INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS

 ROBOT entered the English language through Czech play titled “Rossums Universal
Robots” by Karel Capek in early 1920’s.

Fig. 1.1 Cover page of Rossums Universal Robots

 Czech word ROBOTA means Forced worker. The English translation of robota is
ROBOT

 Capek’s play was pure science fiction.

 The term “ROBOTICS” was coined by Isaac Asimov in his short story “RUNAROUND”
first published in 1942. This work is also notable because of the so called three Laws of
Robotics are presented.

1. A robot may not injure a human being or through inaction, allow one to
harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given by it by human beings except where
such orders would conflict with the first law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the first or second laws.

Asimov has stated that workers in the field of AI indicated to him that these three laws
should serve as a good guide as the field progresses.
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 Real inventors who made original contributions to the technology of industrial robotics
are Cyril W Kenward and George C Devol

 Cyril W Kenward is a British inventor, who devised a manipulator that moved on an x-y-
z axis system. In 1954 he applied for patent and 1957 patent was issued.

 George C Devol (An American) credited with two inventions

(i) Device for magnetically recording electrical signals so that the signals
could be played back to control the operation of machinery. This was
invented around 1946, and US patent was issued in 1952.

(ii) Robotic device, which he called it as Programmed Article Transfer in

1950. This device was intended for parts handling. Patent was issued in
1961. This was a prototype for the hydraulically driven robots that were
later built by Unimation Inc

.
Fig. 1.2 Operation of PAT (Programmed Article Transfer)

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 Although Kenward’s robot was chronologically the first in terms of patent dates, Devol’s
robot proved more important in the development of commercialization of robotic
technology.

 Joseph Engleberger got Physics degree in 1949. As a student he read several science
fiction novels about robots. Mid 1950’s he was working for a company that made control
systems for jet engines.

 By the time a chance meeting occurred between Engleberger and Devol in 1956. Meeting
took place at a cocktail party in fair field, Connecticut, USA. Engleberger was Pre
disposed by education, avocation and occupation towards the notion of robotics.

Fig. 1.3. Joseph Engleberger (left) and George Devol being served drinks
by a Unimate robot.

 Devol described his PAT (Programmed Article Transfer) invention to Engleberger and
subsequently they began to think how to develop the device as a commercial product.

 In 1962, Unimation Inc founded with Engleberger as president. The first product was
“UNIMATE” a polar configuration robot. The application of this robot was unloading a
die casting machine at General Motors plant in New Jersey in 1961.

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 Fig. 1.4 Unimate robot for unloading of parts from die casting machine

 The development of robotics technology was followed the development of NC and are
quite similar. They both involve coordinated control of multiple axes (axes are called
joints in robotics) and thus both use dedicated digital computers as controllers.

 NC machines are designed to perform specific processes like machining, sheet metal
work, thermal cutting etc. Robots are designed for a wider variety of tasks. Typical
applications are spot welding, material transfer, machine loading, spray painting,
assembly etc.

 RIA (Robotics Industries Association) formerly Robotics Institute of America defined

robot as “ An industrial robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or special devices
through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of
tasks”

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 Qualities that make industrial robots commercially & technologically important are
 Robots can be substituted for humans in hazardous or un comfortable
environments.
 A robot performs its work cycle with a consistency and repeatability that
can’t be attained by humans.
 Robots can be reprogrammed.
 Robots are controlled by computers and can therefore be connected to
other computer systems to achieve CIM.

 In the late 1980’s with the availability of cheap electronic devices like touch sensors,
vision cameras, etc robots actually began interacting with the environment and thus
started the application artificial intelligence in robotics. Smart material based sensors and
actuators and an interest in emulating biological design paradigms in later 1990’s led to
development of robots that could emulate humans in both form and function.

Fig. 1.5 the Humanoid robot ASIMO developed by Honda.

(Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility)

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 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A ROBOT

 Although the mechanical, electrical and computational structure of robots can vary
considerably, most have the following four major components in common.
1. A Manipulator (or) Arm (The mechanical unit)
2. One or more sensors
3. A Controller (The brain)
4. Power supply unit

Fig. 1.6 Major components of a Robot

 THE MANIPULATOR

The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links. Robot
anatomy is concerned with the types and sizes of these joints and links and other aspects
of the manipulators physical construction.

In fact, robot and manipulator are often used interchangeably, although strictly speaking
this is not correct.

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A joint of an industrial robot is similar to a joint in the human body. It provides relative
motion between two parts of the body.

Each joint or axis provides the robot with a so called degree-of-freedom (d o f) of motion.
In nearly all cases, only one degree of freedom is associated with each joint.

Robots are often classified according to the total number of degrees -of-freedom they
posses.

Connected to each joint are two links, an input link and an output link.

Links are the rigid components of the robot manipulator. The purpose of the joint is to
provide controlled relative movement between the input link and the output link.

Fig. 1.7 Illustration showing robot made up of a series of joint-link combinations.

The joint-link numbering scheme is illustrated in the above figure.

Link1 is the input link to joint2; Link2 is the output link of joint2 and so on.

Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified in to one of five
types given below. Two types provide translational motion, three types provide rotary
motion.
 Linear Joint (L-Joint): The relative movement between the input link and
the output link is a translational sliding motion, with the axes of the two
links parallel.

 Orthogonal Joint (O-Joint): This is also a translational sliding motion, but

the input and output links are perpendicular to each other during the
motion.

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  Rotational Joint (R-Joint): This type provides rotational relative motion
with the axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the input and output
links.

 Twisting Joint (T-Joint): This joint also involves rotary motion. But the
axis of rotation is parallel to the axes of the two links.

 Revolving Joint (V-Joint): In this joint type, the axis of the input link is
parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint, and the axis of the output link is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

Fig. 1.8 five types of joints commonly used in industrial robot

construction.
(a) Linear joint (type L)
(b) Orthogonal joint (type O)
(c) Rotational joint (type R)
(d) Twisting joint (type T)
(e) Revolving joint (type V)

Each of these joint types has a range over which it can be moved. The range for a
translational joint is usually less than a meter, but for large gantry robots, the range may
be several meters. The three types of rotary joints may have a range as small as a few
degrees or as large as several complete turns.

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 SENSORY DEVICES

These elements inform the robot controller about the status of the manipulator. This can
be done continuously or only at the end of a desired motion. Regardless of how it is used,
the information provided by the sensors can be analog, digital or a combination.

Sensors used in modern robots can be divided in to two general classes.

i. Non Visual (Proximity sensors, photo electric, mechanical position
sensors, optical encoders, potentiometers, resolvers etc)
ii. Visual (Vidicon, Charge Coupled Device (CCD), Charge Injection Device
(CID), TV cameras coupled to appropriate image-detection hardware etc.
essentially used for object recognition or object grasping etc)

These will be discussed in detail in Unit -3.

 THE CONTROLLER

Robot controllers generally perform three functions:

1. They initiate and terminate the motion of the individual components of the
manipulator in a desired sequence and at specified points.
2. They store position and sequence data in their memory.
3. They permit the robot to be interfaced to the outside world via sensors
mounted in the area, where work is being performed. (i.e. the work
station)

Robot controllers usually fall in to one of the following classes.

 Simple step sequencer

 Pneumatic logic system
 Electronic sequencer
 Micro computer
 Mini computer

 THE POWER SUPPLY UNIT

The purpose of this part of the robot is to provide the necessary energy to the
manipulator’s actuators.
(e.g.: power amplifier in case of servo motor controlled actuated system, remote
compressor system, Hydraulic power pack , AC motors, DC motors, Stepper motors etc).

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 CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS

In general Robots are classified according to

(i) Coordinate system

(ii) Control method

A robot manipulator can be divided in to two sections

(i) Body and arm assembly (usually 3 D O F associated with it)

(ii) Wrist assembly (usually 2 or 3 D O F associated with it)

At the end of manipulator’s wrist is a device related to the task that must be accomplished by the
robot. This device is called “end effector”.

An end effector may be a gripper for holding a work part or a tool for performing some process.

The body-and-arm of the robot is used to position the end effector and the robot wrist is used to
orient the end effector.

There are five basic configurations available in commercial industrial robots

(Classification according to Coordinate system)

(i) Polar configuration

(ii) Cylindrical configuration
(iii) Cartesian coordinate robot
(iv) Jointed arm robot
(v) SCARA
1. Polar Configuration: This configuration consists of sliding arm (L joint) actuated
relative to the body, which can rotate about both a vertical axis (T joint) and a horizontal
axis (R joint). Joint notation is TRL.

Fig. 1.9 Polar coordinate body and arm assembly

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2. Cylindrical Configuration: This robot configuration consists of a vertical column,
relative to which an arm assembly is moved up or down. The arm can be moved in and
out relative to the axis of the column. Joint notation is TLO.

Fig. 1.10 Cylindrical body and arm assembly

3. Cartesian coordinate robot: The other names for this configuration are rectilinear robot,
xyz robot. As shown in fig it is composed of three sliding joints, two of which are
orthogonal. Joint notation is LOO.

Fig. 1.11 Cartesian coordinate body and arm assembly

4. Jointed arm robot: This robot manipulator has the general configuration of a human
arm. The jointed arm consists of a vertical column that swivels about the base using a T
joint. At the top of the column is a shoulder joint (shown as R joint), whose output link
connects to an elbow joint (another R joint). Joint notation is TRR.

Fig. 1.12 Jointed-arm body and arm assembly

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 5. SCARA robot: SCARA is an acronym for Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm.
This configuration is similar to the jointed arm robot except that the shoulder and elbow
rotational axis are vertical, which means that the arm is very rigid in the vertical
direction, but compliant in the horizontal direction. This permits the robot to perform
insertion tasks (for assembly) in a vertical direction, where some side to side alignment
may be needed to make the two parts properly. Joint notation is VRO.

Fig. 1.13 SCARA body and arm assembly

WRIST CONFIGURATIONS:

The robot’s wrist is used to establish the orientation of the end effector. A robot wrist usually
consists of two or three degrees of freedom. Figure shows one possible configuration for a three
degree of freedom wrist assembly.

The three joints are defined as follows:

(1) Roll, using a T joint to accomplish rotation about the robots arm axis
(2) Pitch, which involves up and down rotation, typically using a R joint
(3) Yaw, which involves right and left rotation, accomplished by R joint

A two degree of freedom wrist typically includes only roll and pitch joints (T and R Joints)

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 Fig. 1.14 Typical configuaration of a three-degree-of-freedom wrist assembly showing
roll, pitch, and yaw

JOINT NOTATION SCHEME:

The letter symbols for the five joint types (L, O, R, T and V) can be used to define a joint
notation system for the robot manipulator. In this notation system, the manipulator is described
by the joint types that make up the body-and arm assembly, followed by the joint symbols that
make up the wrist.

Example: The notation, TLR: TR represents five degrees of freedom manipulator, whose body
and arm is made up of a T joint, L joint and a R joint. The wrist is made up of a T joint and a R
joint.

WORK VOLUME:

The work volume or work envelope of the manipulator is defined as the envelope or three
dimensional space within which the robot can manipulate the end of its wrist. Work volume is
determined by the number and types of joints in the manipulator, the ranges of the various joints,
and the physical sizes of the links. The shape of the work volume depends largely on the robot
configuration.

The working envelope refers to the working volume which can be reached by some point at the
end of the Robot arm, this point is usually the centre of the end effector mounting plate. It
excludes any tools or work piece which the end effector may hold.

There are often areas within the working envelope which cannot be reached by the end of the
Robot arm. Such areas are termed dead zones.

The maximum quoted payload capacity can only be achieved at certain arm spans this may not
necessarily be at maximum reach.

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SOME WORKING ENVELOPE SHAPES

Cartesian coordinate configuration robot

The working envelope of the Cartesian configuration is a rectangular prism. There are no dead
zones within the working envelope and the Robot can manipulate its maximum payload
throughout the working volume.

Fig. 1.15 Work envelope of a Cartesian coordinate robot

Cylindrical coordinate configuration robot

The working envelope of this configuration is as its name suggests a cylinder. The cylinder is
hollow, since there is a limit to how far the arm can retract; this creates a cylindrical dead zone
around the Robot structure.

Fig. 1.16 Work envelope of a Cylindrical coordinate robot

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Polar configuration robot

The working envelope of this configuration sweeps out a volume between two partial spheres.
There are physical limits imposed by the design on the amount of angular movement in both the
vertical and horizontal planes. These restrictions create conical dead zones both above and below
the Robot structure.

Fig. 1.17 Work envelope of a Polar coordinate robot

Revolute Configuration or jointed arm configuration

This configuration has a large working envelope relative to the floor space it occupies. The
shape of the working envelope depends on the individual design.

The two most common designs are shown below. The design in a) has a complex cusp shaped
envelope b) allows almost a true sphere to be reached, whilst the design in.

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.18 Work envelope of a jointed arm robot

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SCARA Configuration

The SCARA configuration has a working envelope that can be loosely described as a heart or
kidney shaped prism, having a circular hole passing through the middle. This allows large area
coverage in the horizontal plane but relatively little in the vertical plane.

Fig. 1.19 Work envelope of a SCARA robot

Spine Configuration

The envelope of the spine Robot will approximate that of a true hemisphere the size being
dependent on the number of articulations in the spine.

Fig. 1.20 Work envelope of a Spine configuration robot

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 JOINT DRIVE SYSTEMS

 Robots joints are actuated using any of three types of drive systems.
1. Electric
2. Hydraulic
3. Pneumatic
 Pneumatic drive is typically limited to smaller robots used in material transfer
applications.
 Electric drive and hydraulic drive are used on more sophisticated industrial robots.
 Electric drive has become the preferred drive system because it readily adaptable to
computer control.
 Electric drive robots are relatively accurate compared with hydraulically powered robots.
By contrast, the advantages of hydraulic drive systems are greater speed and strength.
 The drive system, position sensors and feedback control systems for the joints determine
the dynamic characteristics of the manipulator.
 Dynamic response of the robot depends on (i) Speed with which it can achieve the
programmed position and (ii) Stability of its motion.
 Speed refers to the absolute velocity of the manipulator at its end of arm. [The maximum
speed a large robot is around 2 m/s. speed can be programmed in to the work cycle so
that different portions of the cycle are carried out at different velocities]
 Another important aspect is that the robot’s capability to accelerate and decelerate in a
controlled manner.
 Factors that influence the speed of motion of robot are weight of the object being
manipulated and required precision.
 Speed of response of a robot refers to the time required for the manipulator to move from
one point in space to the next.
 Stability refers to the amount of overshoot and oscillation that occurs in the robot motion
at the end of arm as it attempts to move to the next programmed location. More
oscillations in the motion are an indication of less stability.

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 Another important aspect is the load carrying capacity of the robot. Load carrying
capacity depends on the robot’s physical size and construction as well as the force and
power that can be transmitted to the end of the wrist.

 The actuations of the individual joints must be controlled in a coordinated fashion for the
manipulator to perform a desired motion cycle. Microprocessor based controllers are
commonly used today in robotics as the control system hardware.
 The controller is organized in a hierarchical structure as shown below.

Fig. 1.21 Hierarchical control structure of a robot microcomputer controller

 Each joint has its own feedback control system and a supervisory controller coordinates
the combined actuations of the joints according to the sequence of the robot program.
 Different types of control are required for different applications.

(Classification according to Control method)

 Robots can be classified as Non-servo controlled versus servo controlled robots

depending on the control method adopted:
Non-servo controlled robots: Simple step sequence robots
Servo controlled robots: Playback with point to point control
Playback with continuous path control
Intelligent control

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  Robot controllers are classified in to four categories.
1. Limited sequence control
2. Playback with point to point control
3. Playback with continuous path control
4. Intelligent control

Limited Sequence Control:

 This is the most elementary type control and is used for simple motion cycles such as
pick and place operation. It is usually implemented by setting limits or mechanical stops
for each joint and sequencing the actuation of the joints to accomplish the cycle.
Feedback loops are sometimes used to indicate that the particular joint actuation has been
accomplished so that next step in sequence can be initiated. However, there is no servo
control to accomplish precise positioning of the joint. Many pneumatically driven robots
are limited sequence robots.

Playback with point to point control:

 Playback robots represent a more sophisticated form of control than limited sequence
robots. Playback control means that the controller has a memory to record the sequence
of motion in a given work cycle as well as the locations and other parameters (such as
speed) associated with each motion and then to subsequently play back the work cycle
during execution of the program. In PTP control, individual positions of the robot arm
recorded in to memory.
 These positions are not limited to mechanical stops for each joint as in limited sequence
robots. Instead, each position in the robot program consists of a set of values representing
locations in the range of each joint of the manipulator. Feedback control is used during
the motion cycle to confirm that the individual joints achieve the specified locations in
the program.

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Playback with continuous path control:
 Continuous path robots have the same playback capability as the PTP type. The
difference between these two is same as that in NC. The main features of continuous path
control are greater storage capacity and interpolation calculations.
 The various interpolation methods are linear interpolation, circular interpolation, helical
interpolation, parabolic interpolation and cubic interpolation.
 Consider a three axis Cartesian coordinate manipulator in which the end of arm is moved
in x-y-z space. In point-to-point systems, the x, y and z axes are controlled to achieve a
specified point location within the robot’s work volume. In continuous path systems, not
only are the x, y and z axes controlled, but the velocities dx/dt, dy/dt and dz/dt are
controlled simultaneously to achieve the specified linear or curvilinear path. Servo
control is used to continuously regulate the position and speed of the manipulator. It
should be mentioned that a play back robot with continuous path control has the capacity
for PTP control.

Intelligent control:
 Industrial robots are becoming increasingly intelligent. An intelligent robot is one that
exhibits behavior that makes it seem intelligent. Some of these capabilities are interact
with its environment, make decisions when things go wrong during the work cycle,
communicate with humans, make computations during the motion cycle and respond to
advanced sensor inputs such as machine vision.

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 Fixed versus Flexible Automation

Up to the time of the first robot (i.e. the early 1960s) the automated machines developed
have been designed to perform essentially one task with little capability for changing.
In general machines developed for a specific task are called fixed automated devices and
the process that incorporates them is called fixed or hard automation.

With the advent of the industrial robot a new method of automating products became
possible and is called flexible automation. (A single complex machine can able to
perform a multitude of jobs with relatively minor modifications and little downtime
needed when changing from one task to another).
The three major advantages of flexible automation over fixed one are:
1. Reaction time
2. Debugging
3. Resistance to Obsolescence

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 ROBOT SPECIFICATIONS
There are a lot of variations in specifying a robot by different manufacturers. However,
we look at some important aspects:
1. The load carrying capacity (pay load): it does not define the additional weight that
the manipulator can carry above the weight of its end effector or tool. Thus, when
designing an application, both the weight of the tool and any parts it may carry
must be considered since together they constitute the payload.
2. The repeatability: It is a measure of the ability of a manipulator to return to a
position in space where it had been previously. It is measured by going to that
position in exactly the same way. (i.e. over the same path, with the same pay load,
speed, acceleration, temperature etc). Repeatability may be defined in three-
dimensional; space or on a joint by joint basis.
3. The maximum tip speed, no load is an attempt to define how fast the manipulator
can move.
4. The coordinate system defines the configuration of the robot.
5. The maximum movement places bounds on the robot’s work space. It is usually
measured at the tool-mounting flange.
6. Type of drives defines the joint actuator’s source of power (e.g., electric,
hydraulic, or pneumatic)
7. The control defines the method used to control the axes. (i.e. servo versus non-
servo) and whether continuous –path or point-to-point motion is possible. Various
applications may require one or more of these features.
8. Memory devices define both internal memory types and mass storage capabilities.
9. Programming method defines the type of robot training via a key board; teach
pendant, walk-through (in the case of painting robots), mechanical setup (for non
servo units) or CAD/CAM (off-line programming).
10. Memory capacity gives an indication of the number of program steps or points
that the robot controller (without mass storage) can handle.
It is clear that the user must know exactly what he or she wants to do with a robot and
ask the correct questions of the manufacturer to ensure that the robot in question will
perform properly.

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 INDUSTRIAL ROBOT APPLICATIONS

The general characteristics of industrial work situations that tend to promote the
substitution of robots for human labor are the following:

1. Hazardous work for humans

2. Repetitive work cycle
3. Difficult handling for humans
4. Multi shift operation
5. Infrequent changeovers
6. Part position and orientation are established in the work cycle

Robots are being used in a wide field of applications in industry. The applications can
usually classify in to one of the following categories:

(1) Material handling

(2) Processing operations
(3) Assembly and inspection

Material Handling Applications:

In material handling applications, the robot moves materials or parts from one place to
another. To accomplish the transfer, the robot is equipped with a gripper type end
effector. The gripper must be designed to handle the specific part or parts that are to be
moved in the application.

Here are two categories:

(i) Material transfer (pick-and –place, palletizing, de-palletizing, stacking operations,

insertion operations)
(ii) Machine loading, machine unloading, machine loading/unloading. (Die casting,
plastic molding, metal machining operations, forging, press working and heat
treating.

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Processing operations:

In processing operations, the robot performs

some processing operation on a work part, such
as grinding or spray painting. Here the robot is equipped with some type of tool as its end
effector.

Examples are, spot welding, arc welding, spray coating,

Other processing applications include drilling, routing, grinding, wire brushing, water jet
cutting, laser cutting.

Assembly and inspection:

Assembly involves the combination of two or more parts to form a new entity, called a
subassembly or assembly. The new entity is made secure by fastening the parts together
using mechanical fastening techniques (e.g., screws, bolts and nuts, rivets) or joining
processes (e.g., welding, brazing, soldering or adhesive bonding)

Inspection: there is often a need in automated production and assembly systems to inspect
the work that is done. Inspections accomplish the following functions:

(i) Making sure that a given process has been completed

(ii) Ensuring that parts have been added in assembly as specified
(iii) Identifying flaws in raw materials and finished parts

Inspection tasks performed by robots can be divided in to the following two cases:

1. The robot performs loading and unloading tasks to support an inspection or

testing machine.
2. The robot manipulates an inspection device, such as mechanical probe, to test
the product.

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 END EFFECTORS

The end effector enables the robot to accomplish a specific task. Because there are a wide variety
of tasks performed by industrial robots, the end effector is usually custom engineered and
fabricated for each different application.

Fig 2.1 Typical diagram of an End effector

The two categories of end effectors are grippers and tools.

Grippers
Essentially, there are three classifications of grippers:

(i) Those that come in contact with only one face of the object to be lifted and use a
method such as vacuum, magnetism, or adhesive action to capture the object.
(ii) Those that use two rigid fingers to grip an object. This type makes contact with
the object at two specific points and may or may not deform the object.
(iii) Those that deform and attempt to increase the contact area between the gripper
and object. This type includes multi jointed fingers or a device operating on a
principle similar to a balloon being inflated inside a glass.

Grippers are end effectors used to grasp and manipulate objects during the work cycle. Machine
loading and unloading applications fall into this category. Owing to the variety of part shapes,
sizes, and weights, most grippers must be custom designed. Some of the innovations and
advances in mechanical gripper technology are dual grippers, interchangeable fingers, sensory
feedback, multiple fingered grippers, standard gripper products.

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Types of grippers

 Mechanical grippers, consisting of two or more fingers that can be actuated by the robot
controller to open and close to grasp the work part.
 Vacuum grippers, in which suction cups, are used to hold flat objects.
 Magnetized devices, for holding ferrous parts.
 Adhesive devices, which use an adhesive substance to hold a flexible material such as a
fabric.
 Simple mechanical devices such as hooks and scoops.

Tools
The robot uses tools to perform processing operations on the work part. The robot manipulates
the tool relative to a stationary or slowly moving object. (e.g., work part or subassembly).
Examples of tools used as end effectors by robots to perform processing applications are spot
welding gun, arc welding tool, spray painting gun, rotating spindle for drilling, routing, grinding,
automatic screw driver, heating torch, ladle, water jet cutting tool.

In some applications, the robot may use multiple tools during the work cycle. For example,
several sizes of routing or drilling its must be applied to the work part. Thus the robot must have
a means of rapidly changing the tools. The end effector in this case takes the form of a fast-
change tool holder for quickly fastening and unfastening the various tools used during the work
cycle.

Mechanical Grippers
Mechanical grippers are the most common gripper type. A mechanical gripper is an end effector
that uses mechanical fingers actuated by a mechanism to grasp an object. The fingers, sometimes
called jaws are the appendages of the gripper that actually make contact with the object.
The fingers are either attached to the mechanism or are an integral part of the mechanism. If the
fingers are of the attachable type, then they can be detached and replaced. The use of replaceable
fingers allows for wear and inter-changeability.

The interchangeability feature is illustrated in fig 2.2. The gripper is designed to accommodate
fingers of varying sizes.

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 Fig. 2.2 Illustration of interchangeability feature
(Interchangeable fingers can be used with the same gripper mechanism)

The function of the gripper mechanism is to translate some form of power input in to the
grasping action of the fingers against the part. The power input is supplied from the robot and
can be pneumatic, electric, mechanical or hydraulic.

There are two ways of constraining the part in gripper.

1. Physical constriction method:

In this approach the gripper fingers enclose the part to some extent, thereby
constraining the motion of the part. (Contacting surfaces of the fingers will be in
approximate shape of the part geometry)

Fig. 2.3 Physical constriction method of finger design

2. Friction method:
In this approach, the holding of the part is by virtue of friction between the fingers
and the work part. The fingers apply a force that is sufficient for friction to retain the
part against gravity, acceleration, and any other that might arise during the holding
portion of the work cycle.

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 Fig. 2.4 Friction method of holding the part
(Force against part parallel to finger surfaces tending to pull out of gripper)

In this method, if a force of sufficient magnitude is applied against the part in a direction
parallel to the friction surfaces of the fingers, the part might slip out of the gripper. To resist this
slippage, the gripper must be designed to exert a force that depends on the weight of the part, the
coefficient of friction between the part surface and the finger surface, the acceleration (or
deceleration) of the part, and the orientation between the direction of motion during acceleration
and the direction of the fingers.

From fig 2.4, we can write,

= (1)

Where, μ = coefficient of friction of the finger contact surface against the part surface,
nf = number of contacting fingers,
Fg = gripper force,
W = weight of the part or object being gripped

Equation (1) is used when the force of gravity is directed parallel to the contacting
surfaces.

Equation (1) can be slightly changed to take in to account the combined effect of gravity
and acceleration and can be written as,

= (2)

In general,
g=3 if acceleration force is applied in the same direction as the gravity force,
g=2, if the acceleration is applied in a horizontal direction and
g=1, if the acceleration is applied in the opposite direction.

28
Example problem 2.1.

Suppose a stiff cardboard weighing 10 N is held in a gripper using friction method, against two
opposing fingers. The coefficient of friction between the finger contacting surfaces and the
carton surface is 0.25. The orientation of the carton is such that the weight of the carton is
directed parallel to the finger surfaces. Determine the required gripper force.

Solution:
Here g=3 and by using equation 2, we get

(0.25)(2)Fg = (10) (3)

Fg = 60 N

The gripper must cause a force of 60 N to be exerted by the fingers against the carton surface.
However, we have to consider factor of safety, in order to compensate for the potential problem
of the carton being grasped at a position other than its center of mass.
Taking a factor of safety of 1.5, the required gripper force would be 1.5 x 60 = 90 N.

Types of gripper mechanisms

[1] According to the accuracy and sophistication of their construction and their intended
purpose, they are classified as:
(i) Coarse grippers
(ii) Precise grippers
Coarse grippers are found in applications where components are to be held, transported
and manipulated often within large spans of movement and with relatively little accuracy.
The design & operation of these grippers is simple and unsophisticated.
Examples: loading and unloading of furnaces, stacking and palletizing applications,
dipping and quenching of components during coating or heat treatment processes.

Precise grippers are used for accurate holding, positioning and orientation of the work
part.
Examples: loading and unloading of work parts from machine tools and other
manufacturing processes, pick and pace applications and assembly operations. By
definition, their design and construction are articulated and efficient.

29
[2] According to the compliance they offer, these are classified as
(i) Hard grippers
(ii) Soft grippers

Hard grippers normally incorporate a fixed size and shape. The jaws offers either internal
or external gripping, are roughly contoured to suit the shape of the work part, and
incorporate some means of self centering. They are rigid and offer no ‘give’ (technically
termed compliance) to any deviations in the shape of the work part.

Soft grippers are designed to take up the shape of the work part. These work by
surrounding or enveloping the shape of the work part being handled, or being inserted
inside a vessel, before pressure is applied to expand the gripper to achieve the gripping
action.
Soft grippers are useful in circumstances where:
(a) A number of different shaped components need transporting, without
requiring time consuming end effector changes.
(b) The gripper needs to be tolerant of changes in size or shape of a single
component.
(c) It is desirable to equalize the gripping pressure on fragile components.
(d) Marking of the component surfaces must be reduced to a minimum, or
eliminated.
Soft grippers have been successfully demonstrated in many industrial applications. Figure
2.5 shows an example of such a gripper.

30
Fig. 2.5 Operation of a typical soft gripper

31
[3] According to the type finger movement used by the gripper, these are classified as:
(i) Pivot movement grippers: here the fingers rotate about fixed pivot points on the
gripper to open and close.

Fig. 2.6 Mechanical gripper finger with pivoting movement

(ii) Linear translational movement grippers: here the fingers open and close by
moving in parallel to each other. This is accomplished by means of guide rails so
that each finger base slides along a guide rail during actuation.

Fig. 2.7 Mechanical gripper finger with linear movement using guide rails

[4] According to the type of kinematic device used to actuate the finger movement,
mechanical grippers are classified as,
(i) Linkage actuation
(ii) Gear –and-rack actuation
(iii) Cam actuation
(iv) Screw actuation
(v) Rope-and -pulley actuation
(vi) Miscellaneous category such as expansion grippers

32
Linkage actuation covers a wide range of design possibilities to actuate the opening and
closing of the gripper. A few examples are shown below:

Fig. 2.8 some possible linkages for robot grippers

Gear and rack method of actuation involves a piston or some other mechanism that
would provide linear motion. Movement of the rack would drive two partial pinion gears,
and these in would in turn open and close the fingers.

Fig. 2.9Gear and rack method of actuating the gripper

33
The CAM actuated gripper includes a variety of possible designs, one of which is shown
in fig 2.10. A CAM and follower arrangement, often using a spring loaded follower, can
provide the opening and closing action of the gripper. For example, movement of the cam
in one direction would force the gripper to open, while movement of the cam in the
opposite direction would cause the spring to force the gripper to close. The advantage of
this arrangement is that the spring action would accommodate different sized parts.

Fig. 2.10 one possible design of a CAM actuated gripper

The screw type actuation method is shown in Fig 2.11. The screw is turned by a motor,
usually accompanied by speed reduction mechanism.

Fig. 2.11 screw-type gripper actuation

34
The rope and pulley mechanism is shown in Fig. 2.12. This can be designed to open and
close a mechanical gripper. Because of the nature of these mechanisms, some form of
tension device must be used to oppose the motion of the rope or cord in the pulley
system.

Fig. 2.12 Rope and pulley type gripper

The miscellaneous category of gripper actuating mechanisms includes expandable

bladder or diaphragm. Fig. 2.13 shows one such type of gripper mechanism.

Fig. 2.13 The expandable bladder used to grasp inside of a cup-shaped container

35
Gripper force analysis
The purpose of gripper mechanism is to convert input power in to the required motion and force
to grasp and hold an object.

Example problem 2.2

Consider a simple pivot type gripper used for holding the cardboard carton as shown in Fig. 2.14.

Fig. 2.14 Pivot-type gripper used in example problem 2.2.

The gripper force required is 60 N. The gripper is to be actuated by a piston device to apply an
actuating force Fa. The corresponding lever arms for the two forces are shown in figure.
Calculate the actuating force required to exert the required gripper force.

Solution:
Taking moments about the pivot arms and equating it to zero yields,

FgLg-FaLa=0
(60)(12)-Fa (3) =0
Fa=240 N
The piston device would have to provide an actuating force of 240 N to close the gripper
with a force against the carton of 60 N.

Example problem 2.3

Consider the linkage mechanism shown in figure 2.15.

Fig. 2.15 Gripper considered in example problem 2.3

The gripper force required is 25 lb. compute the actuating force to deliver this gripper
force of 25 lb.

36
Solution: Looking at the symmetry of the gripper mechanism, only one-half of the mechanism
needs to be considered.

25(4 cos 45) = sin 45 (1.5 cos 15) + cos 45(1.5 sin 15)

96.6 = (1.0246 + 0.2745) = 1.2991

= 74.4
The actuating force applied to the plunger to deliver this force of 74.4 lb to each finger is
pictured in figure c above and can be calculated as
= 2 74.4 cos 45
= 105.2
Some power input mechanism would be required to deliver this actuating force of 105.2 lb to the
gripper.
Other types of Grippers
In addition to mechanical grippers, there are a variety of other devices that can be designed to lift
and hold objects. Other types of grippers are:
1) Vacuum cups
2) Magnetic grippers
3) Adhesive grippers
4) Hooks, scoops and other miscellaneous devices

37
 Vacuum Cup Grippers (Suction Cups)
Vacuum cups, also called suction cups, can be used as gripper devices for holding certain types
of objects. The usual requirements on the objects to be handled are that they be flat, smooth, and
clean, conditions necessary to form a satisfactory vacuum between the object and the suction
cup. The suction cups are typically made up elastic material such as rubber or soft plastic. In case
the object to be handled is composed of a soft material, the suction cup would be of hard
substance.

The shape of the vacuum cup is usually round. Some means of removing the air between the cup
and the part surface to create the vacuum is required.

The vacuum pump and the venturi are the two common devices used for this purpose.

The vacuum pump is a piston-operated or vane driven device powered by an electric motor and
is capable of creating a relatively high vacuum.

Fig. 2.16 Principle of operation of Vacuum Cup gripper

The venturi is a simpler device as shown in Fig 2.16. This can be driven by means of ‘shop air
pressure’. Its initial cost is less than that of a vacuum pump and it is relatively reliable because of
its simplicity. However, the overall reliability of the vacuum system is dependent on the source
of air pressure. Fig.2.17 shows the vacuum cup gripper for contoured surface. An example of an
end effector employing vacuum cup gripper is shown in Fig. 2.18.

38
 Fig. 2.17 Vacuum cup gripper for contoured surface

Characteristic features of suction cup grippers are:

i. Requires only one surface of the part for grasping
ii. Applies a uniform pressure distribution on the surface of the part
iii. Relatively a light weight gripper and are simpler than mechanical grippers
iv. Applicable for a variety of different materials
v. The exact size and shape of the part is relatively unimportant
vi. No precise positioning of the end effector is required
vii. It is only necessary to have access to one side of the part surface
viii. They are safe in explosive environments

Fig. 2.18 End effector employing vacuum cup grippers

The lift capacity of the suction cup depends on the effective area of the cup and the
negative air pressure between the cup and the object.

Where, F= the force or lift capacity, N

P= the negative pressure, N/cm2
(Pressure differentia between the inside and the outside of vacuum cup)
A= the total effective area of the suction cup (s) used to create the
vacuum, cm2

39
Example problem 2.4

A vacuum cup gripper will be used to lift flat pates of 18-8 stainless steel, each piece of steel is
¼ in thick and measures 2.0 by 3.0 ft. the gripper will utilize two suction cups separated by about
1.5 ft for stability. Each suction cup is round and has a diameter of 5.0 in. two cups are
considered a requirement to overcome the problem that the plates may be off center with respect
to the gripper. Because of variations in the positioning of the end effector or in the positions of
the steel plates before pick up, the suction cups will not always operate on the center of mass of
the plates. Consequently, static moments and inertia will result which must be considered in the
design of the end effector. Determine the negative pressure (compared to atmospheric pressure of
14.7 lb/in2.) required to lift the stainless steel plates. Take a safety factor of 1.6 to allow for
acceleration of the plate and for possible contact of the suction cup against the plate which would
reduce the effective area of the cup.

Solution

Weight of the plate is given by (considering the density SS as 0.28 lb/in3)

= 0.28 × × (2 × 12) × (3 × 12) = 60.48

This would be equal to the force F which must be applied by the two suction cups,
ignoring for the moment any effects of gravity.

The area of each suction cup would be

= × = 19.63

The area of the two cups would be 2x 19.63 = 39.26 in2.

The negative pressure required to lift the weight of the plates is calculated as
.
= = = 1.54 /
.

Applying the safety factor of 1.6, we have

= 1.6 × 1.54 = 2.461 / , negative pressure

40
 Magnetic Grippers
Magnetic grippers share many of the same advantages of vacuum cup grippers with the
exception that the work part to be handled must be ferromagnetic material.

Magnetic grippers can be divided in to two categories:

(i) Grippers equipped with electro magnets
(ii) Grippers with permanent magnets

Figure 2.19 shows the schematic diagram of an electro magnet type magnetic gripper.

Fig. 2.19 schematic diagram of an electro magnet type magnetic gripper

Electromagnetic grippers are easier to control. They require a source of d.c power and an
appropriate controller unit. As with any other robotic gripping device, the part must be released
at the end of the handling cycle. This is easier to accomplish with an electromagnet than with a
permanent magnet. When the part is to be released, the controller unit reverses the polarity at a
reduced power level, before switching off the electromagnet. This procedure acts to cancel the
residual magnetism in the work piece and ensures a positive release of the part.

The attractive force, P of an electromagnet is found from Maxwell’s equation given by

( )
= ( )

Where, IN = number of amp-turns of coil,

Ac = area of contact of an object with magnet,
Ra, Rm = reluctances of magnetic paths through air and metal respectively.

≥( + )
Where, a = gripper acceleration,
g = gravitational constant
m is the mass and FS is the factor of safety.

41
 Fig. 2.20 Operation of a permanent magnet type magnetic gripper

Figure 2.20 shows the operation a permanent magnet type gripper. Permanent magnets have the
advantage of not requiring an external power source to operate the magnet. However, there is a
loss of control that accompanies this apparent advantage. When the part is to be released at the
end of the handling cycle, some means of separating the part from the magnet must be provided.
The device which accomplishes this task is called a stripper or stripping device. Its function is to
mechanically detach the part from the magnet.

Permanent magnets are often considered for handling tasks in hazardous environments requiring
explosion proof apparatus. The fact that no electrical circuit is needed to operate the magnet
reduces the danger of sparks which might cause ignition in such an environment.

Advantages of magnetic grippers are:

(i) Pick up times are very fast
(ii) Variations in part size can be tolerated
(iii) The gripper does not have to be designed for one particular work part
(iv) They have the ability to handle metal parts with holes (not possible with vacuum
grippers)
(v) They require only one surface for gripping

Disadvantages of magnetic grippers are:

(i) Residual magnetism remains in the work piece, which may cause a problem in
subsequent handling
(ii) In case of sheets handling from a stack, there is a possibility of attracting more than one
sheet due to magnetic attraction

42
 Adhesive Grippers

An adhesive substance can be used for grasping action in gripper design. The
requirement on the items to be handled is that they must be gripped on one side only.
The reliability of this gripping device is diminished with each successive operation cycle
as the adhesive substance loses its tackiness on repeated use. To overcome this
limitation, the adhesive material can be loaded in the form of a continuous ribbon into a
feeding mechanism attached to the robot wrist.

Hooks, Scoops, and other Miscellaneous Devices

Hooks can be used as end-effectors to handle containers and to load and unload parts
hanging from overhead conveyors. The item to be handled by a hook must have some
sort of handle to enable the hook to hold it.

Ladles and scoops can be used to handle certain materials in liquid or powder form. One
of the limitations is that the amount of material being scooped by the robot is sometimes
difficult to control.

Inflatable bladder type gripper devices in which an inflatable bladder or diaphragm is

expanded to grasp the object. The inflatable bladder is fabricated out of rubber or other
elastic material which makes it appropriate for gripping fragile objects.

Fig. 2.21 Expansion bladder used to grasp inside of a cup-shaped container

The gripper applies a uniform grasping pressure against the surface of the object rather
than a concentrated force typical of a mechanical gripper. An example of inflatable
bladder type gripper is shown in Fig. 2.21. Part (a) of the figure shows the bladder fully
expanded. Part (b) shows the bladder used to grasp the inside diameter of a bottle.

43
 Tools as End Effectors

In many applications, the robot is required to manipulate a tool rather than a work part. In
some applications, the end effector is a gripper that is designed to grasp and handle the tool. The
reason is being work cycle may involve more than one tool. This will permit the tools to be
exchanged during the cycle and thus facilitating the multi tool function.

In most of the robot applications, a tool is manipulated and is directly attached to the
wrist. In these cases, the tool is the end effector. Some examples of tools used as end effectors in
robot applications include:

1. Spot-welding tools
2. Arc-welding tools
3. Spray-painting nozzle
4. Rotating spindles for operations such as:
a) Drilling
b) Routing
c) Wire brushing
d) grinding
5. Liquid cement applications for assembly
6. Heating torches
7. Water jet cutting tool

The Robot / End Effector Interface

An important aspect of the end effector applications in engineering involves the interfacing of
the end effector with the robot. The interface must accomplish the following functions:

1. Physical support of the end effector during the work cycle must be provided. Power to
actuate the end effector must be supplied through the interface.
2. Control signals to actuate the end effector must be provided. This is often accomplished
by controlling the actuating power.
3. Feedback signals must sometimes be transmitted back through the interface to the robot
controller.
4. It should have high reliability.
5. Protection against the environment and overload protection in case of disturbances and
unexpected events during the work cycle.

44
Physical support of the end effector
The physical support of the end effector is achieved by the mechanical connection
between the end effector and the robot wrist. This mechanical connection often consists of a
faceplate at the end of the wrist to which the end effector is bolted.
Ideally, the design of the mechanical connection should have the following
characteristics.

a) Strength: the strength of the mechanical connection refers to its ability to

withstand the forces associated with the operation of the end effector. These
forces include the weight of the end effector, weight of the work part being
handled, acceleration and deceleration forces and any other applied forces
during the work cycle.
b) Compliance: It refers to the wrist socket’s ability to yield elastically when
subject to a force.
c) Overload protection: an overload results when some unexpected event
happens to the end effector such as a part becoming struck in a die, or a tool
getting caught in a moving conveyor. Whatever the cause, the consequences
involve possible damage to the end effector or may be even the robot itself.
Overload protection is intended to eliminate or reduce this potential damage.

Power and signal transmission

End effectors require power to operate. They also require control signals to regulate their
operation. The principle methods of transmitting power and control signals to the end
effector are:
1. Pneumatic
2. Electric
3. Hydraulic
4. Mechanical

The method of providing the power to the end effector must be compatible with the
capabilities of the robot system.

45
 Remote Center Compliance Device (RCC)

It acts as a sensing device for misalignments and provides a means of correction for
robots. However, RCC devices, also called compensators, are completely passive and there are
no input or output signals.

An RCC device is an attachment added to the robot between the wrist and the end effector. It is
designed to provide a means of correction for misalignments between the end effector and a part.

Fig 2.22 Two possible errors for the peg-in-hole insertion task
(a) Lateral position error (b) Angular error
Suppose a robot is to push a peg into a hole in a part as shown in figure 2.22. If the hole and the
peg are exactly the right sizes, and if they are exactly aligned, both laterally and axially, the robot
may push the peg into the hole. However, this is often impossible to achieve. Imagine the hole is
slightly off such that the centerline of the hole and the peg are a small distance apart, as in fig (a)
above.

Now assume that instead of an axial misalignment, there is an angular (cocking) misalignment
between the two centerlines as in fig (b). In this case, even if the peg and the hole are exactly
aligned at the mouth of the hole, if the peg is pushed in one of the two will have to either deflect
or break, unless one is allowed to move.

A RCC device provides this selective compliance through a simple 4-bar mechanism.

46
 Fig. 2.23 a typical Four-bar mechanism

Consider a 4-bar mechanism as shown in above figure 2.23. The instantaneous center of zero
velocity for the coupler link is at point IC1as shown.

Now consider a mechanism with linkages of equal length in a rectangular format as shown in
below figure 2.24 (a). The coupler moves in translation and it provides lateral flexibility only. If
the linkages are in a trapezoid format as shown figure 2.24(b), coupler rotates about the center IC
and it provides lateral rotation.

RCC device is principally a combination of both of these.

Fig 2.24 Two types of four bar mechanism

47
 Fig 2.25 Schematic representation of how an RCC device operates

Fig 2.26 Commercially available RCC device

Parameters to be considered in RCC device

RCCs are typically constructed using elastomeric springs rather than the mechanical
linkages shows in Fig 2.26.This has resulted in designs that are simple, small and light weight.

The parameters to be considered in selecting the remote center compliance device include
the following:

1. Compliance center (elastic center) is the point about which the forces acting on the object
being inserted are minimum. The remote center distance should be selected on the basis
of the length of the part and the gripper
2. Remote center distance: This is also called the center of compliance dimension. It is the
distance between the RCC bottom surface and the compliant center of the RCC device.

48
 3. Axial force capacity: This is the maximum force in the axial direction which the RCC
device is designed to withstand and still function properly.
4. Compressive stiffness: This is also called the axial stiffness. It is the force per unit
distance or spring constant required to compress the RCC device in the direction of
insertion. Generally, the compressive stiffness is relatively high to allow for press fitting
of parts together.
5. Lateral stiffness: This is the spring constant relating to the force required to deflect the
RCC laterally (perpendicular to the direction of insertion). This parameter should be
determined according to the stiffness of the robot and the delicacy of the parts being
assembled.
6. Angular stiffness: This is also called the cocking stiffness. It is the rotational spring
constant that relates to the force required to rotate the part about the elastic center by a
certain amount.
7. Torsional stiffness: This is the torsional spring constant which relates to the moment
required to rotate the part about the axis of insertion. This parameter becomes important
when the insertion task requires orientation relative to the axis of insertion.
8. Maximum allowable lateral and angular errors: These errors are generally determined by
the relative size of the product and by its design (e.g., design of chamfers).

Considerations in Gripper (end effector) Selection and Design

In making the human/robot comparison the end effector is analogous to the human hand.
The design of the end effectors, however, is best carried out strictly on the requirements of the
task.
The various design features of End effector are:

(a) Utilize many means of handling parts other than by mechanical means
(b) Be designed to offer superior gripping power and deal easily with heavy parts
(c) Be made tolerant of hot, corrosive, electrically active, sharp or rough parts.
(d) Be made tolerant of hostile environments such as furnaces, chemical baths, gas or
radioactive chambers etc
(e) Be changed to suit different tasks and parts even in mid sequence
(f) Be designed to have superior manipulation and reach within confined spaces or
during intricate tasks (e.g. paint spraying).

49
 The ideal end effector should exhibit certain desirable characteristics by virtue of its
design. The considerations include the following:

a) End effector should be as light-weight as possible to increase the payload capacity of

the robot/end-effector combination.
b) End effectors should be as small as possible in order to gain maximum access within
the working volume of the robot configuration.
c) End effectors should be as rigid as possible to maintain accuracy, repeatability and
prevent mis-handling of the part, whilst at the same time preventing damage due to
over gripping.
d) Heavy loads should be held as close as possible to the axes of movement of the end
effector to reduce (force x distance) moments acting at the end of the manipulator,
thus promoting structural stability.
e) End effectors should be safe both in their operation and in the event of overload or
collision conditions.
f) End effectors should be available at reasonable cost.

COMPARISON OF ELECTRIC, HYDRAULIC and PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Electrical Hydraulic Pneumatic

Usually from outside Electric motor or diesel Electric motor or diesel
Energy source
supplier driven driven
Energy storage Limited(batteries) Limited(accumulator) Good(reservoir)
Excellent, with minimal Limited, basically a localGood, can be treated as
Distribution system
loss facility a plant wide service
Energy passed Lowest Medium Highest
AC &DC motors. Good Low speed. Good Wide speed range
Rotary actuators control on DC motors control. can be stalled accurate speed control
Ac motors cheap difficult
Short motion via Cylinders. Very high Cylinders medium
Linear actuator solenoid. Otherwise via force. forces
mechanical conversion
Possible with solenoid Controllable high force Controllable medium
and DC motors. force
Controllable force
Complicated by need
for cooling
Danger from electric Leakage, dangerous and Noise
Points to note
shock unsightly. Fire hazard

50
 Review Questions
1. Define the term ‘end effector’ and explain why they are not normally purchased as part of a
standard industrial robot.
2. Discuss the desirable characteristics and features that should be possessed by an end effector
mounting arrangement.
3. Define with the aid of a neat sketch, the terms Pitch, Roll and Yaw in the context of end
effector motions.
4. Briefly explain various ways of classification of grippers.
5. Differentiate the hard gripper and a soft gripper.
6. With the help of neat sketches explain the principle, types, operation, and salient features of
vacuum cup grippers.
7. With the help of neat sketches explain the salient features of magnetic cup grippers.
8. What is the principle of working of a RCC? Explain its significance in robotic applications.
9. Explain the various applications of robots in which tools are used as end effectors.

Problems

1. A part weighing 8N is to be held by a gripper using friction against two opposing fingers.
The coefficient of friction between the fingers and the part surface is estimated to be 0.3. The
orientation of the gripper will be such that the weight of the part will be applied in a direction
parallel to the contacting finger surfaces. A fast work cycle is anticipated so that the g factor

51
 to be used in force calculations should be 3.0. Compute the required gripper force for the
specifications given.
2. Solve the above problem except using a safety factor of 1.5 in the calculations.
3. A part weighing 15N is to be grasped by a mechanical gripper using friction between two
opposing fingers. The coefficient of static friction is 0.35 and the coefficient of dynamic
friction is 0.20. The direction of the acceleration force is parallel to the contacting surfaces of
the gripper fingers. Which value of coefficient of friction is appropriate to use in the force
calculations? Why? Compute the required gripper force assuming that a g factor of 2.0 is
applicable.
4. A vacuum gripper is to be designed to handle flat plate glass, in an automobile windshield
plant. Each pate weighs 28 lb. A single suction cup will be used and the diameter of the
suction cup is 6.0 in. Determine the negative pressure required (compared to atmospheric
pressure of 14.7 lb/in2.) to lift each plate. Use a safety factor of 1.5 in your calculations.
5. A vacuum pump to be used in a robot vacuum gripper application is capable of drawing a
negative pressure of 4.0 lb/in2 compared to atmospheric pressure. The gripper is to be used
for lifting stainless steel plates, each plate having dimensions of 15 by 35 in and weighing 52
lb. determine the diameter of the suction cups to be used for the robot gripper if it has been
decided that two suction cups will be used for the gripper for greater stability. A factor of
safety of 1.5 should be used in the design computations.

TRANSFORMATIONS & KINEMATICS

OBJECTIVES:
The purpose of this chapter is to study the concepts of homogenous coordinates and
coordinate transformations, when utilized in the frame work of the kinematics of robots,
these concepts provide a concise mathematical formulation to describe the position and
orientation of a manipulator.
The topics included here are:
1) Homogeneous coordinates
2) Transformations
3) Coordinate reference frames
4) Description of points and objects in terms of transformation matrices
5) The forward solution (Kinematic equations) or (forward kinematics)
6) Reverse solution (back solution) or (Inverse kinematics)
7) Transformation matrices applied to motion control

52
 Fig. 4.1 The direct and inverse kinematic models
 The forward kinematics will enable us to determine where the robot’s end (hand) will be,
if all joint variables are known.
 Inverse kinematics will enable us to calculate what each joint variable must be, if we
desire that the hand be located at a particular point and have a particular orientation.

Fig. 4.2 Robot and Joint measurements

53
  The control strategy used in most robots is based on the ability to control the position of
the joints; the most natural reference frame for a robot is defined by its joints. With the
control system monitoring and controlling joint positions and velocities, it is quite simple
to move the robot about by changing the positions of each of its joints. A particular
position of the manipulator or its tool may be defined in terms of a set of joint positions.
The above figure 4.2 shows a five joint manipulator with a set of ‘rulers’ attached to each
of its joints. By selecting a point on each of the rulers as a reference point, the position of
each joint may be defined. Joint Space is defined as the space in which the position of the
manipulator is described by a joint vector whose components are the positions of each
joint. A point in a robot’s work volume is in its joint space. Fig 4.3 shows the robot of Fig
4.1 tracing out a plane in its workspace.

Fig. 4.3 Robot and plane in its workspace

ROBOTS AS MECHANISMS
 Manipulator type robots have multiple degrees of freedom (DOF) are three dimensional,
are open loop, and are chain mechanisms.
 In a 1 DOF system, when the variable is set to a particular value, the mechanism is totally
set, and all its other variables are known.

54
 For example, as shown in the above figure, when the crank is set to 1200, the angles of
the coupler link and the rocker arm are also known.
 However, in multi DOF mechanism, all input variables must be individually set in order
to know the remaining parameters. Robots are such machines, where each joint variable
must be known in order to know where the hand of the robot is.
 Robots are 3-D machines, if they are to move in space.
 Robots are open loop mechanisms, unlike mechanisms that are closed loop (e.g. 4 bar
mechanism), even if all joint variables are set to particular values, there is no guarantee
that the hand will be at the given location. This is because if there is any deflection in any
joint or link, it will change the location of all subsequent links without feedback.

 In fig (a), if the link AB deflects, it will affect link O2B, where as in an open loop system
such as the robot, the deflections will move all succeeding members without any
feedback. As a result, in open-loop systems, either all joint or link parameters must be
continuously measured (or) the end of the system must be monitored. Otherwise, the
kinematic position of the machine is not completely known. This difference can be
expressed by comparing the vector equations describing the relationship between
different links of the two mechanisms as follows:

55
 O + = + ----------(1)
O + + = ---------------(2)
 As you can see, if there is a deflection in link AB, O2B will move accordingly. However,
the two sides of equation 1 have changed corresponding to the changes in the links. On
the other hand, if link AB of the robot deflects, all subsequent links will move too.
However, unless O1C is measured by other means, the change will not be known. To
remedy this problem, in open loop robots, either the position of the hand is constantly
measured with devices such as a camera, the robot is made in to a closed loop system
with external means such as the use of secondary arms or laser beams or as is the
standard, the robot’s links and joints are made excessively strong to eliminate all
deflections. The last method renders the robot very heavy, massive, and slow. And its
specified payload is very low compared with what it actually can carry.

MATRIX REPRESENTATION
Matrices can be used to represent points, vectors, frames, translations, rotations,
transformations, as well as objects and other kinematic elements.

Representation Of A Point In Space

A point P in space can be represented by its three coordinates relative to a
reference frame as: P = ax + byj + czk
Where ax, by, and cz are the three coordinates of the point represented in the
reference frame.

Representation of A Vector In Space

A vector can be represented by three coordinates of its tail and its head. If the
vector starts at point A and ends at point B, then it can be represented by

56
 PAB = (Bx – Ax) i + (By – Ay) j + (Bz – Az) k. specifically, if the vector starts at the
origin, then: P = ax + byj + czk
Where ax, by, and cz are the three components of the vector in the reference frame.
In fact, point P in the previous section is in reality represented by a vector connected to it
at point P and expressed by the three components of the vector.

The three components of the vector can also be written in matrix form, as given below:

P=

This representation can be slightly modified to also include a scale factor w such that if
Px, Py, and Pz are divided by w, they will yield ax, by, and cz. Therefore the vector can be
written as:

P= where ax = , by = , and cz =

{This is called the homogeneous coordinate representation for the vector}

Where w may be any number and as it changes, it can change the overall size of the
vector. This is similar to the zooming function in computer graphics. As the value of w
changes, the size of the vector changes accordingly. If w is bigger than 1, all vector
components enlarge; if w smaller than 1, all vector components become smaller.

When w is 1, the size of these components remains unchanged. However, if w=0, then a x,
by, and cz will be infinity. In this case, Px, Py, and Pz (as well as ax, by, and cz) will

57
represent a vector whose length is infinite but nonetheless is in the direction represented
by the vector. This means that a direction vector can be represented by a scale factor of
w=0, where the length is not important, but the direction is represented by the three
components of the vector.

Problem 4.1
A vector is described as P = 3i + 5j + 2k. Express the vector in matrix form:
(a) With a scale factor of 2.
(b) If it were to describe a direction as a unit vector.

Solution: The vector can be expressed in matrix form with a scale factor of 2 as well
as 0 for direction as:
6 3
10 5
P= and P=
4 2
2 0
However, in order to make the vector into a unit vector, we normalize the length to be
equal to 1. To do this each component of the vector is divided by the square root of the
sum of the squares of the three components:

λ= + + = 6.16 and

Px = 3 6.16 = 0.487, Py = 5 6.16 = 0.811 Pz = 2 6.16 = 0.324

58
 0.487
0.811
Therefore, Punit =
0.324
0
Note that √0.487 + 0.811 + 0.324 = 1.

Problem 4.2
A vector p is 5 units long and is in the direction of a unit vector q described
below. Express the vector in matrix form.
0.371
0.577
qunit =
0

Solution: The unit vector’s length must be 1. Therefore,

λ= + + = 0.138 + 0.310 + =1

This gives: = 0.743

0.371 1.885
0.577 2.785
qunit = and p=qx5=
0.743 3.715
0 1

59
VECTROR OPERATIONS:

Many operations may be performed on vectors. These include the typical ones,
such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication by a scalar. Also, two common vector
operations are the dot product (X . Y) and the vector cross product (X x Y).
The dot product generates a scalar result, while the cross product results in a
vector. These operations are important in determining the normal to a plane and whether
points are in a plane.

60
Problem 4.3 (DOT product equations)
Obtain the Cartesian and homogeneous representations for the dot product of the two
vectors x and y. Given that x = ai + bj + ck and y = di + ej + fk

Solution:
Cartesian basis representation:
We have x = ai + bj + ck
y = di + ej + fk
Using the definition of the vector dot product, we find that
x . y = (ad + be + cf)

Homogeneous representation:
The same vectors represented in homogeneous coordinates are given by
′ ′
′ and y = ′
x=
′ ′

where a’=aw, b’=bw and c’=cw

61
 d’=dr, e’=er and f’=fr

The dot product is given by x .y =

Problem 4.4 (CROSS product equations)

Obtain the Cartesian and homogeneous representations for the cross product of the two
vectors x and y. Given that x = ai + bj + ck and y = di + ej + fk

Solution:
Cartesian basis representation:

Using the definition of the vector cross product, we find that

xxy= a b c = i(bf-ce)-j(af-cd)+k(ae-bd)
d e f

This gives x x y = (bf-ce)i + (cd-af)j + (ae-bd)k

Homogeneous representation:

62
 − ′ ′
− ′ ′
xxy=
− ′ ′

ig4.,
REPRESENTATION OF A FRAME AT THE ORIGIN OF A FIXED-REFERENCE
FRAME z
o
n
a

x
y

Fig. 4.4 The normal, orientation and approach axis of a moving frame
The letters n, o, and a are derived from the words normal, orientation, and approach. Referring to f

it should be clear that in order to avoid hitting the part while trying to pick it up, the robot would have to

approach it along the z-axis of the gripper. In robotic nomenclature, this axis is called approach-axis and is

referred to as the a-axis. The orientation with which the gripper frame approaches the part is called orientation-

63
axis, and it is referred to as o-axis. Since, the x-axis is normal to both, it is referred to as n-axis. We will denote

the moving frame as Fn,o,a with normal, orientation and approach axes.

A frame is generally represented by three mutually orthogonal axes (such as x, y

and z). since we may have more than one frame at any given time, we will use axes x, y
and z to represent the fixed universe reference frame Fx,y,z and a set of axes n, o, and a to
represent another (moving) frame Fn,o,a relative to the reference frame.

Each direction of each axis of a frame Fn,o,a located at the origin of a reference
frame Fx,y,z is represented by its three directional cosines relative to the reference frame.
The three axes of the frame can be represented by three vectors in matrix form as:

F=

REPRESENTATION OF A FRAME RELATIVE TO A FIXED-REFERENCE FRAME

To fully describe a frame relative to another frame, both the location of its origin
and the directions of its axes must be specified.

64
 If a frame is not at the origin (or in fact even if it is at the origin) of the reference
frame, its location relative to the reference frame is described by a vector between the
origin of the frame and the origin of the reference frame. Therefore, the frame can be
expressed by three vectors describing its directional unit vectors and a fourth vector
describing its location as:

F=
0 0 0 1
As shown in above fig, the first three vectors are directional vectors with w=0,
representing the directions of the three unit vectors of the frame Fn,o,a, while the fourth
vector with w=1 represents the location of the origin of the frame relative to the reference
frame. Unlike the unit vectors, the length of vector P is important; consequently we use a
scale factor of 1.
A frame may also be represented by a 3 x 4 matrix without the scale factors, but it
is not common. Adding the fourth row of scale factors to the matrix makes it a 4 x 4 or
homogeneous matrix.

Problem 4.5
The frame F shown in following figure is located at 3,5,7 units, with its n-axis
parallel to x, its o-axis at 450 relative to the y axis, and it’s a-axis at 450relative to the z-
axis. Describe the F matrix for the frame.
Solution:

65
 1 0 0 3
0 45 − 45 5
The frame is described by F =
0 sin 45 cos 45 7
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 3
0 0.707 −0.707 5
=
0 0.707 0.707 7
0 0 0 1

REPRESENTATION OF A RIGID BODY

An object can be represented in space by attaching a frame to it and representing the

frame. Since object is permanently attached to this frame, its position and orientation relative to
the frame is always known. As a result so long as the frame can be described in space, the
object’s location and orientation relative to the fixed frame will be known.

A frame can be represented by a matrix, where the origin of the frame and the three
vectors representing its orientation relative to the fixed reference frame are expressed.

66
 Therefore, Fobject =
0 0 0 1

A point in space has only three degrees of freedom; it can only move along the three
reference axes. However, a rigid body in space has six degrees of freedom, meaning that not only
it can move along x-, y-, and z-axes, it can also rotate about these three axes. Consequently, all
that is needed to completely define an object in space is six pieces of information describing the
location of the origin of the object in the reference frame and its orientation about the three axes.

However, as can be seen from the above equation, twelve pieces of information are
given: nine for orientation, and three for position (this excludes the scale factors on the last row
of the matrix because they do not add to this information). Obviously, there must be some
constraints present in this representation to limit the above to six. Therefore we need 6 constraint
equations to reduce the above from twelve to six.

The constraints come from the known characteristics of a frame:

 The three unit vectors n, o, a are mutually perpendicular

 Each unit vector’s length, represented by its directional cosines, must be equal
to 1.

These constraints translate into the following six constraint equations:

1. n . o = 0 (the dot-product of n and o vectors must be zero)

2. n.a=0
3. a.o=0
4. | | = 1 (the magnitude of the length of the vector must be 1)
5. | |=1
6. | |=1

As a result, the values representing a frame in a matrix must be such that the above
equations remain true. Otherwise, the frame will not be correct. Alternatively, the first
three equations can be replaced by a cross product of the three vectors as:

67
 nxo=a

Since, the above equation includes the correct right-hand rule relationship too, it is
recommended that this equation be used to determine the correct relationship between the
three vectors.

Problem 4.6
For frame F, find the values of the missing elements and complete the matrix
representation of the frame.
? 0 −1 5
? 0 0 3
F=
? −1 0 2
0 0 0 1
Solution:
The given frame is given in the form

0 −1 5
0 0 3
F=
−1 0 2
0 0 0 1
From the known relation of frame, we have

nXo=a

which implies,

=−
0 0 −1
Or, i(-ny)-j(-nx)+k(0) = -1 and therefore, we write:

ny=1, nx=0 and nz=0

0 0 −1 5
1 0 0 3
F=
0 −1 0 2
0 0 0 1

Problem 4.7
Find the missing elements of the following frame representation.

68
 ? 0 ? 3
0.5 ? ? 9
F=
0 ? ? 7
0 0 0 1
Solution:
From the known relationship of frame, we write:

The magnitude of the length of the unit vector is 1.

| |=1

+ + =1

+ 0.5 + 0 = 1

Which yields, nx=0.866

. ̅=0
(The dot product of n and o vectors must be zero)

0.866 (0) + 0.5 + 0( ) = 0

Which yields, oy=0

| |=1

+ + =1

Which yields, oz=1

Also, from the known relation of frame, we write

nXo=a

Which implies,

= + +

69
 0.866 0.5 0 = + +
0 0 1
(0.5) − (0.866) + (0) = + +

ℎ ℎ , = 0.5, = −0.866 =0

The complete element of the frame becomes:

0.866 0 0.5 3
0.5 0 −0.866 9
F=
0 1 0 7
0 0 0 1

HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFORMATION MATRICES

For a variety of reasons, it is desirable to keep matrices in square form, either 3 x 3 or 4

x 4. First, it is much easier to calculate the inverse of the square matrices than rectangular
matrices. Second, in order to multiply two matrices, their dimensions must match, such
that the number of columns of first matrix must be the same as the number of rows of the
second matrix, as in (m x n) and (n x p), which results in a matrix of (m x p) dimensions.
If two matrices, A and B, are square with (m x m) and (m x m) dimensions, we may
multiply A by B or B by A, both resulting in the same (m x m) dimensions. However, if

70
 the two matrices are not square, with (m x n) and (n x p) dimensions respectively, A can
be multiplied by B, but B may not be multiplied by A, and the result of AB has a
dimension different from A and B. since we will have to multiply many matrices
together, in different orders, to find the equations of motion of the robots, we want to
have square matrices.

In order to keep representation matrices square, if we represent both

orientation and position in the same matrix, we will add the scale factors to the matrix to
make it 4 x 4. If we represent orientation alone, we may either drop the scale factors and
use 3 x 3 matrices, or add a fourth column with zeros for position in order to keep the
matrix square. Matrices of this form are called homogeneous matrices, and we refer to
them as:

F=
0 0 0 1

REPRESENTATION OF TRANSFORMATIONS

A transformation is defined as making a movement in space. When a frame (a vector, an

object or a moving frame) moves in space relative to a fixed reference frame, we represent this
motion in a form similar to a frame representation. This is because a transformation is a change
in the state of a frame (representing the change in its location and orientation); therefore, it can
be represented like a frame. A transformation may be in one of the following forms:

 A pure translation
 A pure rotation about an axis
 A combination of translations and/or rotations

REPRESENTATION OF A PURE TRANSLATION

If a frame (that may also be representing an object) moves in space without any change in
its orientation, the transformation is a pure translation. In this case, the directional unit vectors
remain in the same direction, and therefore do not change. The only thing that changes is the
location of the origin of the frame relative to the reference frame as shown in fig. The new
location of the frame relative to the fixed reference frame can be found by adding the vector
representing the translation to the vector representing the original location of the origin of the

71
frame. In matrix form, the new frame representation may be found by pre-multiplying the frame
with a matrix representing the transformation. Since, the directional vectors do not change in a
pure translation, the transformation T will simply be:

1 0 0
0 1 0
T=
0 0 1
0 0 0 1

Where dx, dy, and dz are the three components of a pure translation vector d relative to the
x-, y-, and z- axes of the reference frame. The first three columns represent no rotational
movement (equivalent of a 1), while the last column represents the translation.

The new location of the frame will be:

1 0 0 +
0 1 0 +
Fnew = x =
0 0 1 +
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
This equation is also symbolically, written as:
Fnew = Trans (dx, dy, dz) x Fold

Important Notes:

1. Pre-multiplying the frame matrix by transformation matrix will yield the

new location of the frame.
2. The directional vectors remain the same after a pure translation, but the
new location of the frame is at d + p.
3. The homogeneous transformation matrices facilitate the multiplication of
matrices resulting in the same dimensions.
72
Problem 4.8:

Suppose that instead of a frame, a point P=(3,5,7)T in space was translated a

distance of d=(2,3,4)T. Find the new location of the point relative to the reference frame.

Solution:

As for a frame,

1 0 0 2 3 5
0 1 0 3 5 8
= =
0 0 1 4 7 11
0 0 0 1 1 1

Problem 4.9:

The following frame B was moved a distance of d=(5,2,6)T. Find the new location
of the frame relative to the reference frame.

0 1 0 2
1 0 0 4
=
0 0 −1 6
0 0 0 1
Solution:

73
 The transformation matrix representing the translation is used to find the new
location as:

1 0 0 5 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 7
0 1 0 2 1 0 0 4 1 0 0 6
= =
0 0 1 6 0 0 −1 6 0 0 −1 12
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

REPRESENTATION OF A PURE ROTATION ABOUT AN AXIS

To simplify the derivation of rotations about an axis, let us first assume that the frame is
at the origin of the reference frame and is parallel to it.

74
 z

a 
p
po pa
l3 o
pz
l4 pa po 
y
l2
l1

py

Coordinates of a point relative to the reference frame and rotating frame as viewed from the x-axis.

Let’s assume that a frame Fnoa, located at the origin of the reference frame Fxyz, rotates an
angle of θ about the x-axis of the reference frame. Let’s also assume that attached to the
rotating frame Fnoa, is a point p, with coordinates px, py, and pz, relative to the reference
frame and pn, po, and pa relative to the moving fame.

75
 As the frame rotates about the x-axis, point p attached to the frame will also rotate with
it. Before rotation, the coordinates of the point in both frames are the same. After
rotation, the pn, po, and pa coordinates of the point remain the same in the rotating frame
Fnoa, but px, py, and pz will be different in the Fxyz frame.

We want to find the new coordinates of the point relative to the fixed reference frame
after the moving frame has rotated. The coordinates of point p are shown before and after
rotation in the above figure. The coordinates of point p relative to the reference frame are
px, py, and pz, while its coordinates relative to the rotating frame (to which the point is
attached) remain as pn, po, and pa.

From the figure, we see that the value of px does not change as the frame rotates about the
x-axis, but the values of py and pz do change.

p x = px

py = l1-l2 = po cosθ – pa sinθ

pz = l3+l4 = po sinθ + pa cosθ

and in matrix form:

1 0 0
= 0 cos θ − sin θ
0 sin θ cos θ

Note: The coordinates of the point p (or vector p) in the rotated frame must be
pre-multiplied by the rotation matrix, as shown to get the coordinates in the
reference frame. This rotation matrix is only for a pure rotation about the x-axis
of the reference frame and is denoted as:
pxyz = Rot(x,θ) x pnoa -------------(1)

In a simplified way it can be written as:

1 0 0
Rot (x,θ) = 0 θ − θ
0 θ θ

76
 Similarly, it can be shown that:

θ 0 θ
Rot (y,θ) = 0 1 0 and
− θ 0 θ
θ − θ 0
Rot (z,θ) = θ θ 0
0 0 1
Equation (1) can also be written in a conventional form that assists in easily
following the relationship between different frames.
U
p = UTR x Rp

[It can be read as p relative to frame U (for universe) = Transformation of frame R relative to frame U x p relative to frame R]

Problem 4.10:

A point p(2,3,4)T is attached to a rotating frame. The frame rotates 900 about the x-
axis of the reference frame. Find the coordinates of the point relative to the reference
frame after the rotation, and verify the result graphically.

Solution:

Since the point is attached to the rotating frame, the coordinates of the point relative
to the rotating frame remain the same after the rotation. The coordinates of the point
relative to the reference frame will be:

1 0 0 1 0 0 2 2
= 0 cos θ − sin θ = 0 0 −1 3 = −4
0 sin θ cos θ 0 1 0 4 3
As shown in figure, the coordinates of point p relative to the reference frame after
rotation are 2, -4, 3 as obtained by the above transformation.

77
REPRESENTATION OF COMBINED TRANSFORMATIONS

Combined transformations consist of a number of successive translations and rotations

about the fixed reference frame axes or the moving current frame axes. Any
transformation can be resolved into a set of translations and rotations in a particular
order.

For example we may rotate a frame about the x-axis, and then translate about the x-, y-,
and z-axes, then rotate about the y-axis in order to accomplish the desired transformation.

Here this order is very important, as the order of two successive transformations
changes; the result will be completely different.

To see how combined transformations handled, let’s assume that a frame Fnoa is subjected
to the following three successive transformations relative to the reference frame Fxyz;

1. Rotation of α degrees about the x-axis.

2. Followed by a translation of [l1,l2,l3] (relative to the x-, y-, and z-axes
respectively).
3. Followed by a rotation of β degrees about the y-axis.

Also, let’s say that a point pnoa is attached to the rotating frame at the origin of the
reference frame. As the frame Fnoa rotates or translates relative to the reference frame,
point p within the frame moves as well, and the coordinates of the point relative to the
reference frame change.

After the first transformation, the coordinates of the point p relative to the reference frame
is given by:

78
 p1, xyz = Rot(x, α) x pnoa

Where, p1, xyz is the coordinates of the point after the first transformation relative to the
reference frame.

The coordinates of the point relative to the reference frame at the conclusion of the
second transformation will be:

p2 ,xyz = Trans(l1,l2,l3) x p1, xyz = Trans(l1,l2,l3) x Rot(x, α) x pnoa

Similarly, after the third transformation, the coordinates of the point relative to the
reference frame will be:

pxyz = p3 ,xyz = Rot(y, β) x p2, xyz = Rot(y, β) x Trans(l1,l2,l3) x Rot(x, α) x pnoa

Note:
1. The coordinates of the point relative to the reference frame at the conclusion of
each transformation is found by pre-multiplying the coordinates of the point.
2. This order is very important.
3. The order of matrices written is the opposite of the order of transformations
performed.

Problem 4.11:

A point p(7,3,1)T is attached to a frame Fnoa and is subjected to the following

transformations. Find the coordinates of the point relative to the reference frame at the
conclusion of transformations.

1. Rotation of 900 about the z-axis.

2. Followed by a rotation of 900 about the y-axis.
3. Followed by a translation of [4,-3,7].

Solution: The matrix equation representing the transformation is:

pxyz = Trans(4,-3,7) Rot(y,90) Rot(z,90)pnoa

1 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 7 5
0 1 0 −3 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 4
pxyz = =
0 0 1 7 −1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 10
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
79
Problem 4.12:

In this case assume that the same point p(7,3,1)T is attached to frame Fnoa is
subjected to the same transformations, but the transformations are performed in a
different order, as shown. Find the coordinates of the point relative to the reference frame
at the conclusion of transformations.

1. A Rotation of 900 about the z-axis.

2. Followed by a translation of [4,-3,7].
3. Followed by a rotation of 900 about the y-axis.

Solution: The matrix equation representing the transformation is:

pxyz = Rot(y,90)Trans(4,-3,7) Rot(z,90)pnoa

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 4 0 −1 0 0 7 8
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 −3 1 0 0 0 3 4
pxyz = =
−1 0 1 0 0 0 1 7 0 0 1 0 1 −1
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
As you can see, although the transformations are exactly the same, as in problem
4.11, since the order of transformations is changed, the final coordinates of the point are
completely different.

80
TRANSFORMATIONS RELATIVE TO THE ROTATING FRAME
All transformations we have discussed so far have been relative to the fixed
reference frame. This means that all translations, rotations, ands distances (except for the
location of a point relative to the moving frame) have been measured relative to the
reference frame axes. However, it is possible to make transformations relative to the axes
of a moving or current frame.

In this case, to calculate the changes in the coordinates of a point attached to the
current frame relative to the reference frame, the transformation matrix is post-multiplied.

Problem 4.13:

Assume that the same point p(7,3,1)T (as in problem 4.12) is now subjected to the
same transformations, but all relative to the current moving frame, as listed below. Find
the coordinates of the point relative to the reference frame at the conclusion of
transformations.

1. A Rotation of 900 about the a-axis.

2. Then a translation of [4,-3,7] along n-, o-, a- axes.
3. Followed by a rotation of 900 about the o-axis.

Solution: Since the transformations are made relative to the current frame, each
transformation matrix is post-multiplied.

pxyz = Rot(a,90)Trans(4,-3,7) Rot(o,90)pnoa

0 −1 0 0 1 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 7 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 −3 0 1 0 0 3 5
pxyz = =
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 7 −1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
As expected the result is completely different from the other cases, both because the
transformations are made relative to the current frame, and because the order of the
matrices is now different.

81
Problem 4.14:

A frame B was rotated about the x-axis 900, then it was translated about the current
a-axis 3 inches, before it was rotated about the z-axis 900. Finally, it was translated about
current o-axis 5 inches.

a) Write an equation that describes the motions.

b) Find the final location of a point p(1,5,4)T attached to the frame relative to the
reference frame.

Solution: In this case, motions alternate relative to the reference frame and current
frame.

(a) Pre- or post-multiplying each motions matrix accordingly, we will get

U
TB = Rot(z, 90) Rot(x, 90) Tran(0,0,3) Trans(0,5,0)

(b) Substituting the matrices and multiplying them, we will get:

U
p =UTB x Bp

0 −1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 7
1 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 5 5 1
= =
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 1 0 4 10
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

82
Problem 4.15:

A frame F was rotated about the y-axis 900, followed by a rotation about the o-axis
of 300, followed by translation of 5 units along the n-axis, and finally, a translation of 4
units along the x-axis. Find the total transformation matrix.

Solution: The following set of matrices, written in the proper order to represent
transformations relative to the reference frame or the current frame describes the total
transformation.

T = Trans(4,0,0) Rot(y, 90) Rot(o, 30) Trans(5,0,0)

1 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 0.866 0 0.5 0 1 0 0 5
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
=
0 0 1 0 −1 0 0 0 −0.5 0 0.866 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
−0.5 0 0.866 1.5
0 1 0 0
=
−0.866 0 −0.5 −4.33
0 0 0 1
Problem 4.16:

A frame B is rotated 900 about the z-axis, then translated 3 and 5 units relative to
the n- and o-axes respectively, then rotated another 900 about the n-axis, and finally 900
about the y-axis. Find the new location and orientation of the frame.

0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
B=
0 0 −1 1
0 0 0 1
Solution:

Bnew = Rot(y, 90) Rot(z, 90) B Trans(3,5,0) Rot(n, 90)

0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 3 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 5 0 0 −1 0
=
−1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 −1 0 1
0 0 −1 6
=
1 0 0 4
0 0 0 1

83
Inverse of Transformation Matrices

There are many situations c where the inverse of a matrix will be needed in robotic analysis.
Suppose the robot (shown in below fig) is to be moved toward part P in order to drill a hole in
the part. The robot’s base position relative to the reference frame U is described by a frame R,
the robot’s hand is described by frame H, and the end effector (end of the drill bit that will be
used to drill the hole) is described by frame E. The part’s position is also described by frame P.
the location of the point where the hole will be drilled can be related to the reference frame U
through two independent paths: one through the part, one through the robot. Therefore the
following equation can be written:

U
TE = UTR RTH THE = UTP PTE -----------------------(1)

The location of point E on the part can be achieved by moving from U to P and from P to E, or it
can alternately be achieved by a transformation from U to R, from R to H, and from H to E.

From the above illustration, it is clear that the only unknown transformation is RTH or the
transformation of the robot’s hand relative to the robot’s base. This means we need to find out
what the robot’s joint variables- the angle of the revolute joints and the length of the prismatic
joints of the robot-must be in order to place the end effector at the hole for drilling.

84
We adopt here the following procedure to simplify the above equation.

(UTR)-1 (UTR RTH HTE) (HTE)-1 = (UTR)-1 (UTP PTE) (HTE)-1 --------------(2)

Or, since (UTR)-1 (UTR) =I and (HTE)(HTE)-1 =I, the left side of equation 2 simplifies to RTH
and we get:

R
TH= (UTR)-1 UTP PTE (HTE)-1 -----------------------------------(3)

We can check the accuracy of this equation by realizing that (HTE)-1 is the same as ETH.

Therefore the equation can be re written as:

R
TH=UTR-1 UTP PTE (HTE)-1 = RTU UTP PTE ETH = RTH --------------(4)

It is now clear that we need to be able to calculate the inverse of transformation matrices
for kinematic analysis as well.

It can be shown that inverse of the 3 x 3 rotation matrices can be simply obtained by
transposing the original matrix.

Rot(x,θ)-1 = Rot(x,θ)T ------------------------------(5)

This result is true only for a simple 3 x 3 rotation matrix without representation of a
location.

For a homogeneous 4 x 4 transformation matrix, it can be shown that the matrix inverse
can be written by dividing the matrix into two portions; the rotation portion of the matrix can be
simply transposed, as it is still unitary. The position portion of the homogeneous matrix is the
negative of the dot product of the P-vector with each of the n-, o- and a-vectors as follows;

= and
0 0 0 1

− .
− .
=
− .
0 0 0 1

85
 As shown, the rotation portion of the matrix is simply transposed; the position portion is
replaced by the negative of the dot products, and the last row (scale factor) is not affected. This is
very helpful, since we will need to calculate inverses of transformation matrices, but direct
calculation of 4 x 4 matrices is a lengthy process.

Problem 4.17

Calculate the inverse of the given transformation matrix:

0.5 0 0.866 3
0.866 0 −0.5 2
=
0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1

0.5 0.866 0 −(3 0.5 + 2 0.866 + 5 0)

0 0 1 −(3 0 + 2 0 + 5 1)
=
0.866 −0.5 0 −(3 0.866 + 2 − 0.5 + 5 0)
0 0 0 1

0.5 0.866 0 −3.23

0 0 1 −5
=
0.866 −0.5 0 −1.598
0 0 0 1

86
END EFFECTOR ORIENTATION:

 Suppose that the moving frame attached to the hand of the robot has already moved to a
desired position, but is still parallel to the reference frame, or that it is in an orientation
other than what is desired. The next step will be to rotate the frame appropriately in order
to achieve a desired orientation without changing its position. The appropriate sequence
of rotations depends on the design of the wrist of the robot, and the way the joints are
assembled together.

 The three common configurations are as under:

a) Roll, Pitch, Yaw (RPY) angles
b) Euler angles
c) Articulated joints

 Roll, Pitch, Yaw (RPY) angles:

This is a sequence of three rotations about current , ̅ , axes respectively, which will
orient the hand of the robot to a desired orientation. The assumption here is that the
current frame is parallel to the reference frame and thus its orientation is the same as the
reference frame before the RPY movements.

87
 Referring to the above figure, we see that the RPY sequence of rotations consists of the
following:

(i) Rotation of φa about the axis(z-axis of the moving fame) called Roll,
(ii) Rotation of φo about the ̅ axis(y-axis of the moving fame) called Pitch
(iii) Rotation of φn about the axis(x-axis of the moving fame) called Yaw

The matrix representing the RPY orientation change will be

RPY (φa, φo, φn) = Rot(a, φa) Rot(o, φo) Rot(n, φn) =

φ φ φ φ φ − Sφ φ φ φ φ + φ φ 0
φ φ φ φ φ + Cφ φ φ φ φ − Cφ φ 0
− φ φ Sφ φ φ 0
0 0 0 1

This matrix represents the orientation change caused by the RPY alone. The location and
the final orientation of the frame relative to the reference frame will be the product of the
two matrices representing the position change and the RPY.

 Euler Angles:

Euler angles are very similar to RPY, except that the last rotation is also about the current
a-axis. Referring to the below figure, we see that for the Euler angels, the sequence of
rotations consists of the following:

(i) Rotation of φ about the a-axis (z-axis of the moving fame) followed by,
(ii) Rotation of θ about the o- axis (y-axis of the moving fame) followed by
(iii) Rotation of ψ about the a-axis (z-axis of the moving fame)

88
 The matrix representing the Euler angles orientation change will be

Euler (φ, θ, ψ) = Rot(a, φ) Rot(o, θ) Rot(a, ψ) =

φ − − − 0
+ − + 0
− 0
0 0 0 1

This matrix represents the orientation change caused by the RPY alone. The location and
the final orientation of the frame relative to the reference frame will be the product of the
two matrices representing the position change and the RPY.

 Articulated Joints:
Articulated joins consists of three rotations other than the above.

89
Coordinate reference frames

The most general form of homogeneous transformation performs both the operations of
translation and rotation, when applied to a point. Let us consider a space consisting of
two orthogonal reference frames whose origins are displaced as shown below. The origin
of frame 2 is at coordinates (x,y,z) with respect to frame1 as shown by a vector P.

Fig. Three dimensional space with two reference frames

Note that the axes of each frame are aligned in different directions and for simplicity are
either parallel or anti parallel to axis of the other frame.

90
Operations to line up two frames:

The coordinate system adopted is Right Hand coordinate system. CCW is positive angle,
CW is negative angle.

Method 1.

91
Method 2

92
Multiple reference frames in space

Fig. Four reference frames in three dimensional space

Frame to frame transformation by inspection method for the above figure is given below.

Transformation matrix for frame 0 and frame 1

(0T1 transformation relation of frame 1 with frame 0)
−1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
=
0 1 0
0 0 0 1

0 0 −1 0
0 1 0 0
=
1 0 0
0 0 0 1

0 1 0
0 0 1 0
=
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1

93
 −1 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
= = =
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

−1 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
= =
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 +
=
0 0 1
0 0 0 1

The relationship of frame 3 with frame 0 can also be written by visual inspection, which
yields the same result.

94
DENAVIT-HARTENBERG REPRESENTATION OF FORWARD KINEMATIC
EQUATIONS OF ROBOTS:

 In 1955, Denavit and Hartenberg published a paper in the ASME journal of Applied
Mechanics that was later used to represent and model robots and to derive their equations
of motion.

Link-Joint Numbering scheme

95
 Robots may be made of a succession of joints and links in any order. The joints may be
either prismatic (linear) or revolute (rotational), move in different planes, and have
offsets. The links may also be of any length, including zero; may be twisted and bent; and
may be in any plane. Therefore, any general set of joints and links may create a robot.
 In D-H representation, we assign a reference frame to each joint, and define a general
procedure to transform from one joint to the next (one frame to the next). If we combine
all the transformations from the base to the first joint, from the first joint to the second
joint and so on, until we get to the last joint, we will have the robot’s total transformation
matrix.
 Imagine that a robot may be made of a number of links and joints in any form. The
following figure represents three successive joints and two links. Although these joints
and links are not necessarily similar to any real robot joint or link, they are very general
and can easily represent any joints in real robots. These joints may be revolute or
prismatic or both. Although, in real robots it is customary to only have 1-DOF joints, the
joints in the figure represent 1-or 2 DOF joints.

96
 Figure shows three joints, each joint may both rotate and/or translate. Let’s assign joint
number n to the first joint, n+1 to the second joint and n+2 to the third joint as shown.
There may be other joints before or after these. Each link is also assigned a link number
as shown. Link n will be between joints n and n+ 1 and link n+ 1 is between joints n+1
and n+2.

 First step is to assign a local reference frame for each and every joint. Therefore for each
joint we will have to assign a z-axis and an x-axis. We normally do not need to assign a
y-axis, since we always know that y-axes are mutually perpendicular to both x- and z-
axes.

 Procedure for assigning local reference frame to each joint:

a) All joints without exception are represented by a z-axis. If the joint is revolute, the
z-axis is in the direction of rotation as followed by right hand rule for rotation. If
the joint is prismatic, the z-axis for the joint is along the direction of linear
movement. The index number for the z-axis of joint n is n-1. For eg, the z-axis
representing motion about joint number n+1 is zn.
For revolute joints, the rotation about the z-axis is θ, which is the joint variable.
For prismatic joints, the length of the link, along z-axis represented by d will be
the joint variable.
b) In general, joints may not necessarily be parallel or intersecting. As a result, the z-
axes may be skew lines. There is always one line mutually perpendicular to any
two skew lines, called common normal, which is the shortest distance. We always
assign the x-axis of the local reference frame in the direction of the common
normal. Therefore, if an represents the common normal between zn and zn+1 is an+1,
the direction of xn+1 will be along an+1.
[The common normal lines between successive joints are not necessarily
intersecting or collinear. As a result, the origins of two successive frames may
also not be at the same location.]

97
 c) If two z-axes are parallel, there are infinite numbers of common normal’s between
them. We will pick the common normal that is collinear with the common normal
of the previous joint.
d) If the z-axes of two successive joints are intersecting, there is no common normal
between them. (or it has a zero length). We will assign the x-axis along a line
perpendicular to the plane formed by the two axes. This means that the common
normal is a line perpendicular to the plane containing the two z-axes, which is the
equivalent of picking the direction of the cross-product of the two z-axes.

 In the above figure, θ represents a rotation about the z-axis, d represents the distance on
the z-axis between two successive common normal (or joint offset), a represents the
length of each common normal (the length of a link), and α represents the angle between
two successive z-axes (also called joint twist angle). Commonly only θ and d are joint
variables.

98
 Steps or necessary motions to transform from one reference frame to the next:
[1] Rotate about the zn-axis an angle θn+1. This will make xn and xn+1 parallel to each
other. This is true because an and an+1 are both perpendicular to zn, and rotating zn
angle θn+1 will make them parallel (and thus coplanar). { from fig b to fig c}
[2] Translate along the zn-axis a distance of dn+1 to make xn and xn+1 collinear. Since
xn and xn+1 were already parallel and normal to zn moving along zn will lay them
over each other. {from fig c to fig d}.
[3] Translate along the (already rotated) xn-axis a distance of an+1 to bring the origins
of xn and xn+1 together. At this point the origins of the two reference frames will
be at the same location. {from fig d to fig e}
[4] Rotate zn-axis about xn+1 axis an angle of αn+1 to align zn axis with zn+1 axis. At
this point frames n and n+1 will be exactly the same and we have transformed
from one to the next. {from fig f to fig g}

 Continuing with exactly the same sequence of four movements between the n+1 and n+2
frames will transform one to the next. And by repeating this as necessary, we can
transform between successive frames. Starting with the robot’s reference frame, we can
transform to the first joint, second joint and so on, until the end effector. Note that the
above sequence of movements remains the same between any two frames.
 The transformation nTn+1 (called An+1) between two successive frames representing the
preceding four movements is the product of the four matrices representing them. Since all
transformations are relative to the current frame (they are measured and performed
relative to the axes of the current local frame), all matrices are post-multiplied.

99
 The result is:
n
Tn+1 = An+1 = Rot(z, θn+1) x Trans(0,0,dn+1) x Trans(an+1, 0,0) x Rot(x, αn+1)

=
− 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 − 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

−
−
An+1 =
0
0 0 0 1

As an example, the transformation between joints 2 and 3 of a generic robot will simply
be:

−
2 −
T3 = A23 = A3 =
0
0 0 0 1

At the base of the robot, we can start with the first joint and transform to the
second joint, then to the third, and so on, until the hand of the robot and eventually the
end effector. Calling each transformation an An+1, we will have a number of A matrices
that represent the transformations. The total transformation between the base of the robot
and the hand will be:

R
TH = RT1 1T2 2T3,,,,n-1Tn = A1 A2 A3…..An = A01 A12A23 A34…An-1n

Where n is the join number. For a 6-DOF robot, there will be six A matrices.

To facilitate the calculation of the A matrices, we will form a table of joint and link
parameters, whereby, the values representing each link and joint are determined from the
schematic drawing of the robot and are substituted into each A matrix.

100
 Table: D-H Parameters Table

# θ d a α
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6

Problem 4.18

For the simple 2-axis, planar robot shown below, assign the necessary coordinate
systems based on the D-H notation, fill out the parameters table, and derive forward
kinematic equations for the robot.

Solution:

1. Both joints rotate in the x-y plane and that a frame xH-zH shows the end of robot.
2. We start assigning the z-axes for the joints. Z0 will be assigned to joint1, and z1
will be assigned to joint2. Fig shows both z-axes pointing out from the page. Notice
that the 0-frame is fixed and does not move. The robot moves relative to it.

101
3. Now, we need to assign x-axis for each frame. Since the frame0 is at the base of
the robot, and therefore, there are no joints before it, the direction of x0 is arbitrary.
For convenience, we may choose to assign it in the same direction as the universe x-
axis.
4. Since z0 and z1 are parallel, the common normal between them is in the direction
between the two, and therefore, the x1-axis is shown. The following table shows the
parameters table.
Table (problem 4.18) D-H parameters table
# θ d a α
0-1 θ1 0 a1 0
1-H θ2 0 a2 0

5. The forward kinematic equation of the robot can be found by substituting these
parameters in to the corresponding A matrices as under:

0 −
0
=
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
− 0
0
=
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Using functions C1C2-S1S2=C(θ1+θ2)=C12 and S1C2+C1S2=S(θ1+θ2)=S12, we get:
− 0 +
0 +
= × =
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
The forward kinematic solution allows us to find the location (and orientation) of
the robot’s end if values for θ1, θ2, a1 and a2 are specified.

102
Problem 4.19

Obtain the position and orientation of the tool point P with respect to the base for
the 2 DOF, RP planar manipulator shown below.

Solution:

The formulation of direct kinematic model of the manipulator begins with the study of
its mechanical structure and identification of the links and joints. The frames are
assigned as explained in the above problem.

The frame assignment is given below:

103
 Table (problem 4.19) D-H parameters table
# θ d a α
0-1 θ1 0 0 900
1-2 0 d2 0 0

0 0
0 − 0
=
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
=
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
0
0 − −
= × =
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

The orientation and position of the tool point P can be computed for given values of
displacement variables θ1 and d2 at any instant of time. For example, for θ1=1200 and
d2=200 mm, the end effector transformation matrix will be

−0.5 0 0.866 173.2

0.866 0 0.5 100.0
=
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1

It is assumed that θ1 and d2 chosen above are within the available range of joint motions.

104
Problem 4.20

Formulate the forward kinematic model of the 3 DOF (RPP) manipulator arm
shown below.

Solution:

Frame assignment for the given robot is as under

105
 Table (problem 4.20) D-H parameters table
# θ d a α
0-1 θ1 0 0 0
1-2 0 d2 0 -900
2-3 0 d3 0 0

− 0 0
0 0
=
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
=
0 −1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
=
0 0 1
0 0 0 1

The overall transformation matrix for the manipulator is obtained by multiplying the
link transformation matrices, as given below.

0 − −
0 0
T3=0T11T22T3= =
0 −1 0
0 0 0 1

106
 ROBOTIC SENSORY DEVICES

 Differentiate Sensor and transducer

 General classification of sensors:

Analog versus digital
Active versus Passive
Contact type versus Non contact type
Based on measurand (pressure, temp, force, flow, torque, position, velocity,
acceleration etc)
Null type versus deflection type

 Importance of sensors in robotics and desirable characteristics:

[Cost, size, weight, type of output, interfacing, resolution, sensitivity, linearity, range,
response time, reliability, accuracy, repeatability etc]

 Uses of sensors in Robotics:

[Safety monitoring, interlocking in work cell control, part inspection for quality control,
determining positions and related information about objects in the robot cell]

 Sensors classification in robot point of view:

Internal state sensors: Devices used to measure position, velocity or acceleration

of robot joints and/or the end effector. Examples are Potentiometers, Synchros,
resolvers, linear inductive scales, Differential transformers (LVDT, RVDT),
Optical interrupters, Optical encoders (absolute and incremental), Tachometers,
and Accelerometers.

107
 External state sensors: Devices used to monitor the robot’s geometric and/or
dynamic relation to its task, environment or the objects that is handling. These
devices can be of Visual type or non visual type.

Examples of non visual types are strain gauges, pressure transducers, proximity
devices, ultrasonic sensors, electromagnetic sensors, elastomeric materials etc.

 Although, it is possible to utilize a robot without any external sensing whatsoever, more
and varied applications require such devices. Thus in addition to the control of robotic
manipulator itself, certain more sophisticated tasks require that a variety of quantities be
monitored at the gripper. The data gathered by sensors placed on or near the gripper can
then be utilized by the robot’s controller to modify or adapt to a given situation.

108
 NON-OPTICAL POSITION SENSORS

Position sensors are used to measure displacements, both rotary and linear as well as
movements. In many cases, such as in encoders, the position information may also be
used to calculate velocities.

Potentiometers
A potentiometer converts position information into a variable voltage through a
resistor. A pot can be constructed by winding a resistive element in a coil
configuration. As the wiper on the resistor moves due to a change in position, the
proportion of resistance before or after the point of contact with the sweeper
compared with the total resistance varies. (See fig shown below).

Fig. 3.1 Typical Commercially available rotary potentiometers

Fig. 3.2 Thin film resistive POTS

(This device has much better resolution than the wire wound
version. Also, contact noise problems are reduced)

109
 Fig 3.3 Principle of operation of Rotary and linear POT

Here the pot acts as a voltage divider, the output will be proportional to the resistance
as Vout = Vs

For the pot, it is important that the resistance r be linearly related to the angular
distance traveled by the wiper shaft. Although, it is possible to obtain pots that are
nominally linear, there is always some deviation from linearity as shown below.

110
 Fig. 3.4 Output of a pot showing the theoretical linear and actual non linear
characteristics as a function of angular position ‘ θ ‘

Generally, the nonlinearity of a pot is defined as the maximum deviation ε from

the ideal straight line compared to the full scale output. Vmax

ε
% Non Linearity = 100

The inevitable presence of this nonlinearity is one main drawback of pot.

Resolution (smallest change in wiper position that can be sensed) of a wire wound
pot is given by Vs/N. [A change in Vout will occur, only when the sliding contact moves
from one coil loop to the adjacent one]

% Resolution = 100 = 100/N

Potentiometers are either wire wound or thin film deposit (also called conductive plastic),
which is a deposit of a thin film of resistive material on a surface. The major benefit of
thin film potentiometers is that their output is continuous and thus less noisy. As a result
it is possible to electronically differentiate the output of this type of resistor to find
velocity.

The major draw backs of pots are noise, wear and tear, heating of coil, prone to dust and
dirt.

111
 RESOLVERS

 A Resolver is actually a form of synchro and for this reason it is often called a “synchro
resolver”.
 One of the main differences between the two devices is that the stator and rotor windings
of the resolver are displaced mechanically 900 to each other instead of 1200 as is the case
with synchro.

 Refer fig 5.2.10 Fig shows the most common form of resolver, which has a single rotor
and two stator windings.
 With the rotor excited by an ac carrier voltage V Sin ωact, the two stator voltages become
v1-3(t) = Vsinθ Sin ωact
v2-4(t) = Vcosθ Sin ωact
where θ is the resolver shaft angle.

It is used in much same way as the synchro CX to monitor shaft angle.

112
 Another form of a resolver has two stator and two rotor windings. [Fig 5.2.11]. In actual
use, the carrier voltage is applied to any one and the other one is normally shorted.
 To utilize a resolver in a servo system, it is necessary to employ two resolvers in much
the same way as was done with the synchro system.
 Fig 5.2.11 shows a resolver transmitter (RX) and resolver control transformer (RT) in a
simple position servo. Here RX and RT are used to obtain the difference between the
actual and desired angles (i.e.θ1-θ2). It is important to understand that although angular
position can be monitored using a single resolver, this is usually not done in servo-
controlled devices because of the need to utilize an error signal to drive the system
actuator.

113
 OPTICAL POSITION SENSORS

 Some sensors utilize optical hardware and techniques are frequently used to perform the
position determination task with relative ease and good accuracy. We now discuss such
sensors and their application to robotics.

1. Opto-Interrupters
2. Optical Encoders
a. Rotary absolute encoders
b. Optical incremental encoders

OPTICAL ENCODERS

 One of the most widely used position sensors is the optical encoder. Capable of
resolutions that are more than adequate for robotic applications, these noncontact sensory
devices come in two distinct classes.
(a) Absolute
(b) Incremental

In the case of absolute, the encoder is able to give the actual linear or rotational position
if power has just been applied to the electromechanical system using the sensor. Thus a
robot joint equipped with an absolute encoder will not require any calibration cycle since
the controller will immediately, upon power-up, know the actual joint position.

114
 In the case of incremental encoder, the encoder provides positional information relative
to some reference point. A robot utilizing an incremental encoder must, therefore, first
execute a calibration sequence before true positional information can be obtained.

Although either linear or rotary encoders for both of the foregoing classes are available,
the rotary device is almost exclusively used in robotic applications. One of the most
important reasons for this is that revolute joints far outnumber prismatic ones in robots
currently being manufactured. As such linear encoders are much costlier than rotary
encoders

ROTARY ABSOLUTE ENCODERS

 The absolute encoder is capable of giving the correct rotary position at all times even
after power-up has occurred. The device produces a separate and unique coded word for
each shaft position.
 A major advantage of the absolute encoder is that even if system power is accidentally
lost (due to a power outage or relay trip, for example) the device will remember where it
is and will report this to the system as soon as power is restored.
 Absolute encoders usually consists of three major elements:
1. A multiple-track (or channel) light source
2. A multiple-channel light receiver
3. A multiple-track rotary disk

115
116
 Normally, light emanating from a linear, N-element light source (e.g., LEDs) is made to
pass at right angles through the disk and is received (or collected) by a corresponding
linear array of N light sensors (e.g., phototransistors) mounted on the opposite side of the
disk. (see Figure 5.3.5)
 The disk is divided in to circumferential tracks and radial sectors. Absolute rotational
information is obtained by utilizing one of several possible code formats. For example,
Figure 5.3.6 shows a four track 16-sector pure binary coded disk. [the other coding
schemes are BCD and gray code]
 It can be seen form Figure 5.3.6 that the resolution of the disk is 22.50 (360/16) since one
complete disk revolution is 3600 and there are 16 sectors. [Assume shaded areas represent
a binary 1 and clear areas a binary 0].
 For example, if sector 11 is in the region of the LEDs the output of the photo transistors
will be 1011 or decimal 11. It is clear from this discussion that the absolute disk position
is known simply by reading the photo-detector outputs.

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 In practice, it is possible to produce absolute encoders with up to 13 separate channels
(i.e., 13 bits) which means that resolutions up to 360/213 = 0.0440 are possible for a single
complete rotation of the disk.

 Binary and Gray codes:

 Figure shows the difference between a binary code and a gray code. In the binary code
system, there are many instances where more than one set of bits change sign
simultaneously, where in gray code, at any particular location, there is always only one
bit-change to go back or forth. The importance of this difference is that in digital
measurements, unlike popular perception, the values of signals are not constantly read,
but the signal is measured (sampled) and held until the next sample reading. In binary
code, where multiple bits change simultaneously, if all changes do not happen exactly at
the same time, they may not all register. In gray code, since there is only one change, the
system will always find it.

Figure : Gray coded disk (4 bit)

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 INCREMENTAL ENCODER

 Optical incremental encoders are widely used to monitor joint position on

robots. In addition, they are the sensor of choice in a variety of machine
tools, including lathes, x-y tables, and electronic chip wire and hybrid die
bonders. The major reason is that they are capable of producing excellent
resolution at a significantly lower cost.

 It is important to understand that if power is accidentally lost during an

operation, calibration must be performed again since the incremental
encoder has no memory.

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 In this type of encoder, the areas (arcs) of opaque and transparent sections are equal and
repeating. Since all arcs are the same size, each represents an equal angle of rotation. If
the number of divisions (arcs) increases, the accuracy increases as well.

 Typical incremental encoders can have 100, 128, 200, 256, 500, 512, 1000, 1024, 2000,
and 2048 arcs reporting angular displacements with a resolution of 3.60 to 0.17580.
 Optical encoders are either opaque disk with the material removed for transparent areas
or are clear material like glass with printed opaque area.
 Many encoder disks are also etched, such that they either reflect the light or do not reflect
the light. In that case the light source and the pick-up sensor are both on the same side of
the disk.

 An incremental encoder acts as an integrator, because the controller actually counts the
number of signals the encoder sends, determining the total positional change, and
consequently it is integrating the position signal.

 Many photo-detectors are analog devices. This means that as the magnitude of the light
varies, their output varies too. Therefore, as one section on the encoder disk approaches
the detector and the projected light intensity increases to a maximum, the output of the
detector rises before falling again as departs. Consequently, a squaring circuit is used to
condition the signal. Fig 5.3.8 and 7.4 shows the output of an incremental encoder.

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 If only one set of slots is used, it will be impossible to determine whether the disk is
rotating clockwise or counterclockwise. In order to determine the type of rotation,
encoder disks have two sets of slots (two channels), ½ step out of phase with each other.
As a result, the output signals of the two sets of slots are also a ½ step out of phase with
each other. [See fig 5.3.8] The controller can compare the two signals and determine
which one changes from high to low or vice versa before the other signal. Through this
comparison, it is possible to determine the direction of rotation of the disk.

 By counting both the leading edges as well as the trailing edges of the output signals of
the encoders on both channels, it is actually possible to increase resolution of the output
of incremental encoders without increasing the number of slots.

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