Brick and Block Masonry – Trends, Innovations and Challenges – Modena, da Porto & Valluzzi (Eds)

© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02999-6

Determination the capacity reduction factor of masonry walls under

buckling—a numerical procedure based on the transfer matrix method

T. Bakeer & W. Jäger

Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany

ABSTRACT: Masonry walls are very sensitive to flexural effects due to low tensile strength which, in
turn, greatly influences the load bearing capacity under compression. The main source of flexural effects
may result from the eccentric loading at the ends of the wall or from any lateral loading like the wind
action, the earth pressure, or the second order effect of the applied actions. Several analytical solutions
were proposed in the literature to solve the differential equation of the problem, but those solutions were
limited to special conditions. In the current contribution, a general formulation for the non-linear stability
problem has been formulated numerically based on the transfer-matrix method. Despite the method is out
of professional use today and don’t possess the potential and flexibility of the finite elements but for the
currently addressed problem, it is still the most efficient. A relative form description has been introduced
to formulate the stability theory of masonry walls. This form of description has been used to minimize
the dimensions of matrixes in transfer-matrix method and to produce the equations in a compact form.
The algorithms of the method have been derived for general boundary and loading conditions with a
user-defined non-linear material model. Algorithms and solution procedures have been explained and
implemented into a computer code. The convergence of the iterative solution has been studied with a clear
definition for the cases at which the stability or material failures occur. The results of the developed solu-
tion procedure have been validated by comparing them with the existing solutions and the experimental
results. The developed solution procedure provides a powerful tool to solve a wide range of problems
related to the stability of masonry walls and to check the existing empirical methods.

1 INTRODUCTION (Vassilev et al., 2002) have first applied the

The transfer-matrix method TMM was founded
in Germany during the fifties (Uhrig, 1966) and
largely elaborated in the sixties. Three authors were
mainly contributed to the method in the field of
structural mechanics, namely: (Pestel, 1954, Pestel
and Leckie, 1963), (Marguerre, 1960, Marguerre
and Uhrig, 1964) and (Falk, 1955, Falk, 1956,
Falk, 1986). The principle of the method goes
back to the frequency search procedures applied in
Physics and engineering like Holzer/Tolle method
(Tolle, 1905). The TMM is suitable and efficient
for periodic structures or line-like geometries e.g.
continuous beams. The calculation is performed
progressively from one element to another by a
sequence of multiplications of the transfer matri-
ces. Despite the method is out of professional use
today and don’t possess the potential and flexibility
of the finite elements but for some cases, including
the one addressed here, numerical solutions based
on TMM can be still the most efficient.
TMM on stability problem of masonry walls,
but the problems associated with the nonlinear
solution and its influence on the convergence of
the solution was not completed. In this paper,
these numerical problems have been solved and
a method for solving the equilibrium equations
has been proposed giving a clear definition to the
meaning of the convergence of the method. The
paper furthermore uses relative description for the
formulation of the equation, which minimizes the
size of the transfer matrix.
The proposed method can be applied to any
compressed structural element but in this paper, a
validation has been provided for masonry walls.
2 THE DISCRETE SYSTEM MODEL
For the formulation of equations, a relative
description the relative has been used. This means
non-dimensional variables were defined: Φ the

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 capacity reduction factor represents the relative j between nodes i and i + 1, the following relative
value of the normal stress value with respect to form differential equation can be written:
compressive strength, rh the relative value of the
height of the wall with respect to the thickness d 2re rh2j
2
of the wall, re the relative value of the eccentricity + ω ⋅
j e r = − rq ;
with respect to the thickness of the wall, rq the rela- dξ2 Φj j
(2)
tive value of the lateral pressure with respect to the Φj
compressive strength of masonry, rB the relative ω j = rh j
3 rBj
value of the flexural stiffness with respect to f ⋅ t
, ξ the relative distance of the cross section with
respect to the height of the wall. where rBj is the relative stiffness of the element j
The following transformation were used between and equals to K E /12 for a non-cracked section. Φ j
the parameters of the problem and the defined rel- is the relative normal force at the mid of the element
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ative parameters: j. Φ j considers the vertical load applied on the ele-

N = Φ ⋅ f ⋅ t; h = rh ⋅ t;
y = rh ⋅ ξ ⋅ t; e = re ⋅ t; rq = q / f ; (1)
B = rB ⋅ f ⋅ t 3 equal to Φ. The solution within element j for the
where N the applied normal force, q the lateral
pressure on the wall, f the compressive strength of
masonry, t thickness of the wall, h height of the
wall, y the distance of the cross-section from the
mid-height of the wall, e the load eccentricity, B
the flexural stiffness of the cross section.
Due to the nonlinear behaviour of the material,
a closed form solution is not possible for the dif-
ferential equation of buckling without introduc-
ing simplifications into the solution. However, the
solution can be approximated by discretisation of
the wall system into a number of elements ne with
a constant stiffness and constant lateral and verti-
cal loads. This results in a linear differential equa-
tion for each element (Figure 1). For the element
ment including the self-weight. In case if the verti-
cal load is constant along the whole wall height, the
reduction factor for each element Φ j is going to be
differential equation (2) can be written as follows:
rh2j ⋅ rq j
re = − + C1 ⋅ cos ω j ξ + C2 ⋅ sin ω j ξ. (3)
Φ ⋅ ω 2j
The relative rotation rϑ of the section can be
calculated as the first derivative of the relative
eccentricity:
rϑ =
dre
dξ
(
= ω j ⋅ −C1 ⋅ sin ω j ξ + C2 ⋅ cos ω j ξ , ) (4)
where the relative rotation rϑ with respect to
the rotation of the cross section ϑ is given as:
rϑ = rh ⋅ ϑ . The relative moment m and the relative
shear force v can be calculated as follows:

rBj
m=
rh2j
(
⋅ ω 2j ⋅ C1 ⋅ cos ω j ξ + C2 ⋅ sin ω j ξ

) (5)
or m = Φ ⋅ re ;
rBj
v=
rh2j
(
⋅ ω 3j ⋅ −C1 ⋅ sin ω j ξ + C2 ⋅ cos ω j ξ

) (6)
or v = Φ ⋅ rϑ .

Considering the element j between the nodes i and

i + 1 , the integration constants C1 and C2 in the solu-
tion of the differential equation (2) can be determined
by applying the boundary conditions at node i:

at ξ = 0; re = rei ; rϑ = rϑi . (7)

This yields:

Figure  1.  A discrete model for masonry wall under rh2j ⋅ rq j rϑi
compression and lateral load and the transfer-matrix C1 = rei + ; C2 = . (8)
method derived for one element. Φ ⋅ ω 2j ωj

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 By substituting the integration constants C1 and In special case, when wj → 0, the transformation
C2 in eqs. (3) and (4), the relative eccentricity and matrix Ω j becomes:
the relative rotation can be calculated at point ξ
within the element j as follows:
 2
1 rq j ⋅ rh j 
1 1 − 
sin ω j ξ rh2j ⋅ rq j  2 Φ  (17)
re = cos ω j ξ ⋅ rei +
ωj
⋅ rϑi −
Φ ⋅ ω 2j
(1 − cos ω ξ );
j lim Ω j =  2 ,
ω j →0 0 1 − rq j ⋅ rh j 
 Φ 
 (9)  
rϑ = − ω j ⋅ sin ω j ξ ⋅ rei + cos ω j ξ ⋅ rϑi  0 0 1 
rh2j .rq j
− ⋅ ω j ⋅ sin ω j ξ. (10) where ri, ri +1 the vectors of the nodal values at
Φ ⋅ ω 2j nodes i, i + 1, respectively:
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At the end node, i + 1 of the element j, the rela-  rei   rei +1 

tive eccentricity and the relative rotation can be    
calculated by putting ξ = 1 in eqs. (9) and (10), ri = rϑi  ; ri +1 = rϑi +1  . (18)
respectively:    
1  1 
sin ω j rh2j ⋅ rq j
rei +1 = cos ω j ⋅ rei +
ωj
⋅ rϑi −
Φ ⋅ ω 2j
(1 − cos ω );
j
When no lateral load exists, i.e. rq = 0, the trans-
formation matrix Ω j becomes:
 (11)
rϑi +1 = − ω j ⋅ sin ω j ⋅ rei + cos ω j ⋅ rϑi  sin ω j 
 cos ω j   re 
rh2j ⋅ rq j Ωj =  ω j  ; ri =  i  ;
− ⋅ ω j ⋅ sin ω j . (12)  −ω ⋅ sin ω cos ω j  rϑi 
Φ ⋅ ω 2j  j j

At the mid node j of the element j, the relative  rei +1 

eccentricity and the rotation can be calculated by ri +1 =   (19)
putting ξ = 12 in Eqs. (9) and (10), respectively: rϑi +1 

ωj where ri, ri +1 the vectors of the nodal values at

ωj sin
r2 ⋅ r
re j = cos ⋅ rei + 2 ⋅ r − h j q j 1 − cos ω j  ; node i, i + 1. In the later formulations, Ω j is going
2 ωj
ϑi
Φ ⋅ ω 2j  2  to be written simply as Ωi +1 where i + 1 refers to
the element number, i.e.:
 (13)
ωj ωj ri +1 = Ωi +1 ⋅ ri . (20)
rϑ j = − ω j ⋅ sin ⋅ rei + cos ⋅ rϑi
2 2
rh2j ⋅ rq j ωj By using the recursive Eq. (20), all the nodal
− ⋅ ω j ⋅ sin . (14) vectors can be calculated on the basis of the initial
Φ ⋅ ω 2j 2 nodal vector r0 as follows:

Eqs. (11) and (12) can be written in matrix form r1 = Ω1 ⋅ r0 = R1 ⋅ r0

as follows:
r2 = Ω2 ⋅ r1 = Ω2 ⋅ Ω1 ⋅ r0 = R 2 ⋅ r0
ri +1 = Ω j ⋅ ri . (15) r3 = Ω3 ⋅ r2 = Ω3 ⋅ Ω2 ⋅ Ω1 ⋅ r0 = R3 ⋅ 0 (21)
 R r
where Ω j is the transformation matrix:
ne = Ωne ⋅ ne −1 = Ωne ⋅ Ωne −1  Ω1 ⋅ 0 = ne ⋅ 0
 sin ω j rqj ⋅ rh2j cos ω j  r r r R r
 cos ω j − ⋅ 
 ωj Φ ω 2j  The nodal vector at node j can be written in rela-
  tion to the initial nodal vector as follows:
Ωj =  sin ω j rqj ⋅ rh2j sin ω j 
 −ω j ⋅ sin ω j − ⋅  (16)
 ωj Φ ωj  j
  rj = R j ⋅ r0 , with R j = ∏Ω j +1− i . (22)
 0 0 1  i =1

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 The nodal vector at the end node ne can be cal-
culated as follows:

rne = R ne ⋅ r0 ;
ne  R11 R12 R13 
(23)
R ne = ∏Ωne +1− i = R21 R22 R23  .
i =1  0 0 1 

The matrix equation in (23) yields to the follow-

ing set of two equations:

ren = R11re0 + R12rϑ 0 + R13 ;

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(24)
rϑ n = R21re0 + R22rϑ 0 + R23 .

When no lateral load exists, the terms R13 , R23

become equal to zero.
Figure 2. Definition of the lateral load parameters.
3  Solution procedure
where KE is the ratio of the initial elastic modulus
In the following, a solution procedure is going to E to the compressive strength of the material f.
be proposed to determine the stress/strain state for
the wall in Figure 1, considering the material and Step 3: Lateral load
geometrical non-linearity. The wall is assumed to For the purpose of numerical implementation,
be under relative compression load Φ with eccen- a general lateral load case has been considered in
tricities re0 and ren at the top and bottom of the Figure 2.
wall, respectively. The applied lateral load is linearly distributed
on a specific domain of the wall and defined by
the parameters ξa, ξb, rqa , and rqb . The beginning
3.1  Initialization
and the end of the loading domain should be
Step 1: Discretization of the wall/column system placed in the discretization on nodes. The lateral
The wall has been subdivided into ne number load rq j need to be calculated at the centre node of
of segments/elements. The discretization can be the element j as follows:
carried out in a uniform manner if there is no spe-
cific variation in the material, cross section, or the  1 rhj
lateral load along the wall height. In this case the  0, ξ j < ξa −
 2 rh
relative height of all elements are equal and can be 
calculated as follows:  r − r r
1 hj 1 rhj
rq j = rq + qb qa (ξ − ξa ) , ξa − ≤ ξ j ≤ ξb + .

a
ξb − ξa 2 rh 2 rh
rh 
rh j = . (25)  1 rhj
ne 0, ξ j > ξb +
 2 rh

The relative location coordinate ξj of the centre  (28)

node of the element j can be calculate as follows:
rh j j −1 r 3.2  Iterative solution procedure
+∑
hk
ξj = . (26) Step 4: Determination of the nodal values
2rh k =1 rh
Based on defined state of the flexural stiffness
for each element, the nodal values of the relative
Step 2: Initial flexural stiffness
eccentricities can be determined. Here, the advan-
The initial state of the flexural stiffness of the
tages and efficiency of using the transfer-matrix
wall assumed to be elastic with a constant cross-
method can be recognized.
section. Consequently, the relative initial stiffness
can be calculated for the element j as follows: a. Calculation of the transfer matrix
The transformation matrix Ω j should be calcu-
KE lated for each element. This requires calculating
rBj = , (27)
12 the constant ωj at each element using Eq. (2).

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 The  transformation matrix of size (3  ×  3)
defined in Eq. (16) should be used for prob-
lems with lateral load while the transformation
matrix of size (2 × 2) defined in Eq. (19) should
be used for problems with no lateral load.
b. Applying the boundary conditions
The matrix R ne can be calculated using Eq. (23),
and the nodal vectors for every element can be
calculated using Eq. (22) considering the bound-
ary conditions.
Step 5: Calculation the strain state at the mid of
elements
a. Calculation the relative eccentricity
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positive values because the solution procedure is
the same for negative or positive values of ∆ε j ,
but the relative strains ε1 j and ε 2 j require to
be swept for negative values of ∆ε j . The above
equation may have a single, double or no solu-
tion. The procedure of the solution is given in
detail in section  4. The solution procedure of
Eq. (31) determines whether the material of the
element is failed or not. Once material failure in
one of the elements has occurred i.e. ε j > εu , the
calculation procedure must be ended.
Step 6: Updating the state of flexural stiffness
a. Updating the relative eccentricity

The relative eccentricity at the mid of element j The relative eccentricity at the mid of the
can be calculated using the following equation: element can be updated as follows after getting
the value of ε j from step 5-c:
ωj
Ye j = cos
ωj
⋅ re + 2 ⋅r
sin
ϑi re j =
1
⋅
( ) ( )
I m ε1 j − I m ε 2 j 1  ε1 + ε 2 j 
−  j ,
2
2 i
rh ⋅ rq 
ωj
ωj
( ) ( )
ε1 j − ε 2 j I n ε1 − I n ε 2
j j
2  ε1 j − ε 2 j 
− j 2j 1 − cos  . (29)  (33)
Φ ⋅ω  j 2 
where
b. Calculation the relative strain difference
The relative strain difference ∆ ∈j can be deter-  mε (ε ) , ε ≥ εt
I m (ε ) =  ;
mε (εt ) , ε < εt
mined at the mid of element j by:
ε (34)
1 Φ
∆ ∈j = ⋅ ⋅ Ye j . (30) mε (ε ) = ∫ε ⋅ σ ⋅ d ε
ε c rBj 0

where εc is the strain corresponding to com- The relative strains ε1 j and ε 2 j can be calculated
pressive strength of masonry, rBj the relative as follows:
stiffness of the element.
 εj , ∆ εi ≥ 0
c. Solving the equilibrium equation ε1 j =  ;
This requires calculating the maximum normal- ε j − ∆ ε j , ∆ εi < 0
(35)
ized compression strain ε j at the mid of element j ε j − ∆ ε j , ∆ε j ≥ 0
which leads to the equilibrium state. Based on the ε2 j =  .
defined material model and the calculated value  εj , ∆ε j < 0
of | ∆ε j |, the maximum normalized strain ε j can
be found as a solution of the following equation:
When the updated value gets bigger than half,
i.e. | re j | > 1/ 2, the calculation must be ended as
Φ=
( ) (
I n ε j − I n ε j − ∆ε j ). (31)
this indicates a stability failure in the system.
∆ε j b. Updating the relative stiffness
By using the updated relative stiffness at the mid
where I n (ε ) depends on the material model of the element j, the relative flexural stiffness
and can be calculated as follows: can be also updated as follows:

Φ
nε (ε ) , ε ≥ εt rBj = ⋅ re . (36)
I n (ε ) =  ; εc ⋅ ∆ε j j
 nε (εt ) , ε < εt (32)
ε
nε (ε ) = ∫ σ ⋅ d ε . Step 7: Calculation the damage state within the
0
cross section
where εt the maximum relative tensile strain To get an idea about the state of damage
of the material. The value of ∆ε j always takes occurred due to cracking of the cross section, it is

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IBMAC16_Fullpaper_[CH001-CH150].indb 75 5/26/2016 2:01:44 PM

 appropriate to calculate the reduction ratio of the  σ (ε ) − σ (ε − ∆ ε )
thickness of the cross-section rt j as follows: , ε ∈[εt + ∆ε, εu ]
∂Φ  ∆ε
= . (41)
rt j = rt1 + rt2 − 1, (37) ∂ε  σ (ε )
j j
 , ε ∈[εt , εt + ∆ε ]
∆ε
where:
Both functions in (40) and (41) are plotted in

rt1 =
(
ε1 j − max ε 2 j , εt ); Figure 3.
The function Φ is non-smooth at εt + ∆ε  and its
j
∆∫j derivative is discontinuous at this point. The func-
(38) tion Φ reaches its peak at the relative strain εm ,

rt2 =
ε 2 j − max ε1 j , εt( ). which is the root of the derivative. It is useful to
determine εm at the peak point to check whether
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j
∆ε j a solution exists or not. Φ > Φ m means there is a
material failure and thus no solution exists. Φ ≤ Φ m
Step 8: Checking the convergence means there is a solution and it may be a single solu-
The convergence of the solution can be checked tion or double solutions. This is mainly dependent
at each iteration using the following convergence from the characteristics of the post-peak branch of
index: the stress-strain relationship. If εu ≤ εm , only one
solution exists and can be found in the range [ 0, εm ]
ne . if εu > εm , two solutions are possible and the sec-
∑ (re )
2
Conv = − Yei ≤ err. (39) ond solution should be found in the range [εm , εu ]
i =1
i
. The maximum values of Φ m and its correspond-
ing εm have been determined numerically using the
Since the assumption made in step 2  might be golden section search method, by successively nar-
incorrect, the solution state must be checked at rowing the searching domain. The initial search-
this step. If the convergence index is bigger than ing domain is taken between [ 0, εu ] . The probe
the permissible error, the steps from 3 to 8 must be point within the searching domain is chosen with
repeated, otherwise, the iteration must be ended. a proportional spacing ratio equal to the golden
ratio g = 1+2 5 . The secant method has been applied
to find the solution numerically within the range
4  Solving the equilibrium [ε1, ε2 ]. The following recurrence relation were used
equation to find better approximation of the solution:
In step 5-c from the iterative procedure described
above, it is required to find the relative maximum
compressive strain ε at the mid of the element
by solving Eq. (31). The solution of Eq. (31) is
dependent from the material integral I n and the
relative strain difference ∆ε . The solution of eq.
(31) can be found from the stress-strain relation-
ship at normalized stress level equal to Φ. When
an inflection point on the curve I n (ε ) exists, two
secants of slope equal to Φ can be determined at
two positions; one secant is located to the right and
the second one is located to the left of the inflec-
tion point. The function Φ can be described in a
stepwise form as follows:

Φ (ε, ∆ ε, εt ) =
 nε (ε ) − nε (ε − ∆ ε )
 , ε ∈[εt + ∆ ε, εu ]
 ∆ε (40)
 .
 nε (ε ) − nε (εt )
, ε ∈[εt , εt + ∆ ε ]
 ∆ε


The derivative of the function Φ with respect to Figure 3.  Graphical representation of Φ as a stepwise
ε can be also written in a stepwise form as follows: function with transition point at εt + ∆ε.

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IBMAC16_Fullpaper_[CH001-CH150].indb 76 5/26/2016 2:01:48 PM

 ε2 − ε1
εs = ε1 + ⋅ (Φ − Φ1 ). (42)
Φ 2 − Φ1
5  Validation of the method
At first, the proposed solution procedure of the
buckling problem has been verified using refer-
ence analytical solutions. The analytical solution
for linear material models with no-tension was one
of the early solutions proposed for masonry and
plain concrete materials. Several works reported
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the analytical solution of the differential equation
of buckling without lateral load (Angervo, 1954,
Angervo, 1961, Angervo et  al., 1957), (Chapman
and Slatford, 1957), and (Yokel, 1971) and with
lateral load (Hellers, 1967).
The values of the capacity reduction factor
obtained by the transfer-matrix method were iden-
tical or very close to the values obtained by the
analytical solution. When masonry wall divided
into 20 elements in the transfer-matrix method, the
difference in the values of the capacity reduction
between both solutions becomes less than 10−3.
Since masonry has a wide variation in the non-
linearity of the material model, the proposed solu-
tion procedure is further verified with experimental
data of masonry walls of different material com-
binations (Pflücke, 2006). The capacity reduction
factor of the experimental and numerical results
have been represented in Figure 4. A comparison
between the experimental and numerical values of
the capacity reduction factors demonstrates very
good conformity of both results.
6  Concluding remarks
A numerical solution has been proposed to solve
the differential equation of masonry buckling
under combined vertical and lateral actions using
Figure  4.  Comparison between experimental and
numerical results of the capacity reduction factor.
77
IBMAC16_Fullpaper_[CH001-CH150].indb 77
the transfer-matrix method. The proposed method
is found to be very suitable and effective tool for
the computer implementation of the solution. The
computation effort involves just multiplication of
small size matrixes. The numerical solution has
been formulated in relative form and implemented
into the matrix laboratory program MATLAB.
Since the formulation carried out in relative form,
several unnecessary parameters are excluded from
the solution procedure like the moment or the
shear force.
A computer algorithm for solving the equilib-
rium equation has been proposed, which deter-
mines if a solution exists or if a material failure
occurs. The outcome of this routine provides an
important indication to terminate the iterative
solution when a material failure exists. All algo-
rithms have been developed to use a wide variation
of nonlinear material models. For the practical
use of the developed TMM solution, the capac-
ity reduction factor has been determined based
on bisection method. The solution procedure has
been checked for several examples and different
failure modes. This provides an important tool to
study the influence of different parameters on the
capacity reduction factor and to help to verify the
existing empirical methods.
References
Angervo, K. (1954) Über die Knickung und Tragfähigkeit
eines exzentrisch gedrückten Pfeilers ohne Zugfestigkeit
unter- und oberhalb der Proportionalitätsgrenze mit
besonderer Berücksichtigung des rechteckigen Quer-
schnitts, Helsinki.
Angervo, K. (1961) Erweiterung der Theorie der Biegung
eines Pfeilers ohne Zugfestigkeit, Helsinki.
Angervo, K., Putkonen, A.I. & Attila, U. (1957) Erweiter-
ung der Theorie der Biegung eines Pfeilers ohne
Zugfestigkeit und ihre Anwendung zur Berechnung von
Rahmentragwerken mit unbewehrten Stielen, Helsinki.
Chapman, J.C. & Slatford, J. (1957) The elastic buckling
of brittle columns. Institution of Civil Engineers Pro-
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