DESIGN OF SURFACE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

1. Introduction
The term 'surface irrigation' refers to a broad class of irrigation methods in which water is
distributed over the field by overland flow. A flow is introduced at one edge of the field and
covers the field gradually. Surface irrigation offers a number of important advantages at both the
farm and project level.
In addition, surface systems are often more acceptable to agriculturalists who appreciate
the effects of water shortage on crop yields since it appears easier to apply the depths required to
refill the root zone. Irrigation systems generally consist of four components;
1) Physical systems
2) Social and organizational systems
3) Cropping system
4) Economic systems
This chapter deals in depth with the considerations that should be taken in the design of
the physical system in general and in particular the water use sub-system. These are
1) The water supply subsystem
2) The water delivery subsystem
3) The water use subsystem
4) The water removal subsystem

A surface irrigation event is composed of four phases as illustrated graphically in Figure

1. When water is applied to the field, it 'advances' across the surface until the water extends over
the entire area. It may or may not directly wet the entire surface, but all of the flow paths have
been completed. Then the irrigation water either runs off the field or begins to pond on its
surface. The interval between the end of the advance and when the inflow is cut off is called the
wetting or ponding phase. The volume of water on the surface begins to decline after the water is
no longer being applied. It either drains from the surface (runoff) or infiltrates into the soil. For
the purposes of describing the hydraulics of the surface flows, the drainage period is segregated
into the depletion phase (vertical recession) and the recession phase (horizontal recession).
Depletion is the interval between cut off and the appearance of the first bare soil under the water.
Recession begins at that point and continues until the surface is drained. Summarising the four
distinct hydraulic phases of surface irrigation system:
 Advance phase
 Ponding (wetting storage or continuing) phase
 Depletion (vertical recession) phase
 Recession (horizontal recession) phase
 Cut off time (tco):
 Cutback irrigation
 Opportunity time (τ req):

Time is cumulative since the beginning of the irrigation, distance is referenced to the point
water enters the field. It is useful to note here that in observing surface irrigation one may not
always observe a ponding, depletion or recession phase. In basins, for example, the post-cut off
period may only involve a depletion phase as the water infiltrates vertically over the entire field.
2.1 Surface Irrigation Methods
Surface irrigation system for the specific needs will be considered with the following
factors:

• costs of the system and its appurtenances,

• field sizes and shapes,

• soil intake and water holding characteristics,

• the quality and availability (timing of deliveries, amount and duration of delivery) of the
water supply,

• climate,

• cropping patterns,

• historical practices and preferences, and

• accessibility to precision land levelling services.

Wild Flooding
 There are many cases where croplands are irrigated without regard to efficiency or
uniformity. These are generally situations where the value of the crop is very small or the field is
used for grazing or recreation purposes.

Basin Irrigation
Basin irrigation is the most common form of surface irrigation, particularly in regions
with layouts of small fields. If a field is level in all directions, is encompassed by a dyke to
prevent runoff, and provides an undirected flow of water onto the field, it is herein called a basin.
There are few crops and soils not amenable to basin irrigation, but it is generally favoured by
moderate to slow intake soils, deep-rooted and closely spaced crops.
Basin irrigation has a number of limitations, two of which, already mentioned, are
associated with soil crusting and crops that cannot accommodate inundation. Basin
irrigation can be used to apply prescribed application depths at design efficiencies of
more than 90%. Basin irrigation is suited to different crops, such as, rice, cotton,
groundnuts etc. and to soils of moderate to low intake rate (50 mm/h or less) having
smooth, gentle and uniform land slopes.
Border Irrigation
Border irrigation can be viewed as an extension of basin irrigation to sloping, long
rectangular or contoured field shapes, with free draining conditions at the lower end.
Border irrigation makes use of parallel earth rides to guide a sheet of flowing water
across a field. The land between two levees is called a border strip, simply called a
border.
Border irrigation is generally well suited to soils with moderately high intake rates
and to slopes less than 0.5 percent. The method can be classified as straight or contour
borders depending on weather the borders are running along or across the main slope.
Borders can be grouped into three major categories depending on the management
strategy adopted:
 Fixed flow
 Cutback
  Tail water reuse
Furrow Irrigation
Furrow irrigation avoids flooding the entire field surface by channelling the flow
along the primary direction of the field using 'furrows,' 'creases,' or 'corrugations'.
Furrows provide better on-farm water management flexibility under many surface
irrigation conditions. There are several disadvantages with furrow irrigation. These may
include:
(1) an accumulation of salinity between furrows;
(2) an increased level of tail water losses;
(3) the difficulty of moving farm equipment across the furrows;
(4) the added expense and time to make extra tillage practice (furrow construction);
(5) an increase in the erosive potential of the flow;
(6) a higher commitment of labour to operate efficiently; and
(7) generally furrow systems are more difficult to automate, particularly with regard
to regulating an equal discharge in each furrow.
2.2 Criteria for the selection of the various methods
The choice of irrigation system is frequently determined by certain limiting conditions
that preclude one or another of the possibilities and may leave no alternative. The important
factors that should be taken into account when determining which surface irrigation method is
most suitable: basin, border or furrow irrigation are natural circumstances (slope, soil type), type
of crop, required depth of application, level of technology, previous experiences with irrigation,
required labor input.Moreover the irrigation system for a field must be compatible with the
existing farming operations, such as land preparation, cultivation, and harvesting practices.
 Natural circumstances
 Type of crop
 Required depth of irrigation application
 Level of technology
 Required labor inputs
2.3 Hydraulic design of Surface Irrigation Systems
The design of a surface irrigation system first involves assessing the general
topographic conditions, soils, crops, farming practices anticipated and farm operators’
desires and finance for the field or farm in question. Surface irrigation systems are
designed and operated to supply the individual irrigation requirements of each field on
the farm while controlling deep percolation, runoff, evaporation and operational losses.
Properly designed and operated surface irrigation systems can enhance crop yields.
Often, however, inadequate design and management result in excessive water losses
through deep percolation and/or tail water runoff.
For example, the annual project efficiencies of some selected 16 countries (world
wide, by FAO, 1998) ranges from 13 % (Saldana in Colombia) to 99 % (Tadla in
Morocco). Design can be viewed as the process of making decisions concerning the
values of flow rate (Qo), length of channel (L), and time of cutoff (tco), prior to the onset
of every irrigation season and during the project development phase. Since the
performance of a surface irrigation system is dependent on three sets of variables;
design, management, and field variables (system parameters).
P = f ( I, So , n, Zr , G, qo , L, tco )
Where P = performance of surface irrigation
I = symbolizes the infiltration parameters
So = channel bed slope
n = hydraulic resistance
G = symbolizes geometry parameters
Zr = required amount of application
qo = unit flow rate at the head end of the channel
tco = time of cut off
L = furrow length
A. Surface irrigation Design inputs (System Parameters and System Variables)
Generally there are two types of design data inputs in surface irrigation: field parameters
and field decision variables. The designer can manipulate decision variables. They include flow
rate, the field dimensions and cut-off time. On the other hand, however, the designer cannot
influence Field parameters; they are measured or assumed properties of the given situation.
System Parameters :
1. Required amount of application (dn)
2. Maximum allowable flow velocity (Vmax)
 3. Manning’s roughness coefficient (n)
4. Channel bed slope (So)
5. Infiltration parameter (I)
6. Channel geometry
System Variabels :
1. Channel length (L)
2. Unit inlet flow rate (Qo)
3. Cutoff time (tco)
B) Surface irrigation system performance
Ideally the best surface irrigation scenario (event) is one that can apply the right amount
of water over the entire subject area and without loss, a situation which requires that equal
amount of water be applied over the entire reach of the channel. The inevitable consequence of
this is that in order to apply a certain target amount of water at a point, say down stream end of
the subject area, a larger amount must be applied at another point. These indices are collectively
referred to as performance indices. The performance of a surface irrigation event can be
evaluated from three distinct but complementary perspectives.
2.3.1 Furrow irrigation System design
To maintain proper furrow shape and reduce sediment loss from the head of the field and
deposition at the tail of the field or adjacent water way, it is desirable to operate the furrow at a
velocity that is non erosive. In most cases, after the flow has stabilized and gets uniform, the
hydraulic gradient is equal to the furrow slope. A roughness coefficient of 0.04 is normally used
for design of furrow irrigation system. The cut-off time, Tco, reflects an irrigation management
decision made by the farmer and designer. It should be an adequate length of time to infiltrate a
satisfactory depth of water over the length of the furrow with out causing excessive deep
percolation.
2.3.2. Level Basin System Design
Fields to be irrigated by a level basin system are divided in to level rectangles of limited
extent by ridges of adequate height to retain the depth of flow. As with furrow systems, empirical
relations have been developed for the design of level basin systems based on reasonably
successful designs in field situations. These relationships are a compromise between available
stream sizes, soil intake family, basin size and irrigation efficiency. The hydraulic relationships
described in this section are based on design procedures developed by the soil conservation
service and will use the intake family concept the equations in this section can be derived by
application of the continuity, infiltration and Manning’s equations with limited depth of flow.
2.3.3. Graded Border System Design
Graded border systems are similar in concept to level basin systems except that there is a
slope down the border and there may be limited cross slope. Graded border systems are most
applicable to soils with moderately low to moderately high in take rates. This method is best
suited to lands with slopes less than 0.5%. It can be used on lands of slopes up to 2% for non
grassy crops and up to approximately 4%for sod crops.
The hydraulic relationships applied are complicated Relative to level basins in that the
water applied is continuously moving down slope. Graded border systems are designed on the
principle that any point in the field should have water applied to it for a time equal to that
required to infiltrate the net depth of irrigation. Recession lag time: The time between cut- off of
water at the head of the filed and the disappearance of water at the head of the field.
Time to cut- off, Tco = Tn – Trl

1. Introduction
The term flood or surface irrigation refers to a kind of irrigation where water flows
over the soil surface under controlled conditions with the purpose of allowing the
desired amount of water to infiltrate the soil. Although soil gradient is instrumental in
setting the irrigation water in motion, the gradient of the water surface itself is in fact
what causes the water to flow over level surfaces. Another determining factor in flood
irrigation is the bordering of water.
Flood irrigation makes out more than 90% of all irrigation methods used worldwide.
There are many types of flood irrigation. These may be divided into three main categories,
namely basin irrigation, furrow irrigation and border strip (or border) irrigation. The efficiency
of a flood irrigation systems is generally low. A well-constructed flood irrigation system,
properly planned and designed and operated correctly, can be as effective as sprinkler irrigation.
The design and management of flood irrigation systems are usually more complex than for other
systems. The following interdependent factors are crucial when water is flowing over soil and
infiltrating into the soil for irrigation purposes:
  Soil type
 Soil’s tendency to crust formation and resistance to erosion
 Limiting layers in the topsoil
 Soil water level
 Flow resistance due to crops
 Weed density
 Quality of water
 Cultivation practices
 Leweling grade
 Gradient
 Soil preparation
 Stream size
 Contact time between water and soil
Principles
The human factor of a flood irrigation system, which is the farmer or his labourer,
is the key factor in determining whether it is effective and efficient. If the farmer sees to
it that his borders, furrows and basins are properly constructed, that the irrigation is
done properly and that mistakes are corrected, he is making optimal use of his
system.Whereas training will highly contribute to the success of the system, a lack thereof will
certainly ensure its failure.
Types of flood irrigation systems
 Basin
 Border
 Furrow
 Short furrow
 Furrow border (“Potch” system)
 Contour flooding
 Underground flooding
2. Factors which influence flood irrigation
 Factors which may influence flood irrigation are grouped under soil, water and system.
These factors operate separately and are mutually dependant on each other.

2.1 Soil
all types of flood irrigation, water flows over the soil surface while it infiltrates.
However, a significant percentage irrigation water infiltrates under ponded conditions.
2.1.1 Soil type
 Soil has to be well drained and at least 1 m deep
 Soil texture is a critical flood irrigation factor because the size and quantity of pores in
the soil have the highest influence on infiltration rate.
 The infiltration rate is usually low in soils with high clay content, and high in sandy soils.
 A very fine sandy soil, on the other hand, may have low infiltration rates because of a
compact structure.
 Clay soils which form deep cracks
 Soils with low infiltration rates are best irrigated by basin irrigation methods.
2.1.2 Crust formation and resistance to erosion
 Many South African soils form crusts after rain or the first irrigation.
 Crusts on steep inclinations may erode with the following irrigation
2.1.3 Limiting layers
 In the case of long border strips, limiting layers may increase the speed of the
advance front
 Less irrigation water will infiltrate in parts of a field where limiting layers occur.
2.1.4 Soil water content
 A high soil water content usually slows down the infiltration rate.
 A low soil water content usually increases the infiltration rate.
2.1.5 Cultivation
 The infiltration rate and water applied is significantly increased on freshly cultivated
soils.
 The soil surface is hardened and smoothed with each irrigation.
2.2 Vegetation
With flood irrigation, water usually flows through vegetation. The influence of vegetation
on infiltration will vary according to the growth stage, plant density, and sudden changes such as
cutting.

2.2.1 Crops
 Dense crops offer greater resistance to flowing water
 Flow resistance, and therefore also infiltration depth,
 Roots and other organic material in the soil will usually increase the infiltration rate
 Crop resistance to flow increases with plant growth and is decreased when crops are cut.
2.2.2 Weeds
 In the case of row crops, weeds may seriously retard the advance front
 Hoeing of weeds will increase the infiltration rate due to the disturbance of the soil
surface.
2.3 Water
 Flood irrigation is particularly suited for the use of occasional irrigation because the
infrastructure can be provided at low cost.
 The quality of the water may also have an influence on the infiltration rate.
2.4 System
The irrigation system consists of constructed borders, basins, furrows and canals
or pipes to convey and distribute the water according to the users requirements.
2.4.1 Gradient
 The flow rate of water increases and thus contact time decrease with steeper gradients
 Because gradients are relatively flat, small irregularities, such as humps, depressions or
cross gradients drastically affects water distribution.
2.4.2 Field preparation
 In the case of flood irrigation, field preparation may be seen as the equivalent to the laterals and
emitters of sprinkler and micro-systems.
 Water drainage systems should form an integral part of field preparation to prevent damage to borders,
basins and furrows.
 Accurately construction of systems, according to a proper design,
 Accurate construction not only improves distribution uniformity,.
  The use of laser equipment to construct flood irrigation borders within 20 mm of the desired level is
affordable and effective
2.4.3 Stream size
Infiltration depth would be less for larger streams since the contact area between water
and soil surface is less per volume of water than in case of a smaller stream. The contact time is
also shorter for the same volume of water.
2.4.4 Contact time
 The inflow time, as chosen by the irrigator, will to a great extent determine the efficiency
of the irrigation.
 In the case of basins, closed beds and furrows, the cut-off time is crucial.
 With open borders or furrows the irrigator will cut-off the stream the moment sufficient
infiltration depth is reached at the furthest end.
 The inflow time should be adjusted throughout the season to ensure an acceptable level of
efficiency.
2.4.5 Shape of border, furrow or basin
The dimensions of a basin, border or furrow determine the movement of the advance
front and the amount of water that will infiltrate, as well as the uniformity of the infiltration.
6. Planning of flood irrigation systems
6.1 Establishing needs
The farmer’s exact needs are established by discussing them with the farmer and by
observing what he has already done. What the farmer really needs and wants often differ from
what he initially says.
6.2 Water source
 What kind of water source is it?
 What is the allowed or sustainable yield of the source?
 How permanent is it according to long-term records or information available to the
farmer?
6.3 Soil types
 What types of soil are there in the proposed irrigation area?
 It is crucial that tested soil information, indicating at least texture classifications
and depth, be showed on the plan.
6.4 Climate
 Obtain long-term rainfall and minimum and maximum temperatures from the nearest weather
station in the area.
 Confirm the official rainfall and temperature figures with the farmer and other farmers in the
area.

6.5 Crop study

 Discuss with the farmer which crops he plans on planting.
 Establish the crop-water requirements by means of a computer programme
 What other requirements do the crops have?
 How sensitive are the crops to salts in the irrigation water and, if leaching is
needed to reduce alkalinity, what are the requirements?
6.6 Survey
 A proper survey of the proposed fields and surrounding areas must be done.
 All infrastructure, such as roads, fences and natural galleys must be indicated on the plan.
6.7 Choice of a flood irrigation system
Choosing a flood irrigation system is not simple. There are considerations regarding
capital layout, operating costs, complexity, influence on farm workers, vandalism, soil type, crop
type and topography.
7. Basin irrigation
Basin irrigation works on the principle of rapidly filling the basin with water to allow the
water to infiltrate evenly.
Background on basin irrigation
Basin irrigation is used all over the world and is the oldest form of irrigation. The basin is
walled with earth ridges
Functioning of basin irrigation

A determined amount of water is diverted into the irrigation basin by means of one or
more sluices, openings in the ridge or pipes over the ridge.

Layout of basins
 The bed of the basin should be level in all directions. The basin position should be
selected in such a way as to ensure minimum earth moving.
Control equipment for basins

Sluices are normally used to let water in or out. With smaller basins, the ridges are
opened or siphon pipes are placed over the ridges.

Crops suitable for basin irrigation

Basin irrigation is suitable for the irrigation of all crops.

Limitations of basin irrigation

Proper field preparation, which may be costly, is a prerequisite for effective basin
irrigation

Advantages of basin irrigation

 Energy costs are insignificant or nothing.

 Application uniformity may be 90% or higher with proper construction and management

7.2 Planning and design of basin irrigation systems

7.2.1 Choice
Basin irrigation is a good choice in cases where the natural gradient is relatively flat and
even. Permanent orchards and grazing crops are especially well suited to basin irrigation. The
farmer has to be prepared. Basin irrigation is not advised if it necessitates costly earth moving
and the farmer only wants to irrigate occasionally.
7.2.2 Soil characteristics
Establishing the infiltration rate is not critical for basin irrigation, but still important. This
may be done by using a cylinder infiltrometer, a metal cylinder of at least 300 mm in diameter,
400 mm high and 3 mm thick. If the cylinder is driven in less than 150 mm, the side effects will
be big enough to render the measurements useless. Use of a double cylinder is not advised as it
does not seem to have any advantages. The cylinder should be filled rapidly up to a depth of
about 150 mm without disturbing the soil surface inside the cylinder. This may be possible by
placing a plastic sheet inside the cylinder and quickly pulling it out just after filling it.
7.2.3 Crop characteristics
Crop-water requirements must be determined with consideration of all available
information, and, if possible, compared to experience of farmers in the area. The importance of
establishing this cannot be overemphasized. Crop yields and product quality depend on the
proper and timely application of water.

7.2.4 Surveying
An accurate survey of the field, on a grid of not larger than 25 m x 25 m, should be made
up to 25 m beyond the field borders. If computer programmes are used to set up contour plans it
should be taken into account during the survey in order for the programme to establish accurate
contour lines.
7.2.5 Layout
Different layouts may be drawn and compared with the aid of the comprehensive contour
map. Orders of magnitude may be estimated at first to investigate different layouts.
7.2.6 Advance time
Establishing advance times is especially important for basins longer than 30 m. The advance
time may not be longer 25% of the contact time. The basin sizes will be limited if the inflow rate
cannot be increased.
7.2.7 Capacity determination
 Determining cut-off time (Tc):
The amount of irrigation to be applied determines the cut-off time.
 Establish which structures are to be used before calculating their dimensions
7.2.8 Report
The report on the design should also serve as a reference for the future, containing all
important information.
 Purpose
 Assumptions
 Specification
7.3 Construction
7.3.1 Staking out
The designer should indicate the distances between basins and canals to existing beacons on the
plan to rule out further calculations.
7.3.2 Cut and fill
To ensure uniform, level basins, the soil has to be cut and filled first.
7.4 Management and control

Just as pipes, joints and emitters of sprinkler irrigation systems have to be maintained, the
irrigation basin and supply system should also be kept in repair. Soil is dynamic and will not be
level any more after a season. Maintenance should not only be done annually, but continuously
as the farmer or irrigator identifies a problem in the system.
7.5 Design example - basin irrigation
A farmer in the Cradock district has a field of 19 ha which he desires to plant with lucerne. He
chooses basin irrigation because it is simple and affordable. All other information must be obtained
by the designer himself.
Solution:
a. Soil
The soil is a relatively homogeneous loam with a depth of at least 1 m.
b. Crop
According to the “Estimated Irrigation Requirements of Crops in South Africa” an irrigation
requirement of 6,5 mm/day for the peak month December will be sufficient for this crop and
many others that he may wish to plant.
c. Cycle
According to the soil surveys the soil water capacity is WHC 100 = 110 mm/m. The available
water, AW = WHC100 x ERD (effective root depth).
d. Survey
The field is surveyed with the required grid of 25 m x 25 m and the contour map is drawn.
e. Layout
The layout is done keeping a 50 mm application and a cycle length of 8 days in mind
f. Cut-off time
According to Table 15.8, the minimum gross application for loam soil with a basin length of 50
m, an n value of 0,15, and irrigation stream of 20 m3/h is 40 mm.
8 Border irrigation
In this chapter, a border implies a strip of soil with uniform gradient over the length of
the border which is bordered by ridges. A border should not have any cross gradient.
8.1 Description of system
This irrigation system requires the use of canals and/or pipes, as well as borders, the
finishing and condition of soil and the use of surface drainage.
8.1.1 Background
 Border irrigation is commonly used in South Africa. It is generally used for grain crops
and is especially suited to grazing crops such as lucerne.
8.1.2 Layout
Gradients over the length usually vary between 1:150 and 1:1 000. The length of borders
vary between 50 m and 400 m.
8.1.3 Functioning
The irrigation stream, 50 to 500 m³/h, is diverted into the border at the top end. Thereafter it
flows in a wide front down to the bottom to allow the required amount of water to infiltrate the
soil profile.
8.1.4 Control equipment
With traditional border irrigation systems the irrigation stream is diverted into the border
by opening the earth conveyance furrow while the furrow is being pounded. It is difficult to
maintain a high degree of efficiency with this kind of system, because the irrigation stream
cannot be cut off in time.
8.1.5 Crops
There is no limitation on the crops that may be cultivated in border irrigation systems.
Broadcast crops are especially suited to border irrigation.
8.1.6 Limitations
 Costly field preparation is often necessary to properly construct the borders
 Topsoil depth is also limiting because only half of it may be cut away
 For effective irrigation the irrigation stream must be constant, controlled and manageable.
8.1.7 General advantages
 The system requires little or no energy costs.
 With proper construction and management the application uniformity (AU) in
border irrigation is 80% or better.
8.2 Design of border irrigation system
8.2.1 Establishing the needs
In many cases where the design of a border irrigation system is required, it is to upgrade
an existing system.
8.2.2 Soil characteristics
The infiltration rate of the soil is one of the most crucial factors in border irrigation.
8.2.3 Crop characteristics
Crops such as lucern and Kikuyu give resistance to the advance front, in this way
increasing the irrigation application. When the crop is cut, this property changes drastically.

8.2.4 Surveying
An accurate survey of the whole irrigation field, and up to the water source where
possible, should be done. The spot heights should preferably be done on a grid format with
dimensions of between 20 m x 20 m and 50 m x 50 m where the field gradient is uniform.
8.2.5 Layout
The complete contour map may be drawn by hand, but the use of a computer programme
is preferable because it simplifies the making of adjustments.
8.2.6 Determining capacity
The final layout as agreed upon, makes it possible to calculate stream size, advance times
and application depths. The supply system may now also be determined.
8.2.7 Report
The report often is the only guideline the farmer has regarding his irrigation system. The
report should indicate clearly what the design provides.
8.3 Construction
8.3.1 Staking out
The final plan should be drafted out in such a way, containing all the necessary
information, that it will be possible to use the plan for staking out the field.
8.3.2 Cutting and filling
The cutting and filling process is meant to minimise the cross gradients, while making the
gradients over the length uniform. Determining the cutting depth and filling level may be done as
explained in the section for basin irrigation, but unfortunately it is rather cumbersome to do by
hand. Computer programmes may simplify the task considerably.
8.4 Management and maintenance
The maintenance of borders are to ensure that the border surface does not change due to
cultivation. Damage to ridges should also be repaired regularly. Borders have to be repaired
every year, or just before new crops are planted. Care should also be taken with the maintenance
of the supply system because leakages usually go undetected.
8.5 Design example - border irrigation
A farmer in the Hartswater district has a 25 ha field which he wants to plant with
lucern. The soil is sandy and at least 1,5 m deep

9. Furrow irrigation
9.1 Description of the system
This irrigation system lends itself especially to the use of equipment such as siphon pipes
which simplifies its functioning.
9.1.1 Background
Furrow irrigation may be used in many applications, from highly sophisticated to
minimum technology level.
9.1.2 Functioning
Irrigation furrows are usually made by means of a tractor and implements.

9.1.3 Layout
Furrows need to have a uniform moderate gradient in the flow direction.

9.1.4 Control equipment

Furrows are often only supplied with irrigation water by opening the sidewalls of an earth
supply channel. It is almost impossible to divide the water equally with this system.
9.1.5 Crops
Usually row crops are irrigated by means of furrows. Crops of which the leaves should
not be wetted are especially suited to furrow irrigation.
9.1.6 Limitations
 Management has to be of high quality to achieve high levels of efficiency because
application is sensitive to application time, gradient, furrow length and flow rates.
 Farm traffic is severely hampered by furrows.

9.1.7 Advantages
  Furrows could be constructed according to the natural topography, thus leaving no need
for
expensive field preparation.
 Because partial wetting is applied, irrigation water is used effectively.

9.2 Designing a furrow irrigation system

9.2.1 Establishing the needs

If topography makes border irrigation impractical, furrow irrigation often is the
alternative. Crops also play an important role in choosing this type of irrigation, for instance, if
cultivation methods already require the use of ridges and furrows. The only factor that can ensure
a successful furrow irrigation system is the willingness of the farmer to operate the system
properly and to make improvements.
9.2.2 Soil characteristics
Soil characteristics play a decisive role in furrow irrigation, for example:
 The soil forms a crust after the first irrigation either because of its inherent properties, or
because the water has a high pH content. This means decreased infiltration and, usually, erosion
at the end of the furrow.
9.2.3 Crop properties
Practically, only row crops, such as tomatoes, cabbages, leafy vegetables, sugar cane and
sweet corn, are suited for furrow irrigation.
9.2.4 Survey
A pre-irrigation design without proper surveying is impossible to do. The main reason is
that detail planning is required according to the contour lines.
9.2.5 Layout
With the contour map available, various layout possibilities may be considered. If a
contour furrow system is used, it is possible to irrigate from any of both ends, and therefore both
sides have to be investigated on each section.
9.2.6 Capacity determination
 Final balancing between crop, soil and irrigation water could now be undertaken.

9.2.7 Report
The report on the system should be complete enough to also serve as a guide to the
farmer and should therefore be easily and clearly understood.

9.3 Construction
9.3.1 Staking out
Staking out the contour furrows are difficult because of the varying curves. The same
staking out method for contour furrows may be used as for contour intervals.
9.3.2 Cutting and filling
Little or no cutting and filling take place while creating contour furrows.

9.3.3 Laser equipment

Apart from the common use for creating an average flat surface in a field, laser
equipment may also be used to accurately stake out gradients.
9.4 Management and maintenance
Broken furrow ridges are equivalents of leaking pipes and must be prevented and
immediately repaired.
9.5 Design example - Furrow irrigation
A farmer in Gauteng near Kempton Park has a field of 9 ha which he wants to irrigate.
He has a perennial borehole of 50 m³/h and wants to cultivate cabbage exclusively.
Solution:
 Soil
 Water
 Infiltration rate
 Crop water requirements
 Flow rate
 Layout
 Irrigation depth
 Cycle length
 System