Chapter II

EARLY COINAGE:

PUNCH-MARKED COINS AND ROMAN COINS

In this chapter, Part I includes the emergence and spread of punch-

marked coins, its hoards in Kerala, coins of the Cheras of the classical period
and their Importance. In Part II, the Indo-Roman Trade contact is discussed.
Along with this, the list of goods of exchange, the issue of Roman coins,
available Roman coin hoards in Kerala are discussed with their common
features.

Part I
Punch- marked coins
Punch-marked coins, which represent India‘s earliest known numismatic
issues, have played a vital role in ancient Indian economy for well over five
centuries, from the sixth to the first century B.C.1 Punch-marked coins known
generally in silver and rarely in copper are of various sizes and weights. They
were in vogue when writing was not current in India and were rarely used.2
Symbols are the most conspicuous features of these coins and they do not bear
any legend or inscription. Various forms of representations like hills, birds,
trees, animals, human figures, floral and geometrical patterns etc, appear on
them, the exact importance of which is still not clear and remain as

1
The issue of the silver punch-marked coins stopped sometime by the second
century B.C., but the coinage exerted great influence during the next four or five
hundred years. See, P.L.Gupta, Coins, New Delhi, 1969, p-17.

2
Shankar Goyal, Historiography of the Punch-marked Coins, JNSI, Vol. LX -
LXI. p.

73

88

89

mysteriousas ever.3 The punching devices of these coins may be identified into
several hundred varieties. Earlier symbols were simple and bold, but later ones
tended to be comparatively small and complex in design. The name ‗punch-
marked‘ is derived from the fact that the coins concerned bear symbols
stamped by different punches and these punch-marked symbols were generally
associated with villages, towns, cities, mountains, river banks and mint
masters.4 Each of the symbol is found confined to the coins of a particular area
or on those of a particular variety or type. Thus they enable one to isolate the
coins of one area from those of another, of one state from those of another and
of one period from those of another.

In order to remove the difficulties from barter and to have a portable and
convenient standard, different metals were introduced, and in course of time
different stamps or marks were imprinted on them by the issuing authorities. 5
Highly controversial theories originated about the date and origin of these
coins. In the opinion of A.L.Basham, "the uninscribed punch-marked coins
were minted from the 6th century B.C. onwards and were in circulation for
many centuries‖.6 Moreover, from a careful study of the symbols, such as, the
sun, mountains, trees, branches of trees, human figures, rabbits, dogs,

3
R.Vanaja, Indian Coinage, New Delhi, 1083, p. 5. Some of the symbols of the
animals marked on the reverse may represent the totemic nature of the tribes or
clans. Some geometrical signs have been taken to represent Brahmi letters and
they may represent the initial letter of a personal name. Some scholars have tried
to interpret them as Tantric symbols, with the help of Tantric texts See: Durga
Prasad, Observations on different types of Silver Punch Marked Coins, their
Periods and Locale, Numismatic Supplement, XL VII (1938), p. 56.

4.
Visuddhimagga, Vide M. Chanda's presidential address at the 43 Annual Session
of the Numismatic Society of India, December, 1953 in JNSI, XVI, XVI, Pt 1, p.
7.

5
The symbols were the identification of the issuing authority and that
symbolssometimes differed according to the provenance and will of the authority;
Romila Thapar, From Lineage to State, Bombay, 1984, p. 101.

6
A.L. Basham, The Wonder that Was India, New Delhi, 1967, p. 504.

90

scorpions, snakes etc., it can be suggested that the punch-marked coins were
issued even earlier than the 6th century B.C, when the most primitive Indians
happened to worship sun, mountains, trees, spirits, animals, snakes and the like.
Most scholars consider the punch-marked coins as of indigenous origin. We do
not know in which part of India they originated. However, in the light of recent
evidences, we consider that the birth place of punch-marked coins was in some
territories of north India.7 There are also differences of opinion about the
issuing authority of the punch-marked coins.8

7
C.J. Brown, The Coins of India, New delhi, 1988, p. 16.

8
Some scholars held the view that this coinage was issued by certain private
authorities while others considered it as a government, issue. According to V.A.
Smith, "The punch-marked coinage was a private coinage issued by guilds and
silversmiths with the permission of the rating powers. This theory was also
accepted by D.C. Sircar. Durga Prasad strongly refuted the view that the punch-
marked coins were private issues. John Allan is of the view that these coins were
issued by a government authority and not by private individuals. For further
details, see, A.N.Lahiri, Numismatography of punch-marked Coins, JNSI - XLIX -
Pp, 157 -160. Romila Thapar opines that punch-marked coins were issued by a
central authority and probably the imperial mints were situated in the five major
cities of the empire. She does not accept the idea that these coins were trader's
tokens which gradually acquired the status of a national coinage. See, Romila
Thapar, Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, p. 247. Kautilya‘s Arthasasthra
speaks about the officials, like Lakshanadhyaksha or Rupyadhyaksha,
Rupadarsika etc., connected with coinage. For more details See, D.R.
\Bhandarkar, Lecture on Ancient Indian Numismatics, Pp. 156-160. See also,
Upendra Thakur, ‗Minting of coins and Problems of forgery in Indian Coins‘, in
G.Kuppuram and K. Kumudamani (ed), History of Science and Technology in
India (in 12 volumes), Vol. VIII, New Delhi, Pp.3-6. D.B. Spooner strongly
refuted 'private issue theory‘ of the punch-marked coins and he came to the
conclusion that the issuing authorities of these coins were not private agencies
rather than the states themselves. See, Asiatic Society of India Annual Report -
1905 - 06, Pp. 150-155. Quoted by M.K. Sheran, Tribal Coins, A Study, Mysore,
1975, p. 25.

91

Scholars also give divergent pictures regarding the metal of the original
coinage.9 The earliest coins found at Kasi and Kosala in the Gangetic valley
and bent-bar coins of Gandhara region of 6th Century B.C. are of silver. Silver
was preferred for the manufacture of coins because it served better as the
medium of exchange with other regions. Besides, it carried value when melted.
As indigenous silver was not available in much quantity, there was the
possibility of it being imported from the West. The coins in copper were most
likely local issues, and they were issued mostly in the post-Mauryan period.

In early periods the coins were manufactured usually by three

techniques - punching, casting and striking. To manufacture coins, metal pieces
were cut into the required shape with the help of a chisel and marks were
punched on them later. This type of coins can be seen in all possible shapes,
such as square, octagonal, oblong, oval, circular, rectangular, bar-type and
irregular. Probably the weight of each coin decided the shape. In the beginning
only one side of these coins was punched with symbols and the other side
remained blank. In course of time this blank side also came to be stamped with
punched marks.

India‘s earliest silver punch-marked coins are almost certainly represented

by the Droplet issues.10 However in early historic India, various states followed
minting techniques according to their suitability. These techniques consisted of
two important processes, viz., preparing plantchets and striking coins from the
9
. Copper came into use earlier than silver in India. Silver was mainly imported from
abroad and so its purity stood in the way of its use for the manufacture of coins.
See - S.K. Chakraborthy, op.cit; Pp. 40-41. A.S. Altekar thinks that Karshapana
Silver currency may not be earlier than C. 800 B.C., but the east copper round and
square coins may be earlier. JNSI, XXII, Pp. 1. But this view does not appear to
be correct. Copper came into use for coins most likely at the time of the Mauryas.
To P.L. Gupta, the early coins are all in silver and no coin of gold is known in
India prior to the advent of the Indo-Bactrians in the second-first centuries B.C.
P.L. Gupta, op.cit; p.8. Upendra Thakur is of the view that the number of gold
coins issued by the early Indian kings is far less compared to silver and copper
coins. Upendra Thakur, Source of gold for Early gold coins of India, op.cit; p. 71.

10
For more details about the Droplet technique, see, JNSI, Vol. LV, Pp. 169 ff.

92

plantchets and both these techniques embody a dozen techniques for the
fabrication of punch-marked coins in India.11

Thousands of punch-marked coins have been discovered virtually from

all parts of the Indian subcontinent, often in big hoards consisting of five to
eight thousand pieces. They are of numerous denominations and fabric series,
earlier ones being local, found in restricted areas, and later ones, 'universal' or
imperial punch-marked coins found almost throughout the country.12 The coins
of the local series were chronologically earlier than the coins of the Imperial
series and they mainly represented the coinage of the various Janapadas of the
early Budhist age.13 The Imperial series was the coinage of the Magadhan
Empire and it has further been classified into six categories.14 The hoards of the
Imperial coins generally do not include the local type of coins. But in a few
hoards, where local type of coins are known along with the Imperial coins, the
former are few in number and are in uquite worn-out condition. This shows that
the regional coinage was anterior to the Imperial coinage. But some scholars
have criticised this classification.15

11
JNSI. Vol. L VIII - Pp. 115-120.

12
JNSI, XLIX, Pp. 157-160.

13
P.L. Gupta, The Early Coins From Kerala,Trivandrum, 1965, Pp. 3-4.

14
Six Categories. According to P.L. Gupta, the coins of Period I of the Golakpur
hoardmay be attributed to Ajatasatru (552-520 B.C.). The coins of period II were
issued by the successors of Ajatasatru in between 520-440 B.C., the coins of
period III were in all probability issued by Sisunaga and his successors. The coins
of period IV may be attributed to the kings of the Nanda dynasty, while the coins
of period V may be attributed to Chandnagupta Maurya. But it is not certain if all
the coins of this period were issued by him. Some of the varieties might belong to
his son Bindusara. The coins of period VI should be attributed to Asoka; P. L
Gupta, Ibid.
15
Some aspects of this theory have been criticised by S.R. Goyal. According to him
"There was no Imperial power in South India in the sixth century B.C. and coins
of the Imperial series, which are recovered from all over India, strictly speaking,
should be ascribed to the Nandas and Mauryas. S.R. Goyal, Indegenous coins of
Early India (Hence forth ICEI) Jodhpur, 1994, Pp. 90-93. 16.
93

 The punch-marked coins are also known to ancient writers as

Karshapanas, Mashas and Panas.16 The early punch-marked coins, as we have
seen, were local with their respective characteristics. The later ones have five
symbols punched one after another. Literary records speak of Karshapanas,
which is derived from Karsha17, of gold, silver and copper. The gold
‗Karshapana‘ was also known as suvarna and niska, whereas the silver one
was called purana or dharana. Likewise the copper karshapana bore the
popular designation of pana.18 However, most of these coins are of silver, they
are of 32 rattis19, and these silver punch-marked coins are found all over India,
from Kabul to the mouth of the Ganges and from the Himalayas to Cape
Comorin.20 The units of Karshapana are: karshapana, ardha-karshapana, pada
karshapana, chatur - mashaka, trimashaka, dvi-mashaka, and kakani.21Among
the coins of the punch-marked class, the rectangular silver bars are generally
believed to be the oldest. Some of these bars are bent in shape and the
manufacturing techniques are also different from the ordinary punch-marked
coins22. Thus some scholars believe that the bent bar silver coins precede the
punch-marked coins and punch-marked coins came into use later under the
Mauryas.

16
A.V. Narasimhamurthy, The Coins of Karnataka, Mysore, 1975, p. 31.

17
A. Cunningham, Coins of Ancient India, From the Earliest Times Down to the
Seventh Century A.D, London, 1891, p. 6.

18
D.C. Sircar, Studies in Indian coins, Delhi, 1968, p. 2.

19
A. Cunnigham, op.cit;

20
Ibid, p. 42.

21
D.R. Bhadarkar, Lectures on Ancient Indian Numismatics, Calcuta, 1921, p. 77.

22
D.C. Sircar, op. cit; Pp. 5-6.

94

 In the order of succession we find that after the punch-marked coins the
technique of casting from moulds came into use some time in the 3rd century
B.C. In this system, instead of punching several symbols by separate dies, a
single model was prepared where all the symbols were put together and then
from that model, moulds were made and molten metal was poured into the
moulds to cast coins. This type of coin-casting was prevalent upto the
beginning of the Christian era. These coins were made only of copper. The
Yandheyas23 were the foremost in issuing the moulded coins. The difficulties
faced in producing cast-coins could have been obviated by following another
technique of minting called die-struck. It was a superior and easier method and
so it became very popular at that time.

Manufacture of coins by punch-marking and casting (the two previous

methods) gradually became extinct. This system was adopted by the north
Indian tribes in which the regular die system was introduced and later on,
inscriptions were also added into it. At first the device was only on one side,
but gradually the double-die system came into practice. The die-striking
technique can be described as an anvil and punch technique. On a design
engraved on the anvil the 'coin blank' was placed and driven to one with a
punch or hammered to take the impression of the design. The 'anvil-die' bore
the symbols in intaglio so that they would come out in relief on the coin. In the
next stage, a design was engraved on the punch as well so that the coin came
out with types on both faces, the type from the anvil being called the obverse
and that of the punch being called the reverse.24 The shape of the dies was at
first square or rectangular. This is the traditional shape of the indigenous Indian
coins. But afterwards coins were made in the circular shape and the dies also
were shaped accordingly. Among the most well-produced die-struck

23
The Yandheyas were the famous warrior class in ancient India. Their coins fall
intothree classes - the Bull and elephant type, the Brahmanya Deva coins and the
warrior type coins. For more details, see, S.K. Chakkraborthy, A study of Ancient
Indian Numismatics (Varanasi 1973), Pp. 219-225.
24
R.Vanaja, Indian Coinage, New Delhi, 1983, p. 4.

95

series of coins in ancient India we can include those issued by the Indo-
Greeks, Scytho- Parthians, Kushanas, the Imperial Guptas etc. 25

Punch-marked coins which were so far considered to be the earliest

coins of India were known to have been in circulation throughout India. South
India was no exception to this and it has been proved by the discovery of these
coins in different parts of the south. The cowrie (cypraea moneta)26 or Kavati in
Malayalam, was used as money of the smallest value from ancient times to
recent centuries throughout India, including south India. The cowrie, that was
people's money even before the actual coins made its appearance, could
justifiably take precedence in any description of ancient coins even though
there is not much to be described, as this shell is known to all.27 The cowrie
shells were mainly imported from East Africa, the Maldives and the Laccadive
islands28 and were used for minor transactions. They were linked up with
copper. We have references to cowrie shells (sippikani) in the Jatakas in the
sense of doits or mites29 and already they had been supplanted by metallic
coins. The cowrie remained the medium of exchange when the coins were
found very valuable for the purpose. But the relationship between the cowrie
and the standard coin is very difficult to

25
B.N. Mukherjee, Technology of Indian coinage: Ancient and Medieval Period, in
History of Science and Technology of India, Calcutta, 1988, p.39
26
Archaeology, Anthropology and history agree that the money use of cowrie is
recorded only in historical times, but, on a careful check, the monetary use is
found to be by no means coincident with Pre-historic sites. For more details
about cowrie money see, 'Primitive, Archaic and modern economics, Essays of
Karl Polanyi, Edited by George Dalton, PP. 280 ff. See also, D.C. Sircar, op.cit;
Pp. 279 ff.
27
K.A.N. Sasthri, Foreign Notices, Madras, 1939, 1953, p. 122.
28
Watt, Sir. G. The Commercial Products of India, London, 1908 (Delhi 1966) p.
989.
29
H.H.Dodwen (ed) Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, London, 1922, p. 218.

96

determine.30 There can be no doubt that the number of cowries in lieu of a

particular coin differed in various parts of the country.

On the Malabar coast, gold and silver were the money of commerce,
when Ibn Batuta visited, but in the inland towns of the subcontinent cowrie was
in use as the money of the poor.31 'The palunku Kasu'32 of Sangam literature is
probably the cowries. 'Kanam' is another name of the gold coin in usage but
like 'kasu' it also denoted gold in general.33 However, the earliest metallic
currency of Tamil land, were known as copper globules. These globules were
in use, as a medium of exchange probably before the arrival of copper and
silver punch-marked coins from the northern part of India.34 Because of the
influence of the north, the punch-marked coins found in south India sometimes
reflect the similarity with the northern technique of punch-marked coins.

The biggest hoard of silver punch-marked coins, ever known in India

was found at Amaravati in Gundur district of Andhra.35 It was an exclusive

30
In 1740 a rupee in Bengal exchanged for 2400 cowries, in 1840 for 6,500. See,
Walter Elliot, The Coins of Southern India, London, 1986, p. 59, Foot Note No. 2.
At present in Bengal 20 Cowrie shells are given in exchange for a pice, a copper
coin. So 1280 (20 x 64) Cowries equated to a rupee, the silver standard coin. See,
S.K. Chakraborthi, A Study of Ancient Indian Numismatics, Varanasi, 1973, p.
103. Alexander Cunningham stated that in ancient times 80 Cowries were equal in
value for exchange purposes to a copper Karshapana of 80 ratis and 16 panas of
80 Cowries each he equates to a silver Karshapana or Dharana of 32 ratis. For
details See, A Cunningham, Coins of Ancient India, London, 189, Pp. 46-47
31
George Dalton, (ed) Essays of Karl Polanyi op.cit; p.298, Padmanabha Menon
pointed out the use of Cowries in Malabar during 17th century. For details see,
K.P. Padmanabha Menon Canter vishers Letter XII in History of Kerala, Pp. 26-
27
32
Agam, 315:12
33
K.K. Pillai, A Social History of the Tamils, University of Madras, 1975, p. 245.
34
See. JNSI, Vol. LVIII, p. 1.
35
P.L. Gupta, Inscribed Silver Punch Marked Coins, in Oriental Numismatic
Studies, Vol. I, (ed.) Devendra Handa, New Delhi, 1996,p.2. 37.

97

south Indian issue. In the peninsular region of the south, punch-marked coins
are found in association with Roman coins. Many such hoards have been
recovered from the regions of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala and new
discoveries are continuously reported from all parts of the south. Several
punch-marked coins along with Roman coins were reported from random
exposures of Pandukulis (Megalithic tombs) in south India, especially from
Coimbatore - Erode areas.36 But the absence of punch-marked coins in the
western Megaliths and relative paucity in later times show that they might have
reached the west coast rather late, more or less at the same time as Roman
coins, the hoards of which far outnumber the punch-marked coins hoards in the
west coast, unlike the eastern Tamilakom and Deccan in general. It is a belief
that all the punch-marked coins that were found in the south seem to have
travelled from the north and they do not show any sign of their having been
minted here. It also seems to be clear that the silver punch-marked coins were
reaching the south through the religious migrants after the urbanisation in the
north (Mahajanapadas) and the rise of religious faiths like Jainism and
Budhism mainly under the patronage of trading communities. 37 But the
problem that surrounds these hoards and dating them in relation to their cultural
contexts largely remained speculative.38

It is only after the fall of the Mauryan Empire that some silver punch-
marked coins, which have five symbols, of a local type were issued in the
Pandyan territory. But the actual date of the origin and circulation of this coin
are not known. The available evidences so far indicate that silver punch-
marked coins of Magadha were in circulation in important commercial centres

36
I.K. Sarma - South Indian Coinage, A Review of the Recent Discoveries. p. 11
(Madras 1992).

37
I.K. Sarma, op.cit; p. 11

38
T.V. Mahalingam (ed), Seminar Papers on the Chronology of the Punch marked
coins, No. 1, Varanasi, 1966, Pp. 20-23.

98

in Tamil Nadu and were accepted as currency by the Tamil Kings.39 But the
absence of punch-marked coins in the Mauryan strata at the very historical sites
in Andhra Pradesh supports the view that these coins do not qualify to be
reckoned as official currency of the times in the southern region.40 However,
Mauryan coins had a unique influence in south India. 41 After the
disintegration of the Mauryas, many subordinate and feudatory families who
were serving the Mauryan Emperors faithfully, declared a sudden
independence. So the centralised money economy was shattered and it was
replaced by the local one. The local governors and the feudatories who were
called Maharashtriya or Marathis42, established their own kingdoms in many
parts of the Deccan. They began to issue die-struck coins. Their early coins
were uninscribed and were of copper. In course of time, they started to issue
inscribed coins. Among the inscribed coins, lead coins were found in large
numbers.

The credit of inaugurating the minting of coins in lead goes to these

Marathis. After the Marathis, Anandas43 ruled the country and their coins are
also available. The Sathavahanas built up an empire slowly but steadily

39
JNSI, Vol. LVIII, p. 2.

40
I.K. Sarma, "Punch-marked coins from Recent Excavations, A review of the finds
from South India", in P.L. Gupta and A.K. Jha. (Ed.) Numismatics and
Archaeology, Nasik, 1987, Pp. 93-101.

41
The South Indian punch marked coins has some similarity with the Mauryan type
punch marked coins which was mostly circulated throughout India. After the fall
of the Mauryan Empire, the Pandyans in South India issued some local type
silver punch marked coins which have five symbols just like Mauryan coins. For
details see - P.L. Gupta, coins, New Delhi, 1969, p.43.

42
Ibid, p. 44.

43
Their coins have a big symbol of nine arches - two rows of four small arches each
one over the other and above them a big arch. Over the symbol is the inscription.
The reverse has a tree-in-railing with a few small symbols. The Ananda rulers
adopted the title of Raja (Rajno) on their coins. Ibid, p.45.

99

sometimes in the first century B.C. and ruled over a wide territory. Their coins
are the richest in the Deccan both in variety and quality. The money economy
of the Satavahanas was regional in character44 and it is also believed that they
may be the first indigenous monarchs to issue silver portrait coins. Obviously
their economy was indigenous and it played a dominant role in the
development of coinage of South India.

During the post-Gupta period money economy received a considerable

set back because of the attacks of the Hunas, the decline of the silk trade of
India with Byzantine empire and the collapse of the Sessanid Empire. So, both
internal and external trades declined and local units of production came into
existence. There arose the necessity of producing local commodities to meet
local needs. Peasants and artisans had to be attracted to the village for the
purpose. There was the transfer of income in cash and kind from trade and
industries to the temples. Monasteries and temples formed wide economic
units, some of them comprising of more than a hundred villages. Because of
the paucity of coins, lands were granted not only to priests, scholars, temples
and monasteries, but also to the officers of the state.45 During this period urban
life also began to disappear and all these tendencies gradually led to feudalism.
The post-Gupta period witnessed the imitation of the Gupta coinage in many
parts of the country. The most striking feature of the south Indian coins, during
the post-Gupta period is the revival of punch-marked coins. The coins of this
period are different from the coins of northern India. Among South Indian
coins known as Padmatanka46, round and cup-shaped

44
Shastri. A.M., Coinage of the Satavahanas and Coins from Excavations, p. 4,
Nagpur, 1972.
45
Sharma R.S., Indian Feudalism, p. 11 (Delhi, Second Edn. 1980).
46
The Kadambas of Banavasi are considered to be the originators of this coin
(Padmatanka). They have a prominent lotus punched in the centre, in addition to
various symbols punched on sides. Because of the punches, the flat thin pieces
assumed the shape of low cup. These coins weigh 58 grains. On the obverse of
this coin is seen a central punch of a lotus and around this are seen punches
containing retrospectant lions. The reverse has a scroll ornament and two
indented marks. See, P.L. Gupta, op.cit; Pp. 60-64.
100

small and thin coins, were very popular for many centuries. Besides these the
tradition of boar coins also began in south India.47

During the Sangam period (from the 3rd c B.C. to the 3rd century A.D.),
the Tamil country was ruled by three traditional kingdoms - the Cholas, the
Pandyas and the Cheras. They were also mentioned by the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka as independent neighbours beyond the Imperial borders.48 The
Pandyans inhabited the modern Madurai and Tinnevelly districts (ie. the south-
eastern parts of Tamil country), the Cholas the Coromandel coast
(Cholamandalam), ie., the north-eastern part of Tamil country, and the Cheras,
the kingdom in its developed form, extended from the west to the east
including the central portion of modern Kerala state and those parts of
Kongunatu, which now form the Coimbatore and Salem districts of the present-
day Tamil Nadu State. Although their frontiers varied considerably during
different periods, this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their
coin types.

Scholars believe that tiger, fish and bow and arrow were the natural
emblems of the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras or Keralas respectively and the
coins bearing the aforesaid symbols testify to the Chola occupation of the
Pandyas and Kerala kingdoms. The Sangam period also witnessed the
development of coinage under the native kings and chieftains, influx of coins
of Satavahanas, Kushanas, Romans, Seleucids, Phoenicians, besides coins from
the Greek Island, Rhodes and Crete. Among the three major Tamil kingdoms in
the Sangam period, the Periplus mentions Kerala as Cerobothra while Pliny,
the Roman historian of the first century, calls it Caelabothras. In contemporary

47
It is generally believed that the early gold coins of South India and the Deccan
which contained a boar on their obverse were issues of the Calukyas of Badami.
Ibid, p. 67.

48
See, K.Krishnamurthy, Sangam period Chera coins, JNSI, XL, p. 36.

101

Tamil country, it is invariably referred to as the Chera country49. In early Tamil

literature the Cheras are referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans. They had trade
contacts with the traders of the Roman Empire and Muziri was perhaps the
leading port for foreign ships.

It is difficult to fix the date of the origin of the early Chera kingdom.
However we consider its emergence during the period of Emperor Ashoka, ie.,
3rd century B.C. The famous Ashoka-edicts, founded in the south, mention
Kerala as one of the kingdoms lying outside the southern boundary of the
Mauryan Empire. Ashoka refers to Kelalaputo in his Girnar inscription and his
Kalsi inscription gives the name Kelaputo standing for Cheraman.50 He has
also mentioned the three traditional kingdoms in the south, i.e., the Pandyas,
the Cholas and the Cheras, as independent neighbours. Kerala is also
mentioned in the Rigveda, Aitheriyam and Vatmiki Ramayana. In Mahabharata
Vyasamuni says that the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas attended the Rajasuya
Yejna performed by Yudhishtira.51 It extended to the period of early Chera
kingdom before the Maurya age. However our earliest source of knowledge
about the Cheras, their kingdom, society etc., in some details comes from the
early Sangam literature of the first three to four centuries of the Christian era
and travelogues of foreigners who visited South India in ancient times. Among
the Sangam works, Patittupattu gives more information about the early history
of the ten Chera rulers52, their kingdoms and the society of that time. The
earliest Chera king referred to in Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral,

49
Sarkar, H; An architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala, Madras, 1978, p. 11.

50
Ibid. p. 10.

51
See, KNJ, Vol. 1, No.l

52
For details see, Sreedharamenon A.,'Keralacharithram' (Mal), Kottayam, 1967,
Pp. 66-71, Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varier, Kerala Charithram, Sukapuram,
1991, Appendix No. 1, Pp. 231-233, Nagaswamy, Tamil coins, A Study, Madras,
1981, Pp.3-6.

102

who assumed the title Perum Chorru Udiyan and was placed on the throne in
17 A.D. or 130 A.D.53 Following him another nine Chera rulers ruled over
ancient Tamilakom and some of them made rich donations to the temples and
villages.54

The earliest coins of the Sangam period Chera kingdom are small square
copper coins with symbols, similar to those found in silver punch-marked
coins, like arched hill, elephant, trees, umbrella, river with fishes, ‗swastika‘,
‗sun‘, ‗srivatsa‘, wheel (chakra), garland, bull etc. on the obverse, and bow and
arrow, the dynastic symbol of the Cheras on the reverse.55 In some of the coins
an ankusa (goad) is also found with bow and arrow. These coins are die-struck.
The Cheras in the Sangam age also issued silver coins with the symbols like the
Sun, square tank, caducus and Sadacharachakra on the obverse and the
dynastic symbol 'bow and arrow‘ on both sides. Such round coins were found
at Amaravati river bed near Karur.56

The discovery of many silver portrait coins of Makkotai dynasty has also
been reported from different parts of Tamil Nadu.57 All such coins carried the
legend

53
Sesha Aiyer fixes the period of Udiyan Cheral in 17 A.D. while K.A. Neelakanta
Sastri considers the period 130 A-D. See Sesha Aiyer, K.G., Chera Kings of the
Sangham Period, SSIC, p. 517, Neelakanta Sastri K.A., A Comprehensive History
of India, New Delhi, 1963, p. 123.

54
Nedum Cheral Adan gave costly Jewels as donation to the temples and 500
villages in Umbaikadu. Narmudi Cheral gifted 40 lakhs gold coins to the poet
Kappiyamar. See U.V. Swaminatha Iyer, (ed), Padirrupattu, Madras 1957, p. 36.

55
See, JNSI, Vol. XLIX, Pp, 36-38.

56
See, SSIC Vol. X - Pp. 28-31.,P.Vijayaraghavan, A Punch-marked Chera Silver
Coins from Karur.

57
Krishnamurthy. R., Cheraman Makkotai Vellikkasu (Kri, Pi. 2-aam nootandu),
Tinamani,Tamil news paper, Madras, 16-3-1991. Quoted from KNJ Vol. 1, No. 2.

103

'Makkotai' and it had some similarities with Roman portrait type coins.58
Besides the silver portrait coins of King Makkotai which belong to a period
starting from the third quarter of 100 B.C. to the end of 100 A.D., a counter
struck silver coin of Makkotai59 has been reported. Anyhow, the discovery of
the silver portrait coins of Makkotai interrogates the priority of Satavahanas in
the issues of silver portrait coins.

A coin of King Kuttuvan Kotai60, with a legend in Tamil Brahmi Script

is also available. There is a reference about one circular copper coin, at Karur
which contains the legend Kollippura61 which means Porayan - the ruler of
Kolli hills, in Tamil-Brahmi script on the obverse and a prominent bow and
arrow with the minute symbols like arched-hill, fishes and a seated tiger on the
reverse.62 No doubt, it is clear from the prominent 'bow and arrow' symbol that
the coin is an issue of the Chera ruler. Other minute symbols on the coin like
fishes and tiger probably reflect the mutual contacts that existed among the

58
The portrait coins of the Cheras do not carry the dynastic emblems of them, ie.,
the bow and arrow. It had only a portrait on the obverse and the legend Makkotai
above the head in Tamil-Brahmi Script. The reverse is blank. R. Krishna Murthy
identified Makkotai with the Sangam period Chera king with the same name. For
details see, Sangam Period Silver Coins of Makkotai, First oriented Numismatic
conferences, (Nagpur, 1990). Also see, SS1C, Vol 11, Pp. 89-93; R.
Krishnamurthy ‗Makkotai Coins'. Ibid, Sangam Age Tamil Coins (Chennai, 1997)
Pp. 97-103, KNJ, Vol. 1. No.2.

59
SSIC, Vol. VIII, Pp. 35-39 Like the portrait type of coins of the Roman Emperors
jewellery devices are not seen on the portrait type coins of Makkotai. For details,
See, JNSI, Vol. LVIII p. 7.

60
Krishnamurthy. R., Coins of Kuttuvan Kotai Discovered, The Hindu, Madras, 24-
5-1994.

61
The Tamil-Brahmi legend, on the obverse side of the coin, starting at 8th and
ending at 1st has been read as Kollippurai by Nagaswami. See, Nagaswamy, The
Sangam Age Coin found, The Hindu, Madras, 6-9-1987, P. 3, See also, SSIC Vol.
II, Pp.10-11.

62
See, KNJ. Vol. I, No. 1

104

major powers, Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas63, because the fish and tiger
symbols represent the dynastic emblems of the Pandyas and the Cholas
respectively. The prominent 'bow and arrow' symbol sometimes reflects the
victory of the Cheras over the Cholas and Pandyas. The arched-hill may be
reflecting the ruling area because the legend 'Kollipurai' signifies the ruler of
Kollimalai or Kolli hills. The Sangam literature gives information about the
Nilgiris, Wayanad and Kollimalai which were under the rule of Porains. The
kings of Kottayam royal family were also called Poraikizhar, who were
probably the descendants of the Kongu Cheras, and the Scholars consider that
the Porains of Kollimalai were directly connected to the Irumporai lineage
which was one of the prominent members among the three collateral lines of
the Cheras namely Cheral, Irumporai and Makotai.

In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same
umbrella. But the bow and arrow is prominent. This would suggest that both
the Chola and the Pandya had been vanquished. A globular gold coin with the
bow and arrow, fish and tiger symbols was also found at Coimbatore, but
which dynasty issued this coin originally is not known.64

63
The Chola ruler Uttama Chola has received the Chera emblem, the bow, in
Addition to the fish and the tiger and has the legend in Devanagari characters and this
coin has to be attributed to a later origin, that of Rajendra I, whose coin bearing the same
emblems have the legend in Nagari, 'Sri Rajendra'. See, the Tamil Antiquary, edited by
Pandit D. Savarioroyan, Coins and Currency Systems in South India, CAD 225-1300, Pp.
241,251, 256. The Pandyas also issued coins with the fish, blow and arrow symbol. For
details see, Nagaswamy. R., Tamil Coins, A Study, Madras, 1981, p.99.
64
Vidvan T. Ramaswamy, Ancient Chera Coin Found (Globule), JNSI, Vo. LIII,
1991-Pp. 64-65. The coin is yellowish gold measuring about 1/2" x 1/3" x 1/3" x 1/2",
and 4 gm weight with the symbols of fish, tiger and bow and arrow. The author concludes
that "Since the bow is depicted on fish and tiger, it must have been issued by Cheras". But
it seems from the figure of the coin in his article, that the bow is not depicted on the fish
or on the tiger symbols. On the other hand all the three symbols remain quite apart from
each other and are in row. Therefore there is no basis for identifying this coin as that of
Chera. There are coins where the symbols of the three dynasties occur in a row without
overlapping. In such cases precedence of the attribution of the coin is given to the dynasty
whose symbol is placed in the middle. In the present coin the fish of the Pandya is in the
middle flanked by the Chera and Chola symbols. It would hence be more appropriate to
assign this coin to the Pandya rather than the Chera dynasty, with the available data at the
moment.

105

 During the past decade a number of coins of the Sangam period

belonging to various dynasties of the Tamil country have been brought to light.
Among these were many varieties of uninscribed rectangular diestruck Chera
coins made of copper. A good number of Chera coins have been taken from the
Amaravathi river bed close to Karur, which was the seat of the Chera dynasty
during its heydays. Six varieties of Sangam period Chera coins were described
by Krishnamurthy.65 Most of the available coins of the early Cheras mainly
exhibit the elephant figure on the obverse and bow and arrow symbol on the
reverse. Such types of three double-die copper coins without legend were also
unearthed from Parur near Alangad in the District of Ernakulam, Kerala.66
Among them two coins are almost semi-circular and the third is more or less
square which is slightly thicker than the other two in shape. The obverse has
the standing figure of a tusker facing to right and a staff tipped with a trident is
placed in front of it. The reverse of all the coins bears a lamp-stand or a goad
and arrow strung to a bow, the top string of the latter being very visible.

It has been pointed out that "the presence of the elephant on the obverse
and the bow and arrow on the reverse distinctly suggested that the coins must
be of Chera origin.67 It is interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings
are said to ascend the neck of the elephants.68 However, the elephant symbol
was adopted by several south Indian dynasties like the Andhra, Yadava,
Kongu, Ganga and Vijayanagara.69 But the bow and arrow symbol clearly
reflects the presence of Chera origin. The bow is a Chera symbol, but it could

65
See, JNSI Vol. XLIX, Pp. 36-38.
66
TAS, Vol. V, Part II, No. 49, Pp. 162.
67
Ibid, p. 163.
68
Padirupattu, Verse No. 11, Line 19.
69
See, Elliot W., Coins of Southern India, London, 1866, Plate I - No.'s 4 and 6,
Plate II - No. 43, Plate III No's - 92,118 and 119. The elephant symbol was
sometimes used as an emblem of royalty. Like that the lotus was used as the
Indian traditional symbol of mysterious birth and the Svastika denotes the
philosophical symbol of evolution.
106

be employed by the Cheras of Makkotai as well as the Kongu Cheras 70 and

probably by the kings of Travancore in the later period as they claimed descent
from the Cheras.71 No doubt, the three copper coins were of the Chera origin
and probably considered the issue prior to 1090 A.D.72 The three copper coins
discovered at Parur probably belong to the Sangam period Cheras, who issued
these types of coins that we knew from the previous accounts.

During the Sangam period Cheras maintained trade connections with

foreign countries, especially with the Roman Empire, and Muziri was the
important centre of their exchange.73 One copper coin, with the figure of an
elephant, ankusa, and bow and arrow has been recently reported from
Pattanam, near Paravur in Ernakulam district. It gives further evidence for the
presence of the Cheras of the Sangam period in Muziris.74 Naturally the
indegenous merchants reached this port town and actively participated in the
exchange with the foreigners during this period. Thus probably they carried
their native coins, not for foreign trade but only for internal purpose, and
sometimes it got deposited in the soil of Parur, which was near Muziris. It is
also believed that the above mentioned three copper coins are not the issue of
the Cheras of Mahodayapuram because they never struck any coins of their

70
Most of the historians consider that the Kongunadu rulers belong to the Chera
dynasty. But Sankunni Menon gives a divergent picture about the Kongu rulers.
For details see, P. Sankunni Menon, Thiruvithamkur Charithram (Malayalam),
Tvm., 1878, Pp. 26-28. For a brief History of the Kongu Cheras, See, KNJ Vol. I,
No. 2.

71
M.GS. Narayanan, Perumals of Kerala, Calicut, 1996, p. 163.

72
TAS, Vol. V, op.cit; p. 163.

73
See, Akam, 149, Puram, 343. 'Brihatsamhita' of Varahamihira describes the place
name Marichipattanam and Professor Kern, who translated the above work into
English, wrote that the place was also called as Muziris by the Greeks. See, K.P.
Padmanabha Menon, Kochi Rajya Charithram, Calicut, 1989, p. 49.

74
For more details, see, 'Sree' The Sunday Supplement of Malayala Manorama
Daily, 30th May 2004, Pp. 14-15.

107

own.75 If they had issued coins they must be accepted as their dynastic currency
and circulated throughout their country because they were powerful than the
early Cheras. They mainly followed the barter system of exchange and also
sometimes received the old and valuable coins as fines. However the above
mentioned three copper coins were not the issue of the Cheras of
Mahodayapuram and probably it was closely related to the Cheras of Sangam
period. Several lead coins in rectangular shape with elephant and bow and
arrow symbol also were issued by the Cheras of ‗Sangam‘ period.76

Among the Sangam rulers, Cheras were the most powerful rulers who
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Thiruchirapalli district to Muziris in
the west coast which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan. They
maintained close connections with foreign traders, especially with the Romans.
The Sangam works mention that the large and beautiful ships of the Romans
came to the Chera port Muziri with gold and wine to obtain spices in
exchange77. The ports were even more numerous on the west coast than on the
east and they were all in contact with the traders of the Roman Empire.
Periplus says, "Muziri, a city at the height of prosperity, was two miles away
from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the
government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras.78" Pliny in his
Natural History states that "Muziris was the first emporium of India79," and
also mentioned the sale of fish for paddy, of bags of pepper, and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats from the large ships to the
shore.

75
M.GS. Narayanan, The Perumals of Kerala, Calicut, 1996 p. 164.

76
Krishnamurthy, op.cit; JNSI Vol. L VIII, p. 7.

77
See, P.K. Gopalakrishnan, Keralathinte Samskarika Charithram (Mal), Tvm.,
1974 (6th edn.). p. 123.

78
Sesha Aiyar. K.G., Chera Kings of the Sangham period, SSIC, p. 91.

79
Ibid.

108

 The Roman Empire had a flourishing trade with the Cheras of Sangam
age whose capital was Karur. It has been referred to in the Periplus of the
Erythrean Sea80 and also by Ptolemy.81 From this site, a large number of
Roman coins of gold, silver and copper had been discovered along with the
findings of the early coins of the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas and Satavahanas.
The discovery of a punch-marked82 die and Roman coin die in bronze has been
recently reported from Karur. This die also leads one to infer that Karur was
probably a mint site where punch-marked and Roman coins were being
manufactured either officially or unofficially. Several hoards of Roman coins
which include "aurei" and "denari" of Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, Marcus
Aurelis etc. have come from south India.

Several coins which belong to the Greeks, Phoenicians, Syrians, and Jews
have been discovered from Karur and surrounding areas. Ancient coins issued
by Greek islands like Rhodes, Crete etc., have been obtained recently from the
Amaravati river bed near Karur which was a prominent centre of the Cheras of
Sangam age.83 All the coins from the Greek city states Rhodes, Crete, Thrace
and Thessaly furnish the details of their trade contacts with the Cheras. There
are many references in the early Sangam literature about the Yavanas.84 Certain
copper coins originated from the city states of Phoenicia, which is on the

80
W.H. Schoff (ed), The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Newyork, 1912, Pp. 205-
208.

81
J.W. Mc Crindle, (ed), Ancient India as Described in Classical literature, Delhi,
1979, Pp. 50, 65.

82
For details see, P.V. Radhakrishnan, A Punch marked Die from Karur, SS1C -
Vol. IV-Pp. 51 ff.

83
R.Krishnamurthy, Coins from Greek Islands, Rhodes and Crete found at Karur,
Tamil Nadu, SSIC - Vol. V - p. 29 ff.

84
The term Yavana was originally used for the Ionians of Asia Minor, who were
conquered by Cyrus in 545 B.C., gradually it came to be applied for the entire
Greeks, then this ethnic name also denoted a political entity. See, Narain. A.K.,
The Indo-Greeks, Oxford, 1957, p. 165.
109

eastern sea-boards of the Mediterranean, have been reported from the

Amaravati river bed.85 Phonecians were the greatest commercially advanced
people of antiquity and they carried the trade with the Mediterranean before the
advent of the Greeks.86

After the premature death of Alexander of Macedonia in 323 B.C.,

Phoenecia formed a part of the Syrian Kingdom under Seleucids. By 64 B.C.,
Seleucid rule was replaced by Roman rule. The available Phoenecian coins
from the Amaravati river bed indicate the contact of the Mediterranean traders
with the Sangam period rulers, may be the Cheras, during the early 2nd century
B.C. Some Seleucid coins found at Karur also indicate other trade connections
of the Sangam period Cheras during the 3rd century B.C. After the death of
Alexander, Seleucus I founded Seleucids dynasty in Syria. During the reign of
Seleucus II they established trade relations with other countries like India
which reflect through the ten Seleucid coins discovered at Karur. 87 Besides all
these coins, an ancient Jewish bronze coin in round shape has also been
reported from Karur.88 Like all the foreign coins found at this place, we can
assume from the Jewish coin that the Jewish traders also established trade
connections with south India and all the foreign contacts signify the fact that
the main centre of export trade was Karur, which was the seat of the Cheras in
the Sangam period.

85
R. Krishnamurthy, Coins from Phoenicia found at Karur, Tamilnadu, SSIC, Vol.
IV, Pp. 19 ff.

86
They eventually became the first great navigators and international traders,
exchanging goods of the east for those of the west. By the 6th century B.C. the
Persian army under Cyrus conquered Phoenecia and later it came under the
control of the Persian Empire. Persian Empire had established a connection with
India during the reign of Darius. For details see, A.Cunningham, Coins of
Ancient India, London, 1891, p.12

87
R. Krishnamurthy, Seleucid Coins from Karur, SSIC - Vol. Ill p. 19 ff.

88
See, R. Krishnamurthy, An Ancient Jewish Coin from Karur, Tamilnadu, JNSI,
Vol. L IX, pp. 46-47

110

 A large number of silver punch-marked coins have also been discovered

from different parts of Kerala. Mainly three hoards of such coins were
unearthed from the state. They were Elikulamkara hoard in Kottayam district,
Iyyal hoard in Trichur district89 and Kodusserry hoard from Angamali in
Ernakulam district.90 Scholars generally considered that they were not of
Kerala origin, but of pan Indian91 nature and they were current even in the days
of the Buddha.92 Totally 218 silver punch-marked coins were discovered from
the first two hoards viz., Kottayam and Iyyal, in the year 1946 A.D. of which
184 coins were unearthed from Kottayam in which only 162 coins have been
classified93 and the rest of them (34) were reported from Iyyal.94

The Kottayam hoard consisted only of the silver punch-marked coins,

while, a few of the silver punch-marked issues have been reported along with
the Roman coins of gold and silver, from Iyyal hoard which is the only attested
by-metallic hoard in India.95 Of these two hoards only two coins namely coin 9
and 10 of the Kottayam hoard show characteristics different from other popular
varieties.96 The classifiable coins may be distinguished in 53 varieties, which

89
Firstly two hoards were reported viz., Elikulamkara and Iyyal in the year 1946
A.D. See, Department of Archaeology, Administrative Reports: 1971-72, Pp. 75-
76.
90
The latest hoard of punch marked coins in Kerala was discovered during 1987 by
Madavana Paulose while digging for laying foundation for new construction in
his house. For details see, T. Satyamurthy, Angamaly Hoard of Silver punch
marked coins, SSIC, Vol. IV, Pp. 45 ff.
91
See, A Sreedhara Menon, Survey of Kerala History,Kottayam, 1967, p. 40. Also
see, Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Warrier, Kerala Charithram, Sukapuram, 1991,
p. 66.
92
See, A. Sreedhara Menon, Social and Cultural History of Kerala, New Delhi,
1979, p. 247.
93
P.L. Gupta, Early Coins from Kerala, Tvm., 1965, p. 5.

94
Ibid, Plates, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII.

95
Unnithan. N.G., EyyaI hoard of Silver Punch marked and Roman Coins, JNSI

Vol. XXV, Pp. 22-28

96
P.L. Gupta, The Early Coins from Kerala, Tvm., 1965, p. 5

111

belong to different periods. All the coins provide nothing about the coinage of
Kerala origin. But the symbol number 61 viz., Elephant to right, is seen on a
large number of coins. It is generally believed that the elephant and bow and
arrow symbols were used by the Cheras in the Sangam age. At the same time
the Elephant Symbol also was used by other dynasties in south India as a royal
emblem. So we cannot say that the available punch-marked coins in Iyyal and
Kottayam hoards were of Kerala origin; probably they may belong to the
Mauryan97 or post-Mauryan periods, which is also applicable in the case of the
Angamali hoard. Totally 783 PMCs were reported from this hoard and the
preliminary study and classification of this hoard reveal that the hoard consists
of coins belonging to series I to VII of P.L. Gupta and T.R.Hardakar.98
However, 246 coins show either indistinct symbols or are without symbols.
One of the important features of the coins belonging to this hoard is that the
banker's mark on the reverse on series I and Series VII are somewhat different
from other hoards found in India.

The Angamali hoard consisting of Series I are similar to the onc mainly
found in Magadha and Kasi.99 It is equally interesting that the Series I Coins
are found mixed with other coins of the Series from II to VII. The punch marks
noticed on the reverse of coin number 141 as banker's mark is similar to the
punch marks on the obverse of Roman gold coins belonging to Nero's period,
which were discovered from Valluvally in Emakulam district.

Generally the Angamali hoard of punch-marked coins reveals the fact

that the coins from this hoard like the Kottayam and lyyal hoards, provide no

97
Since a major part of the peninsula was ruled by the Mauryas, the punch marked
coins might have circulated in South India, see, the Gazeteer of India, Vol. II
(1988), (ed.) P.N. Chopra, p. XXXVII.

98
See, P.L. Gupta, and T.R. Hardakar, Ancient Indian Punch Marked Coins,
Nasik,
1995, p. 31

99
Ibid, p. 31.

112

clear information about Kerala. However, it sometimes speaks about the

economic connection between the Kerala regions and other areas in India.

Part II

Roman Coins

Commercial contacts between India and the Roman Empire are fairly well-
attested by several sources, but among them the most important one is the
Roman coins, which were found in different parts of India. India is famous for
the abundance of finds of aurie (gold coins) and denari (silver coins) issued by
the Roman Emperors. The available Roman coins from different parts of India
have announced the mutual contact of the Roman traders and the Indians which
throws light on the social, political, economic and cultural conditions of that
period. Roman trade with India started as early as the 1st century B.C. and grew
to sizeable proportions by the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. A commercial network
involving Rome, Egypt and Arabia, which were major participants in the trade
with India and south-east Asia evolved in the early centuries of the Christian
era. A major part of India contributed to this trade activity. Roman gold and
silver reached the north -west, west and south India in return for luxury items.

Majority of the Roman coins were found in the form of hoards, which may
be the result of some local fear or panic of some sudden attack or war or some
natural phenomenon which forced the people to bury their treasures100 of the
large number of Roman coins found in India, majority of which were
discovered in south India101, particularly Andhra region, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Kerala. Roman coins were rarely found in north India because

100
SSIC Vol.II, Pp.27-28

101
A.V. Narasimhamurthy, The coins of Karnataka, Mysore, 1975, p.56, Also See,
the opinion of R.K. Mukherjee cited by V.V. Krishna Sasthri, Roman Gold
Coins, Recent discoveries in Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, 1992, p.ii

113

114

most of these coins were melted and restruck by the Kushan rulers.102 But there
are some debates that the Kushana coins are known only in two metals- gold
and copper.103 The north Indian hoards are mixed votive deposits of Republican
‗denari‘ and 2nd century A.D. aurie in Budhist stupas. It represents the
remnants of transit trade across north India, rather than the new sea-borne trade
of the south.104 Various south Indian hoards contain a large number of coins of
the imperial issues, especially the coins issued during the reign of Augustus,
Tiberius and Nero. Republican coins also have been reported from south India,
but they are rarer than the imperial coins. Before going through the findings of
Roman coins in India, a brief description of the history of the coinage of Rome
is necessary.

Roman coins proper fall into two classes, corresponding to the two main
periods of Roman history. The first class includes the money of the Republic,
often called the ‗Consular‘ or ‗Family series‘; the second, those struck by the
Emperors of the Western empire from the time of Augustus to the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks in A.D. 1453.105 The introduction of a coinage in
Rome has by ancient authority been attributed to Servius Tullius, who is said
to have been ―the first to mark copper pieces with the representations of an ox
or some other animal symbol‖.106 No coin of this remote period has, however,

102
Ibid

103
They used few silver pieces, which are not considered to be genuine. Probably
they melted or restruck the Roman gold coins, i.e. auries. However, if they
melted the silver coins of the Romans, i.e. denari, why was this metal rare in the
Kushana coinage? The truth is that the Roman contact with North India was less
than that of South India. The North Indian finds of Roman coins constitute a very
different evidence compared to South Indian finds.See P.L. Gupta, Roman Coins
from Andhra Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh Govt. Museum, 1965, op;cit. p.51

104
See, Paula J. Turner, Roman Coins from India, London, 1989, p.17

105
Stanley Lane Poole- Coins and Medals, Delhi, 1982, p.22

106
Ibid

115

been preserved, and the tradition is not properly supported by evidences. Rome
began to strike money directly when she became the dominant power of central
Italy. The Romans borrowed all their ideas of painting and sculpture from the
Greeks; and no doubt resorted to the same source for the types of their
coinage.107

During the period of the Republic the rulers issued coins in different
metals, but apart from military issues the Republic had no gold coins.108 The
chief gold money of the Republic was issued outside Rome for only military
purposes and the first purely Roman gold money was struck by Sulla in B.C.
84-82.109 However bronze and silver coins appeared in Rome before the issue
of gold coins. It was probably in 335 BC that the first Roman bronze coins
appeared. They consisted of heavy cast pieces, the Liberal As, aes-grave and its
various parts.110

In 268 B.C. the Republic issued a large number of silver denarius of 4

seuples, with the quinarius and sesterius, its half and quarter. 111 The silver
denari, so diverse in appearance, so neat in execution, so rich in imagination
and history, were the backbone of the Roman coinage and of the currency of
the Mediterranean world for the last 150 years of the Republic.112 Between 241

107
Ibid
108
G.B. Rawlings; Ancient, Medieval, Modern Coins and How to Know them,
Chicago, 1966, p.132
109
Stanley Lane Poole.op.cit;p.26
110
G.B. Rawlings, op.cit; Pp.126-127
AES : This can mean either copper or copper alloyed with other metals. Some
Roman coinage was produced in pure copper, but alloys were more common.
Modern writers sometimes use the term „aes‟ abbreviated to AE, to describe all
Roman coins in copper, bronze and orichalcum, just as the older once used
‗brass‘ and copper indiscriminately. See, John Melville Jones, A Dictionary of
Ancient Roman Coins, London, 1990, p.28.
111
Stanley Lane Poole-op.cit; p.24

112
J.N. Milne, C.H.V Sutherland and J.D.A. Thompson, Coin Collecting, Oxford,
1972, p.48.

116

and 217 B.C the denarius was reduced to about 60 grains weight, and so
remained throughout the duration of the Republic and until the time of Nero.113
The Republican coins carry no obvious evidence of data, and their
arrangements in chronological order, though highly desirable, is not always
easy.

The Roman empire is considered to have begun in 27 B.C., when Caius

Octavius received from the senate the title of Augustus114. It is usual to classify
with the Republican series such coins of this Emperor as they do not bear the
title AVGVSTVS, though some prefer to regard all his money as Imperial.115
During his period gold became part of the regular currency. The gold money of
Augustus consisted principally of ‗aurie‘, though there are some rare half-aurie,
and rarer still, some ‗quarterniones‘, or pieces of ‗four aurie‘. The ‗aureus‘ was
equal to twenty five silver ‗denari‘, and any variation of the aureus in
succeeding reigns involved a corresponding variation of the denarius, so that
the proportion of 25 to 1 should always be maintained.116

The denarius remained the chief silver coin until the reign of Caracalla.
The ‗quinarius‘ or half-denarius also continued in use, but the ‗Sestertius‘,

113
G.B. Rawlings, op.cit; p.130

114
A title invented by the first emperor of Rome and subsequently used by later
Roman emperors. Occasionally emperors associated others with them in the rank
and in the time of Diocletian the administrative burden of the Roman empire was
shared for the first time between an emperor of the East and an emperor of the
West. Each of these took the rank of Augustus and associated with him a junior
emperor with the rank of Caesar. When coins were issued in the name of one
senior emperor, the abbreviated title ‗AVG‘ is given a plural form, following the
Roman practice, by repeating the first letter; so we find ‗AVGG‘, when there are
two Augusti or ‗AVGGG‘, when after the death of Constantine the Great each of
his three sons held this rank. See, John Melville Jones, A Dictionary of Roman
Coins, London, 1990, p.29

115
G.B.Rawlings, Op-cit, p.133.

116
Ibid. pp.133-134

117

which, under the Republic, was struck in silver, become a copper coin, though
still employed as the unit of account. The imperial copper money is generally
divided, according to its size, into large, middle, or small brass; otherwise first,
second, or third brass, but the classification is mainly for convenience. The
coins are (1) of pure or red copper; (2) of orichalcum, or yellow copper, i.e.
copper mixed with one fifth of zinc117, which was more valuable. The
‗dupondius‘ and ‗As‘ were of similar size and weight, and both came under the
head of middle or second brass, but the yellow copper or brass ‗dupondius‘ was
worth double the red copper ‗As‘.118 An arrangement which includes these two
pieces under one description is inaccurate, but occasionally convenient, since it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the yellow copper from the red. The term
small or third brass is also elastic, as it includes any subdivisions of the ‗As‘.119

The Imperial period also witnessed the emergence of some minor coins
like Consecration coins, Legionary coins, Posthumous coins, Restitution coins,
Votive coins, Medallions etc. Apart from this, provincial and colonial coins
were also spread during the period of Empire, especially in the reign of
Augustus.120 Throughout the period when the imperial money was in use, the
obverse of the coins bore principally of the Emperors head or bust, or that of
the Empress or some other member of the imperial family. The type also varied
with period.121 The reverse designs are numberless, and refer to nearly every
department of the public life of the Roman people. Religious subjects,
personifications of virtues, architecture, arts, amusements, all kinds of civil and
military affairs etc. were represented.122 Gold and silver, under the direct
control of the Emperors, naturally showed their portraits. Brass and copper
117
Stanely Lane Poole op.cit; p.30
118
G.B. Rawlings, op.cit;p-134
119
Ibid
120
Ibid. Pp. 144-146
121
In Pagan times the head or bust was laureate, i.e. wearing a radiated crown,
sometimes bare, but rarely helmeted; in the Christian and Byzantine period it is
usually adorned with a ‗diadem‘ or an erected helmet. For details see, Stanley
Lanepoole, op.cit, Pp31-33
122
Ibid, See also G.B. Rawlings op.cit;p.135.

118

were coined theoretically by direction of the senate, and until Gallienus‘ reign
they bore the letters ‗S‘ (senate) ‗C‘ (consulato) on the reverse. But the direct
control which the Emperors exercised over the senate resulted, almost from the
very beginning, in the appearance of the imperial portrait and titles on the S,C
coinage as well.123

Greek influence on Roman coinages is very strong because it reflects the

artistic style of the Greeks. Most of the rulers in the period of the Empire
followed the Greek style of arts and architecture. With the Augustan age there
came a visible change, and Greek artists were encouraged to visit Rome, not
only to decorate the temples of the Gods, but also to embellish the villas of the
rich, into many of which numerous original works from Greece, Asia, and
Egypt had already found their way. The effect of Greek influence is very
marked on the coins of the Augustus age, and especially on those of the two
Agrippinas, Caligula and Claudius.124 The mythological figures which we meet
with on these coins often strike us very forcibly as copies of Greek statues.125
The coins of the early Christian Emperors show light artistic revival, and when,
in the later times, the artists of the west poured into Constantinople, carrying
with them all that remained of the artistic life in the ancient world, they
imported into the coinage that style of ornament so peculiarly Byzantine, the
traces of which are still seen in the architecture of the Greek church, both in
Europe and Asia.

The Roman contact with India has drawn the attention of many scholars in
India as well as in the west, during the last few decades. They generally

123
J.G Milne, C.H.V Sutherland and J.D.A Thompson, Oxford, 1974, op.cit;p.55

124
Stanely Lane Poole, op.cit; p.36

125
The figures on the Roman Coins like Jupiter seated holding his thunder bolt and
scepter; Minerva leaning on her spear and shield ornamented with the serpent;
Spes tripping likely forward, holding a flower and gently raising her dress; and
Diana rushing onward in the chase, her bow in her outstretched hand and her
hound at her heals – are all representations of Greek subjects.

119

believed that the Indo-Roman trade was very prosperous and it lasted for
several centuries. Some scholars argued that it had its beginning around the 2nd
century B.C., while the others place it, at the earliest, in the middle of the first
century B.C. But there is unanimity on the point that its decline synchronizes
with the fall of the Roman Empire in the early 4th century A.D. They also
considered that the Roman trade had extended, more or less, throughout India
and also extended even beyond the islands of Sri Lanka. We often get
references in the records of 18th and 19th centuries about the finds of Roman
coins at various places in India. But they describe the Roman gold coins found
in India as ―Quantity amounting to five Coolie-loads‖ and silver coins as ―some
thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures‖, ―a dozen quart
measures‖.126 From the typology of these coins, Sewell127 estimates the flow of
these coins according to chronology.

The first Roman coins, Republican denari, might have reached India in
the 1st century B.C., but they are less frequently found in India.128 As Roman
coins of the Republican period are rare, it may be presumed that there was
hardly any commerce between Rome and India during the Consulate or
Republican period. It is believable that most of the Republican coins came to
India only in the imperial period.129 Imperial Roman coin finds in India are
larger than the republican issue and it reflects in various south Indian hoards
which contain a large number of coins of Augustus and Tiberius.130 It is

126
P.L. Gupta op.cit p.40 (Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh)
127
Sewell discussed the hoards of Roman coins found in India and analyses their
cultural and typological importance. For details see J.R.A.S, (1904) p 591.
128
Quoted from the personal letter of Roger Bland, Curator; Roman coins in British
Museum, to Rev. Fr. T.C. Joseph, Priests Home, Kummannoor, Kottayam, 6th
July 1992. Also see Paula Turner, op,cit; pp.6-7
129
P.L. Gupta, Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, 1965, p.40
130
See R. Sewell, Roman Coins found in India, JRAS, (1904) p.200. Also see R.G.
Rawlinson, Intercourse Between India and the Western World, Pp.120-121. E.H.
Warmington, Commerce between Roman Empire and India, Delhi (1928),
1974,Pp. 286-295.
120

significant that Roman contacts with India began only in the time of Augustus
and it flourished in the entire peninsula during the period of Tiberius. It is
evident from this fact that the peak period of this trade was during the reigns of
these two Emperors. There was a decline in Roman trade from the death of
Nero till the time of Caracalla and after them we have not many finds of
Roman coins in India.131

The period after the death of Caracalla in A.D. 217 was most critical in
the history of Rome, not only in political and military, but also in economic and
other spheres. The empire had almost collapsed due to the internal and external
pressures, commercial enterprises had received a set back and trade had
practically ceased. It is also reflected in the trade connection between the
Romans and Indians. However, there was a revival during the Byzantine
Emperors. A few gold coins of this period are known in India, but they do not
seem to have drawn the attention of the scholars.

Roman merchants had trading settlements in India, especially in the south.

Of these, Arikamedu132 , two miles south of Pondicherry and Muziris133 were

131
P.L.Gupta,Roman Coins from Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, 1965,op.cit; Pp.48-50

132
Arikamedu, same as ‗Podouke‘ mentioned in the Periplus of Erythrian sea, was
an important port town in ancient India where various types of Roman potteries,
gems, lamps, glasswares etc., have been found. The excavation conducted, by
Mortimer Wheeler, at Arikamedu provided good and authentic data for the study
of Roman trade with India. For details see, Ancient India, No.2, p.17. See also,
P.L. Gupta, op.cit (Roman coins from AP) p.5, P.J. Turner, op.cit; p.13.
133
Even in the recent period also; certain scholars relates the ancient Muziris with
modern Kodungallur. But the present excavations conducted under the leadership
of Dr. K.P. Shajan, Dr. V. Selvakumar and Dr. P.J. Cherian, at pattanam near
Paravur in Ernakulam district conclude that Pattanam and its surrounding places
may be considered as ancient Muziris. Remains of large number of Roman
potteries, coins, gems etc were found at pattanam. Besides these; one copper
coin, with the figure of an elephant, ankusa and bow and arrow, which belongs to
the Cheras during the first century has also been reported from Pattanam. For
more details; see; ‗Sree‘ (the Sunday supplement of Malayala Manorama Daily,
30 May 2004) Pp-6-7, 14-15. Muziris is considered as a busy trading centre and
also the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period. See, JNSI, Vol.XLIX, p.36 (R.
Krishnamurthy, Sangam Period Chera Coins)
121

the most important trading stations between the 1st century B.C and second
century A.D. Large numbers of the remains of Roman import items were
unearthed from here. Different views prevailed regarding the appearance of
Roman coins in considerable numbers during this period. According to one of
them, the terminal trade included commodities produced in India itself and the
transit trade dealt mainly with objects which reached the Indian markets from
different parts of Asia. As a result of the commercial transactions with India,
most of the Roman coins were in circulation here. Whatever may be the trade,
there was a regular flow of Roman gold and silver coins to India in order to buy
the Indian commodities.134

Certain historians believe that the Roman coins which have been
recovered from this region were used as ‗bullion‘.135 Scholars like Warmington
are of the view that large quantities of gold and silver coins found in India were
the result of the deliberate exportation of Roman money to india with a view to
create a Roman currency here.136 At the sametime certain thinkers rejected this
statement and opined that the Indian merchants recognized only the purity of
the metal in Roman coins and rejected it as a currency.137 P.L.Gupta is of the
opinion that the Indian merchants accepted the Roman coins as currency.138
However, most of the scholars argue that the Roman coins were hoarded only
as bullion and they were not used as everyday currency by the Indians.139 These
statements invite more discussions on the spread of Roman coins in India.

134
See, Mortimer Wheeler, Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers, Bell, 1954, p.173.
135
See, Sunil C. Ray, A Revised Study into the Numismatic Evidence of the Indo-
Roman Trade, 3rd international Colloquium, 1991, p.142.
136
Warmington E.H., The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India,
Cambridge,London, 1974, p.274
137
A.V. Narasimhamurthy, The Coins of Karnataka, Mysore, 1975, p.56.

138
P.L. Gupta, Coins in Rome‟s Indian Trade, 93rd International Colloquium
(1991), p.122 ff
139
See, Paula. J. Turner, op.cit; p.16. David W. Mc Dowall, Indian Imports of
Roman Silver Coins, 3rd International Colloquium 1991, p.145

122

 Indians had developed their own coinage in ancient period, which

proves from the available evidence that at the same time they also earned the
Roman coins through the trade relation and hoarded it in different places. No
doubt, they were more interested in the valuable metallic content of the Roman
coins. The early Roman Emperors issued genuine and pure gold and silver
coins which were more attractive and highly valuable and they were used for
their trade with India. Naturally it attracted the local merchants of India,
especially of south India, and they hoarded the gold and silver or made
ornaments from them after testing their purity.140

During the Sangam period the Roman Empire maintained a flourishing

barter deal with Tamilakom, exchanging their gold and silver in the form of
coins, along with luxury goods such as lamps, wine, glassware etc for spices
such as pepper and cinnamon and for precious stones, ivory, muslin and so
on.141 If the metallic content of the Roman coin was not pure and valuable the
Indian merchants sometimes rejected such coins and they were forced to
continue the trade through the exchange of other commodities. It is clear that
the natives used the coins not so much as currency, but as bullion142, i.e. for the
value of their metals. But P.L.Gupta has a divergent opinion about this. It is
also a subject of debate whether the Roman coins served as bullion, only to be

140
See, P.L. Gupta, op.cit; p.77, (Roman Coins from AP) Also see, A.V.
Narasimhamurthy, op.cit;p.56.
See, Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier, (ed), Cultural History of Kerala, Vol.I,
Tvm, 1999, Department of culture Publication, Govt. of Kerala Trivandrum,
p.182.

142
Coinage is different from bullion in the same metal because of the imprint that
the coin bears and the denomination it is intended to be. The governments mark,
or type gives the coin a guarantee that the government will accept the coin at a
certain value, and because of this the coin is regularity accepted at this value
within the govt‘s territories. Bullion on the other hand (except when formed into
standard ingots bearing an official stamp) bears no such guarantee and simply
worth the intrinsic value of the metal it contains, calculated in terms of weight
and purity. For details see, David W Mac Dowall, Indian Imports of Roman
Silver Coin, 3rd International Colloquium 1991, p.145.

123

melted. Then they would not have survived for us to tell about the Indo-
Roman trade. Their survival itself is clear evidence that they were not treated as
bullion but were accepted as coins into local currency. Gupta also argues that
the fact that the Roman coins were used in India as currency is also evidenced
from those finds where the ‗punch-marked coins‘ and the Roman coins are
found together.143

Again, some of the Roman coins are noticed counter-stamped with

minute marks like those seen on the punch-marked coins.144 It is also
significant to note that the coins from certain hoards were approximately of the
same weight as the indigenous silver punch-marked coins. They weigh about
50 to 54 grains.145 Besides these, certain rulers in India also imitated the Roman
style. For instance, the Kushana ruler Kajula Kadphises imitated the diademed
Roman-style male head, which is identified with Augustus, on his issues.146
Like that, some small copper coins of Pseudo-Roman type are also found at
some places around Madura.147 They closely resemble the early copper issues
of the local mints but are Roman in character and which were probably struck

143
For e.g. the Iyyal hoard in Trichur district, Kerala consisted of a hoard of 117
coins of which 12 gold and 71 silver coins were Roman, the rest (34) were silver
‗punch marked coins‘. For more details, see, P.L. Gupta, The Early Coins from
Kerala, Tvm., 1965, plates Nos. VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI. Also see P.J. Turner,
op.cit;p.55

144
P.L. Gupta, Roman Coins from Andra Pradesh, Hyderabad, 1965, op.cit; p.70
The counter-stamping was prevalent as in the past and was current till date. For
e.g. the Portuguese counter-stamped the Indian Rupees of Queen Victoria with
the letters ‗PM‘ and used them in their colony in Mozambique. For details see,
JNSI, XX, Plate II, p.231. Again, the Dutch Trading Company counterstamped
the Persian Abbasid coins, the Indo-Portuguese Tankas, the Bijapur larins and the
Mughal Rupees with their own monogram ‗VOC‘ and thus had converted them
into their own coins and used them in their trade. See, P.L. Gupta ‗Coins‘, p.147.

145
P.L.Gupta, Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, 1965, op.cit; p.69

146
Ibid. Pp 27-28

147
Ibid, p.49

124

in this country for their own use. Through these evidences, Gupta came to the
conclusion that Indians maintained a harmonious relation with the Romans and
also recognized their coins as currency. He further pointed out that if the Indian
merchants needed only the metal of the Roman coins, it would have been much
more convenient for the Roman traders to bring ingots of gold or silver and not
the coins of their own country. But it is true in the case of gold, silver and
copper in Rome that, in order to control the output of coinage, the Emperors
had controlled the sources from which the raw copper, silver and gold were
obtained, i.e. mines.148 It also signifies the non-interference of the private
agencies in the mines. Naturally the traders could not use the ingots for their
trade purpose. So they used the valuable Roman coins to collect luxury
commodities from the East. Thus the Roman gold, silver and copper coins
spread in India, not as a currency but as bullion and there existed a ―goods for
goods‖ system of exchange.149 It is also true that in south India the gold coin
circulated as it came, which satisfactorily accounts for the frequent finds of
Roman gold coins at the present day and the total absence of any early Indian
gold coins.150

Fine imitations of the Roman coins were also current along with the
genuine coins.151 These imitations are so finely executed that they hardly differ
with the original Roman coins so far as the portrait of the emperor and the
figure of the goddess on the reverse are concerned. It is only in the legend that
the imitations failed.152 On the obverse the legend is a meaningless scribbling
and on the reverse the inscription is erroneous.

148
J.G. Milne, C.H.V. Sutherland and J.D.A Thompson, Coin Collecting, Oxford,
1972, p.53
149
See, Rajan Gurukal and Raghava Varrier, op.cit; P.183.
150
A. Cunningham, Coins of Ancient India, London, 1891, p.50
151
JNSI Vol. VIII, p.10
152
P.L Gupta, op.cit;p. ii
125

 The Roman coin-finds in India should be seen vertically divided into three
periods; (1) Early Julio-Claudian period, i.e. up to the time of Nero (A.D 68)
(ii) Later Julio- Claudian period, i.e. Vespasian to Nerva (A.D. 69-98); and
(iii) post- Julio- Claudian period, i.e. A.D. 98 onwards. Likewise, they should
be also be distinguished horizontally into three geographical areas, viz; (a)
southern peninsular region, i.e.; the land of the Chera, Pandyas and Cholas
(broadly the present states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu;) (b) south Deccan, i.e.;
the kingdom of the Andhra Satavahanas (broadly the present states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) and some parts of southern Maharashtra; and
(c) north Deccan and above, i.e. northern part of the state of Maharashtra and
the state of Gujarat, Madhyapradesh and to their north.153

As we had seen earlier Roman coins found in northern India are very
few, compared to those found in the south. The significant numismatic
discoveries in different parts of south India reveal that the majority of the
Roman coins were found in the form of hoards, a few as stray ones in the
Megalithic tombs and a few others from excavations. The analyses of these
coins reveal that the earlier group belonged to Augustus and the latest to
Marcus Aurelius.154

Among the Roman coin-finds, Nelloore in Andhrapradesh155 is the

earliest recorded find on Indian soil.156 However most of the finds came from

153
The vertical and horizontal division is only made for the convenience of the study
of the Roman coin finds in India. The vertical division is made on the basis of the
available Roman history and the horizontal division indicates the geographical
distribution pattern of the coins or wherever the Roman coins found in India. For
clear details see, P.L. Gupta, Roman coins from Andhra Pradesh, p.9, P.J. Turner,
Roman Coins, Pp.511, Sewell R., Lists of Roman coins found in India; JRSS
(1904) 591-637.
154
K.V. Raman, Presidential Address, Numismatic society of India, 77th session,
(Shantiniketan, February 11-13, 1970)
155
For a detailed list of Roman coin finds in India, see Paula J. Turner, Roman Coins
in India, 1989op.cit; Appendix I, Pp.45 ff

156
Ibid, p.71

126

Coimbatore and surrounding regions in Tamil nadu. Similarly Roman coins of

Republican and Imperial times were found in Kerala in considerable numbers;
the former is fewer than the latter. Silver denari of both Republican and
Imperial and gold aurie of Imperial make only have been reported from
different places, but the Roman copper coin, i.e. aes, are much less in Indian
soil and Kerala is no exception to this. We will discuss the reported Roman
coin finds157 in Kerala through the table given below.

Table – 2.1

Sites of Roman coin finds in Kerala

Sl.No Site District No. of Metal Associated

Coins finds
1. Alleppey Alleppey 1 AR
(3rd in colloquium,
P.113 FN.60)
2. Idamaruka 1 AV or AR(?)
3. Iyyal Thrissur 83 AV & AR 3 4 silver
4. Kilalur Kannur AV PMC
5. Kottayam
(Kizhoor) Kannur 1000‘s AV(+AR?)
6. Kumbalam Ernakulam 9 AV
7. Mankada Palghat 1 AV
8. Nedumkandam Idukki 50? AR
9. Niranam Pathanamthitta ? ?
10. Poonjar Kottayam 6? AV(+AR?)
11. Puthenkavu Alapuzha 50+ AV
12. Kottayam Kottayam
13. Valluvally Ernakulam 252 + AV
14. Kadakavur Trivandrum ? AR
(Note:- The Exact number of the coin is not available )

AV-Gold (Latin, aurum)

AR –Silver (Latin, argentum)

Sources; P.J. Turner, Roman Coins in India; London, 1989. R. Champakalakshmi, Trade

Ideology and urbanization South India- 300 BC to A.D. 1300; Studies in South Indian Coins,
Vol. VI, New Delhi, 1996, T.Satyamurthy Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins; SSIC.

157
Because of the availability of indigenous copper coin and its less metal value; the
native people were not interested to protect such coins issued by the Romans.
See, P.J. Turner, op.cit; p.19. Also see, SSIC, III, Pp. 43 ff.

127

 The above table gives a clear idea of the Roman coin finds in Kerala and it
also declares the importance of further studies in it. No doubt the table is
incomplete, because most of the coin finds are unpublished till now. It may be
observed that in the long span of two millennia the innumerable Roman gold
and silver coins discovered throughout the length and breadth of the state might
straight have gone to the crucible of goldsmiths to convert the pieces into
fascinating ornaments. However we can make a brief description about the
Roman coin finds in Kerala, through the available evidence. Firstly it is clear
that the available Roman coin finds in Kerala, includes either gold aurie or
silver denari, but the copper coins has not been reported from any site with a
recent exception to Chera copper coins unearthed from Pattanam near North
Paravur, Ernakulam District of Kerala, about eight kilometers south of
Kodungalloor and the mouth of river periyar.158 Apart from other finds, the
Iyyal in Trichur district is the only attested bimetallic hoard and it also
contained 34 silver punch-marked coins.

Secondly, the reported finds are absent in the northern-most and the
southernmost districts of modern Kerala state. It indicates the scarcity of
Roman trade connection with these areas. Thirdly, most of the sites belong to
Idukki district in modern Kerala, but a large number of Roman coins came
from Cannannore in Malabar area, which contained no less than ‗five coolie
loads‘.159

Lastly the availability of Roman aurie and denari in modern Kerala state
reveals the fact that it was a great centre of valuable commodities like pepper,
cinnamon etc. and the Roman merchants established trade contacts, in order to
collect the spices and other commodities in return to their gold and silver coins,
158
A Roman copper coin has been reported in the collections of
ThiruvananthapuramArt Museum as miscellaneous collection in the central
Register. But the locality or the exact spot where it was found is not traceable.
For details See, SSIC, Vol. III, Pp. 43 ff.

159
See, A. Sreedharamenon, Keralacharithram, Kottayam, 1979, p.41, For details,
see, Paula J. Turner, op.cit; p.62.

128

with the south-western parts of ancient Tamil country. The ancient Tamil
poems speak about Muziris as the premier160 port of Chera country and the
trade contacts between Yavanas (Romans) and Tamil country. ―The thriving
town of Muchiri, where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas bringing gold
come, splashing the white foam in the waters of the Periyaru which belongs to
the Chera of the Periyaru, the beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with
gold and returned with pepper and Muziris resounded with noise‖. 161 ―Sacks of
pepper are brought from the houses to the market; the gold received from the
ships, in exchange for articles sold, is brought on shore in barges at Muchiri,
where the music of the surging sea never ceases and where Kuttuvan (the
Chera king) presents to visitors, the rare products of the seas and
mountains‖.162 These songs reveal the fact that the Roman gold coins viz.aurie
were looked upon by the natives as gold, pure and simple. Possession of these
coins would have been a measure of their wealth, and they concealed their
wealth underground to save it from unwanted attention. It is also clear that as a
result of the progressive foreign trade contact Muziris became the important
port town in ancient Kerala and the extensive trade also witnessed the
emergence of other trade centres like Tyndis, Naura, Bekare, Nelkinda etc.163

160
Most historians believe that Muziris was in Kodumagalloore. It is also considered
as the seat of the Cheras in Sangam period. For details see, Ravi Varma,
op.cit;p.10, See also Santhakumar, “Maritime contacts between Ancient
Tamilakam and Roman Empire as Gleaned from Numismatic and Archaeological
Evidence”. (JSIH) Journal of South Indian History Vol. I, Issue I, Sept. 2003,
edited by V. Kunjali, Pp.57-62.

161
Erukkadur Thayan Kannanar Akam-149.

162
Paranar, Puram, 343. Also see Gurukal and Varrier, op.cit;p.67.

163
According to William Logan, Tyndis was the recent Kadalundy. See, Malabar,
Vol. I. p.76. But Neelakanta Sasthri argued that it was in Ponnany,
See,K.A.Neelakanda Sasthri, A History of South India, Madras, 1976, p.139. For
further details about the port town in ancient period, see, K.P.Padmanabhamenon,
Kochirajya Charithram, Trissur, 1912, Pp.48-49. See Also, A. Sreedharamenon,
Survey of Kerala History, Kottayam, 2012, Pp.64-67.

129

Above all most of the Roman coin finds significantly suggest the advent of
people and ideas into the region from the northern part of the subcontinent and
the western world.164

The Roman coins found in Kerala belong to several categories. The

evidence from the coins shows that there was a new major thrust in the Eastern
trade under Augustus and his successors whereas there is scant evidence for
pre-imperial trade on a large scale. Several hoards and single coins have been
discovered from different parts of Kerala from the 19th century onwards. The
first significant hoard reported in Kerala is the Kottayam hoard, located in
Kannur district in Malabar. Hundreds of excellently preserved aurie were found
on the slope of a hill by the sea named Vaniyamkadavu, at Kottayam. 165 The
coins which belong to early Julio-Claudian period were all of gold, amounting
to no less than ‗five cooie loads‘.

Probably the coins were preserved in five separate large containers, each
one giving enough weight for a coolie load. Taking into account the average
weight of the Roman gold coins, and if a coolie could carry a weight of about
25-30 kg including the container, the total five coolie load would amount to
approximately 15,000 coins; but the actual quantity could not be assessed fully.
A major chunk of this hoard soon disappeared before the news reached the
authorities. The coins seem to have been in fine condition, that is, not worn,
and local jewellers were impressed by the quality of gold. Like the Pudukottai
hoard in Tamil Nadu, Kottayam hoard is also more informative because both
being particularly vast.166

164
Gurukal and Varrier, Cultural History, Tvm 1999, p.182.

165
Edgar Thurston, Coins Catalogue-2 (Madras Govt. Museum, 1894), p.12. Quoted

by T. Satyamurthy, Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins, Tvm 1992, p.4

166
About 80 or 90 coins in Kottayam hoard reached the collection of Maharaja of
Travancore and a large number to General Cullen, the then Resident of
Travancore. See, J.A.S.B, XX (1851), 371-87. Caldwell, A Description of Roman
Imperial Aurie found near Calicut, (TVM, 1851), Madras Museum Annual
Report, 1882, p.5. Also See, (Drury, Capt. H) Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal, XX, (1852), Pp.371-287.
130

 We get some references about the number of coins, by which, from the
available coins nine (9) were of Augustus, 28 of Tiberius, two of Caligula, and
sixteen each of Claudius and Nero.167 This is only a guide to the possible
proportion of the coins of each emperor. Despite the lack of numbers for coins
of particular types in the Kottayam hoard, it seems likely that the numbers of
coins of each Emperor were proportionately similar to those of Pudukottai.168
The Kottayam hoard mainly contained the coins of Augustus, Tiberius,
Claudius, Nero and a few of Gaius.169 Apart from a big hoard two coins of gold
of Theodosius and Nero were also available from the surface or stray finds.170
Mention of the gold coin of Theodosius indicate the appearance of post Julio-
Claudian issues in ancient Kerala. Thus, in every sense the Roman coin finds in
Kottayam give evidence of Roman contacts with the Malabar region in modern
Kerala.

After this another most important find came from Iyyal171 which is
located in Tallappalli Taluk in Trichur district. The Iyyal hoard, though small in
size, is important for the reason that it is situated on the Highway between the
ancient emporium of Tyndis and Muziris.172 From this hoard 117 coins were
unearthed and it covered a period of about 240 years (B.C. 123-117 A.D); of
which, 71 silver and 12 gold coins were Roman and the rest (34) being silver
punch-marked coins173. This is the only published hoard of Roman coins of two

167
W. Logan, Malabar I, Madras, 1887.

168
Paula J. Turner, op.cit; P.9

169
For more details see, Ibid, Pp 62-63. Also see, Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology
and Urbanization; South India 300 BC to AD 1300, New Delhi, 1996, p.164.

170
Ibid, p.173.

171
See, JNSI, XXV, Pp, 22-28

172
P.L.Gupta, op.cit; p.47

173
See, P.L. Gupta, op.cit; Pt. VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI

131

metals and it covered a period from the Republic to Trajan (117 A.D). Among
the gold coins three aurie were defaced by slashing and many of the coins are
in poor condition, often only fragments remaining. From the available 71
denari, 4 belong to Republican period; they seem to cover the period between
123 and 86 BC. 12 denarii belong to the Triumvirate period (44-31 BC) of
Octavian, 1 denarius of Octavian issued between BC 29-27 from Gaul as
Imperator perpotus and 36 denarii of Claudius and 5 denarii of Nero also have
been identified.

Among the aurei, 8 of Tiberius, 1 of Claudius, 2 of Nero and 1 of Trajan

have been reported from Iyyal.174 The silver coins are not having chisel cut on
the head, while the gold coins have chisel cut on Tiberius, Claudius and Nero‘s
head,that probably indicate the non-acceptance of the currency value of the
coins. It is extremely unlikely that all the silver denarii came from Rome in the
same worn condition as they are seen in the hoard and it also shows that the
Roman coins flowed into India even after the reign of Nero. Above all,
bimetallic hoards of Roman coins are rare in India, only the Iyyal has attested
find of denarii and aurie, and this find is the only one of aurie with indigenous
silver (punch-marked coins)175.

Besides these two hoards, another large hoard of Roman coins was
unearthed in Valluvally near Pattanam176, North Parur Taluk in Ernakulam
district. In 1983 two hundred and fifty two coins could be recovered by the
local police from Valluvally, but the original number is unknown. 177 According
to the local people the number amounted to thousands. The published report

174
For further details see, P.L. Gupta, op.cit; p.48

175
P.J. Turner, op.cit; p.8

176
See, M.G. Sasibhooshan, Coins from Kerala, Malayalam Literary Survey, Journal
of Kerala Sahitya Academy, Trichur 1987 January-June, Pp.75-80. Also see,
JNSI, Vol. XLIX Pp.39-40

177
T. Sathyamurthy, Catalogue of Roman Gold Coins, Tvm, 1992, p.5

132

suggest that the coins includes those belonging to the periods of Roman
Emperors like Augustus (B.C.31-A.D 14), Nero (A.D.54-68), Vespasian (A.D
69-79), Domitian (A.D 81-96), Trajan (A.D. 98-117), Hadrian (117-138 A.D),
Antoninus Pius (A.D 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (A.D.161-180).178 The
obverse of the coins contain the heads of the Emperors concerned and on the
other side, the emblems of Roman gods and goddesses and other symbols.179
The legends on the coins are written in Latin, the official language of the
Roman Empire. The notable feature of the hoard is that the coins up to the
period of Hadrian are worn out recording their wide circulation for a longer
time. Later, about 314 gold coins were traced out by Peter Berghaus (including
two suspected imitation coins). 180

Apart from these large hoards, several minor hoards also were reported
from different places of Kerala. Among them the notable one is the
Nedumkandam hoard which contains both the Republican and Imperial coins
of Rome.181 Nedumkandam is located in Udumbanchola Taluk in Idukki
district on the ghat-route. More than 50 silver coins were discovered from this
hoard in 1992, but the reported coins are few in number; and all of them belong
to the Julio-Claudian period.182 Compared to the number of coins reported from
Iyyal the percentage of Republican issue is low. Only 4 silver coins of the
Republican period are reported from Iyyal and it is datable to B.C 123-91. But
the Nedumkandam hoard contains about 50% of the silver coins from the
Republican period, and it is datable to C.190 B.C. Republican coins are very
few in Indian subcontinent and only 5 finds were reported, i.e. Laccadives,

178
M.G. Sasibhooshan, A Treasure of Roman Gold, Indian Express (Daily) Cochin,
2-12-1983.

179
JNSI, XLIX, p.40

180
SSIC Vol. IV. Pp.33 ff

181
SSIC, Vol VI, Pp.31 ff

182
Republican coins and 11 coins belonging to the period of Augustus; Ibid

133

Kalkkinar (1909), Iyyal (1945) in South and Manikyalan (1830), Pakli (1898)
in North, till the discovery of the Nedumkandam hoard. No doubt, the
discovery of Nedumkandam brought to light the new areas from where the
materials were acquired for exports in Western coast.

Another find is from Poonjar on the ghat-route in Kottayam district, and

it contains certain Roman coins which mainly belong to the early Julio-
Claudian period.183 The available report shows that about 5 aurie were
discovered from the stray finds.184 Among them 2 were the issue of Antonius
Pius, it represents the post Julio-Claudian period. The rest of them being the
issues of Augustus, Claudius and Nero, belongs to the early Julio-Claudian
period. In short the Poonjar find provides the picture of Roman trade during
post-Claudian period; but most of the coins in this village represent the early
Julio-Claudian issues.

Coins from the early Julio-Claudian period have been discovered at

Idamaruku (Kottayam district) and from the Highranges in Idukki district.185
Idamaruku is a place close to Poonjar. Besides this another find also has been
discovered at Niranam, near Tiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district.186 All these
evidences reveal the importance of these areas in the map of Roman trade.
About 50 aurie have been reported from Puthenkavu, which is located in
Chengannoor Taluk in Quilon district. Most of them belong to the post -Julio-
Claudian period. The exact number of coins is not available. However, all
issues were post-date Theodosius I.187 Though relevant excavations were

183
P.J. Turner, op.cit; p.7. Also see, Satyamurthy, op.cit; p.4.

184
P.L. Gupta, Coins in Romes Indian Trade: Coinage, Trade and Economy, New
Delhi 1970, p.133.

185
See, M.G. Shashibhooshan, op.cit;p.79

186
Shasibhooshan M.G. op.cit; p.79. Also see, P.J. Turner, op.cit; p.74.

187
Champakalakshmi, op.cit; p.265.

134

absent, the reported coins from Puthenkavu reveal the Roman trade contacts
with the Travancore area.

The Kumbalam hoard in Ernakulam district provides a list of 9 aurie,

which belong to the post Julio-Claudian period. One aureus of Hadrian (117-
138 A.D), four aurie of Antonius Pius (138-161 A.D) and another four aurie of
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 A.D) were reported from this hoard.188 The
catalogue published on these coins shows a variety of types, legends, style of
portraits of the emperor on the obverse and likewise different divinities and
their postures on the reverse. The common factor seems to be their mint-fresh
condition, and absence of the slash marks and their general weight ranging
from 6.92 to 7.38 grains. It is generally accepted that the ‗Kumbalam hoard‘
from the South –West Coast of India (Ernakulam district in Kerala) is unique
because it provides the evidence that in the second half of the 2nd century
Roman aurie have come to India without having circulated anywhere else or
later on in India.

Certain references had also existed about the gold coins from Kilalur
(Kizhoor) in Kannur district189, but not published in detail. Similarly, a hoard
from Alapuzha also has been reported.190 One denarius of Tiberius has been
interpreted, but further details are absent.191 Recently Roman denari has also
been reported at Kadakkavur in Thiruvananthapuram district.192 Besides these,
an aureus of Nero has been listed from Mankada in Palakadu district193 and also
from Kottayam in Kottayam district194 but more information is not available. In
short the Roman coin finds are large in Kerala, but they lack proper analysis
188
SSIC, Pp, 29 ff

189
See JASB, XX, pp.371-387. Also see, Champakalakshmi, op.cit; p.172
190
Peter Berghaus, Roman Coins from India and their Imitations, 3rd International
Colloquium, 1991, PIII. F.N. 60

191
See, Champakalakshmi, op.cit; p.163.

192
See, Satyamurthy, Gold Coins of Travancore state. SSIC, Vol. II. p.117

193
ASI Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, (1963-64)p.161.

194
See, T. Satyamurthy, Catalogue of Roman Coins, Tvm., 1992, p.5

135

and interpretation. The most important facts derived at are: (a) the non-
availability of the total coins from the site wherever they are discovered;(b)
absence of further details and scientific study about the available coins, and (c)
the scarcity of proper study materials on the Roman coinage and its circulation
in India.

However, the available evidence from the Roman coins in India furnish
the knowledge about the mutual commercial relations existed between India
and the Roman world, which led to the flow of a variety of the commodities.

Roman trade with India

The discovery of coinage associated with the remnants of civilization is

often cited as proof of the existence of a marketing system in that society.
Coinage is viewed as the consequence of the demands of a market system that
has evolved beyond previous localized commodity exchange. While earlier
exchange was largely reciprocal, the use of coinage implies less personalized
market transactions and likely exchange with external economic agents. Gold
and silver coinage often had prestige and value in early societies and might be
used for large scale exchange. It is generally believed that trade is the main
factor responsible for the movement of coins from one country to another.

Early Tamilakom had an extensive maritime trade with foreign

countries. Remarkable growth of foreign trade is to be ascribed to the
availability of certain commercial products in the Western regions of ancient
Tamilakom, now known as Kerala. From very early times, extensive trade was
carried out in between Kerala and west Asian countries of Arabia, Syria and
Egypt. The Aksumite kingdom or often referred as Abyssinian kingdom in
North Africa maintained trade connection with India and their coin type has
been reported from south India.195 The Greeks had considerable role in the

195
For details see SSIC Vol. VIII Pp 58-64. Also see, Elankulam Kunjan Pillai
Studies in Kerala History, Tvm, 1970, p.394.

136

commercial field of south India from about the 3rd century B.C., which can be
proved through the Tamil names of south Indian articles borrowed by the
Hellenes. So also, the Asian countries had maintained a flourishing trade
connection with the early South Indian kingdoms.196 On the basis of the
Chinese annals, their trade flourished prior to the early Christian era.197 The
Chinese imported south Indian spices largely and exported their silks, sugar etc
to India.198 But the real glory in the trade connection started with the dawn of
the Roman Empire, which is evident from the available Roman coin finds in
different parts of South India.

Roman republic did not have a flourishing contact with India 199 and the
coins belonging to this period circulated in India only during the time of the
Empire. During the time of the consulate or Republican period, most of the
export items from India to Europe probably went to Greece rather than to
Rome200. These conclusions are based on the fact that very few consular coins
have been unearthed so far in India, but most of those coins circulated in India
only during the time of the empire. The Roman contacts with India began
during the reign of Augustus, as it is clear from the finds which are confined to
several areas in south India, although a considerable antiquity has been
assigned to the commerce between the ancient Tamil country and the west. 201 It

196
P.T. Sreenivasa Iyengar- History of the Tamils Chennai, 2001, Pp.193-94, Also
See K.P. Padmanabhamenon, Kochirajyacharitram Calicut, 1989, p.47.

197
Schoff W.H., Periplus of Erythrean Sea, (1912), Delhi, 1974 p.246

198
P.T. Sreenivasa Iyangar, op.cit; p.102

199
K.S. Mathew, Pius Malekandathil (ed) Trade Economy of the Malabar Coast and
the Europeans, in Kerala Economy and European trade, Moovattupuzha, 2003,
p.1
200
JRAS, (1904), Pp 593-594

201
R.S Kennedy, King in Early South India; as chieftain and emperor, IHR (1976),
Vol. III Pp1-15. Also see K.K. Pillai, A Social History of the Tamils, Madras,
1975,University of Madras, 1969, p.249.

137

perhaps started as sporadic trade or unscheduled exchange, and gradually

became a fruitful commerce in which spices, pearls, gems, cotton fabrics and
other oriental exotics were traded for Roman gold and wine and other valuable
articles over two centuries.202

There is a general consensus among the scholars that the trade began under
Roman Emperor Augustus who ruled up to 14 AD and that it reached a peak
under Nero (54-68 AD) and then maintained a high level till Marcus Aurelius
(161-180 AD). During the 3rd century A.D., with the decline of the Roman
Empire and the depreciation of its currency, the trade with the east vanquished.
From this time trade declined up to Caracalla and then almost entirely ceased,
except for a slight revival under the Byzantine Emperors.203 The evidence of
Roman coins of Byzantium, though rare in south India, indicates the
continuance of trade after the death of Nero.204

India‘s trade relations with the foreign countries had great antiquity. It
sometimes existed before the Harappan civilization and flourished during that
civilization. The Indus valley people had established trade connections with the
people from Afghanistan, Turkmania, Persian Gulf regions etc and carried their
goods through an elaborate standard of trade routes205, that connect the Indian
trade centres in the north-western regions with the foreign countries.

202
Scoff W.H. (ed), Periplus of Erythrean Sea - Pp 26-61. Also See ‗Akananuru‘
149, Purananuru- 343.
203
Sewell, Lists of Roman Coins found in India, JRAS (1904), Pp.591-637. Also see
P.L. Gupta op.cit; p.50
204
I.K. Sarma, South Indian Coinage: A review of recent discoveries,Chennai, 2003,
p.24.
205
These trade routes extended upto Medeteranean region during the period between
1000 B.C. and 200 B.C. For more details, See Nayanjot Lahiri, The Archaeology
of Indian Trade Routes (upto C 200 B.C), New Delhi, 1968, Map-5, p.62, Map
12, p.126, Map 46, p.392. The traders from Mohenjodaro made trade connection
with Malabar, For details see Rev. H. Heras, S.J. Studies in Proto-Indo
Mediterranean culture, Vol. I, Pp 98-110.
138

 Without proper trade routes whether it was by the land, or sea long
distance trade had no future and no proper results. Fortunately the foreign
countries had discovered many land routes or sea routes to the eastern countries
especially India, before the early Christian centuries. We have allusions to sea
voyages in the Rig-Veda. The Indian literature (Buddhist) refers to the long
distance sea voyages, where sailors going far into the sea made use of shore-
sighting birds.206 It was the Indian traders who used to carry cargo for overseas
trade initially. Later the discovery of monsoon winds for navigational purpose
by the Greek sailors turned the picture upside down.

The most important routes in the third century B.C. was mainly by the sea
to the Persian Gulf and up the Tigris to Seleucia, where it joined the overland
route from India and other Eastern countries.207 During the time of Ptolemy,
Philadelphians (285-246 BC) of Egypt opened a new sea route to India,
particularly when they lost possession of Syria and the supremacy in the
Aegean sea. Philadelphians built a port at Myos Hormos, 180 miles north of
Berenice which became the most important centre in the Red Sea for Indian
trade.208 The caravan route from Coptos, halfway down the Nile connected the
route with the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenic on the Red sea.209 The
famous explorer Eudoxus twice made the voyages to India in the latter part of
the second century B.C. and came to be known as the ―great explorer‖.210 But it
was during the first century B.C. the Western world was united under Rome
that they began to push eastwards by land and sea. Both land and sea routes

206
P.L.Gupta, op.cit; p.2

207
Ibid- p.122

208
Ibid

209
Lionel Casson, Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India, in Rome and
India; the Ancient Sea trade, (Ed) Vimala Begely and Richard Daniel De Puma,
Madison, 1866, p.8

210
P.L. Gupta, op.cit; p3

139

were quite popular among the merchants to reach India from Rome and to
return home after their trade.

However the land trade route had to pass though Parthia which was a
hostile country.211 Because of the disturbances from the robbers, the Roman
emperors encouraged the sailors to discover new sea routes to the eastern
countries. Thus, by about the middle of the First century A.D. Hippalus
discovered the secrets of the existence of monsoon winds blowing regularly
across the Indian Ocean and with the help of these monsoon winds Roman
ships reached Muziris and other ports of south India.212 Romans also
discovered another route to south-west India through cape Guardafui.213

Generally three indirect sea routes to India were familiar to the sailors
and the merchants from the East Mediterranean coast. The first route may have
begun from the Phoenician cities, second from Greece and third from
Alexandria in Egypt.214 With the help of these trade routes, foreign traders
could reach India in a shorter time and return with goods from peninsular India
without the fear of robhers. With these advantages and facilities about 120
ships were sailing annaually to India, according to Strabo, from the port of
Myos Hormos.215 The south Indian rulers at that time, mainly Cheras, Cholas,
Pandyas and Satavahanas provided all protection and help to the Roman traders
and thereby an elaborate exchange relation existed between the Indian and the

211
Ibid p-3

212
See, Rosa Maria Cimino (Ed), ‗Ancient Rome and India: Commercial and
Cultural
Contacts between the Roman world and India. New Delhi, 1996, p.26.

213
J.I. Miller, The Spice trade of the Roman Empire 29 B.C. to 641 A.D, Plate- 5,
Oxford, 1969.

214
For details, see, R.Krishnamurthy, Hellenistic period coins from Karur: a review,
SSIC, Vol.10. Pp-12,13

215
Strabo, Vol.VIII, P.119 in K.S. Mathew, op.cit; p.4

140

Roman world. It was also responsible for the emergence of port towns like
Muziris, Nelcynda etc in South India, which greatly facilitated the Romans to
conduct a smooth trade with India.

At the same time there existed highways called ‗peruvazhi‘ which

connected villages and towns and tolls were levied at the entrance to towns and
at crossroads.216 Obviously the Roman coin finds mark out a trade route from
Kerala coast through the Palakkad gap across the peninsula to the Roman
trading stations on the east coast. The rivers had a great significance in the
progress of trade in south India. The river Periar served as the most important
means of transportation of pepper and other spices produced in the hinterlands
which were in great demand by the traders from the Roman Empire217. There
are some references about the sea trade of the Tamils in the early period. The
‗puram‘ songs refer to a Pandya prince who was drowned in the sea (Kadalul
Mainta Glam Peruvaludi).218 A Chola ruler who plied a fleet across the sea and
controlled the high winds is an oft-repeated legend in the Sangam age and later
literatures.219 He was a legendary Chola and an ancestor of Karikala of the
second century A.D.220 The Tamils were familiar with the harrowing
experience of being caught in a storm in mid-ocean.221

However the sails of the ship helped the vessels to pierce the strong
waves of the ocean and on board the ship drums were beaten and tall flags were
hung from the mast.222 While at harbour the ships were anchored by a thick,

216
K.K. Pillai, ‗A Social History of the Tamils, University of Madras, 1969, p.241.

217
K.S. Mathew, op.citl; p.5

218
Puram 182

219
Ibid. 66

220
Subramanyan N. Sangam Polity, Bombay, 1966, p.241.

221
Manimekalai, IV 29-34
222
Maduraikkanci, 77-83

141

long rope to the either end of which a big stone was attached 223. The smaller
boats used in river transport were known as ‗ambi‘, ‗pahri‘ and ‗odai‘224 and
larger boats as ‗kalam‘ ‗vangam‘ and ‗navay‘.225 The harbour Pukar(Puhar) or
Kaveripumpattinam was generally safe even for bigger vessels.226 Warehouses
were built on the beach near the quarters of fishermen. The two kinds of goods
(export and import) were found heaped on the quay. Lighthouses called
―Kalam Kari ilangu Cudar‖ the light that beckons the ship are referred to.227

The most significant commercial settlements of south India, like Puhar, Muziris
etc are no less important in understanding the nature of their contact and
interaction, which is clear from the Roman pottery and other associate finds
discovered by the excavations. There is a reference about the force of Cohorts
maintained by the Roman merchants to protect their trade.228 The Peutingerian
table, a collection of ancient maps composed in third century.A.D. mentions
Tyndis and Muziris and refers to a temple of Augustus on the west coast. 229 But
there is no reference in the Sangam literature about a temple for Augustus.
Emissaries went to him from several Indian states and Augustus

223
Ibid, 378

224
Akam, 29:18, 101;12, 187;23, Puram 261;4; 34, 3:2, 381;24

225
Akam. 13:5, 26:2, 30;12-13, 56: 321

226
Puram. 30

227
Subramanyan N, op.cit; p.242.

228
William Logan, Malabar Manual Vol. I, Trivandrum, 1887, p.199. Also See, P.L.
Gupta, op.cit; p.5.

229
For details see, V.A. Smith, The Early History of India from 600 B.C to
Muhamedan Conquest, p.463. See also Subramanyan N., op.cit; p.240. V. Nagam
Aiya, Travancore State Manual, Vol. I, p.242. C.A. Innes, Malabar Gazetteer,
Vol. I, P.T. Sreenivasa Iyangar, op.cit;p.312. Ibrahim Kunju, Studies in Medieval
Kerala History, p.4. Adoor K.K. Ramachandran Nair, Kerala State Gazetteer, vol.
II, Part I Pp. 138-140. K.M. Panikar, Studies in Indian History, p.13. K.K. Pillai,
A Social History of the Tamils p.270

142

FINDS OF ROMAN COINS IN KERALA

143

himself says that Indian embassies came frequently.230 The Chera, the Chola
and the Pandya monarchs of the Sangam period sent separate Embassies.231
This led to the increase in the volume of India‘s trade with Rome during the
time of Augustus.

During the beginning of the Christian era Roman trade with India reached
new dimensions because of the discovery of a new direct sea route to India
with the help of monsoon winds. Western India and its long coast line, opened
to Arabian sea, became a haven for Roman maritime traders. With the help of
natural and also physical support from the native people, the Romans
maintained a terminal trade connection with Indians.232

South India, especially Kerala, is famous for spices, which attracted the
foreign merchants like the Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Arabians, Phoenicians,
Greeks etc and they carried on an extensive trade with the west coast from very
ancient period onwards.233

The Sangam works mention the native merchant class like ‗Vanigan‘,
Chetti.234 etc and they had a significant role in the commercial field. The
articles of Roman trade mainly comprised of animal products, plant products,
minerals etc. 235 at the same time, according to Periplus a few male and female

230
Warmington, The Commerce between Roman empire and India, Cambridge,
1928, p.35

231
Ibid p.37

232
R.E.M. Wheeler, Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers, Beil, 1954, p.164.

233
A Sreedharamenon, op.cit; Pp.59-62. The recent discovery of Papyrus document
in the 2nd century A.D, from the archives of Vienna deals with the maritime loan
arrangements made between the traders of Muziris and Alexandria. It shows the
non-isolation and closer trade connection between the East and the West; for
more details see, K.S. Mathew, op.cit; Appendix Pp 25-26.

234
K.K. Pillai, op.cit; Pp.247-248
235
W.H. Scoff, Periplus, Pp.44-45.

144

slaves and Roman craftsman like carpenters and masons were brought to India.
The products mainly exported from the west coast of India were: pepper,
malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala)236, indigo, cinnamon and cardamom, all
grown in Malabar. Among the spices pepper, which was used chiefly as
medicine by the Greeks and was called by Hipocratus as ―Indian remedy‖ 237,
was an important item in the Indo-Roman sea-borne trade. It was valued by the
Romans as highly as gold and silver and hence the name ‗Yavanapriya‘ was
given to it by Sanskrit writers.238 According to Pliny, pepper had come very
much in Roman fashion.239 Pepper sometimes made up 3/4th of the total bulk of
the average ‗Rome bound cargo‘240 or any way it would be more than half.241
The ships that visited the Western ports during the first century A.D were of
large size on account of the pepper that was being carried. The Sangam
literatures refer to the prosperity of the Muziris port in the pepper trade and the
virtual monopoly of the Cheras over it.242 Apart from Muziris the Cheras
maintained trade in both black and white pepper through the ports like
Nelcynda, Tyndis etc and thereby earned considerable profit from the Western
countries, especially from Rome.

236
The author of Periplus distinguishes three sorts of Malabathram namely, those
made of the largest leaves, those of smaller and the smallest. For details see, Ibid.
p.49.

237
Warmington, op.cit;p.182. See also Elamkulam, Studies in Kerala History, Tvm,
1970, Pp.394-396.

238
A Sreedharamenon, op.cit;p.62.

239
Pliny, Natural History XII, 14; Coins in Romes Indian Trade, P.L. Gupta, p.128,
F.N. 46.

240
W.H. Scoff, op.cit;p.214

241
Warmington, op.cit; p.181

242
For details see, Akam-149; 7-11. Also See, Puram- 343; 1-10

145

 Cardamom, yet another important spice exported to the west, is found in

interior southern Kerala, Malabar and the highlands bordering the district of
Madurai, Thirunelveli and Dindigal.243 Cardamom commanded a ready market
in the Roman world for its use as medicine and funerary perfume. 244 Another
important export item was cinnamon, which is the bark of a tree, an aromatic
substance with combined taste of sweetness and pungence. It was in high
demand among the Romans as perfume, incense, condiment and medicine.245
‗Malabathrum‘ identified as ‗betel leaf‘ (or Cinnamon bark) was another export
item from the west coast.246 Nard (Nardus) seems to be a grass or leaf which
was yet another item of export along with Malabathrum. It was used to extract
an oil for cosmetic purposes.247

A large variety of Indian wood were also exported from west coast to
Rome. They were generally divided into two classes viz. 1) ornamental timber
wood, 2) and fragrant wood; sometimes used as medicines. The most
noticeable forest products exported from south India were sandal wood, teak,
ebony and eagle wood that mainly comes from the hilly tracts of Coimbatore-
Salem regions of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Malabar regions.248 Indian cotton
was an important item of Roman trade with India. Tamil poems refer to the
internal circuit of cotton goods; mainly through gift to the poets and bards.249

243
Warmington, op.cit , p.185

244
P.L. Gupta, op.cit, p-7

245
Ibid, p.6

246
Warmington op.cit , Pp.188-190

247
Puram, 122, 502

248
G. Watt, The Commercial Products of India: Today and Tomorrow‘s, Delhi,
1966, p.976.

249
Akam, 86:21, 136;20. Puram 398:28

146

 Fine quality and different varieties of Cotton cloth industries flourished

in the Deccan area.250 It was basically from Gujarat. The export of silk to Rome
in large quantities began in the reign of Augustus and continued till the time of
Marcus Aurelius. It is recorded that silk was worth its weight in gold. So the
Indians acted as intermediaries in the Chinese silk trade with the west.251 In
south India the muslin cloth trade was mainly under the control of the Cholas,
however, it was exported from the Malabar Coast.

There was a great demand for the mineral products, particularly precious
stones which were most valuable and also attractive. South Indian pearls were
rated among the best and highly valued in the ancient world and the Roman
ladies wore them as finger and ear ornaments and also used to decorate their
shoes.252 The Andhra and Gangetic regions were popular in the pearl industry
and they also reached in considerable quantity to the Malabar ports, where
they were exported to Rome. They were used by the ruling elite both to adorn
themselves and as gift to the bards.253 In south India the Cholas and Pandyas
tried to control the pearl coast. Among them Cholas had special interest to
control the valuable export goods like pearls which were more in the Pandyan
kingdom, and pepper which was abundant in the regions of the Cheras. Plunder
mechanism was one of the most successful means of acquiring such valuables
for exchange and consumption.

Other items of south Indian trade with the west were ‗beryl‘. The beryl
mines of Pandiyur in the Coimbatore district are wellknown.254 The Tamil
country, particularly, Kodumanam near ‗Noyyal‘ river was famous for its jewel

250
PL. Gupta, op.cit; p.7

251
Ibid,op,cit; p.18

252
Ibid p-6

253
Puram, 376:11-17. Akam 26:12

254
G. Watt, op.cit, p-556

147

craft and goldsmiths255. Excavations in the Coimbatore region have brought to

light six-sided beryl prisms, that have been interpreted as evidence of the
exchange of beryl for Roman coins.256 Beryl mines have also been located at
Vaniyambadi in the Salem district. Diamonds, sapphires, rubies etc were the
most precious items to the Westerners and they brought them mainly from
different parts of south India, particularly from the Chola-Pandya regions.
However most of them came from Sreelanka, which was famous for the best
quality gems. Ancient Kerala regions were not famous for the precious stone
mines, but a great export trade in all kinds of precious stones was conducted
from the Malabar ports.257

Besides the valuable precious stones, large quantities of Indian iron and
steel, different kinds of Indian animals etc were exported from south India.
Animals like elephants, lions, tigers, rhinoceroses, buffalos, monkeys etc, and
birds like parrots, peacocks etc were the important items of export from the
West Coast.258 Other important items of export were tortoise shell and ivory259,
which had great demand in the Western countries and these were mainly
brought from Barygaza, Muziris and Nelcynda.260 In short, a variety of Indian
goods were exported from the port towns in south India to the Roman Empire
from the beginning of the Christian era onwards.

In return to the export items Roman merchants largely imported their

native goods to India. The imported items consisted of coins, Topaz, thin

255
Patirruppattu- 67:1; 74;5

256
Warmington, op.cit;p.251
257
P.L. Gupta, op.cit;p.7

258
Ibid

259
Indian ivory is mentioned frequently as soon as the Roman Empire begins. For
more details see, Warmington, op.cit; p.163 . References to the Indian tortoises
shell are common from the beginning of the Empire. Ibid Pp.166-167

260
P.L. Gupta, op.cit;p.6

148

clothings, uline, copper, tin, lead, crude glass and figured linens and also wheat
for the sailors.261 The Purananuru refers to the import of delicious wine which
was eagerly sought after by the kings and the ruling elites.262 The excavations
conducted at different places in south India reveal the existence of pottery
particularly with amphoras, as a main part of the import items of the Romans to
India. The Periplus did not list many manufactured goods that were brought to
India by the Roman traders.263

Most of the imported items were not the product of the Romans, but they
were mainly the products of Egypt and Arabian countries. However, the
Roman gold and silver coins had a considerable role in the exchange trade with
the Eastern countries. As discussed earlier, their circulation and use as a
medium of exchange have been one of the major points of dispute among the
scholars. The Tamil literary sources have very little to offer by way of evidence
on Roman coins. The ‗yavana‘ literature provides much information about the
import items including the Roman coins, but there is no reference on the native
coinage as a part of the exchange system.

The Periplus gives a list of export and import commodities and also
gives information about the important trade centres in the East. But the import
items of the Roman Empire were negligible in comparison to the Indian
exports. So the balance of trade was very unfavorable to the west. 264 The
Roman Empire drained much of its treasure as the pure gold and silver coins
into the south Indian markets as bullion.265 This drain and wasteful

261
W.H. Scoff, op.cit; Pp.44-45

262
Puram 56

263
P.L. Gupta, op.cit;

264
Ibid, p-8

265
Vidya Prakash, Coinage of South India Varanasi, 1968,Pp.5, 21-23

149

extravagance of the richer classes in Rome was condemned by Pliny. 266 He also
opined that there was ―no year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces‖.267 This was presumably the value of articles
imported into India, but the articles purchased in India were paid in Roman
coins.268

Pliny had made another reference that the goods from India were sold
at hundred times their original cost, which would mean that the quantum of
gold that reached the traders was hundred times more than what reached
India.269 We have no doubt that a large number of Roman gold and silver coins
were in circulation in India as proved by the Roman coin finds in different parts
of the country. Many hoards have also been unearthed from various parts of the
modern Kerala region. Why so many Roman gold and silver coins are found
here and there in different parts of Kerala state so far away from Rome?
Naturally we concentrate our attention to the trade affairs that existed between
the east and the west. The Romans imported the luxurious goods from India, in
return they exported their commodities and coins and thereby an elaborate
―goods for goods‖ system of exchange existed among them.

The pattern of Roman trade was not uniform throughout the entire
Indian territories. It differed from place to place and from time to time. 270 An

266
See JNSI Vol XXV. Pt.I p 22

267
Mommsen, Provinces of Roman Empire Vol. I, Pp.199-300, In Indian Shipping;
A History of the Sea borne Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the
Earliest Times, R.K. Mukherjee, P.122. Also see V. Kanakasabhai, The Tamils
Eighteen hundred years ago, Pp.32-38.

268
Mortimer Wheeler, Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers, Beil, 1954, p.167.

269
Rajan Gurukal, Formation of Agrarian society in Kerala; Historical Antecedents,
in Perspectives on Kerala History (ed), P.J. Cherian, Vol. II Part II, Unit- I,
Chapter I, Tvm. 1999, p 33.

270
Sunil C. Ray, A revised study into the numismatic, evidence of the Indo-Roman
Trade, Delhi, 1984, p.138

150

important question is: what was the role of the native people in India in
organizing the trade relation with the outsiders? No doubt, without any help
from the native people the foreigners could not have collected commodities
from India. The indigenous merchants must have functioned as middlemen
between the rich merchants of Rome and the forest dwellers of South India.271
By using the available facilities in India the Roman traders established close
relation with the native people and collected the ―wealth‖ of India.

Probably, the native people gave their help to carry the goods from the
hinterland to the port towns and also for loading them in the foreign ships. If it
is true it cannot be neglected that the native people received the Roman coins
as wages for their service, which they happily kept both for reasons of intrinsic
value and exchange value. These coins as forms of wealth were used both for
exchange purpose as currency and as bullion and some of these were carried
from place to place for trade when they got converted as metals for bullion or
as coins. In some places they were stored as non depreciable form of wealth for
reasons of proved security. Fortunately, most of them came to hoards or stray
finds to the surface and provided evidences regarding Indo-Roman trade
connection that existed from the early Christian centuries onwards.

271
See, M.G.S. Narayanan, Re-interpretations in South Indian History, Tvm, 1977,
p.14

151