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Honors Chemistry
24 May 2017
Introduction
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 1
With the majority of today's machinery using fossil fuels, pollutants are released
into the air, causing acid rain, which is when rain reaches an acidic pH of 5.2 (Butler,
Likens). Acid rain has affected a wide range of components to life: from underwater
lives by lowering the pH of lakes and rivers to plants and trees by burning their leaves
and depriving them of nutrients. With this research, ecologists observing fresh bodies of
water will be able to use these results to advance the pH neutralization of lakes based
The measure of pH determined the acidity or basicity of a solution, and this was
hydrogen increases, the pH of the substance decreases, becoming more acidic. The
more acidic in bodies of water, a greater danger is posed for aquatic life.
An acid rain simulation was created by adding carbon dioxide, CO2, and sulfuric
acid, H2SO4, to either distilled water or a simulated hard water. The pH of the water was
measured before and after adding both CO2 and H2SO4 or just one of them to measure
the net pH change. Three two-sample t tests were conducted in order to determine
which type of water had a greater pH change and whether CO2 and H2SO4 was more
significant than the other. The hypothesis predicted that distilled water would have a
greater pH change than hard water with H2SO4 being more significant. Determining how
CO2 and H2SO4 affects the pH of distilled and hard water will help improve bodies of
Review of Literature
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 2
The purpose of this experiment is to determine how adding carbon dioxide (CO2)
and sulfuric acid (SO2) affects the pH of distilled water and hard water along with which
inhabitants. Unintentional polluting has occurred to almost every body of water and all
rainfall. With this pollution, the acidic rainwater makes its way into water, increasing the
death rate of sea life. Harmful gases and fossil fuels, such as carbon dioxide and sulfur
dioxide, contribute to the dangerous effect of pollution on acid rain. This great effect of
acid rain can be determined by examining the pH of pure water before and after it has
A significant role in the acid and base realm is pH. pH stands for “potential of
aqueous solution (“pH”). There are many components to the foundation of water that all
relate back to the pH level. On an atomic level, there are two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom that make up one molecule of water. When water dissociates, a hydrogen
ion (H+) and a hydroxide ion (OH-) are formed, and this process is called self-ionization
(“pH Definition”).
H2O → H+ + OH-
The relative concentrations of these two ions determine the pH value, whose scale
ranges from 0 to 14; 0 being most acidic, and 14 being most basic. A one unit change (3
to 4) of pH is a ten-fold increase of the OH- ion concentration. (“pH Scale”). Water, with
and hydroxide ions. This also means that water is a neutral solution when regarding pH
levels. If a solution is acidic, the concentration of the H+ exceeds that of the OH- ions,
and if a solution is basic, the concentration of the OH- exceeds that of the H+ (“pH
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 3
well; instead, it ranges worldwide from about 5 to 6.5. Rainfall is slightly more acidic
than pure water because carbon dioxide gas and air pollutants like sulfur dioxide
dissolve into it, raising the acidity level of the rain, and thus lowering the pH level of the
Table 1
pH Scale for Sea Life
In Table 1 (“Water Quality - pH”), the levels of different pH values are explained
with information regarding the purpose of this experiment. When pH levels are lower, or
the water solution is more acidic, it is difficult for life in the sea to survive. On the other
hand, when pH levels are higher, or the water solution is slightly more basic, there is a
greater ability for sea life to survive, but it can be harmful for sea life when the solution
is too basic because of the chemical changes in their transformed habitat ("Acid Rain
Acid rain is any form of precipitation with acidic components, wet or dry, that falls
to the ground from the atmosphere. Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOⅹ) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air
currents (“What Causes Acid Rain?”). When they react with water, oxygen and other
elements, they form acids. SO2 and NOⅹcan either come from natural sources or from
Figure 1 shows the pathway for acid rain in the environment. It starts off with (1)
emissions of SO2 and NOx being released into the air, where (2) the pollutants are
transformed into acid particles. (3) These acid particles then fall to the earth as wet and
dry deposition (dust, rain, snow, etc.) and (4) may cause harmful effects on our
environment.
Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas with a sharp, irritating odor. It can be produced
by burning fossil fuels and by the smelting of mineral ores that contain sulfur. Volcanic
activity naturally creates a lot of sulfur dioxide (“Sulfur Dioxide”). Sulfur dioxide pertains
to acid rain because when it is combined with water and air, it forms sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid is a strong acid, so it completely dissociated in water, which gave an H + ion
H2SO4 → HSO2⁻ + H+
dramatically, and so the pH of the rainwater drops to harmful levels (Casiday, Frey).
Carbon dioxide is a gas that is naturally found in the air.When carbon dioxide
reacts with water, it produces a weak acid called carbonic acid (H2CO3), lowering the pH
Carbonic acid then dissociates to give produce a hydrogen ion (H+) and the hydrogen
H2CO3 → Hᐩ + HCO3⁻
The ability of H2CO3 to deliver H+ is what classifies this molecule as an acid, thus
lowering the pH of a solution (Casiday, Frey).The hydrogen ions from carbonic acid
Hard water is heavily mineralized water. All water has some dissolved minerals,
strong solvent, meaning it will react with anything it comes in contact with. As bodies of
water move through soil and rock, it dissolves very small amounts of minerals and holds
them in solution. Calcium and magnesium dissolved in water are the two most common
minerals that make water "hard” (Oram). In this experiment, baking soda, otherwise
known as sodium bicarbonate (CHNaO3), calcium chloride (CaCl2), and epsom salt,
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 6
also known as magnesium sulfate (MgO4S), were added to distilled water to create a
Alkalinity is the water’s capacity to resist changes in pH that would make the
water more acidic (Oram). This is really an expression of buffering capacity. The main
sources for alkalinity on natural water is rocks which contain carbonate, bicarbonate and
hydroxide compound. Since the simulated hard water in this experiment contains that, it
increases the alkalinity. Therefore, the pH will not become as acidic in hard water than it
Researchers have previously done experiments that measure the effect of acid
rain in different water hardnesses. One experiment uses hard water by adding baking
soda to distilled water, while others retrieve hard water from bodies of water. Both
experiments use H2SO4 and CO2 as the acid rain. One experiment by Cornell
University, which used H2SO4 and CO2 as the acid rain and a buffer solution composed
of baking soda and distilled water, concluded that the H2SO4 acid rain had a larger
effect on the water over CO2 acid rain and that both acid rain solutions were more
effective against distilled water over the hard water buffer solution (Trautmann). The
solutions of H2SO4 and CO2, buffer solution, and method of introducing the H2SO4 were
Problem Statement
Problem:
distilled water and hard water when carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) are
added to them along with whether CO2 or H2SO4 has a larger effect. This experiment
expanded the different ways that the pH level could be adjusted according to its
surroundings. The observed result is which of the two types of water had a greater
chance of having a larger change in pH. When the difference in the pH level before and
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 8
after the treatment addition is analyzed, the water with the greater difference in pH
could be isolated in the real world to prevent the risks of acidic water.
Hypothesis:
When both CO2 and H2SO4 are added to distilled water, the greatest change in
Data Measured:
The independent variables were the two samples of water; distilled water and
hard water. The CO2 was measured by the number of seconds it was blown into the
distilled water while the H2SO4 was measured in milliliters (drops) of solution. The
dependent variable is the net pH change, which was recorded by finding the change in
pH from before and after the factors were added. Throughout the experiment, the
constants were CO2 and H2SO4.The controls were just CO2 added to distilled water, just
CO2 added to hard water, just H2SO4 added to distilled water, and just H2SO4 added to
hard water. To analyze the differences and similarities between the change in pH of
distilled water and hard water, there will be a descriptive analysis and a two-sample t
test conducted.
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 9
Experimental Design
Materials:
Procedure:
5. Place the beaker of water onto the ring stand platform (see figure 2 below).
7. Secure the pH electrode onto the burette clamp and lower it into the beaker so
that the bottom of the electrode is approximately an inch from the bottom of
the beaker.
8. Blow up a balloon to the full 28 cm diameter and insert the end of a straw into
the bottom of the balloon.
9. Using a lab members hands, keep pressure on the end of balloon and the straw
to ensure that no air gets out.
11. Collect the pH of the water without added carbon dioxide or sulfuric acid.
12. Insert the opposite end of the straw that in connected to balloon into the 50mL of
water.
13. Release pressure from the balloon, letting air flow into the water for 6 seconds.
If water begins to bubble over the sides or splash then apply more pressure to
the straw and balloon. Re-apply pressure to straw and balloon.
14. Remove top off the 0.05 molar sulfuric and use the a 1 mL pipette to add .05mL
(1 drop) of sulfuric acid.
15. After 10 seconds have passed since adding the drop of sulfuric acid, record the
pH on the LabQuest.
16. Repeat 13-16 until there are 11 recorded pH levels, including the pH of the
original water.
17. Throw out old straw, remove pH electrode from water and dispose of the used
water.
Duplication
18. Repeat 5-18 to complete one trial, which includes testing both distilled and hard
water.
19. Continue doing trials until there are 15 successfully completed trials.
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20. Repeat 1-20, excluding 9, 10, 13 and 14 (steps involving carbon dioxide).
21. Continue doing trials until there are 15 successfully completed trials.
23. Continue doing trials until there are 15 successfully completed trials.
Diagram:
Figure 2. Set-up
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 12
Figure 2 shows the necessary materials for setting up and performing the trials.
Data:
Table 2
Acidification of Distilled Water Due to CO2 and H2SO4
Shown is the change in pH when CO2 and H2SO4 were added to distilled water.
Table 3
Acidification of Hard Water Due to CO2 and H2SO4
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 13
In Table 3, the change in pH is shown when CO2 and H2SO4 was added to hard
water.
Table 4
Acidification of Distilled Water Due to H2SO4
added to it.
Table 5
Acidification of Hard Water Due to H2SO4
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 14
In Table 5, the changes in pH are shown when H2SO4 is added to hard water.
Table 6
Acidification of Distilled Water Due to CO2
In Table 6, the differences in pH when CO2 is added to distilled water are shown.
Table 7
Neutralization of Hard Water Due to CO2
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 15
Observations:
Table 8
Observations Recorded in Each Trial
Trial Observations
4/25, Smaller straws, had to adjust airflow, Researcher 1 was in charge of
1
the balloon, Researcher 2 dropped acid, Researcher 3 recorded data
4/26, Smaller straws, Researcher 2 was in charge of the balloon,
2
Researcher 3 dropped acid, Researcher 1 recorded data
4/27, Wide straws, pH of hard water trial rose, Researcher 3 was in
3 charge of the balloon, Researcher 2 dropped acid, Researcher 1
recorded data
4/28, started using two LabQuests/pH Sensors, hard water ph continues
4 to rise, Researcher 1 and 2 began to do trials on their own with
Researcher 3 going back and forth between who needed help
4/28, little chunks in hard water, noticed that if the hard water sits for long
5
the sediments rest on the bottom of container
6 5/1, trial went smoothly
7 5/1, clip on straw and balloon was loose so more CO2 was released
8 5/3, two drops of H2SO4 added to distilled water for the two-factor trial
9 5/3, refilled buffer solution on pH probes
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 16
5/4, running out of hard water, could possibly be more sediments in the
10
hard water, researcher 2 not present for the day
11 5/4, made new hard water
12 5/5, began using 12” balloons instead 9”
13 5/5, trial went smoothly
14 5/5, pH probe was reading distilled water at pH of 8
5/5, clip on straw and balloon was loose so more CO2 was released,
15
made new hard water
Table 8 shows the observations taken in each trial including what day the trial
was on, the specific things each researcher performed , and any errors that took place.
One thing not mentioned above was the pH probes consistently reading three levels
below where prior knowledge and research suggested. For example, distilled water
Acid rain comes from a variety of compounds, and the two chosen to be
observed in this experiment were carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In this
experiment, there were two samples of water being tested; distilled water and hard
water. The goal is to find the type of water with greatest change in pH when carbon
dioxide and sulfuric acid are added to them, so the differences in pH from before and
after the factors were added was the observed and dependent variable.
A descriptive statistical analysis and two sample t-test were used for this
experiment. There were only fifteen trials conducted, but the data was normal enough to
perform a two sample t-test. The standard deviations of the population is unknown,
therefore the standard deviations of the samples were calculated. Also, there were
controls, randomization, and replication, all contributing to the credibility of the data. For
the controls, there was the effect of only CO2 in distilled water, only CO2 in hard water,
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 17
only H2SO4 in distilled water, and only H2SO4 in hard water. These trials helped the
researchers understand the role of each factor and how they were affecting the pH of
water individually. Randomization was used to determine which type of trial would be
performed first; a full trial, just CO2, or just H2SO4. After that, the type of water being
treated first was randomized for each trial. This type of analysis is appropriate for the
experiment because there were two samples being tested; distilled water and hard
water. Replicating the trials contributed to recording the most accurate results for the
experiment.
Figure 3. Normal Probability Plot for Distilled Water When Adding CO2 and H2SO4
A normal probability plot displays the normal trend line of data and plots the data
collected to see how close the data points are to the normal line. The figure above
shows the normal probability plot of the net change in pH of distilled water when both
CO2 and H2SO4 were added to it. The points lie close to the line, making the data
normal.
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 18
Figure 4. Normal Probability Plot for Hard Water When Adding CO2 and H2SO4
Like the previous figure, a normal trend line was placed to refer to. In this case,
the data points of net pH change for both CO2 and H2SO4 being added to hard water
are plotted. The points are surrounding the trendline, making the data normally
distributed.
Figure 5. Normal Probability Plot for Distilled Water When Adding H2SO4
There was also a normal probability plot made for the control of H2SO4 being
added to distilled water. The data points plotted crowd the normal trendline, thus making
Figure 6. Normal Probability Plot for Hard Water When Adding H2SO4
A normal probability plot was also made for the addition of H2SO4 to hard water.
The trendline was placed, and the data points surround it, making the results normally
distributed.
Figure 7. Normal Probability Plot for Distilled Water When Adding CO2
When CO2 was added to distilled water, the results were also plotted on a normal
probability plot. The points accompanied the trendline closely, making the data normally
distributed.
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 20
Figure 8. Normal Probability Plot for Hard Water When Adding CO2
A normal probability plot was also made for the addition of CO2 to hard water.
The trendline was placed, and the data points surround it, making the results normally
distributed.
Figure 9. Net Change of pH in Distilled or Hard water with H2SO4 and CO2 Added
A box plot was made to compare the pH change of distilled water or hard water
when H2SO4 and CO2 were added. The distilled water box plot appears to be
completely normal other than the outlier of 2.19. There was a low amount of variability in
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 21
the data, as much of the data was near the 3.24 pH median. The third quartile of the
hard water box plot only extends from 0.49 to 0.55 which says that a large portion of the
data was consistently near 0.5 pH. Overall though, all of the hard water pH changes
were consistently near the median of 0.49 pH meaning that there was not much
variability in the data. At no point do the box plots overlap, meaning that the data was
statistically significant, or rather, the results (that H2SO4 and CO2 have a larger effect
on pH of distilled water than hard water) did not occur by chance alone.
Figure 10. Net Change of pH in Distilled water with H2SO4 or CO2 Added
The box plot above compares the pH change of carbon dioxide in distilled water
to the pH change of sulfuric acid in distilled water. The box plot for CO2 appears to be
normal with a slight left skew and no outliers. The variance of CO2 is low meaning that
the data was consistent. The 1st and 4th quartile were not as lengthy as the 2nd and
3rd. This means that much of the data was concentrated, yet spread out in the middle
fifty-percent of the box plot. The box plot for H2SO4 also appears to be normal with a
slight left skew and has no outliers. The variability of the box plot was larger, meaning
the data was not as consistent as the data received for CO2. Just as in Figure 10, the
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 22
box plots for distilled water are not overlapping each other, meaning the data for distilled
Figure 11. Net Change of pH in Hard Water with H2SO4 or CO2 Added
This box plot was also made to compare the pH change of carbon dioxide in hard
water to the pH change of sulfuric acid in hard water. Both the CO2 and H2SO4 box plot
appears to be normal with a very slight right skew. The variance of both box plots are
very low, meaning the data was consistent. The box plots are overlapping much of each
Figure 12. The Trend in Adding H2SO4 to Distilled Water in Trial One
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 23
When H2SO4 was added to distilled water in general, the first drop made the pH
have a sudden drop, but the pH continued decreasing slowly, like an exponential
function.
Figure 13. The Trend in Adding CO2 to Hard Water in Trial One
When the data was collected, it was noticed that when just CO2 was added to
Table 9
Varying Water Data
Type of Water with Factors nₓ x̅ sₓ
Distilled Water - CO2 and H2SO4 15 3.22 0.41
Hard Water - CO2 and H2SO4 15 0.47 0.15
Distilled Water - H2SO4 15 3.33 0.59
Hard Water - H2SO4 15 0.49 0.27
Distilled Water - CO2 15 0.40 0.20
Hard Water - CO2 15 0.34 0.17
All of the necessary data in order to perform the two-sample t tests is shown
above in Table 9. The number of samples in each population is expressed by nₓ, the
mean value of each population is expressed by x̅ and the standard deviation for each
made in order to conduct the test. The null hypothesis, Ho, states that there is no
significant difference between two population, and the alternative hypothesis, Ha, states
what is trying to be proven by this experiment. As seen in the figure above, the null
hypothesis states that the average change in pH of distilled water (μdistilled) should be
equal to the average change in pH of hard water (μhard). The alternative hypothesis is
what is trying to be proved, and it says that the average change in pH of distilled water
Figure 15. Comparing pH Change of Distilled and Hard Water When CO2 and H2SO4
are Added
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 25
a p-value of 1.12x10−20 . Ho is rejected since the p-value was less than the alpha level
of 0.05. There was evidence that the change in pH when CO 2 and H2SO4 were added is
significantly greater in distilled water than hard water. If Ho was true, there would be
almost no chance of getting a pH change in distilled water that high by chance alone.
In this situation, both populations included distilled water, but distilled1 (μdistilled1)
had only H2SO4 added, while distilled2 (μdistilled2) had only CO2 added. The null
hypothesis, Ho, stated that there was no difference between the two when comparing
the pH change. The alternative hypothesis, Ha, stated that there was a larger pH
change when H2SO4 was added to distilled water, rather than adding CO2.
Figure 17. Comparison of the Significance of CO2 and H2SO4 Added to Distilled Water
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 26
rejected since the p-value is less than the alpha level of 0.05. There is evidence that
adding H2SO4 to distilled water results in a much greater pH change than if CO2 were to
distilled water by adding H2SO4 that much higher than the pH change of adding CO2 by
Instead of having both populations include distilled water, both included hard
water, but hard1 (μhard1) had only H2SO4 added, while hard2 (μhard2) was only CO2
added. The null hypothesis, Ho, stated that there is no difference between them when
the pH is compared. The alternative hypothesis, Ha, states that there was a larger pH
change when H2SO4 was added to hard water than when CO2 was added to hard water.
Figure 19. Comparing the Significance of CO2 and H2SO4 Being Added to Hard Water
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 27
rejected because the p-value is less than the alpha level of 0.05. There is evidence that
adding H2SO4 to hard water results in a greater pH change than if CO2 were to be
distilled water by adding H2SO4 higher than the pH change of adding CO2 by chance
The two-sample t tests, plots and patterns all came to imply the same
conclusions. When adding H2SO4 and CO2 to distilled and hard water, there is a larger
change in pH with distilled water rather than hard water. Also, the H2SO4 causes a
Conclusion
the pH change when adding carbon dioxide, CO2, and sulfuric acid, H2SO4 in distilled
and hard water, just as it would happen in real life with acid rain. To evaluate this, a two-
sample t test was used to compare the two samples and a descriptive statistical
analysis found trends within the data. The hypothesis previously stated that the distilled
water would have a greater net change in pH with H2SO4 having the greater effect,
The data collected from this experiment supported the hypothesis. When both
CO2 and H2SO4 were added to the samples, distilled water’s average net change in pH
was 3.22, and hard water’s average net change in pH was 0.47. In addition to the net
changes, the results from the two-sample t test also supported the hypothesis. When
distilled and hard water’s change in pH due to CO2 and H2SO4 were compared using
the t test, it was proven that the change in pH was significantly greater with the distilled
water. Other two-sample t tests were performed in order to determine which had a
greater effect on the water: CO2 or H2SO4. The results made it evident that H2SO4 had a
greater effect on both the distilled and hard water. All of the data clearly supported the
hypothesis.
The decreasing pH in the experiment is due to the dissociation of the sulfuric acid
The first reaction seen in Figure 20 shows the carbon dioxide reacting with water,
forming carbonic acid. The carbonic acid then dissociates in water (reaction two)
forming bicarbonate and a hydrogen ion. This hydrogen ion is was increases the pH
level of the water. Reaction three of Figure 20 shows the same process as reaction two
Prior research does in fact prove many of the concepts recognized in experiment.
Many articles suggest that sulfuric is less toxic when introduced to harder water rather
than soft. One study found the pH of sulfuric acid and tested its pH after adding different
amounts of hard water, “Hardness reduced H2SO4 toxicity at all pH levels” (Graham et
al.). This research claims that when sulfuric acid is introduced to hard water, it will have
a higher pH level than when introduced to softer water, which fully agrees with the data
The experiment concluded that the pH was raised in hard water when carbon
dioxide was introduced. Prior research on carbon dioxide and its effect on the pH of
water suggests that the pH should be reduced in both hard and soft waters. Relating to
Figure 20, one article says: “Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid then dissociates to give the hydrogen ion (H+) and the hydrogen
carbonate ion (HCO3-). The ability of H2CO3 to deliver H+ is what classifies this molecule
as an acid, thus lowering the pH of a solution” (Casidey, Frey). This research agrees
with the results from the distilled water but in hard water it falls short. In the experiment
the pH climbed linearly when the carbon dioxide was added to the hard water. The
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 30
carbon dioxide or the carbonic acid could have been reacting with any of the three
chemicals that were added to make hard water but no research has been found to
The net change in pH was undoubtedly larger in distilled water than hard, but this
was not random by any means. Since the hard water contained calcium and baking
soda, it increased the alkalinity (“Alkalinity and Hardness”). Alkalinity refers to the
the pH, or keep its pH from changing. The higher the alkalinity is, the higher the
buffering capacity against pH changes (Bowman, Mealy). Due to the alkalinity of the
hard water used in the experiment, the pH didn’t not change nearly as much as it did in
the distilled water. Distilled water is free of minerals and it has no alkalinity, causing the
It was noticed that H2SO4 had a greater effect on the change in pH than the CO2.
This occurred because H2SO4, a strong acid, ionizes completely when reacted with
water. The reaction then produces more H+ ions, and this makes the pH decrease
dramatically since the negative log of hydrogen content is taken to find the pH. This
represents a real life situation because with acid rain, H2SO4 affects the water more
than CO2.
impacted the results in a positive way. It was clear and concise so it could be followed
very easily and accurately. In no way did the experimental design prevent the
Despite the fact that the experimental design was useful, errors were still made in
other ways. Near the beginning of the experiment, straws with a smaller diameter were
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 31
used, which affects the amount of CO2 being released into the two samples of water.
This was examined during the first two trials for just the addition of carbon dioxide; there
were only slight decreases compared to the later trials with larger straws. With this, it
could have easily made the earlier trials have a smaller net pH change than later trials.
Others who wish to replicate this experiment should keep the size of the straw
consistent. Another mistake was that in the beginning of the experiment, some
cylinder, losing accuracy in the amount of water being tested. This mistake was soon
realized and corrected but a graduated cylinder should’ve been used throughout the
duration of the whole experiment. An execution mistake was also made by the
researchers a couple times. When researchers introduced H2SO4 in the water, there
were times where 2 drops were accidentally dropped instead of one. This was seen in
between the first and second drop, and it had a significantly larger net change in pH that
previous trials.
Although this experiment gave much concrete information, there is still much to
be learned about acid rain and its effects on ecosystems. Other research that can be
done is testing the effects acid rain have on tap water or soft water instead of just
distilled or hard. This would have a more direct connection to real life issues, including
the introduction of acid rain to tap water sources. Other research can be done to find
how to raise the pH of water ecosystems affected by the acid rain. Currently, research
suggests that large amounts of limestone can be added to lakes to raise the pH levels.
From this research it is understood that how much acid rain effects hard and soft water,
which can be used to find how much of the limestone buffer needs to be added to the
acidic lakes based on how hard the water in the lake is. This research would be very
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 32
helpful to ecologists in studying how organisms are in water ecosystems are affected by
Ultimately, the main reason for this experiment was to determine which type of
water was more affected by acid rain. When determining which type of water was
affected by the carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4), a two-sample t test
compared the average net change in pH between the two samples of water, distilled
water and hard water, and it showed which of the two had the greater average net
change in pH. Then, with a descriptive statistical analysis, box plots and scatter plots
were made to compare the samples, as well. This research could be very adjustable for
further research, and it helps to understand what really happened with pollution caused
by acid rain.
Appendix A: Randomization
Materials:
Ti-nspire Calculator
Procedure:
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 33
8. In the parenthesis of “randInt(),” enter one comma three: one for CO2 and
H2SO4, two for only CO2, and three for only H2SO4.
9. Continue pressing enter until all numbers appear and there is an order of all
three for 15 trials.
10. Repeat steps 1-7 but instead of entering one comma three, enter one comma
two. One will be for distilled water and two will be for hard water. This
determines which one will be done first.
11. Continue doing this until there is an order of distilled and hard water for all 15
trials in the three different ways (CO2 and H2SO4, CO2, and H2SO4).
Materials:
Procedure:
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 34
3. Add one tablespoon of epsom salt and stir with a spoon until it completely
dissolves.
4. Add one tablespoon of baking soda and stir with a spoon until it completely
dissolves.
5. Add one tablespoon of calcium chloride and stir with a spoon until it completely
dissolves.
6. Leave the solution for a few hours for complete dissolution of the minerals into
the solution.
Materials:
Vernier LabQuest
pH Probe
Flash Drive
Procedure:
1. Turn on the LabQuest and insert the pH probe and flash drive into the top.
2. Click on “Mode” and change to “Events With Entry,” naming the event
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 35
“Drops.”
3. When the pH probe is inserted in the water, click “Start” to begin data
collection.
4. Click “Keep” before dropping sulfuric acid then record the drop as 0 in
order for it to record the pH before dropping.
5. After each drop, click “Keep” and enter the drop number until there are 10
drops.
7. To save the data onto the flash drive, click “File,” “Save,” “USB,” then
name it as whatever trial has been completed and click “Ok.”
Two-Sample t Test:
This sample calculation is compares the pH change of adding only H2SO4 to hard
water, hard1, and adding only CO2 to hard water, hard2. The first step in conducting a
two-sample t test is finding the standard deviation. A few things need to be known
before plugging in numbers in the standard deviation equation. The mean, x̅, and
adding up the pH change in each trial then dividing by 15, resulting in a mean of 0.40 for
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 36
hard1 and 0.34 for hard2. The x stands for the values in each trial and 𝛴means the sum.
The standard deviations were found to be 0.20 for hard1, shown below in figure 1, and
2
∑(𝑥−𝑥)
s=√
𝑛−1
A sample calculation on how to find standard deviation is shown below.
2
∑(𝑥−𝑥)
s=√
𝑛−1
2
∑(𝑥−(0.40))
s =√
15−1
s =0.20
Figure 1. Standard Deviation Formula and Substitution
After finding the standard deviation, a two-sample t test can be conducted. All of
the things needed to be inserted into the formula are already known, which is the
means, x̅, standard deviations, sₓ, and the number of samples, nₓ.
𝑥̄1 −𝑥̄2
t=
2 2
√(𝑆1) +(𝑆2)
𝑛₁ 𝑛₂
A sample calculation conducting a two-sample t test is shown below in figure 2.
𝑥̄1 −𝑥̄2
t=
2 2
√(𝑆1) +(𝑆2)
𝑛₁ 𝑛₂
(0.40)−(0.34)
t=
2 2
√(0.20) +(0.17)
15 15
t = 1.77➡p-value=0.04
Figure 2. Two-sample t Test Equation and Formula
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 37
When all information for the two-sample t test is known, it can be put into the
equation seen above in Figure 2. The number received, which in this case is 1.77, will
Table 1
Table C
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 38
After finding the value of the two-sample t test, the degrees of freedom needs to
be found. The degrees of freedom is taking the population with the least amount of
samples and subtracting it from 1. So in this case, both populations have n as 15,
meaning the degrees of freedom is 14. Then, find the row on the left with the degrees of
freedom and match it up with the value of the two-sample t test and go down to find the
Works Cited
"Acid Rain and Its Effect on Surface Water." Vernier Software and Technology,
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 39
https://www.hccfl.edu/media/531207/alkalinity%20and%20hardness.pptx.
www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/Water/FreshWater/acidrain.html.
Graham, Mark S., and Chris M. Wood. Toxicity of Environmental Acid to the
Rainbow Trout: Interactions of Water Hardness, Acid Type, and Exercise 59.8
(1981): n. pag. NRC Research Press. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 2012. Web.
12 May 2017.
Likens, Gene E., and Thomas J. Butler. "Acid Rain." Encyclopædia Britannica.
<http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-hard-water.htm>.
dnr.wi.gov/regulations/labcert/documents/training/basics-genchem.pdf.
www.water-research.net/index.php/water-treatment/tools/hard-water-hardness.
www.water-research.net/index.php/the-role-of-alkalinity-citizen-monitoring.
2017 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.
https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/pollution/monitoring/air-pollution/sulfur-
www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_pre_2011/context_chemis
www2.vernier.com/sample_labs/ESV-11-COMP-water_quality_ph.pdf. Accessed
13 Mar. 2017.
2017.
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 41