Basic Thermodynamic Formulas (Exam Equation Sheet)

Control Mass (no mass flow across system boundaries)

Conservation of mass: 𝑚 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑄−𝑊 = ∆𝐸
st
Conservation of energy (1 Law): � = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐾 + ∆𝑃𝑃
𝑣22 −𝑣12
= 𝑚 �∆𝑢 + + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )�
2
𝛿𝛿
Entropy Balance (2nd Law): ∆𝑆 = ∫ � � + 𝜎
𝑇 𝑏

Control Volume (mass flow across system boundaries)

𝑑𝑚𝐶𝐶 �
𝐴𝑉
Conservation of mass: = ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖 − ∑ 𝑚̇ 𝑒 ; where 𝑚̇ = is the mass flow rate
𝑑𝑑 𝜈
𝑑𝐸𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑒2
Conservation of energy (1st Law): = 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ + ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖 �ℎ𝑖 + + 𝑔𝑧𝑖 � − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑒 �ℎ𝑒 + + 𝑔𝑧𝑒 �
𝑑𝑑 2 2
𝑑𝑆𝐶𝐶 𝑄̇𝑘
Entropy Balance (2nd Law): =∑ + ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑠𝑖 − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑒 𝑠𝑒 + 𝜎̇𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑘

Heat Transfer and Work Relationships

𝑑𝑑
Conduction: 𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑

Convection: 𝑄̇ = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
Radiation: 𝑄̇ = 𝜀𝜀𝜀(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠
4
)
Heat transfer for an internally reversible process: 𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖.𝑟𝑟𝑟 = ∫ 𝑇 𝑑𝑑
Boundary work: 𝑊𝑏 = ∫ 𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃 𝑛 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑉2
Polytropic process: � 𝑛 = 1, 𝑊𝑏 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑙 � 𝑉1
𝑃2 𝑉2 −𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑛 ≠ 1, 𝑊𝑏 =
1−𝑛

𝑇2 𝑃 (𝑛−1)/𝑛
= � 2�
𝑇1 𝑃1
Polytropic process for Ideal Gas: � 𝑛−1 �
𝑇2 𝑉
= � 1�
𝑇1 𝑉2

𝑣12 −𝑣22
Reversible steady flow work: 𝑤𝑟𝑟𝑟 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑣𝑣 + + 𝑔(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )
2

Ideal gas, no change in kinetic and potential energy

𝑘−1
𝑘𝑘(𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) 𝑘𝑘𝑇1 𝑃 � �
𝑘
Isentropic: 𝑤𝑟𝑟𝑟 = = �1 − � 2 � �
𝑘−1 𝑘−1 𝑃1

𝑃
Isothermal: 𝑤𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 � 1 �
𝑃2
𝑛−1
𝑛𝑛(𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) 𝑛𝑛𝑇1 𝑃 � �
𝑛
Polytropic: 𝑤𝑟𝑟𝑟 = = �1 − � 2 � �
𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑃1
 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑸 𝑻 ̇
Thermal Efficiency of Cycles �𝜼𝒕𝒕 = � �𝑸̇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝑾̇𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 � � ̇ 𝑯 = 𝑯 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐�
𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝑸𝑳 𝑻𝑳

𝑊̇𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑄̇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
Heat engine: 𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1− ≤1−
𝑄̇𝐻 𝑄̇𝐻 𝑇𝐻
𝑄̇𝐿 𝑄̇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
Refrigeration: 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑅 = 𝛽 = = ≤
𝑊̇𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝐻 −𝑄̇𝐿
̇ 𝑇𝐻 −𝑇𝐿
𝑄̇𝐻 𝑄̇𝐻 𝑇𝐻
Heat pump: 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻 = 𝛾 = = ≤
𝑊̇𝑖𝑖 𝑄̇𝐻 −𝑄̇𝐿 𝑇𝐻 −𝑇𝐿

Isentropic (Adiabatic) Efficiencies:

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑖 −ℎ𝑒
Turbine: 𝜂 𝑇 = =
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑖 −ℎ𝑒,𝑠
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑒,𝑠 −ℎ𝑖
Compressor: 𝜂𝐶 = =
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑒 −ℎ𝑖
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐾𝐾 𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑒2 /2
Nozzle: 𝜂𝑁 = = 2 /2
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾 𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑒,𝑠
𝛿𝛿 𝛿ℎ
Specific Heat Relationships �𝐶𝑣 = � , 𝐶𝑝 = � �
𝛿𝛿 𝑣 𝛿𝛿 𝑃

Incompressible Substance (solids and liquids)

Use saturation tables: 𝑣 ≅ 𝑣𝑓@𝑇 ; 𝑢 ≅ 𝑢𝑓@𝑇 ; ℎ ≅ ℎ𝑓@𝑇 + 𝑣𝑓@𝑇 (𝑃 − 𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠 ) ; 𝑠 ≅ 𝑠𝑓@𝑇
∆𝑢 = ∫ 𝐶(𝑇)𝑑𝑑
OR Variable specific heat: �∆ℎ = ∫ 𝐶(𝑇)𝑑𝑑 + 𝑣∆𝑃 �
𝐶
∆𝑠 = ∫ 𝑑𝑑
𝑇
∆𝑢 = 𝐶∆𝑇
Constant specific heat: �∆ℎ = 𝐶∆𝑇 + 𝑣∆𝑃 �
𝑇
∆𝑠 = 𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑙𝑙 2
𝑇1

𝐶𝑝 �
𝑢
Ideal Gases �𝑃𝑃 = 𝑅𝑅, 𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅, 𝑘 = � Use ideal gas tables 𝑢 = ; 𝑀 = Molar mass (Table A-1)
𝐶𝑣 𝑀

∆𝑢 = ∫ 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇) 𝑑𝑑
OR Variable specific heats: � ∆ℎ = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇) 𝑑𝑑
�
𝑜 𝑜 𝑃2
∆𝑠 = 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑃1
𝑃2 𝑠2𝑜 −𝑠1𝑜 𝑃𝑟2
= 𝑒𝑒𝑒 � �=
𝑃1 𝑅 𝑃𝑟1
Isentropic process: � 𝑣2 𝑇2 𝑃1 𝑣𝑟2
�
= =
𝑣1 𝑇1 𝑃2 𝑣𝑟1
∆𝑢 = 𝐶𝑣,𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑇
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ∆ℎ = 𝐶𝑝,𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑇 ⎪
Constant specific heats: 𝑇 𝑣
∆𝑠 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑙𝑙 2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑅 2
⎨ 𝑇1 𝑣1 ⎬
⎪ 𝑇2 𝑃2 ⎪
⎩∆𝑠 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑙𝑙 𝑇1 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑃1 ⎭
𝑇 𝑣 (𝑘−1)
⎧𝑇2 = �𝑣1 � ⎫
⎪1 2
𝑘−1 ⎪
Isentropic process: 𝑇2 𝑃 � 𝑘 �
= � 2�
⎨ 𝑇1 𝑃1 ⎬
⎪ 𝑃2 1 𝑣 𝑘 ⎪
⎩ 𝑃1 = �𝑣2 � ⎭
Other (saturated liquid/vapor mixtures, superheated vapors, e.g. water and refrigerants) → Use Tables A2 - A18
Useful Relations: ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑃 ; 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑣𝑓𝑓 ; 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥𝑢𝑓𝑓 ; ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑓 ; 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥𝑠𝑓𝑓 ;
𝑚𝑔
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 = 𝑥 = ; 𝑚𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡