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Recently, cross cultural differences, especially leadership styles that cut across
borders are being taken into consideration by a large number of organizations. The purpose
of this paper is to discuss in detail on the topic of comparisons between eastern and western
leadership styles. This paper attempts to provide insight details regarding the differences
and similarities of each of the Eastern and Western leadership styles that are implemented.
To make the comparison appear more clearly, the differences and similarities between these
two leadership styles and leaders’ characteristics are being determined in this paper. This
paper is significant to the eastern and western leaders, especially those leaders who move
across borders, to recognize these differences and similarities. This reorganization is helpful
for them so that they can try to be more flexible when they are leading. At the same time,
they can also adjust their leadership styles accordingly to increase their efficiencies and
effectiveness in cross culture leadership management. In this paper, there are certain
universal similarities and also specific differences of leadership styles and leaders’
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1. Introduction
academic field of study that focuses on leadership in organizational contexts and also in
human life. The study of leadership has begun since the time of Plato, Sun Tzu and
Machiavelli. At that time, the leadership study is only focused on the contemporary
academic studies. The study of leadership originates from a combination of various fields of
studies, such as the social sciences, humanities, and as well as professional and applied.
i. What is leadership?
Broadly, majority will define leadership as a process of social influence in which a person is
able to enlist the aids and supports of others in an accomplishment of a common task. In
other words, leadership is viewed as a group activity that is mainly based on social influence
and revolves around a common task. In actual fact, leadership is not as simple as the
an interpersonal process that interacts and is influenced by the interpersonal factors in order
to have effects on the dynamic external environment. Traditionally, there are basically two
leadership is always associated with the bureaucratic organizational structure that leaders
always possess high authority. Democratic leadership is more favoured since the authority
stems from the team. The latest one is laissez-faire type of leadership by which the
have been analyzed by many researchers. For instance, Nicholls (1994) divided the
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leadership styles into three, which are supervisory, strategic and inspirational. Horner (1997)
studied past and present leadership theories and categorizes the differences of motivational,
transactional, transformational, self, and team leaderships. Sheard & Kakabadse (2002)
differentiated the leadership in terms of the four stages of the team development process:
By looking from both of the eastern and western perspective, leadership is seen as
the same; as a course of influencing the followers to understand and agree to the tasks that
must be accomplished and get the tasks accomplished efficiently. It is a process of assisting
followers and facilitating cumulative efforts in order to achieve a common goal. At the same
time, there are still some differences in leadership styles that exist in both the eastern and
western leadership styles. The existences of differences are caused by the uniqueness of the
eastern and western societal values, societal practices and leadership management styles.
By looking more in depth, each nation within the eastern and western worlds do have their
own uniqueness although they are considered to be located within similar geography areas.
There are lots of conflicting perceptions on the context of leadership styles that always
revolve around the cross culture concept, especially the eastern and western culture. Some
researchers and authors argued that the emergence of leadership approaches is widely
acceptable to be common across culture. In contrast, there are arguments that mentioned
about differences of leadership styles across culture. Clearly, there is validity of both of the
“universal” and “specific” perspectives in the study of leadership across culture. This finding
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2. Literature Review on Eastern Leadership
Dictionary, eastern is defined as from or living in the east part of the world. In this paper,
the word of eastern specifically means the east part of the world, which is Asia, for example
According to Gupta, Hanges & Dorfman (2002), the countries that are located in Asia
can be categorized into two clusters, which are the “South Asia” cluster and the “Confucian
Asia” cluster. The “South Asia” cluster includes India, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and
Philippines. The “South Asia” cluster is applying Islamic and Hindu belief systems and is
comprises of China, Japan, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan. The “Confucian Asia”
cluster is historically influenced by Chinese culture and emphasized more on trust and
world and is likely to improve rapidly over the next century (Li et al. 2001).
Under societal practices, the “South Asia” cluster is more structured and only reflects
loyalty to the in-group. The “Confucian Asia” practises a societal collectivism based on trust
and networks (Pyatt et al. 2001). The “Confucian Asia” cluster emphasized more on in-group
collectivism compare with the “South Asia” cluster. Both the power distance and humane
orientation is considered equally important in the “South Asia” cluster compare with the
“Confucian Asia”, which is only in medium category. In the “South Asia” cluster, the power
distance differences reflects the importance of social classes, whereby the high emphasize in
human orientation seems as counter-intuitive. This is believable and observable that the
members of societal groups in the “South Asia” cluster are expected to be extremely loyal in
group, but it is a necessity for them to respect other societal group members’ right in order
to maintain their independence (Gupta, Surie et al. 2002). The “South Asia” cluster
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emphasized less on the performance orientation and gender egalitarianism whereas the
“Confucian Asia” cluster values more on uncertainty avoidance, assertiveness and power
distance but less on performance orientation, gender egalitarianism, human orientation and
in-group collectivism. The power distance will be prioritised compared to the in-group
collectivism.
In the “South Asia” cluster, leaders are defined as representatives of the higher
classes of society or organization who are in charged with looking after the interests of the
subordinates. This is because this cluster practices high power distance and in-group loyalty
and humanity. For the “Confucian Asia” cluster’s leaders, they are usually entrusted to get
on with the job on behalf of the subordinates due to the higher value placed on societal
collectivism rather than power distance. In reality, both the societal collectivism and power
Despite faltering in the latter stages of 20 th century, the economies of East and
South Asia have been unalterably developing and expanding, especially in 21 st century so
much so that many of the Asian countries are already challenging the developed economies
of the West (Lingle, 1998). The remarkably swift rise of the Asian economies is considered
as one of the truly remarkable phenomena of the 20 th century. Besides that, it is also a
burgeoning political fact that may reshape the contours of world power in 21 st century
(Manning, 2001). It is observable that the Asian nations are playing more and more vital
roles today and even in future economies, political and societal platform. All of these
evidences are proving to us that the Eastern leadership style definitely possesses certain
high-quality.
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3. Literature Review on Western Leadership
Leadership and Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness (GLOBE) project world. From the
Western perspective on leadership, leader like Rudolph Guiliani represented the exact
western leaders’ characteristic like transformational and charismatic leader and will affect
that context on perceptions of leadership. However, it may not suitable if the western style
In the other hand, Suutari & Riusala (2001) had an observation on characteristics of
expatriates. Five of the aspects of leadership which are decision participation, autonomy
Central Eastern Europe leaders. Besides, they are active in planning, co-ordination, goal
setting, production emphasis and also criticizing and role clarification behavior. Suutari and
Riusala also reported that a preference for individual rather than shared responsibilities
could found out in the Central Eastern Europe cultures. Instead, they were linked to the
successful fulfillment.
shown to be related to a wide range of social behaviors. Hofstede (1980) found a strongly
significant tendency for individualist countries to score low upon another dimension
identified by him, called power distance. High power distance nations are those in which
inequality is more tolerated and the deference received by high-status people is markedly
different from that received by those who are of lower status. He described western
countries like United States as highly individualistic, low on power distance and uncertainty
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avoidance. Moreover, status deference tends to be smaller and people in authority are given
A study about leadership in Western and Asian countries by Dorfman et. al (1997) to
exploded the conflicting views for managers and professionals workers by empirically testing
processes across five nations in North America and Asia. The result showed that, leaders in
the United States tend to supportive, contingent reward, contingent punishment and
participative. High individual achievement motivation in U.S. argues for strong impacts of
charismatic leadership.
Individual such as Great Britain’s Margaret Thatcher, British Virgin Group CEO
Richard Branson, American Express chairman Ken Chenault and Apple co-founder Steve Jobs
are recognized as well known leaders in western countries and described in terms like
charismatic, enthusiastic and courageous (Robbins & Judge, 2009). Conscientiousness and
was able to gather personality data on a sample of midlevel managers in the United States,
China, and Thailand who had been identified as particularly effective or ineffective. Again,
there was partial support for simple universality, in that effective leaders in all three
relationship between effectiveness and the remaining three personality factors varied by
culture, with high agreeableness and high conscientiousness both found in the more
effective managers in the United States and China. High openness to experience was only
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An interesting result relating to PD is that the endorsement of participative
leadership varies in different parts of the world (Hanges, Dickson, & Sipe, in press).
Empirically derived clusters of countries comprising Germanic, Anglo, and Nordic European
cultures were each particularly attuned to participative leadership. In contrast, the Middle
Eastern and East European clusters did not endorse participative leadership as strongly. This
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4. Comparison between Eastern and Western Leadership
Leaders are the same in some ways. As we know, there must be some common
characteristics possessed among the leaders in order for them to become a leader. At the
very least, the leaders are required to be capable of handling different situations, including
sociable so that they can work well with others, and be extroverts so that they can lead the
followers and the likes. Surely, the leaders, no matter the eastern or western leaders will
geographical location will influence a lot on personality shaping, belief and value systems,
customs, thinking patterns, perception and others. With only differences of geographical
location, it will lead to many other differences such as the external environment, education
system, and morality system and many more. These additional differences are considered as
powerful influential factors in the shaping of a person. For example, Japan and Germany are
using education system as a method for them to encourage their nationals to fight for them
in World War I and II. From this, we can see that education systems can change a person
externally and internally. As a result, there are significant inevitable differences among the
East and West. In reality, it is easy to observe that there are both explicit and implicit
differences between the East and West from mindsets, mentally to costumes, physically.
The Western leaders are individual achievers that always have to have rights and
greater needs for autonomy. On the other hand, the Eastern are harmony preservers that
emphasizes on group duty. The Eastern leaders are more towards collectivism because they
believe that all of the universes are interconnected. The Western leaders are more
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individualistic due to the major focus on individual events.
The western leaders are “I oriented” which are more emphasized on sender-oriented
when expressing oneself. They are steadfast in expressing themselves without too much
care for others’ feelings. The eastern leaders are “we oriented” that always care for others’
feelings when expressing own self. They are more emphasized on receiver- sensitive so that
the expression will not hurt the receivers. The western leaders are more argumentative and
willing to express their disagreement verbally due to their high-context culture. They will
neither keep silent nor do nothing when they disagree on the agreement that has been
made. Furthermore, they mean what they say. They will not keep their real preferences or
choices from others by expressing the opposite. The Eastern have difficulties to say no even
they are not willing to say yes. They are from low-context cultures that do not always mean
what they say. They are more likely to express their disagreement nonverbally.
The eastern leaders are more spiritual while the western leaders are more
materialistic. Eastern leaders are considered more emotional compared to the rational and
scientific Western leaders due to the differences in religion. As we know, the East has more
Hinduism, Islam and many others. The Western leaders are more likely to think based on
rules, laws and regulations. As a result, they are more rules based and always think and
settle a problem based on the application and abstract principals. The Eastern will consider
the context and take specific situation into account in rule interpretation. They will not fully
follow the rule and are free to adjust themselves according to certain situation.
Moreover, the eastern philosophy believes that the leader must walk behind people.
Lao Tzu mentioned that in order to lead the people, the leaders must put themselves behind
the followers. Thus when the leader is ahead then the followers will not feel hurt. They also
believe that silence is gold and prefer to be silent. On the opposite side, the Western
philosophy holds that the leaders must walk ahead of the followers. According to Xenophon,
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leadership is done from the front. They also believe that speech is gold and are more willing
which are theory X, theory Y, theory Z. Those leaders who practice the theory X philosophy
believe that their followers are basically lazy. They tend to rely heavily on both the
contingent punishment and contingent reward during leading (Peter W. Dorman et al.
1997). It is observable that most of the leaders that believe on theory X are from the east,
especially the “South Asia” cluster. A large number of the “South Asia” leaders tend to use
the threat and coercion of punishment to force or push their followers to do their work. In
addition, the attractiveness of reward is also being used by them to encourage their workers
to get their jobs done. In the “South Asia” cluster, the leaders are the authority leader with
high power distance. Giving orders to the followers is a common way that is always
practiced by the leaders in the “South Asia” cluster. The leaders always apply their authority
in forcing their workers to do their jobs without giving any choice due to their belief in
theory X.
In contrast, those leaders who practice theory Y believe that their followers will not only
perform well but also intend to increase their responsibilities and challenges under the right
conditions. Normally, the “Confucian Asia” leaders are theory Y leaders who believe in their
followers. In the “Confucian Asia” cluster, by practicing contingent reward behavior, there
Contradictively, the contingent punishment will cause negative effects while leading. Japan
is a good exemplary country that practices contingent reward behavior with limited
contingent punishment.
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The “Anglo” cluster from the west comprises of United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland,
and together with the new world components such as United States, Canada, Australia, and
New Zealand (Ashkanasy, Neal M. 2002). A large number of leaders within this cluster
believe in theory Z that holds that workers are motivated by responsibility sharing and
the contingent reward behavior can increase the satisfaction with work and supervision but
the contingent punishment will decrease the role ambiguity of workers and lead to
underperformance. Thus, the leaders can lead without strict examination and extreme
guiding.
According to Williams and Hazer (1986), leadership process is a set of leader behavior
variables that affect a follower’s job satisfaction and role ambiguity. We agree with this
statement. In our opinion, a leader’s perception and belief are also influenced by their
perceptions are based on the cultural values and practices that extant in each society
(House et al. 1999). A leader will be influenced by the followers and the culture of the
locals.
“Culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a
nuisance at best and often a disaster" (Itim international, 2009). In his research on cultural
differences, there are five intercultural dimensions explained by Hofstede, which is power
distance orientation, social orientation, goal orientation, time orientation and uncertainty
orientation.
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a. Power Distance Orientation
Based on Hofstede (1980), power distance orientation dimension relates to the degree
of equality or inequality between people in some particular society. Basically, inequality can
found in all societies, and it exposed itself in physical, social, material, political and legal
(Essounga, 2008). A country with a high power distance orientation both accepts and
perpetuates inequalities between people. Giving an example of such a society would be one
that follows a caste system like happened in India (Gupta, Hanges & Dorfman, 2002) and it
Besides, in Eastern perspective, leaders suppose be not too close with their employees,
hence, they will keep a distance with their subordinates for the reason to be respected. A
low Power Distance indicates that a society does not emphasise differences in people,
status, power or wealth. Most of the western countries are low power distance especially in
Unites States (Hofstede, 2001). Therefore, leaders in Western countries tend to maintain
closer relationship with their subordinates if compare to Asian countries’ leaders. They
usually will get close with their employees or participate in their social life. Other words to
say, they will tend to like friends. Hence, equality is seen as the collective goal of society
b. Social Orientation
In social orientation, it defined as 'the extent to which individuals are integrated into
groups' (Hofstede & Peterson, 2000). It focuses on the aspect to which a community is tends
people prefer to take care of themselves and their family, remaining emotionally
points to a society that is more collectivist in nature. In such countries the ties between
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individuals are very strong and the family is given much more weight. In such societies
members lean towards collective responsibility. In other hand individualistic countries, status
differences tend be smaller and people in authority are given relatively less respect (Smith &
Dugan, 1998).
the most individualistic culture, coming up with Australia and Great Britain. This indicates
that individuality and individual rights are dominant. Leaders in these societies tend to form
relationships with larger numbers of people, but with the relationships being weak. Their
ties are loose among people, family, and between coworkers. In Western leaders point of
view, successful in their life is gained by own self but give by others. For instead, the
Microsoft group CEO, Bill William Gates; American investor and CEO of Berkshire Hathaway,
Buffett and CEO of the Trump Organization, Donald Trump choose to donate most of their
wills to the charity funds and didn’t keep much for their next generation. This phenomenon
is seldom happen in Asian societies. In Asia such as Hong Kong, Li Ka Shing which CEO of
Hong Kong Hutchison Whampoa and Cheung Kong holding group, runs his companies
closely with his two sons and is planning to pass the leadership of his firms to them as well
(Mills ,2005).
c. Masculinity/ Femininity
This dimension pertains to the degree societies reinforce, or do not reinforce, the
traditional masculine work role model of male achievement, control, and power. A high
differentiation. In such cultures, males tend to dominate a significant portion of the society
and power structure. A low Masculinity score means a society has a lower level of
differentiation and inequity between genders. In these cultures, females are treated equally
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In countries with a high ranking on masculinity, the leadership style is likely to be more
concerned on with task accomplishment then nurturing social relationship. The leaders will
give motivation to their subordinates based on the acquisition of money and things rather
than quality of life. Hence, the leadership is to ensure bottom-line profits in order to satisfy
the shareholders and to set demanding targets. According to the Hofstede’s research, Japan
is ranking number one which is the highest masculinity among the countries. Most of the
Latin America and some western countries such as Australia, United States, Great Britain,
Germany and Italy showed high masculinity culture in their countries. On the other hand, in
countries with more feminine cultures, the role of the leader would be to safeguard
employee well-being and to demonstrate concern for social responsibility. Most of the
Europe countries such as Denmark, Greece, Spain, Finland or Portugal; also some Asian
countries (Thailand, India, Korea Taiwan and Singapore) tend to femininity cultures.
d. Uncertainty Avoidance
This dimension concerns the level of acceptance for uncertainty and ambiguity within
a society. A country with a high Uncertainty Avoidance score will have a low tolerance
towards uncertainty and ambiguity. As a result it is usually a very rule-orientated society and
follows well defined and established laws, regulations and controls. A low Uncertainty
Avoidance score points to a society that is less concerned about ambiguity and uncertainty
and has more tolerance towards variety and experimentation. Such a society is less rule-
In countries with high uncertainty avoidance, leaders will tend to use more formalization
evident in a greater amount of written rules and procedures. Apart from that, there would
role of staff and in defining jobs and functions. Leaders would avoid to taking risk and would
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be motivated by stability and security. The role of leadership would be more one of
In the “South Asia” cluster, the leadership style is based on style that uses the work-
Asia” cluster, the power distance between the leaders and the workers is very high. A leader
is given a high degree of authority to be in charge in almost everything. Workers are only
followers that follow all of the orders that have been ordered by the leaders. Besides that,
most of the leaders within this cluster are theory X leaders that think that their workers are
not diligent enough and are less willing to sacrifice. Since they do not fully believe in their
workers, they are not given the authority or freedom in work to make decisions or
something else.
leadership is a leadership style that uses the work-centered behavior coupled with a
information between leaders and subordinates during work. This happens due to the
collectivism in-group that is practiced in the “Confucian Asia” cluster. In addition, based on
theory Y, workers within this cluster are more responsible and are more willing to sacrifice,
so they are given a certain freedom and rights by the leaders in the work environment.
They can make certain decision or give their ideas or opinions within limits.
The “Anglo” cluster practices participative leadership style which allows continual
exchange of information and interaction and influence between leaders and workers.
Participative leadership style is practiced by the leaders because the workers are more
participative. Apart from that, the power distance in the west is lower compared to the east.
which only gives limited freedom to followers are not favored in the west.
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iv. Comparison with the Characteristic of leadership style
is typically defined by the traits, qualities and behaviours of a leader (Horner, 1997).
Basically, regarding to the literature reviews which mentioned before, the leadership in
Western countries are more varied compare to Eastern countries. Giving an example the
and Europe tend to be more participative and empowerment styles. They are focus on
happened in northern Europe especially in German. They are more openness, democratic,
(2003), the cultures with low power distance it tends to be more participative with their
subordinates. They give flexibility, autonomy and decision making capacity to subordinates
to set and perform towards their own goals. In contrast, the countries which with high
power distance, leadership tends to be directive in nature. Their leadership style tend to be
vertical, scope of decision making had reduced and increasing employees’ fear of
repercussions. Besides, western leaders are able to energize the people in company. This
authoritarian tone, rigid instructions and many management directives. In contrast, western
leadership is less emphasis on leader’s personality and considerable weight on leader’s style
and performance.
extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain some behaviors (Robbins &
Judge, 2009). Which means a charismatic leader is the person who looks like a leader.
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People follow such a leader because of who he is, not because of his ability or even his
successful life. Human magnetism is the thing, and it is very different in different national
cultures. What looks like a charismatic leader to Americans may appear to be something
very different to people from other societies. Dorfman et. al (1997) stated that leadership in
western especially in United States are more to charismatic. Meanwhile, Redding (1990)
stated that the leadership among the eastern is initially transactional not charismatic.
Transactional leaders believe that people are motivated by reward or punishment. These
leaders give clear instructions to followers about what their expectations are and when
those expectations are fulfilled there are rewards in store for them and failure is severely
punished. Besides, employees need to show loyalty, diligence, conformity and behaviors that
enhance the superiors’ face. The loyalty and devotion of subordinates derives from cultural
really challenging for an eastern leader to lead in a western country. As we know, there are
a lot of differences between the east and the west, both explicit and implicit. The explicit
differences are geographical locations, working environments, cultures and customs, verbal
languages and the likes. Apart from that, the implicit differences are values, beliefs,
perceptions, leadership styles and behaviors, leaders’ and workers’ characteristics and many
more. There are many predictable challenges such as the misunderstanding conflicts as well
as quarrels and boycotts that may occur due to the large number of differences. Inevitably,
unpredictable challenges may appear at anytime such as unwanted incidents arising due to
a small matter. Thus, eastern leaders may not be able to efficiently lead in western
environments.
On the other hand, based on the previous preview, it shows that Western leadership
tends to be much more task‐oriented, while in Eastern cultural is a much more holistic
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model focusing on trust, harmony and interrelationships among people. For Western
leaders, the relationship is a formal one without any chance for leader and the subordinates
to be as close as friends. This will make the eastern subordinates feel the Western leader is
ego and hard to get closer. Besides, in Western leader’s point of view, each job that he or
she is scheduled and really needs to be done. Everything done is based on traditions and
what is normally done. The leader in western societies also rules through principles and laws
and not through beliefs, principles and traditions, which is different with eastern culture of
initiate in human relationship. The most important issue is eastern countries tend to use non
verbal language. The communication is dependent upon the person and the situation. Much
is communicated in what is not to say. Leaders from Western, their communication expected
to be clear and direct. They always speak straight to the point. This probably may not really
them.
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5. Conclusion
Styles of leadership are totally different between Eastern and Western countries.
Culture colours the way things are done, but less so what is done. The differences in styles
most markedly reflect the stage of development of the economies and companies of Asia. As
nowadays many Eastern leaders had their education in Western countries and slowly they
absorb the western culture, the less autocratic and more participative and even empowered
style of leadership will applied by Eastern leaders. Asian leadership will come to more
As conclusion, the Western leaders have more tough and unrelenting vulture that
makes them act less kind to their employees. The Western leaders have a stricter and
refined culture that they have lesser care for people. They believe in survival of the fittest.
They believe that in order to survive in this world, everything necessary should be done
even if it means that the rights and feelings of others will be stepped on. They also think
that they must do everything to have a higher position than other people.
On the other hand, the Asian leaders have a nicer culture because their culture is
embedded with different principles and ideas given to them by their ancestors. The Asian
leaders tend to be more human oriented and have a sense of family relation. The Asian
leaders tend to be friendly, hospitable and kind of others. They try to give a fair and warm
There are always differences that exist in the real world no matter where a leader is.
opportunity to be more flexible, adaptable, and wisely. Everyone is different in their own
way, so leaders must analyze well and wisely choose the way that are helpful for them while
leading in West. To be a successful leader no matter in West or East, the leader has and
must overcome the challenges by applying the efficient ways that suit oneself better.
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