Chanda Literature Review Paper

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Running head: LEARNING STYLES OF ELEMENTARY STUDENTS ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS
How do the Learning Styles of Elementary School Students Affect their Academic
Performance in English Language Arts?
Victoria Chanda, Jessica Choi, and Ashley Clark
Loyola University Maryland

LEARNING STYLES OF ELEMENTARY STUDENTS ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE ON 2
ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS
Abstract
We set out to investigate how different learning styles affect the academic performance of
elementary school students in English Language Arts. In particular, we considered why
girls outperform boys across all levels of reading throughout the nation. Analyzing fifteen
different articles, we found a variety of factors that affect student reading performance.
These factors include gender and cognitive differences, student-teacher relationships,
culture, classroom management, and comprehension activities. The articles show that girls
outperform boys across all levels of reading throughout the nation. This paper will provide
insight for teachers on ideas to consider when trying to close the academic gap in reading.
Key Terms
Gender differences, reading, achievement, reading attitudes, teacher perceptions, motivation,
academic performance, self-concept

Students and teachers face many challenges throughout the school day. An important
educational issue that is seen across multiple nations is the gendered learning gap found in
English Language Arts. “Females consistently outperform their male peers in most reading
comprehension assessments at various stages of development and in many countries” (Clinton et
al., 2012). Researchers have studied the issue for years and the findings have not been
linked to one specific cause for the learning gap.
Statement of the Problem
Research shows that boys are not performing at the same level as girls when it comes to
reading. “Boys are more likely than girls to have reading comprehension difficulties as
indicated by a disconnect between a student’s observed reading comprehension
performance and predicted reading comprehension performance based on age and
intellectual ability” (Clinton et al., 2012). It does not help that “at an early age, reading is
recognized within the home environment as an activity more closely associated with females
than males” (Millard, 1997). What then can educators do to help close the gendered reading gap
at school?
Literature Review and Analysis
Field Knowledge
Research suggests that boys are underachieving compared to girls in all aspects of
reading. Contributing factors include, but are not limited to, motivation, learning disabilities,
classroom management, teaching styles, and teacher’s perceptions of their students. “Within
the classroom environment, whilst all children receive the same literacy instruction,
differences in attention, interest and preference for different types of classroom activities may
mean that boys and girls spend different amounts of time engaged in literacy activities” (Logan
& Johnston, 2010). The studies have suggested that boys are learning at different rates than
girls in reading, thus launching our investigative research into the motivating question: How do
the learning styles of elementary school students affect their academic performance in Reading?
Gender and Cognitive Differences
“The popular press has put forth the idea that the US educational system is experiencing
a ‘boy crisis’, where boys are losing ground to girls across multiple dimensions” (Husain &
Millimet, 2007). We began our research by investigating whether or not gender plays a role in a
student’s success in reading.
Husain and Millimet (2007) study the performance of boys’ and girls’ math as well as
reading achievement in the primary grades. They wanted to see not only if a gender gap
existed, but within which content areas it existed in. The study was completed with the same set
of students as they progressed from the beginning of kindergarten to the end of third grade. The
researchers used a nationally representative panel data set on the students. Panel data contains
observations of multiple phenomena over long periods of time for the individuals who were
chosen for the research. This will allow the researchers to identify whether or not boys have
performed worse/better than girls in math or reading.
The survey data comes from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten
(ECLS-K) Class of 1998-1999. The ECLS-K reports different types of test scores but the focus is
on math and reading item response theory. Some of the reading test scores evaluate a child’s
ability to identify upper and lower case letters, read words in context and recognize
common words by sight. Some of the math test scores measure the ability to count objects,
solve addition, subtraction, multiplication and division problems, and recognize shapes.
The researchers found that by the end of third grade boys significantly outperform girls in
math. They also found that girls perform significantly better in reading at the start of
kindergarten. What is interesting to note is that African-American and Hispanic boys from low
income families fall behind significantly over the first four years of education, whereas boys who
attend private school are only slightly behind girls in reading.
In a similar cross-continental study by Bergold, Wendt, Kasper, and Steinmayr (2017),
these researchers wanted to see if there was a correlation between 17 countries and their students’
test scores in math, reading, and science, and if these test scores varied by gender.
They used the International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Progress in
International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2011. They started with 32 countries originally
and ended up with 17 that did both of the assessments, in which the countries were part of the
European Union. Gender equity also came into play; what differences would they see (if any) in
the countries that participated? “Sociocultural theory posits that gender differences are
driven by social influences such as societal gender equity” (Bergold, Wendt, Kasper, &
Steinmayr, 2017).
The researchers found that there was some variability across countries. However, girls
consistently scored higher than boys in reading and boys scored higher than girls in math. The
scores for science were similar to math, favoring boys, however the pattern of differences were
inconsistent. Boys were overrepresented at the low and high ends of the proficiency spectrum
and underrepresented in the middle. The articles above have helped support that there is a
learning gender gap in English Language Arts.
Taking into consideration cognitive differences, brain functioning could be a clue to the
educational gap. You have heard of the myth that boys are slower learners and girls are faster
learners, but is it true? Worden, Hinton, and Fischer (2011) studied to see if the brain had an
impact on the myth that girls are better at reading and boys are better in math and science. Brain
size does correlate with overall body size and men are larger on average than women. Men tend
to have larger brains due to the fact that they tend to have larger physical body frames. There is
no inherent correlation between brain size and intelligence or academic achievement. Of course
there is a difference between males and females based on anatomy and cultural roles, which will
lead to a difference for men and women in every culture.
Overall boys and girls do not have any inherent advantage in general (Worden, Hinton,
& Fischer, 2011). When it comes to thinking about how something looks with limited
information, girls are more advanced in spatial reasoning than boys. When it is communicating
with others with speaking or writing, boys are more advanced than girls in the language
department. “No neuroscientific data suggest that boy’s brains are better suited to any
given domain or subject or vice versa” (Worden, Hinton, & Fischer, 2011). While every
student has their own strengths and weaknesses, no evidence suggests that these profiles are
biologically limited by gender (Worden, Hinton, & Fischer, 2011).
In another research study, Logan and Johnston (2010) reviewed several areas of potential
research in the context of understanding the differences between boys and girls in reading from a
psychological perspective. The following areas were examined within the review: gender
differences in behavioral and motivational factors, gender differences in cognitive abilities,

gender differences in brain activation during reading, and gender differences in reading strategies
and learning styles. Logan and Johnston (2010) stated that while both genders may be in the
same classroom environment, they are both engaged (or not) in reading activities in different
ways. What stood out most, was the idea that boys are self-reporting more inattentive behaviors
than girls during reading lessons (Logan & Johnston, 2010). Their solution? Reading lessons
designed to keep boys more engaged; targeted synthetic phonics programs that teach one-word
reading strategies that focus on sounding and blending words, can not only help boys retain the
information they are learning, but will keep them engaged in the short lessons as well. Overall,
Logan and Johnston (2010) claim that due to the variation in the population that researchers can
have, all children would benefit from increased understanding of reading development and
comprehension.
Similarly, Quinn and Wagner (2013), studied the gender differences in reading
impairment in a large sample of second grade students that were at risk of or are already
identified as “reading deficient”. Here, the primary goal of the study was to understand
the magnitude of the gender gap, to define reading impairment as understood by teachers and
researchers, and to identify the correlation between the researcher and teacher based
identification procedures for the students in the study with reading impairments.
The researchers collected a large pool of data from 431,103 second grade students in
Florida using the Progress Monitoring and Reporting Network. First, the students were given the
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Literacy Skills (DIBELS) and Oral Reading Fluency (ORF)
assessments. The students read three passages out loud for one minute, and their score was kept
by the number of words read correctly within that one minute. Second, the DIBELS Nonsense
Word Fluency (NWF) assessment was given to the students where they were given a list of 60
single syllable, made up words, and read them aloud. Score was kept by how many words were
pronounced correctly. Lastly, The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test required students to point to
the picture that was named (Quinn & Wagner, 2013).
The researchers concluded that gender differences in reading impairment exist, and the
gap between boys and girls increased as the reading deficiency increased as well. Scores were
higher for girls than boys, as more boys were identified by teachers with reading deficiencies
(Quinn & Wagner, 2013). They also stated that there was not a correlation between the
researchers identification of students with a reading disability versus the school’s identification
process. The criteria for each of the processes were different; the researchers only used
the data from the assessments, and the school identified students using their standard
procedures and referral processes. They did find however, that the researchers identified about
20% of students who were not already identified as reading deficient by their school. It is
important to note that the significant gap in the research that Quinn and Wagner (2013)
completed. Based on data alone, how many students are missed being identified as “reading
deficient” in school each year? Could this help to narrow the reading achievement gap
between boys and girls?
Limbrick, Wheldall and Madelaine (2011) completed a study that had several
explanations as to why more boys have a reading disability than girls. The first explanation is
that there is a gender difference in phonemic awareness, which turns into poor reading or reading
disability. The second explanation is that research has indicated a link between reading disability
and auditory processing disorder. The third explanation is the a significant amount of research
linking the gender differences between behavior problems and reading disability. The fourth
explanation relates to the difference in the cognitive ability scores, which demonstrates the
greater variability on cognitive measures when it comes to boys. This also results in extremes
ends of distribution in the preponderance of boys’. The final explanation is gender differences in
reading motivation, as girls have reported a higher level of motivation in reading than boys
(Limbrick, Wheldall, & Madelaine, 2011).
Throughout the study, the researchers have reported little or no differences in reading
between boys and girls, where others have reported that more boys than girls are poor readers.
Others have reported as a gender ratio of poor reading up to 4:51:1, which shows differences in
studies of assessments, severity of selection and samples (Limbrick, Wheldall, & Madelaine,
2011). Lastly, you can base your findings to Hyde’s similarities hypothesis, which was on
based on 46 meta-analyses. Hyde concluded that boys and girls are more alike than different in
educational and psychological variables. Overall, the findings in this review might show the
differences between boys and girls on various aspects of reading and reading-related aspects but
they are not as large as what was previously noted. The differences do not permanently affect the
reading outcomes (Limbrick, Wheldall, & Madelaine, 2011).
Teacher Perception/Cultures
There are many different variables that affect a child’s education. Student-teacher
relationships and a student’s culture both have a strong impact on learning. “The
gender stereotype of significant others such as parents, peers, or teachers affect
students’ competence beliefs, values, and achievement related behavior. Stereotypically,
gender beliefs about reading favor girls” (Reterlsdorf & Schwartz, 2014). It is important that
teachers become aware of how their words and actions can impact a child’s progress in
reading.
Reterlsdorf and Schwartz (2014) investigated teachers’ gender stereotypes and the
effects it can have on the reading self-concept of boys. They gave students the Habitual
Reading Motivation Questionnaire to assess reading self-concept. Statements focused
on basic reading skills such as ‘understanding different texts is easy for me’. The second
piece included a survey given to teachers consisting of three questions that measured
their gender stereotypes about reading. They were asked if boys/girls are better
readers, boys/girls read more, and boys/girls have more fun reading. The final piece was a
reading comprehension test from the International Reading Literacy Study. Students had to read
multiple texts and answer questions about the text. The reading achievement test and reading
self-concept measure were given at the beginning of the fifth grade school year and then during
the second half of the sixth grade school year.
The researchers found that teachers believed girls had higher reading abilities than boys.
At the beginning of the study the boys had a higher reading self-concept compared to girls. After
a year and a half, girls had a higher reading self-concept compared to boys. Girls also had higher
reading achievement scores compared to boys. They concluded that there was significant
negative effect of teachers’ gender stereotypes of students’ reading self-concept for boys,
but not girls.
A similar study completed by Boerma, Mol and Jolles (2016) researched reading
motivation and gender differences in 160 5th and 6th graders. They wanted to know the
correlation between teacher perceptions of their students’ reading comprehension and
student’s reading motivation among boys and girls. They used four
assessments/surveys to measure these correlations: Reading Self Concept, Reading
Task Value, Reading Attitude, and Teacher-Perceived Reading Comprehension. Beforehand,
they used a t-test to see if there would be any possible grade level differences among the fifth
and sixth graders on reading self-concept, value of reading, reading attitude, and teacher
perceived reading comprehension. All of these assessments asked students to evaluate their own
feelings towards reading, using various Likert-type scales, and asked teachers to evaluate their
students perceived reading comprehension based on classroom observations.
Since the researchers did not find any differences in the small group t-test, they used it on
all participants in the study. The t-test showed that there were no gender differences in reading
self concept, but there were differences in students’ reading task value and reading attitude, with
girls scoring higher than boys on both. The teacher’s perceived reading comprehension
survey showed a significant gap between girls and boys, in which girls were much higher.
Boerma, Mol and Jolles (2016) state that there is a correlation between boys and girls reading
motivation and teacher perception of reading comprehension. Not only are students’ reading
behavior and reading comprehension affected by cognitive and linguistic factors (they mentioned
from a previous research study done), but by motivational factors such as how they felt about
reading, their reading self-concept, and reading task value are significant as well. Teachers seem
to naturally focus on girls as readers, without realizing the influence they’re having on both
genders.
A study completed by McCormick and O’Connor (2014) looked at children’s math
and reading achievement from first through fifth grades in relation to teacher-student
relationships. The attachment theory proposes that children who have a positive
relationship with their teacher are able to rely on their teacher and actively explore the school
environment. A high quality relationship may increase students’ learning due to the
supportive environment in which children are motivated and engaged. McCormick and
O’Connor (2014) set out to answer two questions: Do higher levels of teacher-child closeness
and conflict relate to higher levels of math and reading achievement in elementary school? Do
associations between teacher-child closeness and conflict in math and reading achievement in
elementary school vary by gender?
A fifteen item Student Teacher Relationship Scale was used to look at teacher
perceptions of the quality of relationships in the three grades. They rated how applicable
different statements were to a current relationship with a particular child. There are two parts to
the scale: conflict and closeness. The closeness piece is in regards to how warm a teacher is to
the child and how well the communication is. For example, one statement reads ‘I share an
affectionate, warm relationship with this child’. The conflict piece is in regards to how
disastrous and antagonistic the teacher-child interactions are. For example, ‘this child
and I always seem to be struggling with each other’. Also a reading and math
achievement test was given to all three grades by a field interviewer. They looked at letter-word
identification for reading and applied problems for math. The letter-word scaled consists of 57
items indicating reading identification skills and word decoding. The applied problems scale
consists of 60 items and indicates skills to analyze and solve mathematical problems. This
achievement assessment is widely used and demonstrates consistency.
McCormick and O’Connor (2014) found that students’ reading and math scores
increased over time and teacher-child closeness decreased over time. Teacher-child conflict
increased between first and third grade and then decreased in fifth grade. Boys had significantly
higher levels of conflict with their teachers. Boys had significantly higher levels of math and
reading achievement than girls in first grade, but it wasn’t as significant in third and fifth. The
researchers found that a slight increase in teacher-student conflict led to a very slight
decrease in reading achievement. They also found that a slight increase in teacher-child
closeness was associated with a higher score in reading achievement. The closeness effects were
nonsignificant for math achievement. There was a significant negative effect for teacher-child
conflict and math achievement for girls, but not for boys. There was no gender difference for
teacher-child closeness and reading achievement.
The study shows the longitudinal connections between teacher-child relationships and
academic achievement during elementary school. “Teacher's role in promoting an
emotionally supportive context and creating warm, respectful relationships with all
students show not be overlooked because of concerns about curriculum and direct
instruction” (McCormick & O’Connor, 2014). Looking to see whether the associations varied
by gender have important implications for practitioners. Girls who had a conflictual relationship
with teachers showed lower math scores and slower growth in math across time. It was closeness
that mattered more for reading development. A close relationship will allow teachers to provide a
positive support system to encourage children during reading.
Another study that shows the impact teachers have on students’ progress in school is
focused on the feedback teachers provide to students. Truckenmiller et al. (2014) wanted to
look at elementary-aged students’ writing fluency growth over an eight-week period. They
wanted to look at the instructional practices, the sex differences, and the student’s initial level of
writing fluency. Students were given a different story starter each week and needed to complete a
narrative story. There were two groups in the study, the first group was part of the individualized
performance feedback condition. Students in the first group received a packet containing
feedback about the story they wrote from the previous week to assist them when answering the
current weeks story starter. The second group, the practice-only condition, was not given any
feedback on their writing.

What the researchers found was that both girls and boys in the feedback group made
significant progress. Students who were given weekly feedback not only wrote more, but also
used correct punctuation, capitalization and grammar by the end of the study compared to the
control group. The finding is useful for teachers when figuring out instructional practices to use
in the classroom. Although the research was focused on writing and not reading, it is clear that
performance feedback is a critical tool for teachers. As teachers we need to ensure we are
providing feedback to all students to help close any gaps that we may see.
McMillian, Frierson and Campbell (2011) completed a study that shows how important a
positive classroom environment can be for a student. The study examined the gender differences
in academic identification for 113 African American children enrolled in a largely Caucasian
public school in the southeastern part of United States (McMillian, Frierson & Campbell, 2011).
Students’ gender differences in self-esteem, academic self-concept and academic
accomplishment were compared at age 8 and age 12. This is to determine if showing unique
patterns in academic achievement, global self-esteem, and academic self-concept gradually
lessens academical motivation in African-American boys. Demographics information was used
to identify the participants in the study. Age-referenced standard scores for reading and
mathematics were used to measure the academic skill at age 8 and age 12 from the Woodcock-
Johnson Psychoeducational Battery Part Two: Tests of Achievement. Using either Purdue
Preschool Self-Concept Scale or the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social
Acceptance of Young Children, students measured their academic self- concept at age 8 and self-
perceptions of academic competence and global self-worth at age 12 (McMillian, Frierson and
Campbell, 2011).
McMillian, Frierson and Campbell (2011), found that African-American boys and girls
have similar reading and mathematics achievement test scores in second grade but by the time
they are in eighth grade, it becomes a different story. African-American boys have lower reading
and mathematics achievement test scores, which also includes their GPA (Grade Point Average).
This also indicated that they would be more likely to be enrolled in a special educational and
developmental delay program (McMillian, Frierson & Campbell, 2011). This will become a
larger issue when they transition from middle school to high school.
Based on the data collected from the study, it has come to a realization that boys and girls
performed equally well and displayed similar academic achievement in reading and mathematics,
self-rated academic competence and overall self-esteem at age 12 (McMillian, Frierson &
Campbell, 2011). It is really based on the type of teaching relationship and classroom
management to which students are exposed, as well as students’ willingness to learn.
McGeown, Goodwin, Henderson and Wright (2011) examined the differences in reading
skills and reading motivation by investigating if the differences are accounted by sex or gender
identity. Boys and girls have shown to be different in their reading choices, frequency of reading,
attitudes towards reading, motivation to read, competency beliefs in reading, value of reading
and reading skill (McGeown, Goodwin, Henderson & Wright, 2011). On average, girls are more
motivated to read with greater confidence, positive attitude, higher reading abilities and value of
reading which causes girls to read more frequently. Boys are more interested in math, science
and sports due to their masculine traits. In early ages, reading in the home environment is an
activity that is more associated with females than males. Based on a questionnaire, children
report that their mothers read more than their fathers and that their mothers play a more
significant/important role in teaching them to read (McGeown, Goodwin, Henderson & Wright,
2011). This might help explain why boys and girls regard reading to be more of a feminine
activity.
The participants that were involved in the study were 182 children (98 males) from 5
primary schools. 63 children were in year 4, 64 were in year 5 and 55 were in year 6. The
materials used to conduct the study were questionnaires. The “Motivation for Reading
Questionnaire (MRQ) Revised Version” (Wigfield & Gurthrie, 1997) was used to assess
reading motivation (McGeown, Goodwin, Henderson & Wright, 2011). It included
important aspects of intrinsic (concepts of curiosity - the desire to learn about a specific topic in
which they are interested), and extrinsic motivation (the concept of recognition- the satisfaction
in receiving a concrete form of recognition for success in reading) and lastly grades (the desire to
be evaluated approvingly by the teacher). The questions were answered by using the Likert Scale
(4= a lot like me, 3=a little like me, 2=a little different from me and 1=very different from me)
(McGeown, Goodwin, Henderson & Wright, 2011). The second questionnaire was “The
Children’s Sex Role Inventory (CSRI) Short Form were used to assess gender roles.
This inventory measures the traditional masculine traits, feminine traits, and neutral
traits. They also used the Likert Scale to answer the questions (4=very true to me, 3=mostly true
to me, 2= a little true to me and 1=not true to me at all) (McGeown, Goodwin, Henderson and
Wright, 2011).
As a result, girls scored higher in reading skill, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation,
efficacy (intrinsic), curiosity (intrinsic), involvement (intrinsic), recognition (extrinsic), grades
(extrinsic) and feminine traits. The only domain in which males scored higher was in the
masculine traits area with a score of 29.20 (McGeown, Goodwin, Henderson & Wright, 2011).
At the end, sex is often used as a way to understand educational differences but should not be
used to cover the differences within the school population and student difference as an
individual. Each child is different and learns differently.
Classroom Management
Another variable that seems to have a profound effect on student’s literacy engagement
and achievement is teacher’s classroom management. Garwood and Vernon-Feagans
(2017) bring forth the idea that “although classroom management strategies can benefit
children with behavior problems, it is not clear whether these students need consistently
good classroom management across the early elementary school years to improve their
academic performance.” While this is a key idea, many teachers are not consistent in their
classroom management styles, and student populations vary among classes.
Garwood and Vernon-Feagan (2017) studied the relationship between years of observable
high-quality classroom management from kindergarten to third grade in relation to third grade
literacy achievement in rural children identified as emotionally and behaviorally disturbed. They
used the Family Life Project to identify children born in 2003-2004 in rural North Carolina and
Pennsylvania. Third grade teachers used the strengths and differences questionnaire to rate their
students to help identify children with or at risk for emotional behavioral disorders, and the
researchers used the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) to rate teacher interactions
with students in the classroom. They used the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement to
measure students’ general scholastic aptitude, academic achievement, and oral language skills
(Garwood & Feagan, 2017).
Overall, the researchers found that there were differences in the students identified as
having consistent classroom management, and those that did not. The effect for high-quality
management was not deemed as “significant” for girls, but for boys it was. Garwood and
Feagan (2017) noted that among the genders, the only significant behavioral differences were the
types of behaviors that were exhibited. Boys were often externalizing (or showing) their
behaviors, and girls were rated higher on internalizing (or not showing) behaviors. Thus
concluding that overall, higher-quality classroom management exhibited by teachers within the
first four years of schooling, could provide insight as to why boys who are identified as having
an emotional behavioral disorder achieve higher test scores when they have had consistent high-
quality management. One question remains: why does management quality not have an effect on
how girls achieve.
Another research article discusses a school district in South Carolina where schools are
offering gender-based classes to promote early academic and behavior success for students. Thus
far, the single-gender classrooms have produced positive outcomes for students, teachers and
parents. They have invigorated teachers, engaged students and involved parents. In 2007, they
had 70 schools begin with single-gender education in their schools and by 2008; they had more
than 200 schools. With this high expectation, they are predicting at least 230 schools in rural,
suburban and urban districts to begin the school year of 2009-2010 with single- gender classes
(Rex & Chawell, 2009).
How is this going to work and what benefits are there to single-gender classrooms?
Educators in local schools determine how single-gender classes can match up with current
teaching. This will not replace current instructional strategies but this will be a channel to
engaging the students by altering their structure of classes and student dynamics. Based on a
survey, the students’ responses pointed out an increase in participation as well as their
willingness to try new learning activities within single-gender classes. The single-gender classes
are targeted on core academic areas like English Language Arts, Math, and Science (Rex &
Chawell, 2009).
Single-gender classrooms are becoming so successful in South Carolina because of the
close partnership between South Carolina Department of Education, local schools, and parents.
Schools receive state-run-training sessions, resources and workshops to successfully implement
single-gender programs. The state education agency visits schools to provide staff members with
professional development in gender-related strategies for the classroom. In June, they were the
first to create a single-gender advisory committee of educators from across the state (Rex &
Chawell, 2009).
Single-gender classrooms have produced positive results within South Carolina’s
education system. At least 30 more are expected to open in the fall and only 5 schools are
taking out the single-gender classes due to budget and staffing cuts. Overall, schools in South
Carolina are reporting an increase in academic performance and decrease in disciplinary issues
for both boys and girls. For example: Taylor Elementary School in Greenville drop discipline
referrals from 0.36 per student in 2007-1008 to 0.06 per student in 2008-2009. Whittemore Park
Middle School in Conway had 4 F’s compared to the previous school year of more than 50
F’s in a co-ed classroom. Geiger Elementary School in Fairfield County reported an increase in
percentage of 5th graders scoring proficient or advanced levels on state assessments. Boys have
improved in math from 16.5 percent proficient/advanced co-ed classes to 31.3 percent in single-
gender classes. Girls have improved from 19% to 42% proficient/advanced in reading from coed
to single-gender classes. Kingstree Junior High in Williamsburg County has dropped percentage
of 7th grade males scoring below basic from 55% in 2006 to 30% in 2008. Girls in 7th grade have
improved from 25% below basic to only 11% during the same time (Rex & Chadwell, 2009).
78% of parents are very satisfied with single-gender education based on the annual parent
survey. More than two-thirds of the parents are indicated that they see an increase in their child’s
self-confidence, independence and self-efficacy (Rex & Chawell, 2009). Single-gender
classrooms are successful if the proper training and motivation is involved in all parties
from students, teachers and parents. Engagement of teachers, parents and students will meet all
the individual needs and interests of every child.
Comprehension
“Gender differences in performance on reading comprehension assessments seem to be
due to the comprehension activities rather than the decoding activities associated with reading”
(Clinton et al., 2012). An interesting research study completed by Clinton et al. (2012)
investigated if there were any gender differences among elementary school students in regards to
the inferences they made during English Language Arts. Specifically, the researchers hoped to
find that females generate more reinstatement inferences than males.
Students had to complete a Reading Comprehension Test prior to the study. It contained
eleven short texts with two to six multiple choice questions after each text. Students also
completed a think aloud task containing one practice text and one experimental text which was
twenty-one sentences long. The think-aloud task was given to students during individual
sessions. Before beginning, the experimenter modelled ways to respond ‘out-loud’ and then
informed students they would have to answer two comprehension questions after.
Students read each text sentence by sentence. After each sentence the student would
make a comment and the experimenter would record the response.
The researchers found that females generated more reinstatement inferences than males.
Females also produced more responses overall than males. There was no significant correlation
between basic reading comprehension skill and the number of reinstatement inferences the
students made. Gender differences were not found on the comprehension assessment. Clinton et
al. argued that without effective inference generation, students in later school grades struggle
with reading to learn; they exhibit difficulties in understanding the material presented to them in
texts (as cited in Best et al., 2005).
Gender differences are not inherent and can be changed. With proper practice and
guidance, students can improve on tasks regardless of gender. Reading interventions that focus
on inferences may be helpful for male students at the elementary school level. Encouraging all
readers to make inferences when they process texts can help reduce gender differences and
improve reading comprehension.
Further Questions
We would want to take into account the variables of student achievement such as:
learning disabilities, cultural perceptions on academic achievement, teacher-student
relationships, socioeconomic status, cognitive development, and teaching style just to name a
few. Thinking about the different contributions to the gender gap, does the classroom
environment pass as more influential than other areas taken into consideration? What if we have
better teachers with good classroom management, know the pedagogy when it comes to the
learning differences between boys and girls, and have strong relationships with students as
readers? Is this still even enough when parents might not be having students read at home and
just leave the learning for school? Could the gender gap be closed even if it is a little bit? The
research that we looked at did not have a lot of information on socio-economic status and
cultural perceptions on academic achievement. If the results we found in our study were not
promising then we would want to extend our specific question to look at these variables as well.
Research Question
Our main research question would be: How do different classroom environments affect
the academic performance of elementary school students in English Language Arts?
Importance
Studies have shown that the largest gender gap occurs in English Language Arts in not
only achievement but motivation and perception as well. As teachers we want to ensure that all
students are capable of succeeding in the classroom environments that we create. Creating a
classroom environment that encourages students to take risks and feel comfortable during
reading class can move us one step closer to closing the educational gender gap.
Proposed methodology
The type of methodology we would use to complete our study would be quantitative.
First we would strictly use the data from the benchmarking assessments that the students would
take for reading through the school district. The second piece of data would be a student survey
consisting of questions regarding students’ perceptions of reading on the Likert Scale. For
example, we would ask students to agree or disagree with statements such as: I enjoy reading for
fun, I am a confident reader, I like reading out loud to someone else, I like participating in
classroom discussions on novels, I know my Lexile level, and I am comfortable asking the
teacher for help when it comes to reading.
Expected outcomes
We expect to see that students who rate themselves on the lower side of the Likert Scale
for the reading perception questions will score lower on the benchmarking assessment. We
expect to see that students who rate themselves on the higher side of the Likert Scale for the
reading perception questions will score higher on the benchmarking assessment. Finally, students
who rate themselves neutral for the reading perception questions will score lower on the
benchmarking assessment. Things that we would want to look out for are different variables that
could affect student performance. These include, but are not limited to, time taken on test,
amount of sleep, proper nutrition, testing anxiety, and learning disabilities.
References
Bergold, S., Wendt, H., Kasper, D., & Steinmayr, R. (2017). Academic competencies: Their
interrelatedness and gender differences at their high end. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 109(3), 439-449. doi:10.1037/edu0000140
Boerma,Inouk E., Mol, Suzanne E. & Jolles, Jelle (2016) Teacher Perceptions Affect Boys’
and Girls’ Reading Motivation Differently, Reading Psychology, 37:4, 547- 569, DOI:
10.1080/02702711.2015.1072608
Garwood, J. D., & Vernon-Feagans, L. (2017). Classroom management affects literacy
development of students with emotional and behavioral disorders.Exceptional
Children, 83(2), 123-142. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxy-
ln.researchport.umd.edu/10.1177/0014402916651846
Husain, M., & Millimet, D. (2007). The mythical ‘boy crisis’? Economics of Education
Review, 28, 38-48. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2007.11.002
Limbrick, L., Wheldall, K., & Madelaine, A. (2011). Why Do More Boys Than Girls Have
a Reading Disability? A Review of the Evidence . Australasian Journal of Special
Education , 35(1), 1-24. doi:10.1375/ajse.35.1.1
Logan, S., & Johnston, R. (2010). Investigating gender differences in reading. Educational
Review, 62(2), 175-187. doi:10.1080/00131911003637006

McCormick, M. & O’Connor, E. (2014). Teacher-Child Relationship Quality and
Academic Achievement in Elementary School: Does Gender Matter? Journal of
Educational Psychology, 107, 502-516. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037457
Mcgeown, S., Goodwin, H., Henderson, N., & Wright, P. (2011). Gender differences in reading
motivation: does sex or gender identity provide a better account? Journal of Research in
Reading,35(3), 328-336. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2010.01481.x
McMillian, M. M., Frierson, H. T., & Campbell, F. A. (2010). Do Gender Differences Exist
in the Academic Identification of African American Elementary School-Aged
Children? Journal of Black Psychology,37(1), 78-98.
doi:10.1177/0095798410366709
Quinn, J. M., & Wagner, R. K. (2013). Gender Differences in Reading Impairment and in
the Identification of Impaired Readers: Results From a Large-Scale Study of At- Risk
Readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 48(4), 433-445. doi:10.1177/0022219413508323
Retelsdorf, J., & Schwartz, K. (2014). “Michael Can’t Read!” Teacher’s Gender
Stereotypes and Boys’ Reading Self Concept. Journal of Education Psychology,
107, 186-194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037107
Rex, J., & Chadwell, D. (2009, September). Single-gender classrooms: in South Carolina,
schools flock to offer separate classes with promising early results for students. School
Administrator, 66(8), 28+. Retrieved from
http://go.galegroup.com.proxyln.researchport.umd.edu/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&
u=loyoland_main&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA208273740&asid=80e94a9ea8605
3645a36aedab12b111
Spironelli, C., Penolazzi, B., & Angrilli, A. (2010). Gender differences in inference
generation by fourth-grade students. Journal of Research in Reading, 37(4), 356- 374.
doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2012.01531.x
Truckenmiller, A., Eckert, T., Codding, R. & Petscher, Y. (2014). Evaluating the impact of
feedback on elementary aged students’ fluency growth in written expression: A
randomized controlled trial. Journal of School Psychology, 52, 531-548.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2014.09.001
Worden, J. M., Hinton, C., & Fischer, K. W. (2011). What Does the Brain Have to Do with
Learning? . Kappan Magazine,92(8), 8-13. Retrieved from
http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxyln.researchport.umd.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfvie
wer?sid=9ccd22c746219ff7ad6133b8e3a3%40sessionmgr4007&vid=22&hid=42
Individual Article Review Sheet
Your Name: Tori Chanda
Article Citation:
Husain, M., & Millimet, D. (2007). The mythical ‘boy crisis’? Economics of Education
Review, 28, 38-48. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2007.11.002
What is studied?
The researchers study the performance of boys’ and girls’ math as well as reading
achievement in the primary grades. They chose to study this because of different claims being
made that girls are performing better than boys across the curriculum. They wanted to see not
only if a gender gap exists, but what content areas it exists in.
What methodology is used?
The methodology used in the study is quantitative. The researchers use a nationally
representative panel data set on students from kindergarten through third grade. Panel data
involves measurements that are taken over time. It contains observations of multiple phenomena
over long periods of time for the individuals who were chosen for the research. This will allow
the researchers to identify whether or not boys have performed worse/better than girls in math or
reading. The sample includes 17,565 children from 994 schools across the US.
There are five points in time where a survey is given out. Fall and spring kindergarten
(1998-1999), fall and spring first grade (1999-2000), and spring third grade (2001-2002). The
survey data comes from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten (ECLS-K) Class
of 1998-1999. The ECLS-K reports different types of test scores but the focus is on math and
reading item response theory. Some of the reading test score evaluates a child’s ability to identify
upper and lower case letters, read words in context and recognize common words by sight. Some
of the math test scores measures the ability to count objects, solve addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division problems, and recognize shapes.
How is the data analyzed?
First the researchers investigate average unconditional differences in math and reading at
various points in time. They look at this for all students and also separately by race: Caucasian,
African American, and Hispanic. They also look at biological or behavioral differences. Husain
and Millimet (2007) look at the child’s age, child’s birthweight, social economic status (SES),
number of books at the child’s home, mother’s age at first birth, and is the child’s mother
received WIC benefits during pregnancy. Next they look to see if the average gaps are
representative of an entire population.
What does the researcher (s) find?
When looking at the biological or behavior differences the researches found that boys are
“more likely to reside in the south, are half a year older, raised in households with a slightly
higher SES, have fewer children’s books, and tend to weigh more at birth” (Husain & Millimet,
2007). Although our focus isn’t on Math, I thought the results of the study were interesting.
Boys not only outperform girls upon school entry for Math practices but the gap increases over
the first four years of school. The gap doubles by the end of kindergarten and then doubles again
by the end of first grade. They looked at race as well and noticed that there is no statistically
significant gender gap in any of the primary grades for African American or Hispanic students,
however for Caucasian students there is a significant gender gap.
The reading results were the focus for our research. “The gaps favoring girls in reading
are initially larger in magnitude that the gaps favoring boys in math” (Husain & Millimet, 2007).
Reading is in favor of girls from all races, but the most significant data favors Hispanic girls in
reading. Husain and Millimet (2007) found that boys who attend private schools may be lower
than girls at the beginning of kindergarten for reading, but by the end of third grade they reduce
the gap by 50%. Boys who attend public schools begin kindergarten closer to girls and then lose
ground over the first four years of school. The gap widens for African American and Hispanic
public school students from low SES households.
What conclusions does the researcher (s) make?
The researchers made two main conclusions. The first conclusion was that by the end of
third grade Caucasian boys outperform Caucasian girls in math. There was less evidence to
support the other races. The second main conclusion was that girls perform better in reading at
the start of kindergarten and at the end of third grade across all races. What is interesting to note
is that only the lowest achieving boys fall behind over the first four years of education, where as
other boys are only slightly behind girls.

Article Citation:
Retelsdorf, J., & Schwartz, K. (2014). “Michael Can’t Read!” Teacher’s Gender
Stereotypes and Boys’ Reading Self Concept. Journal of Education Psychology,
107, 186-194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037107
What is studied?
The researchers wanted to study whether teachers’ gender stereotypes have a
negative effect on the reading self-concepts of boys, as opposed to girls. “The gender
stereotype of significant others such as parents, peers, or teachers affect students’
competence beliefs, values, and achievement related behavior. Stereotypically, gender
beliefs about reading favor girls” (Retelsdorf & Schwartz, 2014). Little is known about the
negative effects of stereotypes for boys in reading, whereas there has been some research on the
negative effects of stereotypes for girls in mathematics. Since gender plays an important role in
shaping students’ ability self-concepts, the researchers chose to focus in on boys’ stereotypes
and reading. The study consisted of 1,358 students, 51% of which were boys. There were also 54
teachers involved in the study, 66% were women.
The methodology used was mixed methods. The researchers looked at three pieces of
information. They gave students the Habitual Reading Motivation Questionnaire to assess
reading self-concept. There were four items that measured students’ evaluations of their own
reading skills. Questions were in regards to basic reading skills such as ‘understanding texts is
easy for me’. The second piece includes a survey given to teachers consisting of three questions
that measure their gender stereotypes about reading. They were asked if boys/girls are better
readers, boys/girls read more, and boys/girls have more fun reading. The third piece was reading
comprehension tests from the International Reading Literacy Study. Students had to read
multiple texts and answer questions about the text. There were 27 items total, mostly multiple
choice, with some open-ended. The reading achievement test and reading self-concept measure
was given at the beginning of the 5th grade school year and then during the second half of the
sixth grade school year.
The reading self-concept questionnaire was rate on a 4-point Likert-type scale where 1
meaning ‘does not apply to me’ and 4 meaning ‘applies to me’. The teacher survey was rated on a
5 point Likert-type scale with 1 meaning ‘boys much better/more’ and 5 meaning ‘girls much
better/more’. According to Retelsdorf and Schwartz (2014) the reading achievement assessment
was estimated by applying the partial credit model, because some items were scored
polytomously. The researchers looked at the relationship between students’ self-concept and
teachers’ gender stereotypes by means of multiple group multilevel modeling using Mplus
Version 7.1. They did the same thing with teachers’ gender stereotypes and reading
assessment, as well as reading assessment and student’s self-concept.
A high score in Retelsdorf and Schwartz’s (2014) study showed that teachers believed
that girls had higher reading abilities than boys. Boys had a higher reading self-concept at the
beginning of fifth grade compared to girls. Girls had a higher reading self-concept during the
middle of sixth grade compared to boys. Girls also had higher reading achievement scores during
the beginning of fifth grade compared to boys. Retelsdorf and Schwartz (2014) found a
significant negative effect of teachers’ gender stereotypes on students’ reading self-concept

recorded for boys but not for girls. What the researches made sure to include was that the
teachers’ gender was not a significant predictors of boys’ and girls’ reading self-concepts.
The researchers’ hypothesis was confirmed when saying that boys’ reading self-concept
was lower for students whose teachers reported high scores for gender stereotypes. They
concluded that not only do gender stereotypes have short-term effects but can also explain long-
term effects on the development of reading self-concept. The research they conducted can help
explain to some extent why gender differences in regards to reading self-concept can increase
over time. They want teachers to know that their beliefs can/do have consequences and whether
they are aware of it or not it can impact their treatment of boys and girls in the classroom. They
conclude by giving suggestions on how teachers can counteract prior gender stereotypes by
making expectations very clear in class that boys and girls perform equally well.
Article Citation:
Spironelli, C., Penolazzi, B., & Angrilli, A. (2010). Gender differences in inference
generation by fourth-grade students. Journal of Research in Reading, 37(4), 356- 374.
doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2012.01531.x
What is studied?
The researchers wanted to determine if there were any gender differences among
elementary school students in regards to the inferences they made during English Language Arts.
130 girls and 126 boys in the fourth grade completed think-aloud tasks while reading a practice
text as well as an experimental narrative text. The students came from 13 classrooms in three
elementary schools in an upper Midwestern urban area in the US. The racial background is
primarily Caucasian, with African American, Asian and Hispanic students as well. Spironelli et.
Al (2010) note that gender differences in performance on reading comprehension assessment
seem to be due to the comprehension activities rather than the decoding activities associated with
reading. This is why the researchers chose to look for gender differences in language
comprehension skills, with a specific focus on inferencing. “Without effective inference
generation, Students in later school grades struggle with reading to learn; they exhibit
difficulties in understanding the material presented to them in texts”. (Spironelli et. Al, 2010).
Specifically, the researchers hope to find that females generate more reinstatement inferences
than males.
The study used mixed methods for the methodology. Students had to complete a Reading
Comprehension Test prior to the study beginning. It contained 11 short texts with two to six
multiple choice questions after each text. Participants were given 35 minutes to read the 11 texts
and answer 48 multiple choice questions.
The think aloud task contained one practice text and one experimental text which was 21
sentences long. The think-aloud task was given to students during individual sessions. Before
beginning, the experimenter modelled way to respond ‘out-loud’ and then informed students they
would have to answer two comprehension questions after. Students read each text sentence by
sentence. After each sentence the student would make a comment and the experimenter would
record the response.

The data from the task was transcribed and coded into the following categories:
connective inferences, reinstatement inferences, knowledge-based inferences, associations, text
repetitions, paraphrases, questions, affective responses, evaluative comments, and meta-
cognitive comments. Inferences were also coded based off of whether they were accurate and
consistent with the text or not. The researchers also “examined the number of reinstatement
inferences generated and the proportion of reinstatement inferences of all responses provided by
participants during the think-aloud tasks” (Spironelli et al., 2010). Also, researchers looked at
the total number of think-aloud responses produced to determine if one gender gave more
responses than another. One- way ANOVA was used to were conducted during this study.
Females generated more reinstatement inferences than males. Females also produced
more responses overall than males. There was no significant correlation between basic reading
comprehension skill and the number of reinstatement inferences the students made. Gender
differences were not found on the comprehension assessment.
The researchers note that gender differences are not inherent and can be changed. With
proper practice and guidance students can improve on tasks regardless of gender. Reading
interventions that focus on inferences may be helpful for male students at the elementary school
level. Encouraging all readers to make inferences when they process texts can help reduce
gender differences and improve reading comprehension.

Article Citation:
Truckenmiller, A., Eckert, T., Codding, R. & Petscher, Y. (2014). Evaluating the impact of
feedback on elementary aged students’ fluency growth in written expression: A
randomized controlled trial. Journal of School Psychology, 52, 531-548.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2014.09.001
What is studied?
The researchers wanted to look at elementary-aged students’ writing fluency growth in
response to three informative pieces. They wanted to look at the instructional practices, the sex
differences, and the student’s initial level of writing fluency. 133 third grade students from three
urban elementary schools participated in the study. 46 students were randomly assigned to an
individualized performance feedback condition, 39 students to a practice-only condition, and 48
students to an instructional control condition. The study lasted for 8 weeks. 78% of the students
qualified for free or reduced lunch and 80% of the students came from low SES households.
A mixed methodology was used for the study. Students had to complete a Test of Written
Language- Third Edition to quantify each student’s writing ability. Students also had to complete
a Curriculum-based measurement probe in written expression (CBM-WE). This was given
weekly. Students were given a different story starter each week. They were given a short
sentence fragment that they then needed to continue writing a narrative story about. There was
also a survey that assessed student’s own perception of the writing procedures.
There were two groups in the study. Group one was part of the individualized
performance feedback condition. Students received a packet containing feedback about the
CBM-WE from the previous week to assist them in answering the current weeks CBM-WE. The
second group, the practice-only condition, was not given feedback.
The Test of Written Language-Third Edition was evaluated in conventions, language, and
story construction. The Curriculum-based measurement probe in written expression was
evaluated for Total Written Words (TWW) and Correct Writing Sequence (CWS). TWW was
calculated by counting all words, even if they were misspelled. CWS looked at correct spelling,
punctuation and grammar. The survey was rated on a 5 point Likert-type scale. Multi-level
growth modeling was used in the study. Truckenmiller et al. (2014) discussed how it retains
individual differences by modeling each individual’s intercept and slope estimates, it detects
variables affecting incremental changes in outcome variables, it accommodates missing data, and
it detects variables that may affect outcome measures.
Students wrote an average of 31 words in 3 minutes. Girls outperformed boys when it
came to the total words written. Both girls and boys made significant progress if they were in the
feedback group. Students who were given weekly feedback achieved a higher level of TWW by
the end of the study compared to the control group. The growth rate for the feedback group was
stronger than the control group.
The finding is useful for teachers to think about when figuring out instructional practices
in the classroom. Students who were exposed to writing on a frequent basis improved more with
their writing then students who did not. Performance feedback is a critical tool for teachers.
Truckenmiller et al. (2014) conclude that performance feedback and not practice is a primary
change agent and can be added to typical instructional practices. As teachers we need to ensure
we are providing feedback to all students to help close any writing fluency gaps that we may see.
Article Citation:
McCormick, M. & O’Connor, E. (2014). Teacher-Child Relationship Quality and
Academic Achievement in Elementary School: Does Gender Matter? Journal of
Educational Psychology, 107, 502-516. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037457
What is studied?
The researchers studied children’s math and reading achievement from first through fifth
grades in relation to teacher-student relationships. McCormick and O’Connor (2014) discuss the
attachment theory and how children who have a positive relationship with their teacher are able
to rely on their teacher and actively explore the school environment. A high quality relationship
may increase students’ learning due to the supportive environment in which children are
motivated and engaged.
McCormick and O’Connor (2014) set out to answer two questions: 1) Do higher levels of
teacher-child closeness and conflict relate to higher levels of math and reading achievement in
elementary school? Similarly, are change in teacher-child closeness and conflict associated with
changes in math and reading achievement in elementary school? Do associations between
teacher-child closeness and conflict and math and reading achievement in elementary school
vary by gender?
Participants came from 10 American cities. The random sampling was designed to
include families from different economic backgrounds, ethnic groups, and geographical
locations. 1,364 mothers and children enrolled in the study. The analysis relied on first, third, and
fifth graders. 48% were female, 80% were Caucasian, 13% were African American, 6% were
Hispanic and 5% were Asian (McCormick & O’Connor, 2014). More than three quarters of the
students had mothers who were married and 35% of the mothers had a college degree. 96% of
the first grade teachers were women and 92% of the teachers were Caucasian (McCormick &
O’Connor, 2014).
A quantitative methodology was used in the study. A fifteen item Student Teacher
Relationship Scale was used to look at teacher perceptions of the quality of relationships in the
three grades (McCormick & O’Connor, 2014). They rated how applicable different statements
were to a current relationship with a particular child. There are two parts to the scale: conflict
and closeness. The closeness piece is in regards to how warm a teacher is to the child and how
well the communication goes. For example, one statement says ‘I share an affectionate, warm
relationship with this child’. The conflict piece is in regards to how disastrous and
antagonistic the interactions are. For example, ‘this child and I always seem to be
struggling with each other’.
A reading and math achievement test was given to all three grades by a field interviewer.
They looked at letter-word identification for reading and applied problems for math. The letter-
word scaled consists of 57 items indicating reading identification skills and word decoding. The
applied problems scale is 60 items and indicates skills to analyze and solve mathematical
problems. This achievement assessment is widely used and demonstrates consistency. The
researchers took into consideration different covariates that they would need to control. They
looked at the home environment, child characteristics, gender, race, maternal characteristics,
household characteristics, and teacher characteristics.
The Student Teacher Relationship Scale used a 5-point Likert scale to look at the data. A
score of 1 referred to ‘definitely does not apply’ and 5 meaning ‘definitely applies’. The reading
and math assessment were measured with the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery
(McCormick & O’Connor, 2014). W Scores were given and were used because it makes it easier
to document change over time. The measurement looks at the person’s ability and task difficulty.
To look at the main question, the researchers used hierarchical linear modeling. “Hierarchical
linear modeling allows one to model change over time in an outcome with repeated measures”
(McCormick & O’Connor, 2014).
McCormick and O’Connor (2014) found that students’ reading and math scores
increased over time and teacher-child closeness decreased over time. Teacher-child conflict
increased between first and third grade and then decreased in fifth grade. Boys had significantly
higher levels of conflict with their teachers. Boys had significantly higher levels of math and
reading achievement than girls in first grade, but it wasn’t as significant in third and fifth. The
researchers found that a slight increase in teacher-student conflict led to a very slight
decrease in reading achievement. They also found that a slight increase in teacher-child
closeness was associated with a higher score in reading achievement. The closeness effects were
nonsignificant for math achievement. There was a significant negative effect for teacher-child
conflict and math achievement for girls, but not for boys. There was no gender difference for
teacher-child closeness and reading achievement.
The study shows the longitudinal connections between teacher-child relationships and
academic achievement during elementary school. “Teachers’ role in promoting an emotionally
supportive context and creating warm, respectful relationships with all students show not be
overlooked because of concerns about curriculum and direct instruction” (McCormick &
O’Connor, 2014). Looking to see whether the associations varied by gender have important
implications for practitioners. Girls who had a conflictual relationship with teachers showed
lower math scores and slower growth in math across time. It was closeness that mattered more
for reading development. A close relationship will allow teachers to provide a positive support
system to encourage children during reading. As children became older, closeness mattered more
than conflict for academic outcomes.

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1

Running head: LEARNING STYLES OF ELEMENTARY STUDENTS ACADEMIC

PERFORMANCE ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS

Performance in English Language Arts?

Victoria Chanda, Jessica Choi, and Ashley Clark

Loyola University Maryland

elementary school students in English Language Arts. In particular, we considered why

These factors include gender and cognitive differences, student-teacher relationships,

Gender differences, reading, achievement, reading attitudes, teacher perceptions, motivation,

academic performance, self-concept

comprehension assessments at various stages of development and in many countries” (Clinton et

linked to one specific cause for the learning gap.

Statement of the Problem

indicated by a disconnect between a student’s observed reading comprehension

performance and predicted reading comprehension performance based on age and

Literature Review and Analysis

Gender and Cognitive Differences

student’s success in reading.

performed worse/better than girls in math or reading.

attend private school are only slightly behind girls in reading.

In a similar cross-continental study by Bergold, Wendt, Kasper, and Steinmayr (2017),

learning gender gap in English Language Arts.

lead to a difference for men and women in every culture.

biologically limited by gender (Worden, Hinton, & Fischer, 2011).

differences in behavioral and motivational factors, gender differences in cognitive abilities,

the picture that was named (Quinn & Wagner, 2013).

between boys and girls?

(Limbrick, Wheldall, & Madelaine, 2011).

reading outcomes (Limbrick, Wheldall, & Madelaine, 2011).

gender stereotype of significant others such as parents, peers, or teachers affect

students’ competence beliefs, values, and achievement related behavior. Stereotypically,

Reading Motivation Questionnaire to assess reading self-concept. Statements focused

the second half of the sixth grade school year.

but not girls.

correlation between teacher perceptions of their students’ reading comprehension and

assessments/surveys to measure these correlations: Reading Self Concept, Reading

Task Value, Reading Attitude, and Teacher-Perceived Reading Comprehension. Beforehand,

students perceived reading comprehension based on classroom observations.

A study completed by McCormick and O’Connor (2014) looked at children’s math

elementary school vary by gender?

achievement assessment is widely used and demonstrates consistency.

teacher-child closeness and reading achievement.

academic achievement during elementary school. “Teacher's role in promoting an

positive support system to encourage children during reading.

feedback on their writing.

Students’ gender differences in self-esteem, academic self-concept and academic

patterns in academic achievement, global self-esteem, and academic self-concept gradually

lessens academical motivation in African-American boys. Demographics information was used

management to which students are exposed, as well as students’ willingness to learn.

reading motivation (McGeown, Goodwin, Henderson & Wright, 2011). It included

efficacy (intrinsic), curiosity (intrinsic), involvement (intrinsic), recognition (extrinsic), grades

individual. Each child is different and learns differently.

and achievement is teacher’s classroom management. Garwood and Vernon-Feagans

classroom management styles, and student populations vary among classes.

(Garwood & Feagan, 2017).

how girls achieve.

(Rex & Chawell, 2009).

Single-gender classrooms are becoming so successful in South Carolina because of the

Schools receive state-run-training sessions, resources and workshops to successfully implement

Single-gender classrooms have produced positive results within South Carolina’s

self-confidence, independence and self-efficacy (Rex & Chawell, 2009). Single-gender

the individual needs and interests of every child.

“Gender differences in performance on reading comprehension assessments seem to be