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7
9-4:AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Compression ratio
Mean effective
pressure
Ratio of the volume of its combustion chamber; from its largest capacity to its
smallest capacity(A high compression ratio is desirable because it allows an
engine to extract more mechanical energy from a given mass of air-fuel mixture
due to its higher thermal efficiency)
• Spark-ignition (SI) engines :(combustion of the air–fuel mixture is initiated by a spark plug)
:(air–fuel mixture is self‐ignited as a result of compressing
• Compression-ignition (CI) engines the mixture above its self‐ignition temperature)
Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams. 9
Four-stroke cycle In most spark‐ignition
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution engines, the piston
executes four
T o stroke c
Two-stroke cycle
cle complete strokes (two
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution mechanical cycles)
within the cylinder,
and the crankshaft
completes two
completes two
revolutions for each
thermodynamic cycle.
10
11
Four stroke
combustion
b ti
engine
12
Four-stroke cycle The two-stroke engines are
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution generally less efficient than
T o stroke c
Two-stroke cycle
cle th i ffour-stroke
their t k counterparts
t t
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution but they are relatively simple
and inexpensive, and they
In two‐stroke engines, all four functions described above are executed
in just two strokes: the power stroke and the compression stroke In
in just two strokes: the power stroke and the compression stroke. In have high
g p power-to-weight
g
these engines, the crankcase is sealed, and the outward motion of the and power-to-volume ratios.
piston is used to slightly pressurize the air–fuel mixture in the
crankcase. Also, the intake and exhaust valves are replaced by openings
in the lower portion of the cylinder wall. During the latter part of the
power stroke, the piston uncovers first the exhaust port, allowing the
exhaust gases to be partially expelled, and then the intake port,
allowing the fresh air–fuel mixture to rush in and drive most of the
remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder. This mixture is then
compressed as the piston moves upward during the compression stroke
compressed as the piston moves upward during the compression stroke
and is subsequently ignited by a spark plug.
The two‐stroke engines are generally less efficient than their
four‐stroke counterparts because of the incomplete
e p lsion of the e ha st gases and the partial e p lsion of
expulsion of the exhaust gases and the partial expulsion of
the fresh air–fuel mixture with the exhaust gases.
For a given weight and displacement, a well‐designed two‐stroke engine
can provide significantly more power than its four‐stroke
can provide significantly more power than its four stroke counterpart
counterpart
because two‐stroke engines produce power on every engine revolution
Schematic
S h ti off a two-stroke
t t k
instead of every other one reciprocating engine.
13
I: inlet port for crankcase
E: exhaust port
Operating
p g Principles
p P: fuel inlet pport
In the combustion phase an ignited charge exerts
pressure on the piston crown whilst a fresh
charge is drawn through the carburettor into the
crankcase via inlet port I.
During
D i th
the exhausting
h ti phase
h th
the piston
i t moving
i
down partly uncovers the exhaust port E allow
the combustion gases to start to discharge. The
downward movement of the piston also
compresses the fuel air mixture in the crankcase.
14
A two-stroke engine is a combustion engine that
completes the thermodynamic cycle in two
movements of the p piston compared
p to twice that
number for a four-stroke engine. This increased
efficiency is accomplished by using the beginning of
the compression stroke and the end of the
combustion stroke to perform simultaneously the 15
intake and exhaust (or scavenging) functions.
16
The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system
For Constant
Specific Heats
Improvement of the thermal efficiency of gasoline engines by utilizing higher compression ratios
(up to about 12) without facing the autoignition problem has been made possible by using
gasoline blends that have good antiknock characteristics, such as gasoline mixed with tetraethyl
lead. Tetraethyl
y lead p
posses hazardous to health and ppollute the environment.
18
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases Chapter 7
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)
The specific
p heat
Setting this eq.
eq equal to ratio k, in
zero, we get general, varies with
temperature, and
thus an
g k value for
average
the given
temperature range
should be used. we
should refine the
{ p
calculations{repeat
the calculations} The isentropic relations of ideal
gases are valid for the isentropic
processes of ideal gases only.
Equations
E ti 7 42 through
7–42 th h 7–44
7 44 can also
l b be
expressed in a compact form as
19
Chapter 7
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)
R l ti Pressure
Relative P and
d Relative
R l ti Specific
S ifi Volume
V l
The use of Pr data
for calculating the
exp((s°/R) is
i final temperature
the relative during an isentropic
pressure Pr. process.
21
Solution: R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K. The properties of air are given in Table A-17.
22
(b) Process 3-4: isentropic expansion.
P
Process 4 1 v = constant
4-1: t th heatt rejection.
j ti
( )
(c)
(d)
23
9-6: DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE CI engine
• 1-2 isentropic
se op c
compression
• 2-3 constant-
pressure heat
addition
• 3-4 isentropic
expansion
• 4-1 constant-
volume heat
rejection.
Cutoff
ratio
Thermal
efficiency of
the ideal Diesel
cycle as a
function of
compression
and cutoff
ratios (k=1.4).
26
Approximating the Dual cycle: A more realistic QUESTIONS
combustion process in
y
ideal cycle model for modern, Diesel engines operate at
internal combustion
engines as a constant- high-speed compression ignition higher air-fuel ratios than
volume or a constant engine. gasoline engines. Why?
pressure heat-addition
Despite higher power to
process is overly
simplistic and not quite weight ratios
ratios, two-stroke
realistic. Probably a engines are not used in
better (but slightly more automobiles. Why?
complex) approach would
be to model the The stationary diesel
combustion process in engines are among the
both gasoline and most efficient power
diesel engines as a producing devices (about
combination of two heat- 50%). Why?
t
transfer
f processes, one
at constant volume and What is a turbocharger?
the other at constant Why are they mostly used
pressure. The ideal cycle in diesel engines compared
based on this concept p is to gasoline engines
engines.
called the dual cycle.
P-v diagram of an ideal dual cycle. In Duel Cycle heat is added
partly at constant volume and
The relative amounts of heat transferred during each process partly at constant pressure, the
can be
b adjusted
dj t d tto approximate
i t th the actual
t l cycle
l more closely.
l l advantage of which is that more
Note that both the Otto and the Diesel cycles can be obtained time is available for the fuel to
as special cases of the dual cycle. completely combust.
27
Turbocharger
A turbocharger's purpose is to compress the air/oxygen entering a car's
engine, increasing the amount of oxygen that enters and thereby increasing
the power output
The advantage of compressing the air is that it lets the engine squeeze
more air into a cylinder, and more air means that more fuel can be added.
Therefore you get more power from each explosion in each cylinder
Therefore, cylinder. A
turbocharged engine produces more power overall than the same engine
without the charging. This can significantly improve the power-to-weight ratio
g
for the engine
28
EXAMPLE:
An ideal diesel engine has a compression ratio of 20 and uses
An ideal diesel engine has a compression ratio of 20 and uses
air as the working fluid. The state of air at the beginning of the
compression process is 95 kPa and 20°C. If the maximum
temperature in the cycle is not to exceed 2200 K, determine
i h l i d 2200 K d i
(a) the thermal efficiency and (b) the mean effective pressure.
Assume constant specific heats for air at room temperature.
29
SOLUTION
The properties of air at room temperature are cp = 1.005 kJ/kg·K, cv = 0.718
kJ/kg·K, R = 0.287 kJ/kg·K, and k = 1.4 (Table A-2).
30
(b)
31
Comparison of Spark Ignition (SI) and Compression Ignition (CI) Engines
1) Type of cycle used: In the case of SI engines, the Otto cycle is used. In this cycle, addition of heat or fuel
combustion
b ti occurs att a constant t t volume.
l Th basis
The b i off working
ki off CI engines
i is
i the
th Di
Diesell cycle.
l IIn thi
this cycle
l th
the
addition of heat or fuel combustion occurs at a constant pressure.
2) Introduction of fuel in the engine: In the case of SI engines, during the piston's suction stroke, a mixture of air and
fuel is injected from cylinder head portion of the cylinder. The air-fuel mixture is injected via the carburetor that
controls the quantity and the quality of the injected mixture. In the case of CI engines, fuel is injected into the
combustion chamber towards the end of the compression stroke. stroke The fuel starts burning instantly due to the high
pressure. To inject diesel in SI engines, a fuel pump and injector are required. In CI engines, the quantity of fuel to
be injected is controlled but the quantity of air to be injected is not controlled.
3) Ignition of fuel: By nature petrol (gasoline) is a highly volatile liquid, but its self-ignition temperature is high.
Hence for the combustion of this fuel a spark is necessary to initiate its burning process. To generate this spark in
SI engines, the spark plug is placed in the cylinder head of the engine. The voltage is provided to the spark plug
either from the battery or from the magneto. With diesel, the self-ignition temperature is comparatively lower.
When diesel fuel is compressed to high pressures, its temperature also increases beyond the self-ignition
temperature of the fuel. Hence in the case of CI engines, the ignition of fuel occurs due to compression of the air-
fuel mixture and there is no need for spark plugs.
4) Compression ratio for the fuel: In the case of SI engines, the compression ratio of the fuel is in the range of 6 to 10
depending on the size of the engine and the power to be produced
produced. In CI engines
engines, the compression ratio for air is
16 to 20. The high compression ratio of air creates high temperatures, which ensures the diesel fuel can self-
ignite.
5) Weight of the engines: In CI engines the compression ratio is higher, which produces high pressures inside the
engine. Hence CI engines are heavier than SI engines.
6) Speed achieved by the engine: Petrol or SI engines are lightweight, and the fuel is homogeneously burned, hence
achieving very high speeds. CI engines are heavier and the fuel is burned heterogeneously, hence producing
lower speeds. RPM max, Si = 4500, RPM max, CI = 1800
7) Thermal efficiency of the engine: In the case of CI engines the value of compression ratio is higher; hence these
engines have the potential to achieve higher thermal efficiency. In the case of SI engines the lower compression
ratio reduces their potential to achieve higher thermal efficiency.
- Engines using the Diesel cycle are usually more efficient, although the Diesel cycle itself is less efficient at equal
compression ratios. Since diesel engines use much higher compression ratios.
32
Stirling cycle 9-7:STIRLING AND ERICSSON CYCLES
• 1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source)
• 2 3 v = constant
2-3 t t regeneration
ti (i(internal
t lhheatt ttransfer
f ffrom th
the working
ki flfluid
id tto th
the regenerator)
t )
• 3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
• 4-1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to the working fluid)
Stirling cycle and Ericsson cycle differ from the Carnot cycle in that the two isentropic processes are
replaced by two constant
constant-volume
volume regeneration processes in the Stirling cycle and by two constant
constant-pressure
pressure
regeneration processes in the Ericsson cycle.
Regeneration, a process during which heat is
transferred to a thermal energy storage device
(
(called a regenerator) during one part of the
g ) g p
cycle and is transferred back to the working
fluid during another part of the cycle
37
Types of Stirling engines :
Alpha type Stirling
1.The two piston alpha type design has pistons in independent cylinders, engine. The
and gas is driven between the hot and cold spaces
spaces. expansion cylinder
An alpha Stirling contains two power pistons in separate cylinders, one hot and (red) is maintained at
a high temperature
one cold. The hot cylinder is situated inside the high temperature heat exchanger
while the compression
and the cold cylinder is situated inside the low temperature heat exchanger. This
cylinder (blue) is
type of engine has a high power-to-volume ratio but has technical problems due to cooled. The passage
the usually high temperature of the hot piston and the durability of its seals. In between the two
practice,
ti this
thi piston
i t usuallyll carries
i a llarge iinsulating
l ti h head
d tto move th
the seals
l away cylinders contains the
from the hot zone at the expense of some additional dead space. regenerator
The following diagrams do not show internal heat exchangers in the compression
and expansion spaces, which are needed to produce power. A regenerator would
be placed in the pipe connecting the two cylinders. The crankshaft has also been
omitted.
There is also the rotary Stirling engine which seeks to convert power from the Stirling cycle directly into torque,
similar to the rotary combustion engine
Again, the following diagrams do not show internal heat exchangers or a regenerator, which would be placed in the
gas path around the displacer. Beta type Stirling engine.
40
Solution:
Assumptions Helium is an ideal gas with constant specific heats
heats.
Properties: The gas constant and the specific heat of helium at room
temperature are R = 2.0769 kJ/kg.K, cv = 3.1156 kJ/kg.K and cp = 5.1926
kJ/k K (Table
kJ/kg.K (T bl A-2).
A 2)
41
(c) The net work output is determined from
42
9-8:BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR GAS-TURBINE ENGINES George
The Brayton cycle was first proposed by
Brayton around 1870.
The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition
process from an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a
constant press re heat
constant-pressure heat-rejection
rejection process to the ambient air
air.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
p expansion
3-4 Isentropic p ((in a turbine))
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
Gas turbines usually operate
on an open cycle. Fresh air at
ambient conditions is drawn
into the compressor where
into the compressor, where
its temperature and pressure
are raised. The high pressure
air proceeds into the
combustion chamber, where
the fuel is burned at constant
pressure. The resulting high‐
temperature gases then enter
the turbine, where they A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine.
expand to the atmospheric
pressure while producing The Brayton cycle is the only
power. The exhaust gases
Th h t thermodynamic cycle which can be used
leaving the turbine are in both internal combustion engines (such
An open-cycle gas-turbine engine. thrown out (not recirculated), as jet engines) and for external
causing the cycle to be combustion engines.
classified as an open cycle. 43
Notice that all four
processes of the Brayton
cycle are executed in
steady-flow devices
Pressure
ratio
Thermal
efficiency of the
ideal Brayton
y
cycle as a
T-s and P-v diagrams for function of the
the ideal Brayton cycle. pressure ratio.
44
The highest temperature in the cycle is limited by
The two major application areas of gas- the maximum temperature that the turbine blades
turbine engines are aircraft propulsion can withstand. This also limits the pressure ratios
andd electric
l t i power generation.
ti th t can be
that b used d iin th
the cycle.
l
The air in gas turbines supplies the necessary
oxidant for the combustion of the fuel, and it
serves as a coolant to keep the temperature of
various components
p within safe limits. An air–fuel
ratio of 50 or above is not uncommon.
Many modern marine propulsion systems use gas turbines
together with diesel engines because of the high fuel
In most common consumption of simple-cycle gas-turbine engines. In
designs, the combined
co b ed ddiesel
ese a andd gas
gas-turbine
tu b e systems,
syste s, diesel
d ese is
s used
pressure ratio of to provide for efficient low-power and cruise operation, and
gas turbines gas turbine is used when high speeds are needed.
ranges from about
11 to 16.
using
i constant specific
ifi hheats at room temperature.
47
Solution:
The properties of air at room temperature are cp = 1.005 kJ/kg·K and k = 1.4
(Table A-2).
48
(b)
(c)
49
9-9:THE BRAYTON CYCLE
WITH REGENERATION
In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the exhaust
gas leaving the turbine is often considerably higher than
the temperature of the air leaving the compressor.
Therefore, the high-pressure air leaving the compressor
can be heated by the hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow
heat exchanger (a regenerator or a recuperator).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a
result of regeneration since less fuel is used for the same
T-s diagram
di off a B
Brayton
t
work output. cycle with regeneration.
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle
increases as a result of regeneration since
the portion of energy of the exhaust gases
the portion of energy of the exhaust gases
that is normally rejected to the
surroundings is now used to preheat the air
entering the combustion chamber. This, in
turn, decreases the heat input (thus fuel)
requirements for the same net work
requirements for the same net work
output. Note, however, that the use of a
regenerator is recommended only when
the turbine exhaust temperature is higher
than the compressor exit temperature.
Otherwise heat will flow in the reverse
Otherwise, heat will flow in the reverse
direction (to the exhaust gases), decreasing
the efficiency. This situation is encountered
A gas-turbine engine with regenerator. in gas‐turbine engines operating at very
50
high pressure ratios.
Assuming the regenerator to be well
insulated and any changes in kinetic and
potential energies to be negligible
Effectiveness
of regenerator
Effectiveness under cold-
cold
air standard assumptions
Under cold-air
standard assumptions
52
Solution:
The properties of air are given in Table A-17.
53
(b)
54
9-10:THE BRAYTON CYCLE For minimizing work input to
compressor and maximizing
WITH INTERCOOLING
INTERCOOLING, work output from turbine:
REHEATING, AND
REGENERATION
A gas-turbine
gas turbine engine with two
two-stage
stage compression with intercooling,
intercooling two
two-stage
stage
expansion with reheating, and regeneration and its T-s diagram.
55
Multistage compression with intercooling: The work required to compress a gas
between two specified pressures can be decreased by carrying out the compression
process in stages
p g and cooling g the g
gas in between. This keeps
p the specific
p volume as low
as possible.
Multistage expansion with reheating keeps the specific volume of the working fluid as
high as possible during an expansion process, thus maximizing work output.
Intercooling and reheating always decreases the thermal efficiency unless they are
accompanied by regeneration. Why?
Comparison
of work inputs
to a single-
stage
compressor
(1AC) and a
two-stage
compressor
with
intercooling
( ABD).
(1 )
As the number of compression and expansion stages
increases, the gas-turbine cycle with intercooling, reheating,
and regeneration approaches the Ericsson cycle and the
thermal efficiency approaches the theoretical limit (the
Carnot efficiency). However, the contribution of each
additional stage to the thermal efficiency is less and less,
and the use of more than two or three stages cannot be
56
justified economically.
-The net work of a gas-turbine cycle is the difference between the turbine work output and the compressor
work input, and it can be increased by either decreasing the compressor work or increasing the turbine
work, or both.
-the
the work required to compress a gas between two specified pressures can be decreased by carrying out
the compression process in stages and cooling the gas in between (Fig. 9–42)—that is, using multistage
compression with intercooling. As the number of stages is increased, the compression process becomes
nearly isothermal at the compressor inlet temperature, and the compression work decreases.
-Likewise, the work output of a turbine operating between two pressure levels can be increased by
expanding
di th the gas iin stages
t and
d reheating
h ti it iin bbetween—that
t th t is, tili i multistage
i utilizing lti t expansion
i with
ith
reheating. This is accomplished without raising the maximum temperature in the cycle. As the number of
stages is increased, the expansion process becomes nearly isothermal.
-The foregoing argument is based on a simple principle: The steady-flow compression or expansion work is
p p
proportional to the specific
p volume of the fluid. Therefore,, the specific
p volume of the working
g fluid should be
as low as possible during a compression process and as high as possible during an expansion process.
This is precisely what intercooling and reheating accomplish.
-Combustion in gas turbines typically occurs at four times the amount of air needed for complete
combustion to avoid excessive temperatures. Therefore, the exhaust gases are rich in oxygen, and
reheating can be accomplished by simply spraying additional fuel into the exhaust gases between two
expansion states.
-The working fluid leaves the compressor at a lower temperature, and the turbine at a higher temperature,
when intercooling and reheating are utilized. This makes regeneration more attractive since a greater
potential for regeneration exists. Also, the gases leaving the compressor can be heated to a higher
temperature before they enter the combustion chamber because of the higher temperature of the turbine
exhaust.
- The back work ratio of a gas-turbine cycle improves as a result of intercooling and reheating. However,
this does not mean that the thermal efficiency also improves. The fact is, intercooling and reheating always
decreases the thermal efficiency unless they are accompanied by regeneration
regeneration. This is because
intercooling decreases the average temperature at which heat is added, and reheating increases the
average temperature at which heat is rejected. This is also apparent from Fig. 9–44. Therefore, in
gasturbine power plants, intercooling and reheating are always used in conjunction with regeneration. 57
The efficiency of a Brayton engine can be improved in the following manners:
*R h t wherein
*Reheat, h i th the working
ki flfluid—in
id i mostt cases air—expands
i d th
throughh a series
i off
turbines, then is passed through a second combustion chamber before expanding to
ambient pressure through a final set of turbines. This has the advantage of
increasing the power output possible for a given compression ratio without exceeding
any metallurgical
t ll i l constraints.
t i t (Although
(Alth h use off an afterburner
ft b can also
l b be referred
f d tto
as reheat, it is a different process that increases power while markedly decreasing
efficiency.)
*Intercooling, wherein the working fluid passes through a first stage of compressors,
th a cooler,
then l ththen a second d stage
t off compressors b before
f entering
t i the
th combustion
b ti
chamber. While this requires an increase in the fuel consumption of the combustion
chamber, this allows for a reduction in the specific heat of the fluid entering the
second stage of compressors, with an attendant decrease in the amount of work
needed for the compression stage o overall.
erall
*Regeneration, wherein the still-warm post-turbine fluid is passed through a heat
exchanger to pre-heat the fluid just entering the combustion chamber. This allows for
lower fuel consumption and less power lost as waste heat.
*A Brayton engine also forms half of the combined cycle system, system which combines
with a rankine engine to further increase overall efficiency.
*Cogeneration systems make use of the waste heat from Brayton engines, typically
for hot water production or space heating.
58
Example:
Consider an ideal gas-turbine cycle with two stages of
compression and two stages of expansion. The pressure
ratio across each stage of the compressor and turbine is 3.
3
The air enters each stage of the compressor at 300 K and
each stage of the turbine at 1200 K. Determine the back
work ratio and the thermal efficiency of the cycle, assuming
(a) no regenerator is used and (b) a regenerator with 75
percent effectiveness is used. Use variable specific heats.
Assuming an efficiency of 80 percent for each compressor
stage and an efficiency of 85 percent for each turbine stage.
59
SOLUTION:
Assumptions: 1- The air standard assumptions are applicable.
applicable 2- Air is an ideal
gas with variable specific heats. 3- Kinetic and potential energy changes are
negligible.
Properties: The properties of air are given in Table A-17.
Analysis (a) The work inputs to each stage of compressor are identical, so are
the work outputs of each stage of the turbine. Then,
60
(b) When a regenerator is used,
rbw remains the same. The thermal
efficiency in this case becomes
61
9-11: IDEAL JET-PROPULSION CYCLES
Gas-turbine engines are widely used to power aircraft because they are light and compact and have a
hi h power-to-weight
high t i ht ratio.
ti
Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called a jet-propulsion cycle.
The ideal jet-propulsion cycle differs from the simple ideal Brayton cycle in that the gases are not
expanded to the ambient pressure in the turbine. Instead, they are expanded to a pressure such that
the power produced by the turbine is just sufficient to drive the compressor and the auxiliary
equipment.
The net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero. The gases that exit the turbine at a relatively high
pressure are subsequently accelerated in a nozzle to provide the thrust to propel the aircraft.
Aircraft are propelled by accelerating a fluid in the opposite direction to motion. This is accomplished
by either slightly accelerating a large mass off fluid
f (propeller-driven engine) or greatly accelerating a
small mass of fluid (jet or turbojet engine) or both (turboprop engine{Turbofan, Propjet}).
Aircraft gas turbines operate at higher pressure ratios (typically between 10 and 25),
25) and
the fluid passes through a diffuser first, where it is decelerated and its pressure is
increased before it enters the compressor.
Basic components of a turbojet engine and the T-s diagram for the ideal turbojet cycle.
63
- Vexit is the exit velocity of the exhaust gases and Vinlet i s the inlet velocity
of the air, both relative to the aircraft. Thus, for an aircraft cruising in still
air Vinlet is the aircraft velocity
air, velocity.
- In reality, the mass flow rates of the gases at the engine exit and the inlet are
different, the difference being equal to the combustion rate of the fuel. However, the
air–fuel mass ratio used in jetpropulsion engines is usually very high, making this
difference very small.Thus, m is taken as the mass flow rate of air through the
engine.
-For an aircraft cruising at a constant speed, the thrust is used to overcome air drag,
and the net force acting on the body of the aircraft is zero.
-Commercial
Commercial airplanes save fuel by flying at higher altitudes during long trips since
air at higher altitudes is thinner and exerts a smaller drag force on aircraft.
- In the ideal case, the turbine work is assumed to equal the compressor
work. Also, the processes in the diffuser, the compressor, the turbine, and
the nozzle are assumed to be isentropic. In the analysis of actual cycles,
however, the irreversibilities associated with these devices should be considered.
The effect of the irreversibilities is to reduce the thrust that can be obtained from a
turbojet engine.
-The
The thrust developed in a turbojet engine is the unbalanced force that is caused by
the difference in the momentum of the low-velocity air entering the engine and the
high-velocity exhaust gases leaving the engine.
-The net work developed by a turbojet engine is zero.
64
65
Modifications to Turbojet Engines
The first airplanes built were all propeller-
di
driven, with
ith propellers
ll powereddb by engines
i
essentially identical to automobile engines.
Both propeller-driven engines and jet-
propulsion-driven engines
g have their own
strengths and limitations, and several attempts
have been made to combine the desirable
characteristics of both in one engine.
Energy supplied to an aircraft
Two such modifications are the propjet engine
and the turbofan engine. (from the burning of a fuel)
manifests itself in various forms.
A turbofan engine.
engine The most widely used
engine in aircraft
propulsion is the
turbofan (or fanjet)
engine wherein a large
fan driven by the
turbine forces a
considerable amount
of air through a duct
(cowl) surrounding the
engine.
66
A modern jet engine
used to power Boeing
777 aircraft. This is a
Pratt & Whitney
PW4084 turbofan
capable
bl off producing
d i
374 kN of thrust. It is
4.87 m long, has a 2.84
m diameter fan,, and it
weighs 6800 kg.
71
SOLUTION:
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist exist. 2 The air standard
assumptions are applicable. 3 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific
heats at room temperature. 4 Kinetic and potential energies are negligible,
except at the diffuser inlet and the nozzle exit.
72
Diffuser:
73
Compressor:
Turbine:
74
Nozzle:
75
9-12: SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF GAS POWER CYCLES
Exergy
destruction for a
closed system
For a steady-
flow system
Steady-flow,
Steady flow, one
one-inlet,
inlet, one-exit
one exit
The exergy
Exergy destruction of a cycle destruction of a
cycle is the sum of
the exergy
For a cycle
F l with
ihhheat transfer
f
destructions of the
only with a source and a sink processes that
compose that
Closed system exergy cycle.
Stream exergy
A second-law
second law analysis of these cycles reveals where the largest
irreversibilities occur and where to start improvements.
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EXAMPLE:
Determine the total exergy destruction associated with
the Otto cycle described in Problem 9–34, assuming a
source temperature of 2000 K and a sink temperature
of 300 K. Also, determine the exergy at the end of the
power stroke.
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78
SOLUTION:
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Summary
• Basic
B i considerations
id ti iin th
the analysis
l i off power cycles
l
• The Carnot cycle and its value in engineering
• Air-standard
Air standard sssumptions
• An overview of reciprocating engines
• Otto cycle: The ideal cycle for spark-ignition engines
• Diesel cycle: The ideal cycle for compression-ignition
engines
• Stirling
g and Ericsson cycles
y
• Brayton cycle: The ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines
• The Brayton cycle with regeneration
• The Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration
• Ideal jjet-propulsion
p p cycles
y
• Second-law analysis of gas power cycles
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