, frequencies, intensities, etc. The first type of map deals
with observed data. These data may concern properties and conditions existing at the moment of
observation (examples: discharge 1.1.1970 7 am, borders of inundated area of the flood of ...,
temperatures of water in a lake, etc.). These maps generally emerge from observations taken at
various places at the same moment or for the same event. This type of map is a typical product
of the field work of students. Maps such as these show data without any interpretation or
evaluation. The same generally applies to any map of totals and absolute values, including the
results of physical and chemical analyses.
A very common group of maps deals with evaluated data such as averages, maxima or minima.
Most of the maps of water quality, discharges and temperatures have been drawn on the basis of
a long series of data developed with rather simple mathematical processes (calculation of
averages). For mean levels and discharges, averages are obtained from twenty or even thirty
years of data.
Whereas the first group deals with the actual dataland the second group with averages of
these data, a third group interprets the data. In this group all maps of duration, variability,
frequencies, intensities, beginning or ending dates of a phenomenon, of tendencies and
developments, are included. These maps require the existence of reliable and sufficient data
and need careful treatment. Maps of this kind are absolutely indispensable for the work of
hydrologists since they are most suitable for describing particular aspects of the hydrological
cycle, especially changes in hydrological and hydraulic conditions.

Reliability

The considerations above are based on the assumption that sufficient and reliable data are
available. In many cases the available data do not justify the preparation of a detailed map
or they demand qualification on their representativeness and reliability. Lack of quantity
or quality of data may only lead to schematic maps or to maps on such a small scale that the
mapping requirements can be met by the amount of available data.

5.2.4 Classification of Fields of Interest

A very important aspect of classification is the place of the phenomenon within the hydrological
cycle.

5.2.4.1 Atmospheric Water

The hydrologist should be familiar with the most important climatic maps (precipitation, wind,
temperature, air pressure, sunshine, etc.) and he should pay particular attention to learning
to read and interpret daily weather charts and even to making an attempt at prediction. Each
syllabus of a hydrology course should include the study of weather charts, explanation of their
symbols, description of the element presented, and exercises on how to read charts. Consider-
ation of three ar more consecutive charts will help students to understand the development of
the weather. Precipitation intensity maps are of particular importance. Details may be
obtained from the WMO Guide to Climatological Practices (WMO, 1960). Precipitation maps are
easily obtained -
they are in all good atlases, in publications of national weather boards,

58
and are obtainable from school equipment suppliers. The hydrology student should be supplied
with data on a given heavy rainfall and should develop for himself a map of rain intensities
as a basis for the computation of a flood. Besides precipitation maps, the hydrologist should
be acquainted with maps on evaporation.

5.2.4.2 Surface Water

The description of surface water phenomena often poses immense difficulties and leads to tables,
graphs or maps being prepared. Lakes often have three-dimensional problems which in some cases
can only be presented on maps. River problems can be presented on a map but only in relation
to the river itself and not in relation to the surface they drain. In spite of all this, map-
ping is often the easiest way to present data in a comprehensive and instructive way.
The most generally used surface water map is the physical map showing the boundaries of
the catchment areas and their sub-catchments. The map would show rivers, canals, lakes, swamps,
deserts, etc., and may be supplemented with details of the hydrological network. This type of
map is more geographical than hydrological.
Geomorphological maps deal with the geomorphology of rivers and lakes. As far as rivers
are concerned, the maps exist only on rather large scales, whereas large lakes may be shown on
a smaller scale. Maps of deltas, valleys with remainders of unregulated river systems, inundat-
ed areas and changes of river beds belong to this group. Engineers in particular use these
maps, since hardly any plans for construction in rivers or lakes can be drawn without a concise
geomorphological map. Hydrologists and civil engineers should be able to compile, or at least
interpret, maps of this kind, detailing river beds and banks for use in streamflow studies, for
studies on erosion and sedimentation and for construction purposes.
Streamflow maps deal with the distribution of streamflow in a river and flow of river water
through a lake.
Chemical properties and water quality maps generally show chemical concentrations or
alkalinity and acidity levels anly at the spot where the sample was taken, since it is almost
impossible to extrapolate chemical properties in order to describe the situation between two
distant measuring points.
The quality of water is not only a question of the solid matter in the water and the
chemical composition of the dissolved materials. The biological component generally is the
most important factor which influences the quality of surface water and the possibilities of
its use. The quality of water may be divided into five categories in decreasing order of water
quality:
oligo-saprobe zone (1)
B-meso-saprobe zone (11)
a-meso-saprobe zone (111)
poly-saprobe zone (IV)
excessive pollution zone (v).
If sufficient data are available, sub-categories may be introduced. Maps on water quality
are based on observations made over a set period. Water quality maps show pollution, the in-
fluence of polluted tributaries or of tributaries with relatively pure water. It is very
instructive for students to see the influence of human activities (factories, cities with or
without purification plants, recovery of river water, influence of water quantity, relation
between pollution and population density, influence of new or overloaded purification plants).
The ecologist and planner may see from these maps how far man has exhausted the natural water
resources and, in collaboration with engineers, chemists and town and country planners, can
discuss whether reserves are still available, whether these reserves can be used and whether
measures are necessary to improve the situation.

Simple discharge maps. One type of such maps shows the average discharge along the river,
the data being obtained over a long period. Maps are available for
mean discharge;
mean high water discharge;
mean low water discharge;
and occasionally for winter, summer, rainy or dry seasons. The thickness of the line tracing
the river's path denotes the runoff. The maps show very clearly the development of a river,
the influence of tributaries and of important factors such as evaporation, infiltration or
retention. Classical examples of rivers losing water on their way are the Nile and the Niger.
The hydrologist will note the difference between rivers in flat swampy areas with little
seasonal variation in the discharge and mountain rivers with a great variation between the
minimum and maximum discharge.

59
 An important type of discharge map is ralated to the drained area. The water which has
passed on observation station during a given period (e.g. one year) is converted into a theoret-
ical layer of constant thickness over the whole drained area according to:
1
R = -CQ at
A
where Q = discharge;
t = time;
A = drained area;
R = depth of the theoretical water layer;

This sort of map can be superimposed on and compared with precipitation maps.
Whereas these maps are based on the idea of the discharge over a period of time (monthly or
yearly), another group of maps can show the discharge per unit of area and time. For this
purpose the discharge is divided by the size of the area drained

where Q =
discharge;
A =
catchment area;
q = unit discharge, dimension generally 1s”m2
The value q is most advantageous since it permits direct comparisons with the production of
other river systems.

Complex discharge maps. In principle, complex regime maps describe the situation with relation
to as many hydrological phenomena as possible.
If maps of precipitation P and runoff R (related to the drained area) are available, it is
easy to develop a map showing the percentage of the discharge of precipitation and to show the
isolines of the value
R
c1 =
P
100 -
This relation may be regarded as a runoff factor and should be studied by hydrologists in
connection with a topographical map, a geological map and possibly with a map on soil and
vegetation.
A further description of the regime deals with the length of period in which a river may
run dry,be covered with ice or be open for navigation. Maps of this type are generally called
‘simple regime maps’.
Another type of complex regime map shows the relation between the minimum and maximum mean
monthly discharge and the mean discharge. On the map the river is, therefore, accompanied by
two bands. One of them represents the ratio of the lowest of the twelve mean monthly discharges
and the mean annual discharge. The other band represents the corresponding ratio for the
highest of the twelve mean monthly discharges.
These ratios and their relations represent the type of river discharge regime, e.g.
pluvial, pluvionival, nivo-pluvial, nival (in mountains), glacial or influenced by underground
karst layers. For more detailed studies, the reader is referred to Unesco/WMO, 1977.
Although this list of complex maps is not complete and the more sophisticated possibilities
have been omitted, the possibilities of presenting various hydrological phenomena in one map
and of demonstrating their interrelation can be seen. The value of these maps for hydrology
students stems from the potential of being able to show possible interaction of parameters and
to introduce the student to various hydrological regimes.

Snow and ice. Maps of snowfall have been mentioned already under Atmospheric Water. Maps of
glaciers, however, deserve special mention here. One type of such maps deals with the balance
of the glacier. Besides showing the contours of the underlying ground, the thickness of the
glacier is indicated in isolines. Special signs show the reduction of ice masses in periods
of melting as well as the amount of new ice formation from snow or water.
Further information on the mapping of glaciers is available in the series ‘Technical
Papers in Hydrology’, Paris, Unesco, 1970, numbers 1 to 5, entitled:
1. Perennial ice and snow masses.
2. Seasonal snow cover.
3. Variations of existing glaciers.
4. Antarctic glaciology in the International Hydrological Decade.
5. Combined heat, ice and water balances at selected glacial basins.

5.2.4.3 Groundwater Maps, Hydrogeological Maps

The International Hydrogeological Map of Europe. In collaboration with the International

60
Association of Hydrogeologists, the Commission for the Geological Map of the World (Sub-
commission for Hydrogeological Maps) and Unesco,a set of maps at the scale 1 : 1,500,000 is
being prepared and is partly available. The legend is based on:
- groundwater in porous rocks (colour);
- groundwater in jointed massive rocks (colour);
- regions generally with no or only local groundwater (colour);
- particular notes on groundwater and springs (signs);
- particular notes on surface water (signs);
- particular notes on artificial works (signs);
- particular notes on geological outarops (signs).
This example has been chosen since this map is internationally available. The scale of the
map restricts its practical value; it is mainly intended for use in teaching and for
demonstration purposes. The map is strongly recommended for hydrology courses since nearly all
aspects of hydrogeological mapping can be demonstrated. A sample sheet (Annex 1) is to be found
inside the back cover of this book. Maps for other regions of the world are in preparation.

Approaches for Making Hydrogeological Maps

Differences between hydrogeological maps consist of the different methods of presenting hydro-
geological elements and, to a greater extent, the subject to be mapped and the scientific
approach. Therefore, the legends and the presentation of data vary much more than in maps of
surface water. Since technical possibilities for combining symbols on a map are limited and
someeimes three-dimensional problems have to be shown, much information is given in the text of
the legend or in small diagrams and cross-sections in the margin of the map. Five different
approaches have been developed with the aim of introducing to hydrology students the complex
relations existing between geological, lithological and hydraulic features connected with the
occurrence of groundwater.

Geological approach. The geological approach can be considered as the first phase of development
of hydrogeological mapping. A coloured background represents the distribution and the litho-
logical composition of the geological formations, mostly in full analogy to a geological map
or even by using it. A text may indicate the properties and the availability of groundwater
and may also show the stratum in which it appears, as well as the conditions of recharge.
Isolines may represent the relief of the piezometric surface and the thickness of the zone of
aeration.
Since groundwater and the geological conditions are always very closely related, the
geological approach is of much importance and should be given high priority by hydrology
teachers. The student hydrologist should be acquainted with the geological aspects of ground-
water hydrology. Maps of this type are an excellent tool to show these relations under
practical conditions.

Hydraulic approach. In this group of maps, hydrophysical properties of the rocks and the
underground formations are the principal subjects of mapping. The rocks are described according
to the conditions of water accumulation in them (porous, fractured, anhydrous, complex formations
or aquifers in the shape of a lens). The colour of the map still relates to the geological
formations with a cartographic presentation of the lithological composition of the rocks by
hatchings covering the coloured background.
This type of map classifies the rocks according to their permeability. The degree of
permeability does not necessarily correspond to the genesis, composition and age of strata or
geological formation. The dynamics of the aquifer are indicated by a system of hydro-isohypses.

Resources approach. In this type of map areas of distribution of 'useful waters' are outlined
by contours. Regions with aquifers which are being exploited or are expected to be exploited
are shown. The conditions of groundwater occurrence, their dynamics, the quality and quantity
of water are not generally represented.

Hydrogeological approach. This group of maps is based on the selection of aquifers of complexes
in their geological relation, taking into account the formation and lithological composition of
the rocks, the interrelation between water-resistant and water-bearing rocks, their thickness and
permeability and their hydrodynamic characteristics.
One section of the legend is devoted to aspects of the hydraulic approach including aspects
of porosity etc. Other sections of the legend deal with the description of the groundwater, its
dynamics, quantity, quality and temperature. These data have a cartographic reflection in the
form of isolines, etc.
Modern hydrogeological maps are quite universal and give an understanding of hydrogeological

61
conditions and of the interrelations between groundwater and geology, geomorphology and the
mechanics of the water moving under the ground. A large-scale hydrogeological map should at
least contain information on
-- surface elevation;
distance of the aquifer from the surface or contour lines of the surface of the aquifer;
- indication of the transmissivity of the aquifers or of the productivity or possible yield;
and, if possible
- the quality of the groundwater.
Generally, only the main aquifer will be mapped. Where several aquifers exist, the other
aquifers can be indicated in different colours. However, this method of presentation is often
confusing and the use of transparent overlying sheets, one for each aquifer, is recommended.
Groundwater is an essential element of the occurrence of water in the hydrological cycle.
The complex maps which have been discussed above are a means of identifying areas of deficit or
surplus in groundwater formation and they should be compared with geological maps in order to
control the precision of the surface water maps (discharge, etc.). In particular, they may
also be used to adjust the computation of the actual evaporation.
A special feature of groundwater maps is hydrochemistry, and information on the availabil-
ity of groundwater is often sup lemegied by2$solines on different aspects of the water quality,
particularly the contents of Na , Ca
? 2-
+ Mg , Cl-, SO4 , Fe, Mn, hardness, etc. Special maps
on salinity, salt water intrusion, brines, hot springs for medical waters, etc., should also be
mentioned.
A rather new field of hydrogeological mapping is of interest in areas where industrial and
household waste is deposited. These areas require an impermeable underground layer for the
prevention of infiltration into neighbouring water-bearing layers. These maps are developed
from geological maps and soil maps in connection with maps showing the permanent use of
groundwater as well as future plans for the use of the water resources and for urbanization.

5.2.5 Records

To conclude discussion of the subject dealt withlin this chapter, the importance of records must
also be mentioned briefly. Records form the basis of most hydrological maps, and are the source
of data for nearly every element of the hydrological cycle. They exist on:

- meteorological phenomena: air pressure, wind direction and velocity, air temperature, air
humidity, precipitation, sunshine duration and intensity;
- surface water measurements:water level, discharge, temperature, data on water quality,
ice conditions, physical data;
- groundwater measurements: level, temperature, chemical composition.

With regard to the compilation of data, the following principles can be observed:

- records cover one year (in some countries, the 'water year' differs from the calendar year);
exceptionally they cover shorter or longer periods;
- records exist for a country as a whole or for a catchment area.
Yearbooks exist for almost all countries. Hydrology students should, therefore, study very
carefully the yearbook of their country and compare it with yearbooks of other countries. They
should learn to read the records (abbreviations, ways in which the tables, charts and diagrams
are composed, subject contents, references, competence of water boards, etc.). A hydrology
student should be charged with interpreting the situation at a given data by sorting out all
necessary data from the yearbook in order to describe the hydrological (and if available, the
meteorological) circumstances. In doing this, the student will see that a conscientious
compilation of data is absolutely necessary for any work in hydrology, and he will learn that
data collection and processing is the indispensable basis of every hydrological service.
While yearbooks on surface water observatlon generally contain data by station and time,
groundwater data are generally stored in special groundwater archives.
The yearbook is the source of data for a map, but it cannot replace a map nor can a map
replace the records. The hydrologist will always base his work on the data contained in records
and he will express his ideas in the map, maps being extremely adaptable for showing relations
between data and their area of origin and the dynamics of the data. Maps re-animate a past
situation, demonstrate impressively situations and developments, and open many possibilities
of presenting and interpreting data even of different character, origin and subject. Through
maps data are converted into a picture which facilitates the understanding of events and
situations.

62
5.3 Hydrological Mapping and Interpretation from Aerial Photographs

Any kind of aerial photograph might be practicable for teaching purposes but vertical photographs
varying in scales between 1 : 15,000 and 1 : 50,000 are to be preferred. Large-scale photographs
may provide extra detail but a less general view; they are more time consuming to elaborate and
the number of photographs to cover a certain area is large. On the other hand, small-scale
photographs may be deficient in showing recognisable details.
Normal black-and-white photographs (panchromatic-minus-blue) are the most commonly used.
Infra-red pictures may be useful for hydrological purposes as they clearly mark the differences
between wet and dry soils. The use of colour or false-colour photographs for both teaching
hydrology and in practice depends on the objectives of the studies and the area itself.
Stereo pairs of photographs for a variety of landscapes can be examined by the student to
identify different hydrological conditions. These photographs, accompanied by some explanatory
notes, should be interpreted on a sketch-map of the area, drawn on a transparent sheet covering
the photograph. The student should mark the relevant features, distinguish and delineate the
units in which the area has to be divided and draw hydrogeological conclusions resulting from
them.

5.3.1 Interpretation

Since hydrological processes as such cannot be interpreted from the imagery, the emphasis is on
the analysis and mapping of the physical terrain attributes which influence hydrological process-
es. The attributes are seen in a unique way in the stereomodels created by two overlapping
photographs, and their mutual relationships can be studied. The interrelationships between
physical terrain factors on the one hand and their influence on the hydrological processes on the
other, is reflected in the methodology of interpretation and outlined below. Proficiency at
this interpretation develops only with practice. Short field trips are strongly recommended
to visualise at first hand these features of terrain interpreted from photographs and to check
the nature of rock types, soils, groundwater tables, and so on.
In the vast range of terrain attributes, ranging from geological to vegetational factors,
and the varied nature of hydrological themes, there is an obvious need to structure the inter-
pretation exercise. The structuring could be done by:

- Providing background hydrological data, such as graphs showing rainfall and evaporation on
a monthly basis, rainfall intensity data, regional effective precipitation and tables
relating lithology with permeability, specific yield. In this way, each exercise is viewed
against the main hydrological setting.

- Discussion of the hydrological theme(s) of intesest to be analysed, for example: ranking

of small catchments according to their relative peak runoff, relative sediment production,
site location of small reservoirs, location and recharge of shallow aquifers or possible
deeper aquifers, factors to be used in estimates of the water budget and so on. A list
of suitable questions is of great assistance.

- Adherence to a strict sequence of thematic interpretations (see below).

- Evaluation of the results (see below).

Each terrain, shown in a stereomodel, is composed of geological, geomorphological, soil and

vegetal attributes.

The Drainaqe Net work

The image interpretation should start with the main frame of the terrain, the geology (surface
geology and subsurface extrapolations) and gradually work upward to the geomorphology, physio-
graphy and related soils, finishing with the vegetation and land use.
Not all steps in the sequence may have equal weight as this depends on the interpretability,
the nature of the area and the hydrologic theme.
However, the sequence should be adhered to strictly, even if not much more than a sketchy
description can be made. Where necessary, published information or local field knowledge should
be consulted.
A simple tracing of the drainage network provides an introduction to the area; a thematic
drainage tracing will focus attention on the hydrological characteristics.
Flood limits and areas with inundation in relative terms of duration and frequency may be

63
related to a detailed interpretation of the flood plain geomorphology. Several of the
listed aspects may require in-depth interpretations and data on groundwater levels. There-
fore the thematic drainage mapping may be finalised at a later stage. It may be noted that a
useful exercise in itself is to ask the students to list the unknown factors required to complete
the analysis and interpretation.

Geol oyical Interpretation

Proper photo-geological results can only be expected from experienced field geologists.
However, the interpretation of stereomodels is an excellent way of teaching geology to the
inexperienced. The geological interpretation should attempt to define the lithology and structure
The order of magnitude of the quantities of water in the located aquifers may be assessed in an
approximate way with the aid of the regional hydrological data and empirical tables. As a
preparation to the interpretation of geomorphology and soils, questions on the non-baseflow
component and the recharge of aquifers may be posed.

Geomorphological Interpretation

The geomorphological classification should incorporate the lithological and geological inform-
ation, as well as describe associations of internal relief, slope steepness and degree of dis-
section. Just two hierarchical levels are sufficient for most hydrological interpretations, a
broad genetical grouping indicative of the lithology and a physiographic sub-differentiation,
adjusted to requirements and nature of the terrain studied.
The resulting mapping units usually coincide with broad land use classes in traditional
agriculture and natural vegetation, whereas the soils succession may be placed in the physio-
graphical framework.

Soils

Soil taxonomy and physical soil factors cannot be interpreted from imagery. A detailed analysis
of the terrain on stereomodels, as an aid in a soil survey, is a specialist task. The soil
aspects in hydrological interpretation have to be assessed in an indirect way, by relating the
soil successions and associations to the physiographical factors.
Examples which can be identified and singled out as separate mapping units in a photo-
hydrological survey are:

- areas with salt efflorescence (the high reflectivity is well visible on black and white
(BW), infra-red (IRC) and on LANDSAT (all bands)) ,

- wetlands, which have usually high depression and detention storage, and which may indicate
seasonal groundwater emergence zones.

- areas with crusts, which impede infiltration.

Veyetation
In the last stage of the interpretation sequence the attention concentrates on the vegetation
and land use.
Broad classes of vegetation and traditional land use tend to be associated with the physio-
graphic units, and their patterns may have been used for the delineation of those units already.
When no such coincidence is apparent, a separate mapping may be necessary. Here again,
the students should be instructed that the mapping effort, and thus the legend, should tally
with the hydrological data available.
If reliable crop water use coefficients are available for the area of interest, the inter-
pretation may be directed to identify and make an inventory of the acreage under the various
types of crops. The recognition of individual crop types depends on the scale of the photo-
graphs, when they were taken and the type of film.
LANDSAT finds its most general application in water resources studies in the domain of
vegetation and land use inventory, particularly if the satellite images are used in conjunction
and not in competition with aerial photography. TCJteach the potentialities of LANDSAT, a
sequential set of images at characteristic moments in the cropping calendar should be available.
The strong seasonal effects of broad-leafed vegetation are adequately recorded as well as the
response of vegetation to rainfall or irrigation in the drier parts of the world.

64
Special interpretations of vegetation patterns could be of interest when a direct link with
groundwater exists, such as:
- density and extent of phreatophytes along streams;
- alignment of tall trees, bushes along inferred faults, fractures, outcrops with seepage,
clusters of dense vegetation around springs.

5.3.2 Evaluation of Results

Photo-hydrological interpretation is not an end in itself, but a means of assisting hydrological

work. The students will gain much experience when some of the exercises are treated as case
histories, however simple they may be. Exercises dealing with more complex terrain could be
restricted to the following aspects:
- interpretationof results which are fairly straightforward and need little fieldwork or
other information (acreages with broad land use classes, outcrop areas of hard rock,
certain geomorpholoqical units, etc.).
- delineation of units where field investigations are required to determine their lithology,
soils, depth, as well as an assessment of their hydrologic behaviour.
- determination of hydrological data required to answer the hydrological questions posed,
but whlch cannot be solved by the use of imagery.
Attention can also be devoted to some of the more specialised applications of remote
sensing data. For example:
- Thermal Infrared (TIR) for studies of thermal pollution in water bodies, or thermal
anomalies caused by groundwater effusion into the sea.
- Use of False Colour (FC), Infrared Colour (IRC), LANDSAT in studies of wetlands, tidal
areas.
- Use of LANDSAT in analysing patterns of relative concentrations of suspended sediment.
- Use of LANDSAT in monitoring vegetation and land use.
- Digital image processing and computer assisted classification techniques and their
applications.

5.3.3 Materials

In order to teach hydrology students the basic principles of aerial photography and its
interpretation the following material is needed:
- an ample collection oE photographs and maps related to a variety of hydrological
conditions. The photographs should reflect different film/filter combinations and
LANDSAT images;
- tracing paper (Kodatrace or other transparent film:
- compasses for fiducial marking-
- transparent rulers;
- working tables;
- pocket stereoscopes for field use;
- mirror stereoscope with magnifiers;
- parallax bars.
One set of each of the above-mentioned material is required for each student doing the
exercise. It should be noted that a good illumination of the exercise room is required.
Suitable references are as follows:
Geological aspects: Mekel, 1970; Miller & Miller, 1961
Geomorphology, Physiography, Soils: Verstappen, 1977; Way, 1973
Vegetation: Howard, 1970
Hydrology: Meijerink, 1974; Nefedo 8, Popova, 1969; Thomson et a1.,1973;
General : Fraysse, 1980; Lillesand & Keifer, 1979; Schanda, 1976.

65
VI.Auxiliary aids and educational technology

6.1 Textbooks

For most effective teaching and learning it is important that full information be at hand on
available textbooks and reference books dealing with topics in hydrology. A monograph on
textbooks in hydrology prepared during the International Hydrological Decade (THD) includes
information on a limited number of textbooks in hydrology available in various languages
(Unesco, 1970, 1974). It contains information such as chapter headings and sub-headings,
the number of pages, figures, tables, references cited for each chapter and a general
comment on the book. A tabular comparison gives the amount of space devoted by each book to
various topics. Such information was prepared for books classified as general hydrology,
groundwater hydrology or hydrometry. These monographs shculd be helpful to teachers of hydrol-
ogy in locating books with which they might not otherwise be familiar. Now the Unesco
periodical 'Nature and Resources' contains such descriptions of newly publish& textbooks.

6.2 Visual Aids

Among the visual aids, slides and overhead transparencies play a predominant role. In view of
the numerous individual collections at universities and other training institutions, it is
difficult to assess their value hut they undoubtedly constitute first-class teaching aids.
There are a number of aspects of hydrology which lend themselves to presentation in motion
pictures; showing physical phenomena to the student which he ordinarily would not have an
opportunity to see and appreciate. Motion pictures showing the wide variations in streamflow
certainly give the student a better appreciation for the extremes that occur. Film loops of
cloud formation and types of storms also are useful.
Films of actual precipitation and streamflow measurements give the student a realistic
appreciation for the field problems he will encounter; films on fluvial channels can show the
student the importance of bed fcrms and their interaction with sediment and streamflow.
Films are particularly valuable where either slow hydrological processes can be shown
during a short period or where fast processes can he extended to permit comprehension by the
students.
Experience has shown that many instructors are reluctant to give an entire classroom period
to the showing of films. Films of about half-hour length are frequently shown at universities
at times other than the regular class period; they can be scheduled in advance and students
requested to attend the showings as a non-classroom activity.
The number of motion pictures dealing specifically with hydrological subjects is quite
limited, though films dealing with water quality aspects, specific water resource development
projects, or hydraulic engineering are often available.

6.3 Audio-Visual Aids

6.3.1 Video Equipment

The use of video equipment in hydrology teaching is likely to increase. The video technique is
fundamentally different to cinematography; the pictures are produced, stored and transmitted
electronically.
Figure 6.1 is a sketch of the principal structure of a video system including recording,
transmission, storage and reproduction of pictures and sound. The video technique has the

67
 microphone
\

vi deo camera videorecorder television set

record storage reproduction

Fig. 6.1 -A simple video system.

following advantages over other techniques:

- The synchronisation of picture and sound remains even after revision or editing of the
recording.
- There is no delay between making a video recording and examining the result: what is
recorded can be immediately reproduced to check the lighting, the camera angles, the
logical transition of one scene to another, etc.
- The pictures can be transmitted over cable or radio.
The principal elements of the video system shown in Figure 6.1 are

Video recorder

For storage of video or televisicn picture signals, a video recorder is used. In principle
this is quite similar to the tape recorder. The magnetic tape storage medium allows unlimited
replay and the facility to re-use the tape to record different phenomena.

Video cameia

Video cameras and/or television cameras are used for recording. They are outwardly similar to
film cameras, but (at present) are much heavier. Hand cameras are lighter and are connected to
portable video recorders.

Television set

For control and transmission of the recording most commercial-size televisions can be used. The
set is connected to the video recorder through the antenna-input connection.

Microphone

Sound may be recorded at the same time as the picture or added at a later date.

6.3.2 Video Techniques in the Teaching Process

The video technique offers the teaching process a series of new and unique features. In the
following, a few typical possibilities for the application of video techniques in the teaching
process are indicated.

a. Recording of television transmissions and reproduction in teac-.ing

All suitable video cassette recorders have the advantage that they are easy to operate and
their operating elements are exceptionally similar to the well-known tape cassette recorders.

68
The advantages of video recording are:
- The reproduction of the TV transmission can take place at the most favourable time.
- Single segments can be used for several purposes.
- The application of the video technique can be planned in advance.
- The teacher can familiarise himself with the recording prior to transmission to the
students.
- The operation of the video recorder is simpler than a film projector.

b. Video transmission in the classroom

'A live video transmission' can be made by connecting a video camera directly to a TV set.
This technique can be useful in showing an entire class some small detail of apparatus.

c. Making recordings in the class, laboratory or during fieldwork

Portable video cameras and microphones enable the teacher to make his own video films. This
allows several possibilities for teaching, which were hitherto unrealisable. Recordings of
particular lessons or demonstrations are available for student revision purposes or for the
teacher to examine and improve his teaching technique.
Video equipment can be used to great advantage for demonstrating certain types of labora-
tory or experiment or fieldwork, particularly where a live demonstration is time-consuming,
difficult to set up, in a remote or awkward location, or only possible at inconvenient times.
For example, a class visit to a discharge measuring station at times of flood would be
valuable but inconvenient to all concerned. Recordings could also be made of pumping tests,
dilution gauging and so on, allowing detailed pictures to be projected to a great number of
students in a relatively short time. This permits the more intensive use of the actual
teaching time and particular phases of the work can be shown any number of times if they have
been stored on video tape. Barely visible details can be enlarged by the video camera.
Moreover, some video recorders permit a slowed-down projection of a rapid sequence of events
and a speed-up of a slow sequence of events; this is useful, for instance, in showing ground-
water flow.
Video equipment is still expensive, but will become less so in relative terms. An
extensive range of equipment is available for purchase or hire, and care must be exercised in
selecting suitable and compatible, though not necessarily the most expensive, equipment for
teaching purposes. Even so the costs of video equipment and tapes can be offset against costs
in time and travel and shared with other departments. Although an actual experiement may be
regarded as better than a recording of it, one must consider that, throqgh the video technique
a greater number of experiments can be made available for discussion at the same time. In
the most favourable case, the video technique will not replace the direct performance of
laboratory and field experiments, but will complement them in valuable ways.

6.4 Computers

6.4.1 Computational Facilities

Computers can be divided into three broad categories:

- pocket calculators
- microcomputers/minicomputers
- mainframe computers

Pocket calculators

These are single-user, hand-held calculating devices which perform sequences of arithmetic
calculations (including trigonometrical and exponential functions) and store intermediate and
final values. The more advanced types can store (either internally or in external memory)
sequences of instructions for repetitive calculations.

Microcomputers/minicomputers

These are desk-top computers, generally consisting of a keyboard, visual d splay unit and/or
printer, microprocessor and permanent storage devices (e.g. magnetic tape, cassette, floppy
disc, hard disc units etc.). They are operated using a system language to control the various
devices and manipulate and access program and data files. Programs can be written in high

69
level languages such as Fortran. Microprocessors are readily linked to sensing/measuring
apparatus and so they find application not just as computing devices but for process monitoring
and control.
Extensive proprietary software is usually available, for example graphics packages,
standard business accounting software etc.

Mainframe computers

Mainframe computers are usually large, very powerful machines, intended for several users
(either in batch or interat.tive/time-sharing modes). They have large central core memory
as well as auxiliary storage (magnetic tape etc.). The input and output devices can take a
variety of forms, including plotters, visual display units, printers, punched card readers,
paper tape readers etc. Control of mainframe computers is usually exercised by a complex
operating system and supervised by computer specialists. The typical configuration of a
mainframe computer is shown in Figure 6.2.

n
I rat el I i te console
computer I

high speed
printer

CPU control
I host computer) consoIe card reader
card punch
I

1-6 f
J &paper tape unch
active
termiml

inter-
active
terminal

Fig. 6.2 - Configuration of a main frame computer.

It is often rather difficult to decide to which class a single machine belongs.

IClass of Computer I possible usage in hydrological research I

pocket-calculator hydrological calculations in the field, small statistical investigations
substitute for slide-rule, mathematical and statistical tables

microcomputer book-keeping in engineering bureaux, data-recording and data analysis

mini-computer for programming of small simulation models, can be connected to a large
storage computer (on- and off-line) , process monitoring/control
~~~

mainframe computer large data recording and data analysis, for programming of most of the
hydrological simulation, rainfall-prediction and flood-forecast models

Table 6.1 : Classes of computers and their possible usage in hydroloqical research

70
 The use of computer programs for the numerical solution of common hydrological problems
has been publicised in the literature (e.g. Clarke, 1973; Bugliarello et all 1974). An
extensive summary of available computer software, giving a general description of the program,
its purpose, availability, hardware and data requirements, has been compiled (WMO, 1981);
further details of the WMO publication and its contents are available from IHP National
Committees.

6.4.2 Computers as Teaching Aids

In contrast to visual and audio-visual auxiliaries, which are only capable of one-way
communication, computers are adaptive auxiliaries in the teaching process and involve two-way
communication between the user and the machine. Computer assisted instruction has been used
since 1960 in the USA and other countries. Programs for controlling the learning process
are stored in the computer together with programs which all-owinteraction between the students
and the computer. By this means, the simulation of hydrological processes (e.g. watershed
models, time-series generation) can be performed which could not be solved numerically in a
conventional teaching situation (for examples see Chidley and Wood, 1981).
For small groups of students or for research purposes the type of computer may depend on
the hydrological problem under study. Both the hydrological problem and the available data
are determining factors for the type of computer.
The benefits of computers and other media as teaching aids are compared to the teacher in
table 6.2. The possibilities and advantages of the various media in presenting information are
evident; in some cases, it appears that the repertoire of presentation of technical teaching
aids is superior to that of the teacher. Some hydrologic phenomena (precipitation, infiltration,
sediment transport, turbulences, etc.) can be visualised more effectively by means of motion
pictures which can slow down or speed up the process. In giving directives for processing new
information and reacting to student feedback, the efficiency of the technical media is lower
than that of the teacher, but in comparison with other auxiliary teaching aids, the computer is
a powerful aid in hydrology.

~~

I
Media Real Printed texts Static 3ynamic Teaching
Teache.
objects (e.g textbooks) Pictures Pictures machines
(oral)
(e.g slides) (e.g. films) (e.g computers)

present
I
information Yes limited yes limitei

offer models
of expected
achievement limited yes Limited limited Yes

direct
attention no Yes 10 no Yes

offer
teaching aids limited yes Limited limited Yes

offer
transfer of
knowledge Limited limited limited Yes

feed back
information Limited limited Yes

Table 6.2 : Comparison of didactic functions between different teaching aids and the teacher

71
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