Food Research International 38 (2005) 111–119

www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres

Rheological properties of selected gum solutions

E.I. Yaseen, T.J. Herald *, F.M. Aramouni, S. Alavi
Food Science Institute, Kansas State University, 201 Shellenberger Hall, Manhattan,
KS 66506, USA

Received 18 January 2004; accepted 19 January 2004

Abstract

Gums are integral ingredients in fluid foods used for controlling viscosity and mouthfeel. Advances in rheological instrumenta-
tions permits enhanced evaluations of the viscoelastic properties of fluids. Rheological properties of twelve gum solutions were
investigated at concentrations of 0.05%, 0.1%, and 0.5%. The viscous (g00 ) and elastic (g00 ) components of the complex viscosity
g*, elastic yield stress, and tan d were measured as functions of oscillatory shear. Konjac exhibited the highest g 0 and g00 components
among all gums at 0.5% and 50 s
1. Gum Arabic, methylcellulose and pectin, exhibited the least g 0 and no g00 component under the
same conditions. Konjac exhibited greatest elastic yield stress, whereas microcrystallinecellulose had the least. Modeling results
showed that rheological properties of CMC were characterized by an exponential relationship, whereas riota-carrageenan and xan-
than were described by a power type relationship. A substantial increase in tan d was observed for most 0.5% gums solutions at shear
rates beyond 10 s
1, indicating a shift from a visco-elastic regime to a purely viscous one. For gums that showed substantial visco-
elasticity, peak tan d values ranged from 5.7 to 68.3.
Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Gums; Hydrocolloids; Rheology; Elasticity; Viscosity

1. Introduction in selecting the appropriate gums for the required proc-

Gums are used in foods primarily as thickeners and
gelling agents as a result of their ability to alter the rhe-
ological properties of the solvent in which they are dis-
solved. The change in viscosity occurs as a result of
the high molecular weight polymeric nature of the gums
and the interactions between polymer chains when gums
are dissolved or dispersed. These properties have been
exploited for their functionality in food systems includ-
ing textural attributes and mouthfeel.
There are many papers published on the gelling prop-
erties of gums and their inherent visco-elastic properties.
Data from the research has assisted food manufacturers
*
Corresponding author. Current address: 216 Call Hall, Kansas
State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA. Tel.: +1 785 532 1221;
fax: +1 785 532 5681.
E-mail address: therald@ksu.edu (T.J. Herald).
ess or storage conditions. To a lesser extent research
publications do exist that have evaluated gums in solu-
tion (Casas & Garcia-Ochoa, 1999; Cuvelier & Launay,
1986; Goycoolea, Morris, & Gidley, 1995) and their
interactions with ions (Lai & Chiang, 2002; Launay,
Cuvelier, & Martinez-Reyes, 1997) and pH dependency
(Sanderson, 1982; Wang, Ellis, & Ross-Murphy, 2000)
most of this research was performed using the Ubbe-
lohde viscometry or rotational viscometers. Advance-
ments in capillary rheometry now permit reliable
assessment of the visco-elastic properties under a wide
range of rheological conditions.
Oscillatory capillary rheometry is a sensitive method
that measures the internal macromolecular configura-
tion (Breidis, Moutrrie, & Palmer, 1980; Chmiel, Ana-
dere, & Walitza, 1990). Thurston (1960) described the
theory of oscillation of a visco-elastic fluid in a circular
tube. Over the years, Thurston (1972), Thurston and

0963-9969/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2004.01.013
112 E.I. Yaseen et al. / Food Research International 38 (2005) 111–119
Pope (1981) and Chmiel et al. (1990) studied visco-elas-
tic properties of fluids (blood and xanthan gum) using
the oscillatory capillary rheometer.
Expanding the database on the visco-elastic proper-
ties of solutions is critical to the food processor for
adjusting processing parameters, monitoring consist-
ency, and predicting stability of fluid food systems. Be-
cause of difference in gum structure and extrinsic
conditions within the fluid food system the rheological
behavior is quite different from one gum solution to an-
other. Due to the diversity of gums and their modified
derivatives, food companies may have a difficult time
making decisions regarding the choice of gums for addi-
tion to their fluid food formulations. Comparative visco-
elastic properties of gums in solution are not readily
available in the scientific literature for true comparison
under similar rheological conditions.
The researchers hypothesized that a more sophisti-
cated rheological instrumentation will allow for im-
proved reproducible and possible observation of
unique rheological characteristics (elastic component)
that have not been reported with an Ubbelohde viscom-
eter or rotational viscometers. The objective of the re-
search was to use an oscillatory tube flow visco-elastic
analyzer to evaluate the rheological properties in a wide
range of gums at concentrations that are a challenge to
analyze with a rotational viscometer.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Raw materials
The gums studied were kindly donated by their
respective companies. j-Carrageenan (SeaKem CM
611), i-carrageenan (Viscarine SD 389), k-Carrageenan
(Viscarine GP 209F), microcrystallinecellulose (Avicel
cellulose gel), and konjac (Nutricol XP 3464) were ob-
tained from FMC BioPolymer (Philadelphia, Pennsylva-
nia). Gum arabic (TIC PRETESTEDÒ Gum Arabic FT
Powder), carboxymethylcellulose (TIC PRETESTEDÒ
Pre-hydratedÒ TICALOSEÒ CMC 2500 Powder), and
xanthan gum (TIC PRETESTEDÒ TICAXANÒ) were
obtained from TIC Gums Inc. (Belcamp, Maryland).
Locust bean gum (23566) and guar gum (23337) were
obtained from CNI (Colloides Naturels Inc., Bridge-
water, NJ). Pectin gum (GrindstedÒ Pectin AMD 780,
high ester pectin, DE > 70) was obtained from Danisco
Cultor USA, Inc. (New Century, Kansas) and methyl-
cellulose gum (Methocel A15) from the Dow Chemical
Company (Midland, Michigan).
2.2. Preparation of solutions
Gums were prepared according to the manufacturersÕ
specifications in order for all gums to be evaluated under
high performance conditions. Thus, no further pH
adjustments were incorporated into the final solution
preparation and no evaluations of residual ions were
made. Three concentrations of gum solutions (0.05%,
0.1%, and 0.5%) in the range frequently used in food sys-
tems were prepared by mixing the desired amount of dry
sample with deionized water, while continuously dis-
persing the gum in solution with a magnetic stirrer at
ambient temperature. The solutions were tempered
overnight at 4 °C prior to performing rheological
measurements. Three additional concentrations (0.2%,
0.3%, and 0.4% wt/v) of carboxymethylcellulose
(CMC), i-carrageenan, and xanthan gums prepared in
the same fashion as above were prepared for modeling
purposes. Prior to rheological studies the pH of each
gum solution was measured at ambient temperature
using a Fisher Accumet 25 with automatic temperature
compensation (Fisher Scientific, St. Louis, MO).
2.3. Density
The gum solution densities were determined using a
standardized 10 mL pycnometer (Bradly, 1998). The
mass of the solution was calculated from the difference
between the empty pycnometer (KmaxÒ, Kimble Glass
Inc, Vineland, NJ) and the filled vessel. The pycnometer
filled with each respective gum solution was incubated at
4 °C for 1 h to equilibrate the sample (Equatherm, Lab-
Line Instrument Inc., Melrose Park, IL) prior to density
determination.
2.4. Rheological properties
The elastic and viscous components of each gum
solution were measured as a function of oscillating shear
rate using an oscillating capillary rheometer (Viscoelas-
ticity Analyzer, Vilastic 3, Vilastic Scientific, Inc, Austin,
TX). This rheometer is specifically engineered to meas-
ure the dynamic viscosity of fluids.
The Vilastic instrument is based on the principles of
the test fluid generating oscillatory flow at a selected fre-
quency within a cylindrical tube. The fluid in the tube is
forced into oscillatory flow during which the pressure
gradient and volume flow are monitored by sensors
and the resulting waveforms were used to calculate the
complex viscosity (Thurston, 1972, 1996). The complex
viscosity (g*) consists of a viscous (g 0 ) and elastic (g00 )
components. The g 0 and g00 components in this study
were determined at a frequency of 2 Hz within a shear
rate range of 0.1–1000 s
1.
g ¼ g0
ig00 ; ð1Þ
where i is an imaginary number.
The ratio between g 0 and g00 is the tangent of the
phase angle d (tan d) (Van Der Reijden, Veerman, &
Amerongen, 1993)
 E.I. Yaseen et al. / Food Research International 38 (2005) 111–119 113

g0 =g00 ¼ tan d:
The instrument measures the rheological properties
at the wall by exactly measuring the shear stress and
shear rate at the wall. Measurements in the linear vis-
co-elastic region are not required when measuring the
shear rate dependence of a fluid. In fact, if measure-
ments where confined to the linear region only the qui-
escent character of the fluid is revealed. By increasing
the shear rate, one can observe the effects of shear rate
on the structure of the fluid and thus obtain a full rheo-
logical characterization. All measurements were carried
out at 4 °C by holding samples in a temperature control-
led water bath. The rheological instrument was cali-
brated with deionized water at 4 °C. Verification was
completed to further ensure that the rheometer was
operating at optimum conditions. The verification of
the rheometer was based on a water reference. The ver-
ification process evaluated the system performance,
comparing the accuracy of measurement of the water
viscosity (reference) and the precise resolution of elastic-
ity (important in resolving a very small elastic compo-
nent in a test sample) (see Table 3). Verification results
showed less than 1% difference between the measured
and the reference value.
The instrument considers a detectable g00 , when the g00
component to g 0 ratio is greater than 1:100 (Vilastic Sci-
entific Inc., 1999). Wood (1968) reported that the stim-
ulus associated with oral assessment was the g 0
determined at a shear rate of 50 s
1. Thus, all g 0 and
g00 values were statistically compared at 50 s
1.
Elastic yield stress values were obtained by plotting
the strain versus viscous and elastic stress of 0.5% gum
solutions (Fig. 1). The elastic yield stress represents the
limit at which the molecular structure can sustain the
imposed stress in stored elastic energy without disrup-
tion. The elastic yield stress was difficult to determine
at 0.05% and 0.1% concentrations because either the
strain was not enough or there was too much noise to
discern the presence of an elastic stress.
A power model or an exponential model character-
ized the concentration effect of CMC, i-carrageenan,
and xanthan. The CMC, i-carrageenan, and xanthan
were chosen because they represent a wide range of their
100
Viscous and Elastic
ð2Þ g 0 to g00 ratio (tan d) patterns. The tan was low in the
case of CMC (g 0 was lower than the g00 ), whereas the
tan was higher in xanthan gum (g 0 was higher than the
g00 ) at low shear rate. The tan of i-carrageenan was more
representative of the other gums than the tan for CMC
and xanthan. Microsoft Excel 97 (Microsoft Corpora-
tion, Seattle, WA) was used to analyze the concentration
effect on the g 0 and g00 of selected gum solutions. Regres-
sion coefficient values were obtained to assess the best
model (either exponential or power type relationship)
to describe the effect of concentration.
2.5. Statistical analysis
The statistical model was a two-way factorial classifi-
cation in complete randomized design (CRD) for study
of rheological properties. For elastic yield stress
determination, the statistical model was one-way
classification in a CRD. Three replications with two
sub-samples per replication were analyzed using Statisti-
cal Analysis System software (version 8.2, SAS Institute
Inc., Cary, NC). Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and
separation of means were conducted by the general lin-
ear models procedure (Proc GLM). Comparisons
among treatments were analyzed using Fishers least sig-
nificant difference (LSD). Treatment means were consid-
ered significantly different at P < 0.05.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. pH of gum solutions
The pH of the gum solutions ranged from 2.48 (pec-
tin) to 6.52 (j-carrageenan) (Table 1). This range of pH
is consistent with manufacturer specifications for each
respective gum. The diversity of gum application (low
acid to high acid foods) is evident by the wide pH range.
Table 1
The pH of selected gum solutionsa measured at 4 °C
Type of gums pH
Carboxymethylcellulose 5.90 ± .01
j-Carrageenan 6.52 ± .02

Viscous Stress i-Carrageenan 5.34 ± .02

10 Elastic Yield Stress
Stress (mPa)

k-Carrageenan 5.67 ± .01

1 Guar 2.76 ± .02
Elastic Stress Gum Arabic 5.22 ± .03
0.1
Konjac 5.11 ± .04
0.01 Locust Bean 2.48 ± .01
Methylcellulose 3.78 ± .01
0.001
Microcrystallinecellulose 5.68 ± .01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Pectin 2.80 ± .04
Strain
Xanthan 4.24 ± .03
a
Fig. 1. Representative elastic yield stress of a gum solution. Solutions prepared according to manufacturer recommendations.
114 E.I. Yaseen et al. / Food Research International 38 (2005) 111–119

3.2. Rheological properties of gum solutions
The gums, CMC, k-carrageenan, i-carrageenan and
xanthan, exhibited a proportional increased in g 0 within
the concentration range of 0.5–5% (Table 2). The g 0
of the aforementioned gums were significantly higher
than the other gum solutions at 0.05% and 0.1% but
not 0.5%. This was because j-carrageenan, guar, gum
konjac, locust bean gum exhibited an exponential in-
crease (at least 20-fold), in g 0 only after 0.1%. For exam-
ple there was not a significant difference in g 0 for konjac
gum at 0.05% and 0.1% (4.99 mPa s) but at 0.5% konjac
(513.61 mPa s) was approximately 100-fold greater com-
pared to the 0.1% konjac solution. Konjac exhibited a
significantly higher g 0 compared to the all other gums
at 0.5%.
No significant change in g00 as a function of concen-
tration was exhibited for MC, MCC, pectin and gum
Arabic. Low viscosity is not always a detrimental attri-
bute for gums. Gums are not only added to build vis-
cosity, but may be added to function as a flavor
carrier or emulsifier.
The g 0 of the 12 gum solutions at 0.5% is shown in
Fig. 2. Gum Arabic, pectin, MCC and methylcellulose
exhibited Newtonian behavior. The other gums exhib-
ited pseudoplastic behavior at shear rate >10 s
1. Our
g 0 results were similar to those reported in literature.
Krumel and Sarkar (1975) reported that guar gum

Table 2
The comparison of the viscous component (g 0 )A of selected gum solutions measured at 4 °C and 50 s
1
Type of gums g00 (mPa s)
0.05% 0.1% 0.5%
m lm
Konjac 2.88 ± 0.12 4.99 ± 0.30 513.61a ± 20.70
Carboxymethyl-cellulose 19.07j ± 0.82 32.13i ± 0.84 264.23b ± 6.46
Guar 2.51m ± 0.07 3.73lm ± 0.11 133.86c ± 4.49
j-Carrageenan 2.10m ± 0.06 2.99m ± 0.14 127.44d ± 6.12
k-Carrageenan 16.13jk ± 1.35 19.90j ± 1.40 99.14e ± 2.88
Xanthan 16.62jk ± 1.02 29.03i ± 0.84 92.59f ± 4.32
Locust Bean 2.36m ± 0.06 3.14m ± 0.25 63.01g ± 4.22
i-Carrageenan 7.39l ± 0.51 12.46k ± 1.15 39.87h ± 1.12
Pectin 1.84m ± 0.02 2.13m ± 0.04 6.09lm ± 0.41
Microcrystalline-cellulose 1.82m ± 0.01 2.07m ± 0.04 4.21lm ± 0.06
Methylcellulose 1.74m ± 0.02 1.89m ± 0.02 3.25lm ± 0.12
Gum Arabic 1.61m ± 0.01 1.64m ± 0.01 1.75m ± 0.02
a–m
Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P < 0.05).
A
Results are expressed as the means ± SD for three replications.

1000

CMC
IC
LC
Viscous Component

100 Xanthan
KC
(mPa.s)

Guar
Konjac
LB
MC
10
MCC
Pectin
GA

1
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Shear Rate (1/s)
Fig. 2. Comparison of the viscous component of 12 gum solutions at 0.5% and 4 °C.
 E.I. Yaseen et al. / Food Research International 38 (2005) 111–119
exhibited higher steady shear viscosity than locust
bean gum between 1 and 1000 s
1 at 0.2% and 25
°C. In contrast, Elfak, Pass, Phillips, and Morley
(1977) reported that the steady shear viscosities of
guar gum and locust bean gum (approximately 3
mPa s) at 25 °C were not significantly different at zero
shear rate. The steady shear viscosity of 0.2% sodium
carboxymethylcellulose and 0.2% j-carrageenan (El-
fak, Pass, & Phillips, 1978) were 11.2 and 4.3 mPa s,
respectively at 2620 s
1. Thurston (1996) reported
slightly lower g 0 values for a 0.05% xanthan solution
(6 mPa s) using an oscillatory flow method. Rao and
Kenny (1975) and Swiderski, Waszkiewicz-Robak,
and Postrach (1993) reported similar trends as found
in our study. Rheological data from the literature were
not available for all gums evaluated in this study. The
research that was reported did not always compare
gums under similar conditions (concentration, pH,
shear rate and temperature) and in some cases differ-
ent rheological methods were used.
A proportional increased in g00 was only exhibited for
xanthan from 0.05% to 0.5%. The g00 of Xanthan was
significantly higher than the other gum solutions at
0.05% and 0.1% but not 0.5% (Table 3). This was be-
cause CMC and konjac gum exhibited an exponential
increase (at least 30-fold), in g00 only after 0.1%. For
example there was not significant different in g00 of kon-
jac gum at 0.05 and 0.1% but 0.5% konjac (276 mPa s)
was approximately 200-fold greater compared to the
0.1% konjac solution. Konjac exhibited a significantly
higher g00 compared to the other gums at 0.5%. Pectin,
MCC, gum Arabic, MC and locust bean gum did not ex-
hibit a g00 as a function of concentration. Thurston
(1996) reported that the g00 of 0.05% xanthan gum was
about 1.25 mPa s using the oscillatory flow method.
Table 3
The comparison of the elastic component (g00 )A of selected gum solutions measured at 4 °C and 50 s
1
Type of gums g00 (mPa s)
0.05%
Konjac 0.030h ± 0.002
Carboxymethyl-cellulose 2.927gh ± 0.173
Guar 0.041h ± 0.003
Xanthan 5.850g ± 0.437
j-Carrageenan ***
h h
k-Carrageenan 2.249 ± 0.171
Locust Bean ***
i-Carrageenan 0.387h ± 0.024
Microcrystalline-cellulose 0.027h ± 0.001
Methylcellulose ***
Gum Arabic ***
Pectin ***
a–m
Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P < 0.05).
A
Results are expressed as the means ± SD for three replications.
*** Considered not detectable elasticity.
115
No other g00 values were found in literature for gum
solutions.
Fig. 3 depicts the g00 of the nine gum solutions as a
function of shear rate. By definition fluids that do not
contain a g00 are considered purely viscous. Gum Arabic,
pectin and methylcellulose gums showed no g00 at the
measured concentrations. All other gums were consid-
ered visco-elastic at all concentrations. Generally, the
g00 of the gums decreased at higher shear rates. Addition-
ally, g00 was concentration dependent for some gums.
j-carrageenan and locust bean gums did not show g00
at 0.05% and 0.1%, but exhibited g00 at 0.5%.
The tan d over the range of shear rate varied with
gum type and concentration (Figs. 4 and 5). MC,
MCC, pectin and gum Arabic exhibited negligible vis-
cosity for all concentrations. A substantial increase in
tan d was observed for most 0.5% gums solutions
studied at shear rates > 10 s
1, indicating a shift from
a visco-elastic regime to a purely viscous one. For gums
that showed substantial visco-elasticity, peak tan d
values ranged from 5.7 to 68.3.
Tan d, in general, decreased with increasing concen-
tration. The g00 in some gums was higher than the g00 ,
as observed with carrageenan and xanthan gums at
0.5% and low shear rate. At approximately 4 and
12 s
1for j-carrageenan and xanthan gums, respectively,
a crossover between the viscous and elastic component
occurred. Thurston and Pope (1981) suggested that the
decrease in the g00 at high shear rate reflects loss of the
ability of compounds to store elastic energy in the shear
deformation process.
The elastic yield stress values of all gums at 0.5% level
are shown in Table 4. The elastic yield stress represents
the limit at which the molecule structure can sustain
the imposed stress in stored elastic energy without
0.1% 0.5%
0.102h ± 0.004 276.038a ± 14.087
5.424g ± 0.232 142.657b ± 4.417
0.125h ± 0.004 41.047c ± 2.654
12.381f ± 0.578 35.635d ± 1.461
*** 26.918e ± 2.029
2.450 ± 0.060 24.795e ± 1.935
*** 5.633g ± 0.388
0.779h ± 0.052 2.464h ± 0.124
0.030h ± 0.002 0.082h ± 0.004
*** ***
*** ***
*** ***
116 E.I. Yaseen et al. / Food Research International 38 (2005) 111–119

1000

100

Elastic Component CMC

10
IC
LC
(mPa.S)

Xanthan
1
KC
Guar
Konjac
0.1
LB
MCC

0.01

0.001
0.1 1 10 100 1000

Shear Rate (1/s)

Fig. 3. Comparison of the elastic component of 12 gum solutions at 0.5% and 4 °C.

70
iota carrageenan

60

50

40
tan delta

xanthan

30

lambda carrageenan

20

10 Carboxymethyl
cellulose

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Shear rate (s-1)

Fig. 4. Tan d versus shear rate for different 0.5% gum solutions (CMC, Xanthan, i-Carrageenan, and k-Carrageenan) at 4 °C.

disruption of structure. Konjac exhibited the highest
elastic yield stress value (2287.88 mPa) and MCC the
lowest (3.55 mPa). Gum Arabic, pectin and methylcellu-
lose gums did not exhibit g00 and thus, no elastic yield
stress was present.
3.3. Effect of concentration on rheological properties as
determined by modeling
As inferred from the rheological data, gums exhibited
a significantly different g00 as a function of concentration.
 E.I. Yaseen et al. / Food Research International 38 (2005) 111–119 117

70

60

50

40
tan delta

locust bean
gum
30
kappa carrageenan

20

10 konjac

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Shear rate (s-1)

Fig. 5. Tan d versus shear rate for different 0.5% gum solutions (kappa, konjac and locust) at 4 °C.

Table 4 120
Elastic yield stress value of selected 0.5% gum solutions measured at
4 °C and 50 s
1
Viscous and Elastic Components (mPa.s)

100
Type of gums Elastic stress value (mPa)
Carboxymethylcellulose 2127.25b ± 11.76 Viscous component, ' = 158.57 x0.744
j-Carrageenan 1388.21d ± 66.46 80
i-Carrageenan 156.35g ± 11.98
k-Carrageenan 685.32e ± 21.86
Guar 1846.52c ± 30 60
Gum Arabic ***

Konjac 2287.88a ± 110.64

Locust Bean 320.48f ± 16.77 40
Methylcellulose ***

Microcrystallinecellulose 3.55h ± 0.18

Pectin *** 20 Elastic component, '' = 66.298
Xanthan 2062.02b ± 22.94
Results are expressed as the means ± SD for three replications. 0
a–m
Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different 0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55
(P < 0.05). Concentration (%)
*** Considered not detectable elasticity.

Fig. 7. Comparison of i-Carrageenan concentration on the rheological

properties 4 °C and 50 s
1.
50
Components (mPa.s)
Viscous and Elastic

40 Thus, models were fit to help describe the function of

30
Viscous component, ' = 60.984 x0.7034 concentration on the rheological behavior of the gums.
CMC, i-carrageenan and xathan gums were selected to
20
evaluate the concentration dependency. CMC was char-
10
Elastic component, '' = 3.5842 x0.7245
acterized by the exponential relationship (Fig. 6),
0
whereas, i-carrageenan (Fig. 7) and xathan (Fig. 8) were
0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 described by a power type relationship.
Concentration (%)
The viscosity of guar (Rao & Kenny, 1975), xan-
Fig. 6. Comparison of carboxymethlycellulose concentration on the than (Thurston, 1996) and locust bean gum (Swiderski
rheological properties at 4 °C and 50 s
1. et al., 1993) solutions were concentration dependent as
118 E.I. Yaseen et al. / Food Research International 38 (2005) 111–119
Viscous and Elastic Components

1000 3.4. Practical applications for dynamic rheological data of

Viscous component, ' = 17.423 e
5.4565x gum solutions
100
(mPa.s)

As discussed earlier at shear rates >10 s
1, tan d

10
Elastic component, '' = 2.2064 e
1
0.05 0.15
Fig. 8. Comparison of xanthan concentration on the rheological
properties at 4 °C and 50 s
1.
determined by the Falling Ball and rotational viscom-
eters. Speers and Tung (1986) reported that the effect
of concentration on the viscosity of xanthan gum was
described by power type relationship. Conversely,
Thurston (1996) reported that the effect of concentra-
tion on the g 0 and g00 of xanthan was characterized by
the exponential relationship. Marcotte, Hoshahili, and
Ramaswamy (2001) used three models (power, expo-
nential, and polynomial) to evaluate the concentration
effect on apparent g 0 of carrageenan and xanthan
gums. They found a linear and quadratic effect of con-
centration on apparent viscosity of carrageenan. The
exponential relationship best described the relationship
at high temperatures (>40 °C) with R2 > 0.97. The ef-
fect of concentration on the g 0 of xanthan gum was
described by power type and exponential relationships,
and was temperature dependent.
values exhibited a substantial increase, with the g00
7.7135x component becoming predominant (Figs. 3 and 4).
Higher shear rates are typical of conditions existing
0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 in processing plants where fluids are mixed in agitators
Concentration (%) or pumped in pipes between or during various unit
operations. Therefore, the gum solutions may be
approximated as viscous fluids under processing condi-
tions. Fitting the viscous component (g 0 ) versus shear
rate data to the power law model, the corresponding
consistency coefficient (K) and flow behavior index
(n) were calculated (Fig. 9). Using the K and n, the
power required to pump these gum solutions through
a pipe, can be easily calculated using standard equa-
tions for non-Newtonian viscous fluids (Geankoplis,
1993). For example, using the above relations it was
found that the 0.5% solution of CMC will require up
to two times more power for pumping then xanthan
or i-carrageenan solutions.
At shear rates < 10 s
1, all 0.5% gum solutions be-
have as visco-elastic fluids, the elastic component being
substantial as reflected by the relatively lower tan values
(Figs. 3 and 4). Shear rates lower than 10 s
1 are more
representative of those found during swallowing of flu-
ids by human subjects, therefore comparison of visco-
elastic properties of different gum solutions at low shear

0.4

Carboxymethylcellulose
0.35
y = 1.5527x-0.5961
R2 = 0.9238
0.3 K = 1552.7 mPa.sn
n = 0.40
Viscous component ( ') (Pa.s)

0.25
Xanthan
y = 0.795x-0.5792
0.2 R2 = 0.9888
K = 795.0 mPa.sn
CMC n = 0.42
xanthan
0.15
Iota Carrageenan
iota carrageenan y = 0.0752x-0.1856
0.1 R2 = 0.8231
K = 75.2 Pa.sn
n = 0.81
0.05

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Shear rate (s-1)

Fig. 9. Viscous component (g 0 ) versus shear rate for various 0.5% gum solutions for shear rates higher than 10 s
1 at 4 °C. The fitted parameters K
and n represent the consistency coefficient and flow behavior index, respectively, of the gum solutions.
 E.I. Yaseen et al. / Food Research International 38 (2005) 111–119
rates may facilitate relative assessment of their Ômouth-
feelÕ and help in formulating the right product for a
target consumer segment. In order to arrive at a quanti-
tatively comparison of viscosity or ÔmouthfeelÕ of visco-
elastic fluids, the shear viscosity gs can be calculated as
described by Steffe (1996).
4. Conclusion
Gums are an integral ingredient in fluid systems.
Thus, characterizing rheological behavior is instrumen-
tal in product development. The advances in capillary
viscometer as shown in this study allows for a more
complete characterization of the visco-elastic properties
of fluid systems. The data in this research suggested that
a significant g00 was observed in some gum solutions and
that the visco-elastic properties were concentration
dependent. Scientists can use this instrument to achieve
a better understanding of the intrinsic interactions be-
tween the gum macromolecules, environmental condi-
tions, and water molecules that lead to the
development fluidÕs visco-elastic properties.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by the Kansas Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, Manhattan, KS 66505, contri-
bution No. 02-400-J.
References
Bradly, R. (1998). Moisture and total solids analysis. In S. Nielsen
(Ed.), Food analysis (pp. 119–139). Gaithersburg: Aspen
Publishers.
Breidis, D., Moutrrie, M., & Palmer, R. (1980). A study of the shear
viscosity of human whole saliva. Rheologica Acta (19), 365–374.
Casas, J. A., & Garcia-Ochoa, F. (1999). Viscosity of solutions of
xanthan/locust bean gum mixtures. Journal of the Science of Food
and Agriculture, 79, 25–31.
Chmiel, H., Anadere, I., & Walitza, E. (1990). The determination of
blood viscoelasticity in clinical hemorheology. Clinical Hemorhe-
ology (10), 363–374.
Cuvelier, G., & Launay, B. (1986). Concentration regimes of xanthan
gum solutions deduced from flow and viscoelastic properties.
Carbohydrate Polymers, 6, 321–333.
Elfak, A., Pass, G., Phillips, G., & Morley, R. (1977). The viscosity of
dilute solutions of guargum and locust bean gum with and without
119
added sugars. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture (28),
895–899.
Elfak, A., Pass, G., & Phillips, G. (1978). The viscosity of dilute
solutions of j-Carrageenan and sodium carboxymethylcellulose.
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture (29), 557–562.
Geankoplis, C. J. (1993). Transport processes and unit operations.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Goycoolea, F. M., Morris, E. R., & Gidley, M. J. (1995). Screening for
synergistic interactions in dilute polysaccharide solutions. Carbo-
hydrate Polymers, 28, 351–358.
Krumel, K., & Sarkar, N. (1975). Flow properties of gums useful to the
food industry. Food Technology, 29(4), 36–44.
Lai, L., & Chiang, H-R. (2002). Rheology of decolorized hsian-tsao
gum in the dilute domain. Food hydrocolloids, 16, 427–440.
Launay, B., Cuvelier, G., & Martinez-Reyes, S. (1997). Viscosity of
locust bean, guar, and xanthan gum solutions in the Newtonian
domain: A critical examination of the log (gsp)o- Log C[g]0 master
curves. Carbohydrate Polymers, 34, 385–395.
Marcotte, M., Hoshahili, A., & Ramaswamy, H. (2001). Rheological
properties of selectedhydrocolloids as a function of concentration
and temperature. Food Research International (34), 695–703.
Rao, M., & Kenny, J. (1975). Flow properties of selected food gums.
Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology Journal (8),
142–148.
Sanderson, G. R. (1982). The interactions of xanthan gum in food
systems. Progress in Food and Nutrition Science, 6, 77–87.
Speers, R., & Tung, M. (1986). Concentration and temperature
dependence of flow behavior ofxanthan gum dispersions. Journal of
Food Science (51), 96–98, 103.
Steffe, J. F. (1996). Rheological methods in food process engineering.
East Lansing, MI: Freeman Press.
Swiderski, F., Waszkiewicz-Robak, B., & Postrach, W. (1993).
Viscosity characteristics of aqueous solutions of selected hydrocol-
loids. Food Technology and Nutrition (2), 43–50.
Thurston, G. (1960). Theory of oscillation of a viscoelastic fluid in a
circular tube. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 32,
210–213.
Thurston, G. (1972). Viscoelasticity of human blood. Biophysical
Journal, 12, 1205–1217.
Thurston, J., & Pope, G. (1981). Shear rate dependence of the
viscoelasticity of polymer solutions. Journal of Non-Newtonian
Fluid Mechanics (9), 69–78.
Thurston, G. (1996). Viscoelastic properties of blood and blood
analogs. In T. How (Ed.), Advances in haemodynamics and
haemorheology (pp. 1–34). New York: JAI Press.
Van Der Reijden, W., Veerman, E., & Amerongen, A. (1993). Shear
rate dependent viscoelastic behavior of human glandular salivas.
Biorheology (30), 141–152.
Vilastic Scientific Inc (1999). Vilastic viscoelasticity analyzer. Opera-
tional manual (6th ed.). Austin: Vilastic Scientific Inc.
Wang, Q., Ellis, P. R., & Ross-Murphy, S. B. (2000). The stability of
guar gum in an aqueous system under acidic conditions. Food
hydrocolloids, 14, 129–134.
Wood, F. (1968). Psychophysical studies on the consistency of liquid
foods. In S.C.I. monograph: Rheology and texture of food stuffs,
(pp. 40–49). London: Society of Chemical Industry.