1 CHAPTER 4: EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE PERSPECTIVES

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Leadership is known for its multidimensional aspects and this chapter aims to address and
intellectualize this concept as derived from literature. Leadership is delved into from its core
concepts with mentioning of different approaches highlighting latest developments accrued in
leadership on different fronts like transformation, positive, authentic and Ubuntu styles of
leaderships. For success of leadership, an effectual leadership is prerequisite, hence discussion
on effectiveness of leadership and why its need is felt is part of common discussion. In the last,
the pertinent literatures deal with three dimensions of leadership styles employed for the
research conducted by this study. These are transformational, transactional and laissez-faire
like leadership styles. Experts are divided on the effectiveness of leaders from non-leaders. As
stated by Herbst and Maree (2008), this discussion begins with summarized definition of
leadership in the words of reflecting capability to get an objective reality as a result of a vision
(Alon & Higgins, 2005, p. 502).

1.2 INTELLECTUALIZING LEADERSHIP

Many attributes and dimensions support the subject of leadership. In nutshell, leadership is
supposed to finely tune with human behavior its management and understanding. According to
Hitt (1993, p. 5), leadership is a form of a natural art and course of action to influence people
for developing their inherent urge to work willingly to achieve common goals. Groenewald,
(2008) agrees to these findings and adds to state that leadership maneuvers to move people and
develop situations to earn profits. Leadership develops persuasiveness among its followers
instead of merely commanding them for control (Charlton, 1993; Goleman, 1995 & Locke,
1991). Leadership therefore, monitors the movement of all stakeholders according to their
distinct outcomes. Ilbury (2004) delineates the role of a leadership that rises to uncertain
occasions and point out ways not envisioned by other than a leader and many to follow eagerly.
A real leader finds prospects amidst doubts and confusion (Ilbury, 2004, p. 45). In this
background, leadership unfolds complexity lies beneath a phenomenon demanding a set of
finely tuned skills to deal with leadership anomalies and impotent decisions that prove costly
at individual and collective organizational levels.
Mayer, (2004) takes into account the different dimensions of leadership in its particular context
this may be either emotional, cultural, spiritual, cultural or organizational at a certain point of
time. A score of issues were identified like empowering and average persons to get amazing
performance, managing the tough events of life in an exceptional manner involving people to
achieve goal-oriented purpose educating them about their origin, contemporary situation, view
point and predictions (where they are heading) comprehending the trend of their followers.
Furthermore, leaders are required to give weightage to live in diversity, follow agreed upon
moral principles and virtuous standards to recognize and develop prospective leaders (by
adopting succession planning) and emit progressive energy (Meyer, 2004). Leadership must
live with its unique contextual background which provide leaders operative dimensions to
navigate in psychodynamic and organizational sectors to broaden its understanding (Ilbury,
2004). Leaders are required to construe the situational plight and suggest practical solutions to
improve the plight. Leaders like Gandhi, Hitler, Thatcher and Mandela are known for their
achievements and capacity to offer solutions to the issues emerging from disastrous conditions.

Alon and Higgins (2005) establish that cultural impact moderate cognitive intelligence (IQ),
emotional intelligence and skills supporting leadership to lead people and their groups and
involvement of diverse cultural differences. This is what referred to as “cultural intelligence”
(Alon & Higgins, 2005, p. 503). The above points lead to deduce that leadership needs to be
studied in a particular context and leaders must take into account the contextual conditions and
the series of emotions in relation to a peculiar context to lead their people in teams to get to the
defined goals. Every leadership is situational so may get alike skills. These views are in
consonance of Collins’ views enunciated in the book authored by him in “Good to Great” book.
The author was able to identify the ways business organizations get to success and destines to
great from goodness. It was claimed that it is not the distinct strategy or knowledge that helped
to gain success but it was the unique and conclusive leadership style that creates win win
situation for leadership. Two features such as personal will as well as humility are required to
reflect in leadership particularly that influences business performance (Collins, 2001).

1.3 STYLES ASSOCIATED WITH LEADERSHIP

Research on leadership is getting popularity throughout the world. Many reviews have tried to
conduct research to capture changes in the extant field and considered a range of styles.
Literature is evident of paramount interest through abundant of work on transformational and
transactional leadership (Antonakis & House, 2002).
Work carried out by Schriesheim, Wu and Scandura (2007) confer that leadership has been a
potent interest bearing area for research belongs to the field of transformational and
transactional leadership. A ‘multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)’ was identified as
the popularly employed instrument to measure transactional and transformational leadership
(Antonakis & House, 2002). This research finds its basis grounded on the observations that led
to choose the three types of leadership styles. Therefore, ‘multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
(MLQ)’ was selected as a capacitated instrument employed to support the findings of the
current research work, to examine the presence of leadership styles among sample selected for
the study and emerged as an established psychometric tool pertinent to the study. This research
study therefore, employs ‘the multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ, X5)’ presented by
Avolio and Bass (1997) to analyze the diverse styles of leadership. The styles belong to
transactional and transformational management styles with presence of the laissez-faire. The
following paragraph throws light on the styles and their allied categories.

Laissez-faire: It represents the non-transactional style of leadership or reflexive behavior

reflected by the leader. This style of leadership is inactive and proves fragile to adopt a clear
stance in resolving issues as per expectations. The style of laissez-faire is passive in its sense
with no involvement of tangible leadership or evade interference or in both forms. When
required leader is not there (Avolio & Bass, 2004; Bass, 1997; Vrba, 2007).

1.3.1 Transactional Leadership Theory

Characterized by the use of extrinsic rewards to motivate employees (Chandan and Devi,
2014), the transactional style of leadership was introduced by (Bass and Avolio, 1997) adding
to the transformational leadership style. Worthwhile to mention that transactional leadership
style is grounded by exchange and social learning theories. Transactional kind of leadership is
branded by the bureaucratic mark of authority, strictly adhered by the employees, legalized
working modes with organizational stick (punishment) and carrot (rewards) policy to lay its
impact on behaviour and performance of employees (Burns, 1978). According to (Bass, 1990),
transactional leadership involves reward on contingency basis, objective management (active)
and subjective management (passive). Reward granted on contingency basis finds its basis on
the leader-follower relationship (Masi and Cooke, 2000).

‘Management-by-exception’ approach actively deals with detection of lapses while dealing

with organizational performance (Lai, 2011) whilst ‘Management-by-exception” approach
delineates leadership attitude how does it reacts to certain conditions (Lai, 2011; Bass and
Avolio, 1990).

1.3.2 Relationship between Transformational and EI

The current literature portrays concept of leadership read with the conception of EI as
paramount key for understanding employees having outstanding abilities and resultant
organizational performance (Goleman, 1998). Goleman states that an individual is not able to
exhibit sound leadership qualities without having a certain degree of EI even he has sound
technical and intellectual abilities. This brings effectiveness in leadership style when one
acquires the ability to comprehend and exercise regulatory control on self and others’ emotions

(George, 2000). Research studies conducted on empirical lines explained positive and
significant relationship between leadership as well as EI as reviewed through the different
research works.

A study executed in the USA with eighty sample size selected from among public employees
examined the effects emitted by ETI on transformational leadership (Barbuto and Burbach,
2006). A three to six staffers study directly reported to every leader, found to reveal results that
EI contributes to make leadership effective in organizational operational activity particularly
the transformational leadership style was found correlated with EI positively and significantly.
A study conducted recently confirmed the correlation of transformational leadership with EI
and complement each other positively while applying (Naznin, 2013). It was found that in
transformational style, leaders displayed properties of emotional intelligence. Moreover, on
investigating the relationship of leadership with EI at senior management level within an
organization, findings revealed that a strong relationship exists between constituent elements
of EI and leadership (Gardner and Stough, 2002). In addition to the relationship of EI with two
styles of leadership i.e. transformational and transactional, the study was able to confirm that
leadership that exhibited transformational style successfully managed their self and feelings of
subordinates, thus reflecting a lot of borrowings from emotional intelligence in their workplace
environment (Gardner and Stough, 2002). This affirms the position that leaders those exhibit
transformational nature in their style of leadership as compared to transactional, they were
found emotionally intelligence to a greater extent. EI therefore, emerged as a strong predictor
of having transformational style. This findings provided ample testimony in support of claim
made by Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) transformational leadership style is constituted
by elements contributed by EI. An exploratory research study executed by Barling, Slater and
Kelloway (2000) dig further the dimensions encompassing both styles of leadership i.e.
transactional and transformational and their respective link with EI. The study worked on a
sample size of sixty management levels such as general managers, middle manager, supervisors
and vice presidents and put forth its conclusion with the findings that employees perceive their
leadership more transformational in behaviour when they exhibit high degree of EI comparing
with those display behaviours pertaining to transactional leadership style.

Such style of leadership understands the needs of followers and bears a great degree of clarity
to meet these needs. This kind of leadership works well in a goal oriented motivational
environment to lead their followers from the front. However, this leadership style i.e.
transactional style carries a number of deficiencies in the long term basis as focusing the long
term development and considering to bring meaningful change in an organization is missing in
such case of leadership. This study took into account the sub-elements pertaining to the
transactional style of leadership:

 Management by exception-under active style of leadership, leaders actively monitor

mistakes systematically and take notice if any deviation causes to occur of the
standards, corrective actions are taken accordingly with the occurrence of mistakes;
 In another style of management by exception that follows passive style, when leaders
notify the occurrence of anomalies and take measures to correct these anomalies but in
most of the cases, intervene in case of wrong doing and take appropriate corrective
measures (Bass, 1997; Avolio & Bass, 2004, p. 97).

1.3.3 Transformational leadership.

According to Goleman (2005), leadership should be taken as an art of appealing somebody to

lead the strides in a direction of achieving a common goal. Devir, Eden, Avolio and Shamir
(2002, p. 735) took one step further and condensed the philosophy of transformational
leadership in terms of winning the heart and mind of followers by giving them confidence to
give performance further than expectations implicitly and explicitly found in a change
arrangement. Transformational leadership make a great contribution to shape the development
of fundamental set of beliefs and values of its ideological followers so influence their attitudes
that constitutes a vital building block of leaders and market relationship as found in the case of
market challenges modeled in Southern Africa (Vrba, 2007). The transformational leadership
rises to stimulate receptiveness and willingness within the domain of organizations,
contributing to augment self-confidence on individual and group level striving to develop
subordinates to accomplish and expand the task instead of merely talking of survival (Gardener
& Stough, 2002). By engaging followers in work, transformational leadership works to
maximize production, and profits along with customer satisfaction (Zhu, Avolio, &
Walumbwa, 2009).

Literature is evident that transformational leaders get more appreciation, trust and being liked
more (Avolio & Bass, 2004). Whilst the transactional style of leadership mainly focuses to get
understanding of individual needs, the transformational style of leadership concentrates
attainment of objectives of high order mainly around organizational needs and survival in a
dynamic environment.

1.4 DOES LEADERSHIP AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE MATTER?

It was in 1990 that the concept of emotional intelligence gained prominence. It appeared as a
concept of dealing effectively with emotions found in self and in others. The term emotional
intelligence has been defined by Salovey & Mayer (1990) as the ability of perceiving,
appraising and expressing emotions and the ability of processing emotional information,
understand emotions, generate feelings and regulate emotions for both the intellectual as well
as the emotional growth. The corporate world is also widely utilizing the concept of emotional
intelligence after Goleman (1995) published his book, Emotional Intelligence. The term is
defined by him as the capacity of an individual to recognize his own feelings and that of other
persons for motivating and managing emotions. It represents the ability of recognizing
emotions and understanding why your emotions are casting an impact on the ones around you.
Over the course of years the definitions about emotional intelligence have been refined by the
researchers and academics. Salovey & Mayer (1997) said that emotional intelligence is the
ability to accurately perceive, appraise and express emotions. They further added that
emotional intelligence involves the ability of accessing or generating feelings for facilitating
the thought. It includes an individual’s ability of understanding emotional knowledge and that
of regulating emotions so that intellectual and emotional growth can be promoted. Emotional
intelligence is also linked with the success of leaders. (Bradbuey, et al. 2009)

The banking sector involves the environment where employees are highly engaged in financial
transactions which also involve complex transactions. The routine is overly busy and complex
on daily basis (Rizwan, et al. 2014). Their emotions are prone to be influenced by the
interaction with different behaviours of customers while maintaining the same standard of
work. Therefore, it can be exhaustive for their emotions to compose themselves throughout the
day. That is why emotional intelligence is the concept to deal with such issues particularly with
respect to leadership which faces more complex situations. (Kessler, et al. 2013)

Bar-on (1996) observed that emotional prowess is common to all types of leadership. This is
also known as emotional intelligence. It is the ability of the leader to accurately perceive,
appraise and express emotions and also involves his ability of accessing or generating feelings
for facilitating the thoughts. (Salovey and Mayer, 1990, p. 10)

The emotions of the workforce cannot be denied which can affect their performance at the
workplace and their relationship with colleagues. The significance of emotions can thus not be
denied. That is why it is vital for leadership to understand the importance of emotions and
relevance of emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence enables the leadership to manage
the emotions of the workforce. (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995)

Emotional intelligence is the vital skill required on part of leader to manage the emotions of
their workforce (Sosik & Megerian, 1999; Goleman, 1998). Goleman (1998) also pointed out
that there is 80 to 90 percent contribution of emotional intelligence in the competence of
leadership. He further stated that this skill distinguishes successful leaders from ordinary ones.
Researchers have also shown that emotional intelligence influences the performance of the
workforce (Tung, et al. 2014; Jorfi, et al. 2010). Successful management of emotional
intelligence reduces the turnover rate of employees (Gardner & Stough, 2003; Siddiqui &
Hassan, 2013).

Therefore, when employees feel that their needs are being understood by the leaders they then
strive to perform better (Korkmaz & Arpaci, 2009). However, when they see that their
emotional needs are not being addressed they tend to become dissatisfied and their performance
level goes down (Ayoko, et al. 2003). That is why it is in the very interest of the organizations
to take interest in emotional intelligence competence of their leaders as such competency can
bring about favourable results from workforce through emotion management by leadership.
There are different types of leadership e.g. ethical, charismatic, adaptive, servant, authentic,
dispersed, transformational, transcendent, laissez-faire, transactional, etc. However, the ones
employed by the organizations for best emotional management includes transactional and
transformational leadership styles.

1.5 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

The literature has also thrown much light on effect of emotions on workplace. Hochschild
(1983) and Goleman (1995) found out that emotional intelligence is crucial for the successful
management of workforce at the workplace. Furthermore, a study conducted with respect to
emotional intelligence and leadership found out that both the workers and leaders tend to
express themselves through their emotions at workplace. That is why emotional intelligence is
of paramount importance to be understood and it is imperative that the leadership possesses the
competency in this regard. (McColl-Kennedy and Anderson, 2002).

This shows that emotions cannot be prevented from being in play at workplace because
emotions influence both the leaders and the workers at the organizations. However, it is equally
imperative to understand that such emotions can be understood and managed by the leadership
to the best interest of the organization. The fact that the existence and arising of emotions
cannot be prevented only necessitates the understanding of emotional intelligence. (Caruso and
Salovey, 2004; Lam and O'Higgins, 2012).

Carmeli (2003) observed that emotional intelligence is regarded as a major influence on the
behaviours, positive attitudes, and results of the employees at the workplace. That is why
organizations these days require emotional intelligence as a necessary competence on part of
the leaders (Goleman, 1998; Dulewicz, et al. 2005). Emotional intelligence is also regarded by
organizations as more important than intellectual and technical intelligence for the position of
leadership in an organization (Goleman, et al. 2002; Dulewicz, et al. 2005; Duskat & Wolff,
2001). Goleman (1995) pointed out that the success in life is 20% because of intellectual
intelligence and 80% due to factors making up emotional intelligence. Neely-Martinez (1997)
pointed out that 80% of the success in life is due to emotional intelligence.

The concept of emotional intelligence has broadly been defined and explained by the
researchers and academics. The prominent scholars on emotional intelligence include Mayer
& Salovey (1997), Bar-on (1996) and Goleman (1995). However, it is imperative to understand
that despite the fact that these authors defined the concept of emotional intelligence differently,
their research is not contradictory to each other but complimentary to each other. For example,
Goleman (1995) described emotional intelligence as the ability of an individual to remain self-
motivated, control his impulses, regulate his moods, delay gratification, manage and recognize
his feelings and empathize. Further, he defined emotional intelligence as the capacity of an
individual to recognize his feelings and also that of others so that he could motivate himself
and manage his emotions and that of his subordinates. Bar-on (1996) defined emotional
intelligence in broader terms that it involves the abilities such as independence, self-awareness,
empathy, social responsibility, interpersonal relationship, stress tolerance, problem solving,
happiness, impulse control and optimism (Zeng & Miller, 2001).

There are many components in which emotional intelligence has been divided. For example,
Goleman (1998) divided the concept into five dimensions e.g. self-regulation, self-awareness,
empathy, motivation, and social skills. Boyatzis (et al. 2000) divided the concept into four
components: self-management, self-awareness, relationship management, and social
awareness. The three components of Goleman’s (1998) approach i.e. self-regulation, self-
awareness, and motivation represent the self-management skills whereas the social and
empathy skills are related with the ability of the person for managing their relationship.
Boyatzis (et al. 2000) described this as relationship management. These terms are explained
further below:

Self-awareness is related to the knowledge about emotions about one’s own self. IT is the
ability to acknowledge the feelings as soon as they take place. This is regarded as the crucial
factor of emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1996). Self-regulation on the other hand
necessitates the reflective approach whereby the feelings are being taken into account before
they are being expressed by the individual. This means that the individual liberates himself
from being caged by his own feelings (Goleman, 2006). Motivation is the vital element of all
leaderships and is regarded as a vital competence of leadership (Goleman, 1998). Empathy
refers to the considering and understanding about the employees’ feelings while arriving at the
decisions for the organizations and workforce (Goleman, 1998). Social skills represent the
leaders’ ability of consciously building and maintaining relationship by being aware that such
relationships are essential for maintaining the productivity of the workforce at the workplace
(Goleman, 2006).

1.6 SELF-EFFICACY
Self-efficacy can be traced back to the work of Albert Bandura when he propagated the social
cognitive theory. Bandura (1994) defined self-efficacy as the beliefs of people about their
potential of producing desired level of performance which influences the events affecting the
lives. The cognitive aspect of self-efficacy is context specific as well as task specific (Bandura,
1977). Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people think, feel, motivate themselves and behave
in particular circumstances. Bandura (1997) recommended that self-efficacy beliefs represents
the learned and active trait of a person and as such it is not a passive trait. DeMoulin (1993)
studied self-efficacy for eight years and increased the definition of the concept to involve a
sensation which is non-restrictive and is based on the interrelationship of confidence,
motivation and stress which demonstrates a quality performance and a degree of effectiveness
towards particular task, situation of responsibility. Bandura (1994) also identified four ways
whereby people develop self-efficacy. These include vicarious experience, mastery experience,
physiological state, and social persuasion. Maddux (1995) argued to include two more factors:
emotional states, and imaginary experiences.

The most effective and prominent source of efficacy is mastery experience as it is based on the
experience of an individual. Each successful completion of a task prepares a person for
challenging tasks ahead. Heslin & Klehe (2006) argued that for the purpose of ensuring high
level of success it is essential to break down challenging tasks into smaller parts to make it
convenient to achieve. Self-efficacy generally start to accrue to other situations once a complex
task is achieved. Bandura (1986) had argued that even long term failures which an individual
eventually overcomes also add into self-efficacy.
Vicarious experience represents developing self-efficacy by seeing other people succeeding
through a situation in which an individual finds himself. However, self-efficacy can also get
lowered when a person sees other persons failing in a similar situation in which he himself is.
There are certain factors highlighted by Bandura (1986) which affect the vicarious experiences
of a person with respect to self-efficacy e.g. little previous experience, uncertainty about one’s
own potential, and criteria of social evaluation.

Social persuasion includes the verbal persuasion as well. It is also one of the processes to
develop self-efficacy. This means that persuasion enables the individuals to undertake a
particular task and its achievement can develop self-efficacy. When people are persuaded to do
a particular task and are told about the potential they possess, they are likely to place more
efforts to achieve the task they are told about. However, it can also have a converse effect i.e.
a person can lose self-efficacy if he is repeatedly told that he cannot do a particular thing and
that he lacks the potential to do it.

An individual’s own physiological state also helps him in developing self-efficacy. A stressful
reaction to a tension by an individual represents his sign of vulnerability. Those who possess
high level of self-efficacy get energized to perform better whereas people with low level of
self-efficacy indulge into self-doubt (Bandura, 1994). Imagery experiences represent the ability
of a person to rehearse the task that is entrusted with him (Maddux, 1995). It involves two-fold
visualization of the task. If the visualization is positive it can produce a positive result but if it
is negative, then it can produce a negative result. Kazdin (1979) observed that an improvement
in assertive behaviour can be found through imagery modelling for enhancing self-efficacy.

Emotional stage represents the final stage of the model. Emotional state of the mind influences
the level of self-efficacy in an individual. A calm person is more self-efficacious than a
distressed or aroused person (Maddux, 1995). The level of self-efficacy can be impacted by the
magnitude of mood at a particular moment such as being positive as compared to being slightly
positive. The level of self-efficacy is also influenced by the interpretation of developmental
levels by a person. Bandura (1986) stated that if it is believed by a person that he possesses the
potential for successfully deciding the outcomes through persistence and effort then his
performance increases and so does his self-efficacy. The successful performances yields the
feeling to achieve more in the times to come.
The significance of the concept of self-efficacy is further supported by the works of Covington
(1984), Bandura (1982) and Dimmock & Hattie (1996). There are several positive attributes
possessed by the people who have strong self-efficacy sense. This includes believing in their
capabilities to undertake complex tasks, staying engaged with the task, identifying the complex
goals, and maintaining strong level of communication and sustained efforts. Failures happen
due to lack of sufficient knowledge or effort. People who continue to exert efforts produce
accomplishments which can reduce their anxiety, stress and depression levels (Pajares &
Schunk, 2001). However, people who have lower self-efficacy level perceive difficult tasks as
threat and tend to avoid them instead of conquering them. In the wake of thirty difficult tasks,
a person who has low self-efficacy level will not concentrate on task but will rely on obstacles
of encountering the tasks, adverse results and personal deficiencies to avoid the undertaking of
the task. (Bandura, 1994)

People who have low self-efficacy level tend to believe in the toughness of the task instead of
their potential (Pajares & Schunk, 2001). Low level of self-efficacy can often cause a sense of
hopelessness and helplessness in an individual about his potential to cope with difficulties and
challenges (Heslin & Klehe, 2006). It was in 1970s that much of the research with respect to
self-efficacy started to take place. It began with the focus on the role of teachers that they can
influence the performance of the students. This enabled the researcher to identify the
relationship between success and efficacy. This then led to developing and studying the concept
of self-efficacy (Moore & Esselman, 1992; Ashton & Web, 1986; Ross, 1992). It was found
out that those teachers who possessed lower level of self-efficacy were found to be in self-
doubt, anxiety and worry which created psychological distress whereas teachers with high self-
efficacy managed the negative experiences effectively. (Schwarzer & Greenglass, 1999).

Self-efficacy is examined and has been defined in both general and global constructs of
personality (Eden, 2004). It has also been defined with respect to particular variables for
specific ambit (Schwarzer & Fuchs, 1995). It has also been explained with respect to particular
tasks for the aim of predicting situational behaviour (Bandura, 1977). For the purpose of
overcoming this dichotomy a new instrument is constructed by Tschannen & Woolfolk (2001)
related with self-efficacy of teacher characterized by balance search between generalizability
and particularity. This implies that certain factors are particularly associated with self-efficacy
and can enable the researchers to explore skills which are considered vital with respect to
teacher for teaching well without being specific and thereby making it impossible for
comparing teachers which come from different levels or contexts (Chacon, 2005).

Chan (2004) conducted a study in which he employed a general scale of self-efficacy.

However, the current thesis does not employ the general scale of self-efficacy, it utilizes the
specific self-efficacy for analysing the relationship between emotional intelligence and the self-
efficacy of teachers. Goleman (1995) is arguably the first researcher to popularize the concept
of emotional intelligence. However, it has also been argued that Salovery & Mayer (1990) first
employed the word of emotional intelligence. This term was used by Salovery & Mayer (1990)
for describing the ability of the individuals for monitoring their feelings and emotions and that
of others. This information about self and others can be employed by emotionally intelligent
people for guiding their action and thought process. Mayer & Salovery (1997) broadened their
definition about emotional intelligence by including the capacity of perceiving emotions,
assimilating the feelings related to emotions, understanding the information about such
emotions and managing them. In this renewed definition, emotional intelligence is projected as
a concept comprising abilities which is in association with motivation. Therefore, this
assessment helped in the development of a framework which enables the researchers to identify
the particular skills required for understanding and experiencing emotions in an adaptive
manner so that personal development and growth can be facilitated.

On the basis of the model developed by Salovery & Mayer (1990) a framework was developed
by Schutte (et al. 1998) which included self-report scale of emotional intelligence comprising
33 items. This is called Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS). However, the scale is not universal
in nature and is more conceptual in nature. This scale can be expanded just like the concept can
be broadened. Other studies differentiated elements which are associated with information
processing emotional intelligence and trait emotional intelligence (Petrides & Furnham, 2000).
That is why such scale can be employed for helping the identification of individuals who can
manage their emotions well and the ones who are prone to mishandle their emotions. Further,
the scale will also be useful in identifying those individuals who score “at-risk” and they can
be referred for guidance and counselling so that their emotional intelligence can be made better.
Further, peer to peer connection can also be utilized in this regard to improve the emotional
intelligence of the individual who scores low by the one who scores higher. (Greenberg, 2002)

The term of “self-efficacy” was collected from the social cognitive theory of Bandura (1977).
This highlights the significance of various elements which can influence and shape the
behaviour of the individual. Duffy & Lent (2009) was defined by self-efficacy as the belief of
an individual about his potential to perform particular actions or behaviours needed for
achieving a specific objective. Schwarzer & Hallum (2008) and Jorde-Bloom (1986) argued
that the self-efficacy of any person will affect his anticipation level about specific event either
pessimistically or optimistically and resultantly dictate the persons behavioural or motivational
intention. Therefore, those with higher self-efficacy level will ultimately set higher objectives
and goals for themselves and display stronger commitment and determination for ultimate
success.

The teacher self-efficacy was defined by Skaalvik & Skaalvik (2010) as the belief that a
particular educational objective can be achieved by someone through enforcement of many
strategies e.g. lesson planning, organization of lessons, classroom activities, etc. Giallo & Little
(2003) pointed that the self-efficacy of the teacher highlights his general ability about himself.
Moe (et al. 2010) and Fives (et al. 2007) defined teacher self-efficacy as their belief in their
own competence and their potential of handling complex tasks. It has also been defined as the
extent to which confidence is possessed by teachers for bringing about change in students
(Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Ashton, 1985). It has been argued by Bandura (1994) that an
improvement is seen in motivation of students and their cognitive development when they are
taught by the teacher who possesses high level of self-efficacy. Skaalvik & Skaalvik (2007)
observed that educational outcomes are highly dependent on the self-efficacy level of the
teacher. Moreover, it influences the teacher’s own personality positively too as it enhances
their performance involving the methods of teaching, commitment and enthusiasm. Teachers
with higher self-efficacy level have higher persistence and resilience to face challenges and
overcome setbacks. Such teachers also tend to be less strict on their students and give them
ample of time to overcome their struggle (Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Ashton & Webb, 1986;
Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk, 2001).

Schwarzer & Hallum (2008) recommended an association between self-efficacy of individual

and their tendency of pessimism or optimism. This could be a prominent element to decide
about how long one would want to be a part of teaching profession. It is concluded by Caprara
(et al. 2006) that those teachers who have high self-efficacy level are successful as compared
to the ones with low level of self-efficacy.
1.6.1 Relationship between self-efficacy of teacher and emotional intelligence
A growing body of literature is suggesting that there exists a relationship between self-efficacy
and emotional intelligence (Drew, 2006). Sutton & Wheatley (2003) recommended that if
teacher’s efficacy faces substantial variation then it can result in part from variance in the
emotional intelligence of the teacher. Chan (2004) observed that self-efficacy belief was highly
influenced by emotional intelligence. Morris-Rothschild & Brassard (2006) observed that those
who showed high level of emotional intelligence were also able to cope up with changing
situations around them whereas those who had lower level of emotional intelligence found it
difficult to deal with changing situations around them.

Penrose (et al. 2007) observed a significant relationship between self-efficacy and emotional
intelligence. Salami (2007) also observed the same relationship with respect to teachers
working in secondary schools in Southwest Nigeria. Chan (2008) conducted an investigation
into relationship between emotional intelligence and self-efficacy with respect to pre-service
and in-service teachers in Hong Kong. His study looked at the relationship as a source of active
and passive coping strategy. He found out that those who were in strong control of their
emotions were the ones who developed strong self-efficacy. A number of studies have
published since 2008 which demonstrated a positive relationship between various aspects of
emotional intelligence and self efficacy in teachers. (Abdolvahabi, Bagheri, Haghighi &
Karimi, 2012)

1.7 CULTURE

Cultural Intelligence known as versatile capability included cultural knowledge, the experience
of mindfulness and range of attitude skills (Stough, Roberts, & Downey, 2011). It considered
an ability that permits the persons to how know about culture and act according to range of
these cultures (Igbinovia, & Popoola, 2016). Elements of cultural intelligence contain decision
making, cultural assessment and job performance (Ang et al, 2007). Another element of
cultural intelligence, cross cultural motivation has been found to hurt to workers adjustment
like refugees (López-Zafra et al., 2013) and expatriate’s performance (Rose et al, 2010).
Furthermore, aspects of cultural intelligence have been discovered to be relation with common
interaction and job adjustments of foreign workforce (Singh, et al., 2013). Referencing done.
Culture represents the sum total of norms, beliefs and ethos which shape the behaviour of the
person and directs the manner in which things happen in an organization. It is not something
trivial which the organization can disregard and develop anew. Instead it is of strategic
importance in an organization. Hofstede (2001) observed that culture of an organization
represents its collective programming of the mind which differentiates one group from the
other. Others regard culture as a system comprising shared values (Deshpande & Webster,
1989). There are two ways which necessitate the importance of understanding the culture.
Firstly, insight into culture yields understanding about the extent to which the persons of the
organization are willing about accepting the change in the organization and secondly, their
ability to identify the root cause of issues and then provide performance.

Culture represents the sum total of beliefs which necessitate the manner in which things are
done in an organization. Burke (1994) argued that culture also involves understanding about
the interpretation of events which occur in workplace and the way they influence the things
happening there. This can be understood by taking an example of the organization which has
the best strategy in the world about a particular task. But if it does not have the culture which
allows doing the task in this regard then the failures will arise. The significance of culture for
management is based on the fact that culture can create business opportunities and influence
the marketing and development of product (Blake & Laurence, 1989). Therefore, culture can
be regarded as a collective mindset of the organization which acts as a moderating variable.

1.8 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

As per psychological reasoning and concepts, many elaborations are available for
organizational culture. However, Schein (1985) composed the best definition in this regard, he
defines 3 culture levels. 1st, visible: technology, artificial and behavioural styles. 2nd, less
visible: sharing of values and norms, 3rd, invisible: extracted from core assumptions of team
members. Visible level reveals the less visible levels. This broad vision is implemented most
in psychological sections, however as per discussed above, there are many other definitions are
available about organizational culture. When we elaborate the organizational culture, many
sub-cultures have to consider due to their existence (Lok, Westwood and Crawford, 2005).
Organizational culture represents the shared values and behaviour as well as beliefs prevalent
in the working units. Amabile (1998) suggested that the behaviour of the members of the
organization can be influenced if the culture of the organization is influenced by a leader. The
challenge in this regard is the selection of set of actions which are feasible with respect to an
organization to accept the change. Amabile (1998) argued that application of pressure to
achieve change requires considerable balancing as extra pressure can yield revolt. In order to
define and understand the organization’s culture it is also imperative to be able to identify
common references to organization. Many researchers observed that the organizational culture
is the source of corporate success. (Peters & Waterman, 1982)

Others stated that the culture of the organization represents a multivariate phenomenon and
many elements which underpin the concept they must also be identified (Beyer & Trice, 1987).
There are two primary sources of organizational change. These include change from
external/internal environment factors and change from a planned implementation. For an
organization to become successful it is important that both external and internal environments
should be taken into account. This view is supported by Gregory (1983) who stated that when
a frequent change is brought about in the external environment then a strong homogenous
culture can make it challenging for the organization to adapt to it. Therefore, Ott (1989)
highlighted the strategies which are useful in this regard.

Organizational culture represents a significant internal environment aspect which can enhance
the organization either to failure or success. Evidence suggests that organizational culture
highlights the internal environment of any corporation and also highlights the agreement and
its nature between top management and workers (Aycan, et al. 1999). Moreover, the analysis
of organizational culture also helps in identifying the structure of organization and the beliefs
possessed by employees which are requisite factors for implementing the leadership. Belias &
Koustelios (2013) conducted the study on the culture of organization with respect to Greek
banking institutions. They found out that the dominant organizational culture was hierarchical
whereas the workers’ preference was clan type.

1.9 CORPORATE CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP STYLE OF MANAGEMENT

In recent years a significant light has been shed on the corporate culture and leadership style
of the management. This is because of generally recognized understanding that these elements
can determine the outcomes of the organization. In the last two decades much of the attention
has been given to corporate culture because of its potential impact and effect on the
performance and outcomes of the organization as well as its commitment and effectiveness
(Denison, 1990; Laschinger, 2001; Lok, 2012).
Leadership on the other hand significantly contributes towards the success or failure of the
organization. Various styles of leaderships have been studied over time and different styles
suggested in different contexts. Deal & Kennedy (1982) pioneered the concept of relationship
between culture and leadership style. Resultantly, various researches have been conducted over
time for identifying the type and nature of corporate culture in organizations. The purpose in
this regard was eliciting the key beliefs, values and norms which gave much impetus to the
superior performance and success of a particular organization.

Kotter & Heskett (1992) discovered that some corporate cultures are helpful in adapting to
change and preserve the performance nevertheless whereas other cultures are not so helpful.
They differentiated between the adopted and adaptive cultures and highlighted the common
behaviours and core values of each culture. Kotter & Heskett (1992) observed that there is a
profound influence of corporate culture on the long-term economic performance of the
organization. They also found out that organizations with cultures which laid great stress on
managerial constituencies and leadership across the organization were able to outperform
against their competitors. They also observed that corporate culture is helpful in determining
the failure and success of the organization.

1.10 CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP

Lewin Kurt argued that a better world cannot be created unless a scientific insight is made into
the operations of leadership, of culture and of other necessary ingredients of group life. Various
cultural studies strived to offer bridge between culture and leadership following the Hofstede
study into culture and leadership. It has been observed that culture can be a medium as well as
an issue for a leader and thus any success in organization is also based on the manner in which
cultural aspects are being managed by the leader. Edgar & Schein (2004) observed that
leadership and culture represents the two sides of the same coin. This metaphor also explains
that both concepts co-exist and are interrelated with respect to each other. Therefore, it is
absolutely vital for reaching an effective leadership that the leader appreciates the cultural
elements and listens to the ones around him. The leader can identify the characteristics which
are required to be developed in a particular cultural setting. (Schein, 2004)

Weicks’s vision: Leaders are the ones who deal with culture of the follower. Leadership takes
place when a person can define and shape the reality of others. Despite that leadership is not
dependent on the ability of the leader to merely propagate the vision of others but that it is also
essential that social interaction takes place and the demands of a culture are being met
(Barzano, 2008). Different cultures require that there should be a single approach of leadership
which is tailored around particular characteristics of a culture. However, it is also important to
understand that a single culture can have various interpretations and counter realities as well.

Weick (1995) observed that people tend to develop frames of reference which are essentially
the meanings decoded and constructed from decades of long experiences. The deductions are
then placed in a framework by the people. These frames of references constitute the prior
knowledge of a person which he gains in a particular setting about past aspects of the society
he wakes his eyes in. This frame of reference highlights the beliefs, values and symbolic images
of the past. Culture influences this process of a person. Resultantly, the leader must be able to
develop understanding about the impact of culture so that he can easily manage the ones around
him.

1.11 CULTURE AND THE LEGITIMIZATION OF POWER

There are two complementary meanings whereby power is composed: providing the permission
to do something (to may), and the second is the probability of the ability to do (to can). An
effective leader is the one who possesses the ability of modifying the policies in an organization
(Olivetta, 2012). Historically it has been observed that various power centres were formed
either due to weapons or due to money. However, despite all that, power has only legitimized
itself culturally (Olivetta, 2012). Gupta & Ferguson (1997) observed that the legitimization of
state is based on the extent to which a population can claim being representative of a particular
national identity. Therefore, it is evident that culture plays a pivotal role in legitimizing the
power. For example, Mao Zedong’s legitimized power in China as a result of Great Proletarian
Revolution of 1966. This brought radical change in the Communist Party of China which aimed
at eliminating traditional cultural factors from the Chinese society. For a leader to be effective
it is essential that his power is acknowledged and respected by the followers. It is also possible
that the legitimacy requires understanding and accepting various cultures of the environment.
In this regard Giancarlo & Trentini (1997) observed a difference between a leader and a head.
Head is someone who imposes someone else’s authority whereas leader is the one who is
actually the source of authority.

Here the main problem is, how society controls dissimilarities among public. Furthermore, in
our societies, people exhibit their power distance in which everyone has a place and that require
no more justifications (Lopez-Zafra, et al., 2017). Muyia and Kacirek (2016) described that the
societies where low power distance is, people struggles for equal distribution of power and
raises questions for explanations of power inequalities. However, it is fact that the sense of
power is directly attached with leadership style and also linked with leadership training
programs. That is a reason that this study work is focusing to explore the effect of EI trainings
on awareness of power equalities especially in health care institutes. It is also a very merging
topic in leadership studies and research works.