You are on page 1of 42

The Effect of Carbon Dioxide and Sulfuric Acid on the pH of Distilled and Hard Water

Rogina Hanna, Dylan Taipalus and Lara Thomas

Macomb Mathematics Science Technology Center

Honors Chemistry

Mrs. Hilliard / Mr. Supal / Mrs. Kincaid Dewey

24 May 2017

Introduction
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 1

With the majority of today's machinery using fossil fuels, pollutants are released

into the air, causing acid rain, which is when rain reaches an acidic pH of 5.2 (Butler,

Likens). Acid rain has affected a wide range of components to life: from underwater

lives by lowering the pH of lakes and rivers to plants and trees by burning their leaves

and depriving them of nutrients. With this research, ecologists observing fresh bodies of

water will be able to use these results to advance the pH neutralization of lakes based

on the present hardness of the body of water.

The measure of pH determined the acidity or basicity of a solution, and this was

measured with the concentration of hydrogen in the solution. As the concentration of

hydrogen increases, the pH of the substance decreases, becoming more acidic. The

acidity of water is indicated by the pH measured in the experiment. As water becomes

more acidic in bodies of water, a greater danger is posed for aquatic life.

An acid rain simulation was created by adding carbon dioxide, CO2, and sulfuric

acid, H2SO4, to either distilled water or a simulated hard water. The pH of the water was

measured before and after adding both CO2 and H2SO4 or just one of them to measure

the net pH change. Three two-sample t tests were conducted in order to determine

which type of water had a greater pH change and whether CO2 and H2SO4 was more

significant than the other. The hypothesis predicted that distilled water would have a

greater pH change than hard water with H2SO4 being more significant. Determining how

CO2 and H2SO4 affects the pH of distilled and hard water will help improve bodies of

water along with aquatic plants and animals.

Review of Literature
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 2

The purpose of this experiment is to determine how adding carbon dioxide (CO2)

and sulfuric acid (SO2) affects the pH of distilled water and hard water along with which

factor is more significant. Water, as a natural habitat, is becoming a hazard to its

inhabitants. Unintentional polluting has occurred to almost every body of water and all

rainfall. With this pollution, the acidic rainwater makes its way into water, increasing the

death rate of sea life. Harmful gases and fossil fuels, such as carbon dioxide and sulfur

dioxide, contribute to the dangerous effect of pollution on acid rain. This great effect of

acid rain can be determined by examining the pH of pure water before and after it has

come in contact with acid rain.

A significant role in the acid and base realm is pH. pH stands for “potential of

hydrogen.” It is a measurement related to the amount of hydrogen ions available in an

aqueous solution (“pH”). There are many components to the foundation of water that all

relate back to the pH level. On an atomic level, there are two hydrogen atoms and one

oxygen atom that make up one molecule of water. When water dissociates, a hydrogen

ion (H+) and a hydroxide ion (OH-) are formed, and this process is called self-ionization

(“pH Definition”).

H2O → H+ + OH-

The relative concentrations of these two ions determine the pH value, whose scale

ranges from 0 to 14; 0 being most acidic, and 14 being most basic. A one unit change (3

to 4) of pH is a ten-fold increase of the OH- ion concentration. (“pH Scale”). Water, with

a pH of 7, is an equilibrium solution because it has equal concentrations of hydrogen

and hydroxide ions. This also means that water is a neutral solution when regarding pH

levels. If a solution is acidic, the concentration of the H+ exceeds that of the OH- ions,

and if a solution is basic, the concentration of the OH- exceeds that of the H+ (“pH
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 3

Scale”). Since water has a pH of 7, it is expected for rainfall to have a pH level of 7 as

well; instead, it ranges worldwide from about 5 to 6.5. Rainfall is slightly more acidic

than pure water because carbon dioxide gas and air pollutants like sulfur dioxide

dissolve into it, raising the acidity level of the rain, and thus lowering the pH level of the

exposed rainfall. (“Acid Rain and Its Effect on Surface Water”).

Table 1
pH Scale for Sea Life

In Table 1 (“Water Quality - pH”), the levels of different pH values are explained

with information regarding the purpose of this experiment. When pH levels are lower, or

the water solution is more acidic, it is difficult for life in the sea to survive. On the other

hand, when pH levels are higher, or the water solution is slightly more basic, there is a

greater ability for sea life to survive, but it can be harmful for sea life when the solution

is too basic because of the chemical changes in their transformed habitat ("Acid Rain

and Its Effect on Surface Water").


Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 4

Acid rain is any form of precipitation with acidic components, wet or dry, that falls

to the ground from the atmosphere. Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and

nitrogen oxides (NOⅹ) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air

currents (“What Causes Acid Rain?”). When they react with water, oxygen and other

elements, they form acids. SO2 and NOⅹcan either come from natural sources or from

the burning of fossil fuels.

Figure 1. Acid Rain Pathway

Figure 1 shows the pathway for acid rain in the environment. It starts off with (1)

emissions of SO2 and NOx being released into the air, where (2) the pollutants are

transformed into acid particles. (3) These acid particles then fall to the earth as wet and

dry deposition (dust, rain, snow, etc.) and (4) may cause harmful effects on our

environment.

Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas with a sharp, irritating odor. It can be produced

by burning fossil fuels and by the smelting of mineral ores that contain sulfur. Volcanic

activity naturally creates a lot of sulfur dioxide (“Sulfur Dioxide”). Sulfur dioxide pertains

to acid rain because when it is combined with water and air, it forms sulfuric acid

(H2SO4), which is the main component of acid rain.


Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 5

2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O → 2H2SO4

Sulfuric acid is a strong acid, so it completely dissociated in water, which gave an H + ion

and an HSO4- ion.

H2SO4 → HSO2⁻ + H+

Thus, the presence of H2SO4 causes the concentration of H+ ions to increase

dramatically, and so the pH of the rainwater drops to harmful levels (Casiday, Frey).

Carbon dioxide is a gas that is naturally found in the air.When carbon dioxide

reacts with water, it produces a weak acid called carbonic acid (H2CO3), lowering the pH

of rain to about 5.6 (“What is Acid Rain?”).

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

Carbonic acid then dissociates to give produce a hydrogen ion (H+) and the hydrogen

carbonate ion (HCO3-).

H2CO3 → Hᐩ + HCO3⁻

The ability of H2CO3 to deliver H+ is what classifies this molecule as an acid, thus

lowering the pH of a solution (Casiday, Frey).The hydrogen ions from carbonic acid

makes rain become slightly acidic (“The Acid Rain Problem”).

Hard water is heavily mineralized water. All water has some dissolved minerals,

except if it was meticulously distilled (McMahon, Harris). This is because water is a

strong solvent, meaning it will react with anything it comes in contact with. As bodies of

water move through soil and rock, it dissolves very small amounts of minerals and holds

them in solution. Calcium and magnesium dissolved in water are the two most common

minerals that make water "hard” (Oram). In this experiment, baking soda, otherwise

known as sodium bicarbonate (CHNaO3), calcium chloride (CaCl2), and epsom salt,
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 6

also known as magnesium sulfate (MgO4S), were added to distilled water to create a

hard water solution.

Alkalinity is the water’s capacity to resist changes in pH that would make the

water more acidic (Oram). This is really an expression of buffering capacity. The main

sources for alkalinity on natural water is rocks which contain carbonate, bicarbonate and

hydroxide compound. Since the simulated hard water in this experiment contains that, it

increases the alkalinity. Therefore, the pH will not become as acidic in hard water than it

would be in distilled water.

Researchers have previously done experiments that measure the effect of acid

rain in different water hardnesses. One experiment uses hard water by adding baking

soda to distilled water, while others retrieve hard water from bodies of water. Both

experiments use H2SO4 and CO2 as the acid rain. One experiment by Cornell

University, which used H2SO4 and CO2 as the acid rain and a buffer solution composed

of baking soda and distilled water, concluded that the H2SO4 acid rain had a larger

effect on the water over CO2 acid rain and that both acid rain solutions were more

effective against distilled water over the hard water buffer solution (Trautmann). The

solutions of H2SO4 and CO2, buffer solution, and method of introducing the H2SO4 were

all used in this experiment.


Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 7

Problem Statement

Problem:

The goal of this experiment is to compare and contrast the change in pH of

distilled water and hard water when carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) are

added to them along with whether CO2 or H2SO4 has a larger effect. This experiment

expanded the different ways that the pH level could be adjusted according to its

surroundings. The observed result is which of the two types of water had a greater

chance of having a larger change in pH. When the difference in the pH level before and
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 8

after the treatment addition is analyzed, the water with the greater difference in pH

could be isolated in the real world to prevent the risks of acidic water.

Hypothesis:

When both CO2 and H2SO4 are added to distilled water, the greatest change in

pH will occur with H2SO4 having the greater effect.

Data Measured:

The independent variables were the two samples of water; distilled water and

hard water. The CO2 was measured by the number of seconds it was blown into the

distilled water while the H2SO4 was measured in milliliters (drops) of solution. The

dependent variable is the net pH change, which was recorded by finding the change in

pH from before and after the factors were added. Throughout the experiment, the

constants were CO2 and H2SO4.The controls were just CO2 added to distilled water, just

CO2 added to hard water, just H2SO4 added to distilled water, and just H2SO4 added to

hard water. To analyze the differences and similarities between the change in pH of

distilled water and hard water, there will be a descriptive analysis and a two-sample t

test conducted.
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 9

Experimental Design

Materials:

pH Probe 2250 mL Distilled Water


Vernier LabQuest (2) 100 mL Beaker
2250 mL Hard Water 15 mL 0.05 M Sulfuric Acid, H2SO4
(90) Straws 1 mL Pipette
(30) 9 inch Balloons Burette Clamp
Ring Stand 50 mL Glass Bottle Dropper
Binder Clip

Procedure:

pH Electrode and Balloon Setup

1. Randomize trials as seen in Appendix A.

2. Prepare hard water as seen in Appendix B.

3. Connect the pH sensor to the LabQuest.


Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 10

4. Pour 50 mL of water (determined by the randomization) in the 100 mL beaker.

5. Place the beaker of water onto the ring stand platform (see figure 2 below).

6. Connect the burette clamp onto the ring stand.

7. Secure the pH electrode onto the burette clamp and lower it into the beaker so
that the bottom of the electrode is approximately an inch from the bottom of
the beaker.

8. Blow up a balloon to the full 28 cm diameter and insert the end of a straw into
the bottom of the balloon.

9. Using a lab members hands, keep pressure on the end of balloon and the straw
to ensure that no air gets out.

Testing Sulfuric Acid and Carbon Dioxide

10. Turn on the LabQuest to record data (see Appendix C).

11. Collect the pH of the water without added carbon dioxide or sulfuric acid.

12. Insert the opposite end of the straw that in connected to balloon into the 50mL of
water.

13. Release pressure from the balloon, letting air flow into the water for 6 seconds.
If water begins to bubble over the sides or splash then apply more pressure to
the straw and balloon. Re-apply pressure to straw and balloon.

14. Remove top off the 0.05 molar sulfuric and use the a 1 mL pipette to add .05mL
(1 drop) of sulfuric acid.

15. After 10 seconds have passed since adding the drop of sulfuric acid, record the
pH on the LabQuest.

16. Repeat 13-16 until there are 11 recorded pH levels, including the pH of the
original water.

17. Throw out old straw, remove pH electrode from water and dispose of the used
water.

Duplication

18. Repeat 5-18 to complete one trial, which includes testing both distilled and hard
water.

19. Continue doing trials until there are 15 successfully completed trials.
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 11

Testing Sulfuric Acid

20. Repeat 1-20, excluding 9, 10, 13 and 14 (steps involving carbon dioxide).

21. Continue doing trials until there are 15 successfully completed trials.

Testing Carbon Dioxide

22. Repeat 1-20, excluding 15 (steps involving sulfuric acid).

23. Continue doing trials until there are 15 successfully completed trials.

Diagram:

Figure 2. Set-up
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 12

Figure 2 shows the necessary materials for setting up and performing the trials.

Data and Observations

Data:

Table 2
Acidification of Distilled Water Due to CO2 and H2SO4

Shown is the change in pH when CO2 and H2SO4 were added to distilled water.

Table 3
Acidification of Hard Water Due to CO2 and H2SO4
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 13

In Table 3, the change in pH is shown when CO2 and H2SO4 was added to hard

water.

Table 4
Acidification of Distilled Water Due to H2SO4

Shown in Table 4 are the differences in pH of distilled water when H 2SO4 is

added to it.

Table 5
Acidification of Hard Water Due to H2SO4
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 14

In Table 5, the changes in pH are shown when H2SO4 is added to hard water.

Table 6
Acidification of Distilled Water Due to CO2

In Table 6, the differences in pH when CO2 is added to distilled water are shown.

Table 7
Neutralization of Hard Water Due to CO2
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 15

Table 7 shows the differences in pH when CO2 is added to hard water.

Observations:

Table 8
Observations Recorded in Each Trial
Trial Observations
4/25, Smaller straws, had to adjust airflow, Researcher 1 was in charge of
1
the balloon, Researcher 2 dropped acid, Researcher 3 recorded data
4/26, Smaller straws, Researcher 2 was in charge of the balloon,
2
Researcher 3 dropped acid, Researcher 1 recorded data
4/27, Wide straws, pH of hard water trial rose, Researcher 3 was in
3 charge of the balloon, Researcher 2 dropped acid, Researcher 1
recorded data
4/28, started using two LabQuests/pH Sensors, hard water ph continues
4 to rise, Researcher 1 and 2 began to do trials on their own with
Researcher 3 going back and forth between who needed help
4/28, little chunks in hard water, noticed that if the hard water sits for long
5
the sediments rest on the bottom of container
6 5/1, trial went smoothly
7 5/1, clip on straw and balloon was loose so more CO2 was released
8 5/3, two drops of H2SO4 added to distilled water for the two-factor trial
9 5/3, refilled buffer solution on pH probes
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 16

5/4, running out of hard water, could possibly be more sediments in the
10
hard water, researcher 2 not present for the day
11 5/4, made new hard water
12 5/5, began using 12” balloons instead 9”
13 5/5, trial went smoothly
14 5/5, pH probe was reading distilled water at pH of 8
5/5, clip on straw and balloon was loose so more CO2 was released,
15
made new hard water

Table 8 shows the observations taken in each trial including what day the trial

was on, the specific things each researcher performed , and any errors that took place.

One thing not mentioned above was the pH probes consistently reading three levels

below where prior knowledge and research suggested. For example, distilled water

should be read at a pH of 7, but the pH probe read it at a pH of around 4 or 5.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Acid rain comes from a variety of compounds, and the two chosen to be

observed in this experiment were carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In this

experiment, there were two samples of water being tested; distilled water and hard

water. The goal is to find the type of water with greatest change in pH when carbon

dioxide and sulfuric acid are added to them, so the differences in pH from before and

after the factors were added was the observed and dependent variable.

A descriptive statistical analysis and two sample t-test were used for this

experiment. There were only fifteen trials conducted, but the data was normal enough to

perform a two sample t-test. The standard deviations of the population is unknown,

therefore the standard deviations of the samples were calculated. Also, there were

controls, randomization, and replication, all contributing to the credibility of the data. For

the controls, there was the effect of only CO2 in distilled water, only CO2 in hard water,
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 17

only H2SO4 in distilled water, and only H2SO4 in hard water. These trials helped the

researchers understand the role of each factor and how they were affecting the pH of

water individually. Randomization was used to determine which type of trial would be

performed first; a full trial, just CO2, or just H2SO4. After that, the type of water being

treated first was randomized for each trial. This type of analysis is appropriate for the

experiment because there were two samples being tested; distilled water and hard

water. Replicating the trials contributed to recording the most accurate results for the

experiment.

Figure 3. Normal Probability Plot for Distilled Water When Adding CO2 and H2SO4

A normal probability plot displays the normal trend line of data and plots the data

collected to see how close the data points are to the normal line. The figure above

shows the normal probability plot of the net change in pH of distilled water when both

CO2 and H2SO4 were added to it. The points lie close to the line, making the data

normal.
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 18

Figure 4. Normal Probability Plot for Hard Water When Adding CO2 and H2SO4

Like the previous figure, a normal trend line was placed to refer to. In this case,

the data points of net pH change for both CO2 and H2SO4 being added to hard water

are plotted. The points are surrounding the trendline, making the data normally

distributed.

Figure 5. Normal Probability Plot for Distilled Water When Adding H2SO4

There was also a normal probability plot made for the control of H2SO4 being

added to distilled water. The data points plotted crowd the normal trendline, thus making

the data a normal distribution.


Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 19

Figure 6. Normal Probability Plot for Hard Water When Adding H2SO4

A normal probability plot was also made for the addition of H2SO4 to hard water.

The trendline was placed, and the data points surround it, making the results normally

distributed.

Figure 7. Normal Probability Plot for Distilled Water When Adding CO2

When CO2 was added to distilled water, the results were also plotted on a normal

probability plot. The points accompanied the trendline closely, making the data normally

distributed.
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 20

Figure 8. Normal Probability Plot for Hard Water When Adding CO2

A normal probability plot was also made for the addition of CO2 to hard water.

The trendline was placed, and the data points surround it, making the results normally

distributed.

Figure 9. Net Change of pH in Distilled or Hard water with H2SO4 and CO2 Added

A box plot was made to compare the pH change of distilled water or hard water

when H2SO4 and CO2 were added. The distilled water box plot appears to be

completely normal other than the outlier of 2.19. There was a low amount of variability in
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 21

the data, as much of the data was near the 3.24 pH median. The third quartile of the

hard water box plot only extends from 0.49 to 0.55 which says that a large portion of the

data was consistently near 0.5 pH. Overall though, all of the hard water pH changes

were consistently near the median of 0.49 pH meaning that there was not much

variability in the data. At no point do the box plots overlap, meaning that the data was

statistically significant, or rather, the results (that H2SO4 and CO2 have a larger effect

on pH of distilled water than hard water) did not occur by chance alone.

Figure 10. Net Change of pH in Distilled water with H2SO4 or CO2 Added

The box plot above compares the pH change of carbon dioxide in distilled water

to the pH change of sulfuric acid in distilled water. The box plot for CO2 appears to be

normal with a slight left skew and no outliers. The variance of CO2 is low meaning that

the data was consistent. The 1st and 4th quartile were not as lengthy as the 2nd and

3rd. This means that much of the data was concentrated, yet spread out in the middle

fifty-percent of the box plot. The box plot for H2SO4 also appears to be normal with a

slight left skew and has no outliers. The variability of the box plot was larger, meaning

the data was not as consistent as the data received for CO2. Just as in Figure 10, the
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 22

box plots for distilled water are not overlapping each other, meaning the data for distilled

water was statistically significant.

Figure 11. Net Change of pH in Hard Water with H2SO4 or CO2 Added

This box plot was also made to compare the pH change of carbon dioxide in hard

water to the pH change of sulfuric acid in hard water. Both the CO2 and H2SO4 box plot

appears to be normal with a very slight right skew. The variance of both box plots are

very low, meaning the data was consistent. The box plots are overlapping much of each

other so the data is not statistically significant.

Figure 12. The Trend in Adding H2SO4 to Distilled Water in Trial One
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 23

When H2SO4 was added to distilled water in general, the first drop made the pH

have a sudden drop, but the pH continued decreasing slowly, like an exponential

function.

Figure 13. The Trend in Adding CO2 to Hard Water in Trial One

When the data was collected, it was noticed that when just CO2 was added to

hard water in general, the pH level increased in almost a linear trend.

Table 9
Varying Water Data
Type of Water with Factors nₓ x̅ sₓ
Distilled Water - CO2 and H2SO4 15 3.22 0.41
Hard Water - CO2 and H2SO4 15 0.47 0.15
Distilled Water - H2SO4 15 3.33 0.59
Hard Water - H2SO4 15 0.49 0.27
Distilled Water - CO2 15 0.40 0.20
Hard Water - CO2 15 0.34 0.17

All of the necessary data in order to perform the two-sample t tests is shown

above in Table 9. The number of samples in each population is expressed by nₓ, the

mean value of each population is expressed by x̅ and the standard deviation for each

population is expressed by sₓ.


Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 24

Ho: μdistilled = μhard


Ha: μdistilled > μhard
Figure 14. Null and Alternative Hypotheses

For a two-sample t test, a null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis must be

made in order to conduct the test. The null hypothesis, Ho, states that there is no

significant difference between two population, and the alternative hypothesis, Ha, states

what is trying to be proven by this experiment. As seen in the figure above, the null

hypothesis states that the average change in pH of distilled water (μdistilled) should be

equal to the average change in pH of hard water (μhard). The alternative hypothesis is

what is trying to be proved, and it says that the average change in pH of distilled water

will be significantly greater than the average change in pH of hard water.

Figure 15. Comparing pH Change of Distilled and Hard Water When CO2 and H2SO4
are Added
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 25

When a two-sample t test, explained in appendix A, was performed, it resulted in

a p-value of 1.12x10−20 . Ho is rejected since the p-value was less than the alpha level

of 0.05. There was evidence that the change in pH when CO 2 and H2SO4 were added is

significantly greater in distilled water than hard water. If Ho was true, there would be

almost no chance of getting a pH change in distilled water that high by chance alone.

Since this was so unlikely, Ho was rejected.

Ho: μdistilled1 = μdistilled2


Ha: μdistilled1 > μdistilled2
Figure 16. Null and Alternative Hypotheses

In this situation, both populations included distilled water, but distilled1 (μdistilled1)

had only H2SO4 added, while distilled2 (μdistilled2) had only CO2 added. The null

hypothesis, Ho, stated that there was no difference between the two when comparing

the pH change. The alternative hypothesis, Ha, stated that there was a larger pH

change when H2SO4 was added to distilled water, rather than adding CO2.

Figure 17. Comparison of the Significance of CO2 and H2SO4 Added to Distilled Water
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 26

When a two-sample t test was conducted, it gave a p-value of 2.28x10−17. Ho is

rejected since the p-value is less than the alpha level of 0.05. There is evidence that

adding H2SO4 to distilled water results in a much greater pH change than if CO2 were to

be added. If Ho was true, there would be almost no chance of getting a pH change in

distilled water by adding H2SO4 that much higher than the pH change of adding CO2 by

chance along. Since this is so unlikely, Ho is rejected.

Ho: μhard1 = μhard2


Ha: μhard1 > μhard2
Figure 18. Null and Alternative Hypotheses

Instead of having both populations include distilled water, both included hard

water, but hard1 (μhard1) had only H2SO4 added, while hard2 (μhard2) was only CO2

added. The null hypothesis, Ho, stated that there is no difference between them when

the pH is compared. The alternative hypothesis, Ha, states that there was a larger pH

change when H2SO4 was added to hard water than when CO2 was added to hard water.

Figure 19. Comparing the Significance of CO2 and H2SO4 Being Added to Hard Water
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 27

A p-value = 0.04 was found after a two-sample t test was conducted. Ho is

rejected because the p-value is less than the alpha level of 0.05. There is evidence that

adding H2SO4 to hard water results in a greater pH change than if CO2 were to be

added. If Ho was true, there would be almost no chance of getting a pH change in

distilled water by adding H2SO4 higher than the pH change of adding CO2 by chance

along. Since this is unlikely, Ho is rejected.

The two-sample t tests, plots and patterns all came to imply the same

conclusions. When adding H2SO4 and CO2 to distilled and hard water, there is a larger

change in pH with distilled water rather than hard water. Also, the H2SO4 causes a

greater pH change in both the hard and distilled water.


Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 28

Conclusion

This experiment was conducted in order to determine the significance between

the pH change when adding carbon dioxide, CO2, and sulfuric acid, H2SO4 in distilled

and hard water, just as it would happen in real life with acid rain. To evaluate this, a two-

sample t test was used to compare the two samples and a descriptive statistical

analysis found trends within the data. The hypothesis previously stated that the distilled

water would have a greater net change in pH with H2SO4 having the greater effect,

which was accepted through the analysis of the data.

The data collected from this experiment supported the hypothesis. When both

CO2 and H2SO4 were added to the samples, distilled water’s average net change in pH

was 3.22, and hard water’s average net change in pH was 0.47. In addition to the net

changes, the results from the two-sample t test also supported the hypothesis. When

distilled and hard water’s change in pH due to CO2 and H2SO4 were compared using

the t test, it was proven that the change in pH was significantly greater with the distilled

water. Other two-sample t tests were performed in order to determine which had a

greater effect on the water: CO2 or H2SO4. The results made it evident that H2SO4 had a

greater effect on both the distilled and hard water. All of the data clearly supported the

hypothesis.

The decreasing pH in the experiment is due to the dissociation of the sulfuric acid

and carbon dioxide, illustrated in Figure 20, below.


Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 29

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (reaction 1)


H2CO3 H+ + HCO3- (reaction 2)
H2SO4 H+ + HSO4- (reaction 3)
Figure 20. CO2 Reaction With H2O and Dissociation of H2CO3 and H2SO4

The first reaction seen in Figure 20 shows the carbon dioxide reacting with water,

forming carbonic acid. The carbonic acid then dissociates in water (reaction two)

forming bicarbonate and a hydrogen ion. This hydrogen ion is was increases the pH

level of the water. Reaction three of Figure 20 shows the same process as reaction two

but with sulfuric acid.

Prior research does in fact prove many of the concepts recognized in experiment.

Many articles suggest that sulfuric is less toxic when introduced to harder water rather

than soft. One study found the pH of sulfuric acid and tested its pH after adding different

amounts of hard water, “Hardness reduced H2SO4 toxicity at all pH levels” (Graham et

al.). This research claims that when sulfuric acid is introduced to hard water, it will have

a higher pH level than when introduced to softer water, which fully agrees with the data

collected in the experiment.

The experiment concluded that the pH was raised in hard water when carbon

dioxide was introduced. Prior research on carbon dioxide and its effect on the pH of

water suggests that the pH should be reduced in both hard and soft waters. Relating to

Figure 20, one article says: “Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid.

Carbonic acid then dissociates to give the hydrogen ion (H+) and the hydrogen

carbonate ion (HCO3-). The ability of H2CO3 to deliver H+ is what classifies this molecule

as an acid, thus lowering the pH of a solution” (Casidey, Frey). This research agrees

with the results from the distilled water but in hard water it falls short. In the experiment

the pH climbed linearly when the carbon dioxide was added to the hard water. The
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 30

carbon dioxide or the carbonic acid could have been reacting with any of the three

chemicals that were added to make hard water but no research has been found to

support this claim.

The net change in pH was undoubtedly larger in distilled water than hard, but this

was not random by any means. Since the hard water contained calcium and baking

soda, it increased the alkalinity (“Alkalinity and Hardness”). Alkalinity refers to the

capability of water to neutralize acids. Alkalinity indicates a solution’s power to “buffer”

the pH, or keep its pH from changing. The higher the alkalinity is, the higher the

buffering capacity against pH changes (Bowman, Mealy). Due to the alkalinity of the

hard water used in the experiment, the pH didn’t not change nearly as much as it did in

the distilled water. Distilled water is free of minerals and it has no alkalinity, causing the

pH to drop greatly, considerably more than hard water.

It was noticed that H2SO4 had a greater effect on the change in pH than the CO2.

This occurred because H2SO4, a strong acid, ionizes completely when reacted with

water. The reaction then produces more H+ ions, and this makes the pH decrease

dramatically since the negative log of hydrogen content is taken to find the pH. This

represents a real life situation because with acid rain, H2SO4 affects the water more

than CO2.

Throughout the experiment, the experimental design proved to be helpful and

impacted the results in a positive way. It was clear and concise so it could be followed

very easily and accurately. In no way did the experimental design prevent the

experiment from being as successful as it could be.

Despite the fact that the experimental design was useful, errors were still made in

other ways. Near the beginning of the experiment, straws with a smaller diameter were
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 31

used, which affects the amount of CO2 being released into the two samples of water.

This was examined during the first two trials for just the addition of carbon dioxide; there

were only slight decreases compared to the later trials with larger straws. With this, it

could have easily made the earlier trials have a smaller net pH change than later trials.

Others who wish to replicate this experiment should keep the size of the straw

consistent. Another mistake was that in the beginning of the experiment, some

measurements made of water were made with a beaker, instead of a graduated

cylinder, losing accuracy in the amount of water being tested. This mistake was soon

realized and corrected but a graduated cylinder should’ve been used throughout the

duration of the whole experiment. An execution mistake was also made by the

researchers a couple times. When researchers introduced H2SO4 in the water, there

were times where 2 drops were accidentally dropped instead of one. This was seen in

between the first and second drop, and it had a significantly larger net change in pH that

previous trials.

Although this experiment gave much concrete information, there is still much to

be learned about acid rain and its effects on ecosystems. Other research that can be

done is testing the effects acid rain have on tap water or soft water instead of just

distilled or hard. This would have a more direct connection to real life issues, including

the introduction of acid rain to tap water sources. Other research can be done to find

how to raise the pH of water ecosystems affected by the acid rain. Currently, research

suggests that large amounts of limestone can be added to lakes to raise the pH levels.

From this research it is understood that how much acid rain effects hard and soft water,

which can be used to find how much of the limestone buffer needs to be added to the

acidic lakes based on how hard the water in the lake is. This research would be very
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 32

helpful to ecologists in studying how organisms are in water ecosystems are affected by

the acid rain that is introduced to these ecosystems.

Ultimately, the main reason for this experiment was to determine which type of

water was more affected by acid rain. When determining which type of water was

affected by the carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4), a two-sample t test

compared the average net change in pH between the two samples of water, distilled

water and hard water, and it showed which of the two had the greater average net

change in pH. Then, with a descriptive statistical analysis, box plots and scatter plots

were made to compare the samples, as well. This research could be very adjustable for

further research, and it helps to understand what really happened with pollution caused

by acid rain.

Appendix A: Randomization

Materials:

Ti-nspire Calculator

Procedure:
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 33

1. Turn on the calculator and open a calculator page.

2. Press menu, go to “5: Probability,” then click enter.

3. Go to “4: Random” then click enter.

4. Go to “6: Seed” then click enter.

5. Enter any number to seed the calculator for randomization purposes.

6. Repeat steps 2 and 3.

7. Go to “2: Integer” and click enter.

8. In the parenthesis of “randInt(),” enter one comma three: one for CO2 and
H2SO4, two for only CO2, and three for only H2SO4.

9. Continue pressing enter until all numbers appear and there is an order of all
three for 15 trials.

10. Repeat steps 1-7 but instead of entering one comma three, enter one comma
two. One will be for distilled water and two will be for hard water. This
determines which one will be done first.

11. Continue doing this until there is an order of distilled and hard water for all 15
trials in the three different ways (CO2 and H2SO4, CO2, and H2SO4).

Appendix B: Making Hard Water

Materials:

2L Container 1000 mL Distilled Water


2000 mL Beaker Safety Goggles
1 Tbsp Epsom Salt Rubber Gloves
1 Tbsp Baking Soda Tablespoon
1 Tbsp Calcium Chloride

Procedure:
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 34

1. Wear safety goggles and rubber gloves.

2. Pour 1000 mL of distilled water into a 2000 mL beaker.

3. Add one tablespoon of epsom salt and stir with a spoon until it completely

dissolves.

4. Add one tablespoon of baking soda and stir with a spoon until it completely

dissolves.

5. Add one tablespoon of calcium chloride and stir with a spoon until it completely
dissolves.

6. Leave the solution for a few hours for complete dissolution of the minerals into
the solution.

7. Store in a 2 L container for later use.

Appendix C: Using the Vernier LabQuest

Materials:

Vernier LabQuest
pH Probe
Flash Drive

Procedure:

1. Turn on the LabQuest and insert the pH probe and flash drive into the top.

2. Click on “Mode” and change to “Events With Entry,” naming the event
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 35

“Drops.”

3. When the pH probe is inserted in the water, click “Start” to begin data
collection.

4. Click “Keep” before dropping sulfuric acid then record the drop as 0 in
order for it to record the pH before dropping.

5. After each drop, click “Keep” and enter the drop number until there are 10
drops.

6. Once data collection has finished, click “Stop.”

7. To save the data onto the flash drive, click “File,” “Save,” “USB,” then
name it as whatever trial has been completed and click “Ok.”

Appendix D: Sample Calculations

Two-Sample t Test:

This sample calculation is compares the pH change of adding only H2SO4 to hard

water, hard1, and adding only CO2 to hard water, hard2. The first step in conducting a

two-sample t test is finding the standard deviation. A few things need to be known

before plugging in numbers in the standard deviation equation. The mean, x̅, and

number of samples, n, in the population need to be known.The mean was found by

adding up the pH change in each trial then dividing by 15, resulting in a mean of 0.40 for
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 36

hard1 and 0.34 for hard2. The x stands for the values in each trial and 𝛴means the sum.

The standard deviations were found to be 0.20 for hard1, shown below in figure 1, and

0.17 for hard2.

2
∑(𝑥−𝑥)
s=√
𝑛−1
A sample calculation on how to find standard deviation is shown below.

2
∑(𝑥−𝑥)
s=√
𝑛−1
2
∑(𝑥−(0.40))
s =√
15−1
s =0.20
Figure 1. Standard Deviation Formula and Substitution

After finding the standard deviation, a two-sample t test can be conducted. All of

the things needed to be inserted into the formula are already known, which is the

means, x̅, standard deviations, sₓ, and the number of samples, nₓ.

𝑥̄1 −𝑥̄2
t=
2 2
√(𝑆1) +(𝑆2)
𝑛₁ 𝑛₂
A sample calculation conducting a two-sample t test is shown below in figure 2.

𝑥̄1 −𝑥̄2
t=
2 2
√(𝑆1) +(𝑆2)
𝑛₁ 𝑛₂
(0.40)−(0.34)
t=
2 2
√(0.20) +(0.17)
15 15
t = 1.77➡p-value=0.04
Figure 2. Two-sample t Test Equation and Formula
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 37

When all information for the two-sample t test is known, it can be put into the

equation seen above in Figure 2. The number received, which in this case is 1.77, will

then be used with Table C, found below, to find the p-value.

Table 1
Table C
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 38

After finding the value of the two-sample t test, the degrees of freedom needs to

be found. The degrees of freedom is taking the population with the least amount of

samples and subtracting it from 1. So in this case, both populations have n as 15,

meaning the degrees of freedom is 14. Then, find the row on the left with the degrees of

freedom and match it up with the value of the two-sample t test and go down to find the

p-value. If it falls between two values, try to get it as close as possible.

Works Cited

"Acid Rain and Its Effect on Surface Water." Vernier Software and Technology,
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 39

pp. 1-7, www2.vernier.com/sample_labs/ESV-16-COMP-acid_rain.pdf.

Accessed 13 Mar. 2017.

"Alkalinity and Hardness." pp. 1-20

https://www.hccfl.edu/media/531207/alkalinity%20and%20hardness.pptx.

Accessed 14 May 2017.

Casiday, Rachel, and Regina Frey. "Acid Rain."

www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/Water/FreshWater/acidrain.html.

Accessed 14 May 2017.

Graham, Mark S., and Chris M. Wood. Toxicity of Environmental Acid to the

Rainbow Trout: Interactions of Water Hardness, Acid Type, and Exercise 59.8

(1981): n. pag. NRC Research Press. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 2012. Web.

12 May 2017.

Likens, Gene E., and Thomas J. Butler. "Acid Rain." Encyclopædia Britannica.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 07 May 2017. Web. 17 May 2017.

McMahon, Mary, and Bronwyn Harris. "What Is Hard Water?" WiseGEEK.

Conjecture Corporation, 06 May 2017. Web. 12 May 2017.

<http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-hard-water.htm>.

Mealy, Rick, and George Bowman. "Importance of General Chemistry

Relationships in Water Treatment." pp. 1-47

dnr.wi.gov/regulations/labcert/documents/training/basics-genchem.pdf.

Accessed 14 May 2017.

Ophardt, Charles E. "pH Scale." Elmhurst. Virtual Chembook, 2003. Web. 12

May 2017. <http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchembook/184ph.html>.

Oram, Brian. "Hard Water." Water Research Center, pp. 1+,


Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 40

www.water-research.net/index.php/water-treatment/tools/hard-water-hardness.

Accessed 12 May 2017.

Oram, Brian. "What is Alkalinity?" Water Research Center, pp. 1+,

www.water-research.net/index.php/the-role-of-alkalinity-citizen-monitoring.

Accessed 14 May 2017.

"pH." World of Microbiology and Immunology. Encyclopedia.com. 16 May.

2017 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

"pH Definition." All About pH, pp. 1+,

www.all-about-ph.com/ph-definition.html. Accessed 14 Mar. 2017.

"Sulfur Dioxide." Queensland Government, 29 Aug. 2013,

https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/pollution/monitoring/air-pollution/sulfur-

dioxide/. Accessed 16 Mar. 2017.

"The Acid Rain Problem." BBC.com, Jun. 2014

www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_pre_2011/context_chemis

try/acidrainrev1.shtml. Accessed 16 Mar. 2017.

Trautmann, Nancy. "Acid Rain Experiments." Environmental Inquiry, pp. 1-5,

ei.cornell.edu/watersheds/Acid_Rain_Experiments.pdf. Accessed 17 Mar. 2017.

"Water Quality - pH." Vernier Software and Technology, pp. 1-6,

www2.vernier.com/sample_labs/ESV-11-COMP-water_quality_ph.pdf. Accessed

13 Mar. 2017.

"What is Acid Rain?" United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1 Mar.

2017, pp. 1+, https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain. Accessed 14 Mar.

2017.
Hanna - Taipalus - Thomas 41

You might also like