PHYSICS NOTES

CLASS 10TH
Prepared by
Abdul Rauf Asif
Physics Teacher

CHAPTER 10

SHM AND WAVE MOTION

VIBRATORY MOTION
A body is said to be vibrating if it moves back and forth or to and fro about a point. For example motion of simple pendulum,
swing, mass attach to a spring etc.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
SHM is a special kind of vibratory motion.
SHM is a kind of vibratory motion in which body moves under the action of restoring force.
SHM is a kind of vibratory motion in which force and acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement from the mean
position and is always directed towards the mean position.

SHM OF DIFFERENT SYSTEMS

MOTION OF MASS ATTACHED TO A SPRING

 Consider a mass attached to a spring placed on a horizontal smooth surface.
 When the spring is stretched or compressed through a small distance x and
then released it moves back and forth under the action of restoring force (the
force which brings back the body towards its mean position) provided by the
spring.
 Remember that restoring force is always opposite to the displacement from
the mean position.
 According to Hook’s law this force is directly proportional to x(displacement
from mean position)
------------------ (1)

 Where k is spring constant.

 K measures the stiffness of the spring.
 Stiff springs have large value of k whereas soft springs have small value of k.
 According to 2nd law of motion
 -------------------------------------(2)
 Comparing equations 1 and 2 ,we get
 ---------------------------------------(3)
 It shows that acceleration is directly proportional to displacement from mean position and is always directed towards
the mean position.
 EXPLANINATION OF THE MOTION OF MASS ATTATCHED TO A SPRING
 Initially when the mass is at rest at mean position O as no net force is acting on it.
 When the mass is released from one of extreme position (say a) it oscillate due to restoring force F.
 When it reaches at mean position O it does not stop due to inertia and continuous its motion towards extreme
position b.
 At b it stops for a while and then again moves towards the mean position due to restoring force and this process is
repeated and mass oscillates back and forth about mean position.
 Hence the motion of mass attached to a spring is SHM.
QUANTITY MEAN POSITION EXTREME POSITION
Velocity Maximum Zero
Acceleration Zero Maximum
Restoring force Zero Maximum
Kinetic Energy Maximum Zero
Potential Energy Zero Maximum

Its time period is given by

 BALL AND BOWL SYSTEM

 The motion of ball and bowl system in another example of SHM.

 Initially when the ball is at rest at mean position O as no net force is
acting on it.
 Now if the ball is released from A it starts moving towards the mean
position o due to the restoring force provided by tis weight/gravity.
 At the mean position O the ball does not stop due to inertia ant
moves towards B.
 At B it stops for a while and then again moves towards the mean
position due to restoring force
 This process is repeated and ball oscillates about the mean position
O till all of its energy is lost due to friction.
 Hence the to and fro motion of ball about mean position is SHM.

QUANTITY MEAN POSITION EXTREME POSITION

Velocity Maximum Zero
Acceleration Zero Maximum

Restoring force Zero Maximum

Kinetic Energy Maximum Zero
Potential Energy Zero Maximum
 MOTION OF A SIMPLE PENDULUM

A simple pendulum also shows SHM.

A simple pendulum consists of a small bob of mass m suspended from
an inextensible spring of length l.
In the equilibrium position O bob is stationary as no net force is acting
on it.
Now if the bob is released from extreme position A It moves under the action of restoring force provided by the
component of the weight mgsin (also known as tangential component) towards the mean position.
The other component of the weight mgcos (also known is radial component) is
canceled by the tension in the string. Hence there is no motion along this direction.
At the mean position O the bob does not stop due to inertia ant moves towards B.
At B it stops for a while and then again moves towards the mean position due to
restoring force
This process is repeated and bob oscillates about the mean position O till all of its
energy is lost due to friction.
Hence the to and fro motion of bob about mean position is SHM.

Its time period is given by

QUANTITY MEAN POSITION EXTREME POSITION

Velocity Maximum Zero
Acceleration Zero Maximum
Restoring force Zero Maximum
Kinetic Energy Maximum Zero
Potential Energy Zero Maximum
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

 In SHM body moves to and fro about mean position.

 In SHM body moves due to restoring force.
 In SHM restoring force is opposite in direction to the displacement from the mean position.
 In SHM velocity and K.E. is maximum at mean position and minimum at extreme position.
 In SHM force, acceleration P.E. is maximum at extreme positions and minimum at mean position.
 In SHM restoring force and acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement from the mean position
and is always directed towards the mean position.

TERMS RELATED TO SHM

TIME PERIOD (T)

The time taken by a vibrating body to complete one vibration is called time period. It is measured in meters.
FREQUENCY (f)
The no. of vibrations or cycles of a vibrating body in one second is called its frequency.it is reciprocal of time period.
Its unit is Hertz.

AMPLITUDE (A)
The maximum displacement of vibrating body on either side from its mean position is called amplitude. It is
measured in meters.

DAMPED OSCILLATIONS

The oscillations of a vibrating body due to some resistive force are known as damped oscillations.
If all of the energy losses such as friction or resistance are neglected then the body vibrates indefinitely under the action of
restoring force. But practically it is not possible and motion is said to be damped.
This damping continuously reduces the amplitude of the vibrating body and eventually body comes to rest.
Although damping causes energy losses but it has some advantages as well.
The shock absorbers in automobiles are one of practical application of damping. When the vehicle travels over a bump it may
vibrate violently but the shock absorber damp these vibrations and the vehicle moves smoothly.
 WAVE MOTION

Wave is a mechanism by which energy is transferred from one point of the medium to the other.
Wave is a disturbance generated in a medium which causes the particle of the medium to vibrate and hence transfer energy.
The energy of a wave is proportional to its frequency.
Fast oscillation = high frequency = high energy
Slow oscillation = low frequency = low energy

TYPES OF WAVES

There are two types of waves

MECHANICAL WAVES
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

MECHANICAL WAVES
 Waves which require any medium (Substance or region through which a wave is transmitted.)
For their propagation are called Mechanical waves.

Examples of mechanical waves are water waves, sound waves and waves generated in string and spring.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Waves which do not require any medium for their propagation are called Electromagnetic waves.
Examples of electromagnetic waves are light waves, radio waves, heat waves etc.

TYPES OF MECHANICAL WAVES

There are two types of mechanical waves.

TRANSVERSE WAVES
LONGITUDINAL WAVES

TRANSVERSE WAVES
These are the waves in which particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of motion of wave.
Examples of transverse waves are water waves and waves generated in string or spring.

LONGITUDIONAL WAVES
These are the waves in which particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of motion of wave.
Example of longitudinal waves is sound wave.

WAVES TERMINOLOGY

 Wavelength –The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs in phase.

Unit Meter (m) – Fundamental.
 Frequency – The number of vibrations or oscillations per unit time.
Unit Hertz (Hz) – derived.

 Amplitude – The maximum displacement of a particle of the medium from the rest position.
Unit meter (m) – Fundamental.
 Period – Time required for one complete cycle or to move the linear distance of one wavelength.
Unit second (s) – Fundamental.
 Wave speed

Waves are generated in a medium due to the disturbance and waves have specific velocity whenever they travel in the
same medium or to the other medium.
We can derive the wave speed or wave equation in the following manner.
As we know that
Velocity = distance / time

But in waves case distance travel by the wave is equal to wavelength () and time taken by the wave is equal to T
So if we plug these in we get
Velocity = length of pulse / time for pulse to move pass a fixed point

v=/T

We will use the symbol  to represent wavelength

v=/T
But what does T equal
T=1/f
So we can also write

V=F

Velocity = frequency * wavelength

This is known as the wave equation
 RIPPLE TANK

It is a device which is used to study the

properties of water waves.
The properties which are studied are Reflection,
Refraction, Diffraction and Interference.

CONSTRUCTION
It consists of a rectangular glass tray and is place
about half meter above the surface of table.
Waves are produced with the help of a vibrator
which is actually an electric motor fixed on a wooden plate which touches the surface of water. A bulb is hung over to observe
the waves on the paper or screen.

The crests and trough appear as bright and dark line on screen.
REFLECTION
Bouncing back of the waves from the surface of another medium is known as Reflection.
To study the reflection of water waves a barrier is place in the path of the waves. The waves will reflect from the barrier which
can be observed on the screen.

Now if the barrier is place at some angle to the wave direction the reflected
waves will obey the law of reflection i.e. angle of incidence will be equal to
angle of reflection.

REFRACTION
Change in the direction of the wave while entering from one
medium to another medium is known as Refraction.
To observe the refraction of water waves a block is placed in the
ripple tank. Now there are two regions of water shallow water and
deep water.

When the water wave enters the shallow region its speed becomes
slow and its wavelength decreases but the frequency remains the
same as it’s depends upon the frequency of vibrator. In addition to
change in speed and wavelength, there is change in direction of water waves as well is also observed.
Remember that speed of the water wave depends upon the depth of water. Shallow water has slow speed and deep water
has faster speed.

MEDIUM WAVE SPEED WAVE LENGTH FREQUENCY

SHALLOW WATER SLOW DECREASED CONSTANT
DEEP WATER FAST INCREASED CONSTANT

DIFFRACTION
The bending or spreading of waves around corners, slits or sharp edges is
called Diffraction.

To observe the phenomena of diffraction of waves two obstacles are placed

in such a way that the distance between slits is equal to wavelength of
waves. After passing through slit waves will spread in all direction in a
semicircular pattern.
Remember that diffraction can only be observed if the separation between
obstacles is equal to the wavelength of waves.
 UNIT 11

SOUND

HOW SOUND IS PRODUCED

* We know that vibrations of objects in any medium produce waves.
For example vibrator of ripple tank produces water waves
* Due to vibrations of bodies the air around them also vibrates and the air vibrations produce sensation of sound in our
ear.
* In a guitar sound is produced due to the vibrations of its strings
* Our voice results from the vibrations of our vocal chords.
* Human heart beats and lungs also produce sound waves which are detected with the help of stethoscope.

Sound is produced by a vibrating body

* In school lab we use a device called tuning fork to produce feeble sound.
* If we strike the tuning fork against hammer it starts vibrating and a very feeble sound is produced.
* We can hear the sound by bringing it near to our ear.
* We can feel its vibrations
1. By touching one of its prongs.
2. By touching the plastic ball suspended by a thread.
3. By dipping its prong in a glass of water.
Conclusion
Sound is produced by vibrating body.

Sound requires material medium

 As we know that sound is mechanical wave that is it requires medium to propagate.

 This can be proved by bell jar apparatus.
 An electric bell is suspended in the bell jar.
 We can hear the sound of the bell if air(medium ) is in the jar remains.
 Now if we pump out all of the air in the jar no sound is heard.
 This concludes that the medium (air ) is necessary for the propagation of sound waves.
 Sound waves are longitudinal in nature

The longitudinal nature of sound waves can be understood easily by a tuning fork.
When the tuning fork is not set into vibrations, density of air molecules on the right side is uniform.
When the tuning fork is set into vibrations, it exerts some pressure on the adjacent layers of air molecules and produces a
compression.
This compression is transferred to the layer next to it and a rarefaction is produced.
As the tuning fork moves back and forth rapidly, a series of compressions and rare factions are created in the air.
In this way sound waves propagate through the air.
The direction of propagation is along the direction of oscillating air molecules .
This shows the longitudinal nature of sound waves.

COMPRESSIONS
 Regions of higher molecular density

RAREFACTION
 Region of lower molecular density

WAVE LENGTH
 Distance between two consecutive compressions ofactions are the wavelength of sound waves.


 Characteristics of sound

 There are four characteristics of sound

 LOUDNESS
 PITCH
 QUALITY
 INTENSITY

Loudness of sound

 When we talk to our friends, our voice is low, but when we address a public gathering our voice is loud.
 The sound of honey bee is very faint while sound of roaring of big animals is very loud.
 Sound of whistle of train is very loud while sound of vibrating tuning fork is very feeble.
 Sound of guitar flute is faint as compared to sound of drum.
 In all these examples we can differentiate between loud and faint sound.
 So we concluded that

The property of sound by which we can differentiate between loud and a faint sound is called
loudness of sound.
Factors affecting loudness
 Loudness of sound depends upon a number of factors.
 AMPLITUDE OF VIBRATING BODY
 AREA OF VIBRATING BODY
 DISTANCE FROM VIBRATING BODY

AMPLITUDE OF VIBRATING BODY

 Therefore we concluded that
 Loudness of sound is directly proportional to amplitude of vibrating body.
 If the amplitude is large loud sound is produced and if the amplitude is small faint sound is produced.
 Therefore we concluded that
 Loudness of sound is directly proportional to amplitude of vibrating body.
 If the amplitude is large loud sound is produced and if the amplitude is small faint sound is produced.

AREA OF VIBRATING BODY

 If we strike the tuning fork on a rubber pad a faint sound is produced.
  While if we strike the hammer on a table surface a loud sound is produced.
 It is because the area of rubber pad is small while area of table surface is large.
 Therefore we concluded that
 Loudness of sound is also directly proportional to area of vibrating body.
 If the area is large loud sound is produced and if the area is small faint sound is produced.

DISTANCE FROM VIBRATING BODY

It is a common observation that sounds of whistle of a train approaching towards you is loud while sound of receding train is
faint. Similarly sound of coming ambulance is loud while sound of moving away ambulance is faint.
Therefore we concluded that loudness of sound is inversely proportional to distance from the vibrating body.

PITCH

 As we know that sound travels in the air, compressions and rarefactions are produced.
 These compressions and rarefactions depend upon frequency of source of sound.
 The larger the frequency more compressions and rarefactions are produced.
 If the frequency is large amplitude will be large and a shrill sound will be produced.
 If the frequency is small amplitude will be small and a grave sound will be produced.
 The voice of ladies and children is shrill and of high pitch
 While of men is grave and of low pitch.
 We can easily distinguish between shrill and a grave sound.
 Therefore we concluded that

The characteristic of sound by which we can distinguish between a shrill and a grave sound is called
Pitch.
 The pitch of sound depends upon frequency.
 Greater the frequency greater will be the pitch.
 Smaller the frequency smaller will be the pitch.
 QUALITY

We can distinguish between the notes of a piano and a flute while standing outside a room.
The loudness and pitch of these sounds are the same but their wave forms are different.
So there quality is different.
And we can easily distinguish between them.
 Therefore we concluded that

The characteristic of sound by which we can distinguish between two sounds of same loudness and
pitch is called quality.

SOUND INTENSITY

 I=

 I = Intensity
 E = Energy
 A = Area
 t = Time

 The energy going through some area divided by that area and some amount of time.
 Note: increasing time DOES NOT increase intensity, in increases the amount of ENERGY
 The rate at which energy changes over time is called POWER
 Therefore:

 I=

 Units of Power = Watts /Units of Area = meters squared

 Therefore: intensity is in units of W/m2
 Pain threshold of hearing: 1 W/m2
 Lowest sound humans can hear: 1 x 10-12 W/m2
 These sounds are vibrating at less than a width of one molecule! Wow!
 Reference intensity  Io
 RANGE OF HEARING: 1013Io
 Threshold Intensity

 The more intense a sound is, the louder it will be. Normal sounds carry small amounts of energy, but our ears are
very sensitive. In fact, we can hear sounds with intensities as low as 10-12 W / m 2 ! This is called the threshold
intensity, I 0.
 I 0 = 10 -12 W / m 2
 This means that if we had enormous ears like Dumbo’s, say a full square meter in area, we could hear a sound
delivering to this area an energy of only one trillionth of a joule each second! Since our ears are
 Thousands of times smaller, the energy our ears receive in a second is thousands of times less.


decibel scale

 Humans are equipped with very sensitive ears capable of detecting sound waves of extremely low intensity.
 The faintest sound which the typical human ear can detect has an intensity of 1*10-12 W/m2.
 A sound with an intensity of 1*10-12 W/m2 corresponds to a sound which will displace particles of air by a mere one-
billionth of a centimeter. The human ear can detect such a sound.

This faintest sound which a human ear can detect is known as the threshold of hearing.
 The most intense sound which the ear can safely detect without suffering any physical damage is more than one
billion times more intense than the threshold of hearing.
 Since the range of intensities which the human ear can detect is so large, the scale which is frequently used by
physicists to measure intensity is a scale based on multiples of 10.
 This type of scale is sometimes referred to as a logarithmic scale. The scale for measuring intensity is the decibel
scale.
 The threshold of hearing is assigned a sound level of 0 decibels (abbreviated 0 dB); this sound corresponds to an
intensity of 1*10-12 W/m2
 A sound which is 10 times more intense (1*10-11 W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 10 dB. A sound which is 10*10 or
100 times more intense (1*10-10 W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 20 db.
 A sound which is 10*10*10 or 1000 times more intense (1*10-9 W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 30 db. A sound
which is 10*10*10*10 or 10000 times more intense (1*10-8 W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 40 db.
 Observe that this scale is based on powers or multiples of 10. If one sound is 10x times more intense than another
sound, then it has a sound level which is 10*x more decibels than the less intense sound.
 intensity level equation

 We want to compare a certain intensity (I) to the faintest sound a human can possibly hear (Io)

  this is a dimensionless number

 This number is in between the previous given range of (10,000,000,000,000)

 Since the decibel range is a logarithmic scale, we use log10 on the given number.

 So far: dB = log10( )

 Because they have been dubbed decibels, the equation needs to multiplied by 10 (dec- stems from the Greek root,
meaning ten)

 Now: dB = 10log10[ ]

Intensity vs. Intensity Level

• INTENSITY is P/A, W/m2
• INTENSITY LEVEL is in decibels (dimensionless)

Sound Level in Decibels

The greater the intensity of a sound at a certain place, the louder it will sound. But doubling the intensity will not make it
seem twice as loud. Experiments show that the intensity must increase by about a factor of 10 before the sound will seem
twice as loud to us. A sound with a 100 times greater intensity will sound about 4 times louder. Therefore, we measure
sound level (loudness) based on a logarithmic scale. The sound level in decibels (dB) is given by:

 = 10 log I
I0
Ex: At a certain distance from a siren, the intensity of the sound waves might be 10 –5 W / m 2 . The sound level at this
location would be:
Note: According to this definition, a sound at the intensity level registers zero decibels:
10 log (10 –5 / 10 –12) = 10 log (10 7 ) = 70 dB
10 log (10 –12 / 10 –12) = 10 log (1 ) = 0 dB
 REFLECTION (ECHO)

 When we clap or shout near a reflecting surface such as building or mountain, we hear the same sound again a little
later
 The sound which we hear is called an echo.
 Echo is produced due to reflection of sound.
 Reflection of the sound from the obstacle is called Echo.

Conditions for Echo

 The sensation of sound persists in our brain for about 0.1 second.
 The time interval between incident sound and reflected sound must be at least 0.1 second.
 The minimum distance between source of sound and obstacle must be 17 m. because the total distance covered by
the sound from the source to obstacle and back is 34m.

Speed of sound

 Sound waves can pass through any material medium.

 Sound waves cannot pass through vacuum as there is no medium is present for sound waves to propagate.
 The speed of sound depends upon the properties of medium.
 The speed of is greater in solids than liquids and gases.
 The speed of sound in liquid is 5 times than gases.
 The speed of sound in solids is 15 times than gases.
 The speed of sound in air is 343 m/s.
 The speed of sound in air is affected by changes in Pressure and Temperature.
 Speed of sound can be find by the relation

v=f

Noise and Music

 Such sounds which are pleasant to our ears are called musical sounds.
 For example sounds produced by musical instruments such as flute, harmonium, drum, and violin.
 Such sounds which are unpleasant to our ears are called noise.
 For example sound of machinery, sound of traffic.
 Noise pollution

 Noise is an undesirable sound and harmful for health.

 Vehicles and heavy machinery are the main sources of noise pollution.
 Noise can cause
 Hearing loss
 Sleep disturbances
 Aggression
 Hypertension

Safe level of Noise

 The safe level of noise is usually 85-90 dB over an 8 hour workday.

 Safe level of noise depends upon two factors.
 1.The level of noise
 2.Time duration

Reduction of Noise Pollution

 Noise pollution can be reduced to acceptable level by

 Replacing the noisy machinery with an environment friendly one.
 Putting sound reducing barriers
 Soft and porous material such as draperies and rugs absorb large amount of sound.
 Using hearing protecting devices.
 Acoustic protection

Acoustic protection

 The technique or method used to absorb undesirable sounds by soft and porous surfaces is called acoustic
protection.

Reverberation
 A sometimes sound becomes garbled when it is reflected from the walls, ceiling, and floor of a room.
 This garbled or multiple reflections are called reverberation.
 Design of lecture hall, Theater hall or Auditorium
 Generally the ceilings of lecture halls, theater halls and auditorium are curved to make a balance between
reverberation and absorption so that sound after reflection may reach all corners of the hall.
 Sometimes curved sound boards are place behind the stage curved so that sound after reflection may reach all
corners of the hall.

Audible frequency range

 The range of frequencies which a human ear can hear is called audible frequency range
 Human ear can hear sound having frequency range between 20Hz and 20,000Hz.

Infrasonic
 Sound having frequency less than 20Hz is called infrasonic.

ULTRASONIC

 Sound waves having frequency more than 20,000Hz are called ultrasonic.

Uses of ultrasonic in medical field

 Ultrasonic waves are used in medical and technical fields.
 In medical field ultrasonic waves are used in the diagnostic and treatment of different diseases such as
 To remove blood clots from arteries
 For the treatment of thyroid gland

Uses of ultrasonic
 Ultrasonic is also used to find the depth of ocean.
 It is also used to find objects lying deep in the sea.
 This technique is called SONAR.

SONAR
 SONAR is Sound Navigation and Ranging.
 The sound waves are sent from a transmitter .
 The receiver collects the sound waves.
 The time lapse is calculated.
 Knowing the speed of sound, distance can be estimated.


Ultrasonic in industry
 In industry ultrasonic waves are used
 To find cracks in the moving parts of high speed heave machines such as turbines, engines of ships and airplanes
 Germs and bacteria in liquids can also be destroyed by using ultrasonic waves.