Dr.Y.Narasimha Murthy Ph.

D
yayavaram@yahoo.com

Introduction to Image Processing - Class Notes

Introduction:

Digital image processing is always an interesting field as it gives an improved pictorial

information for human interpretation and processing of image data for storage, transmission, and
representation for machine perception. This field of image processing drastically improved in
recent times and extended to various fields of science and technology .In recent times this branch
is known with a new name called computer vision and more and more people are showing
interest in this field . The image processing mainly deals with image acquisition Image
enhancement, image compression, image segmentation, image restoration etc.
Basic concepts:
The basic definition of image processing refers to processing of digital image ,i.e removing the
noise and any kind of irregularities present in an image using the digital computer. The noise or
irregularity may creep into the image either during its formation or during transformation etc.For
mathematical analysis, an image may be defined as a two-dimensional function f(x,y) where x
and y are spatial (plane) coordinates, and the amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates (x, y) is
called the intensity or gray level of the image at that point. When x, y, and the intensity values of
f are all finite, discrete quantities, we call the image a digital image. It is very important that a
digital image is composed of a finite number of elements, each of which has a particular location
and value.These elements are called picture elements, image elements, pels, and pixels. Pixel is
the most widely used term to denote the elements of a digital image.
One of the first applications of digital images was in the newspaper industry, when pictures were
first sent by submarine cable between London and New York in the year 1920.As the images
transferred were not of good quality ,the need of image processing realised to get the tonal
quality and resolution of images. But the actual growth in digital image processing gained
momentum with the advent of digital computers into the market. With the decreasing price and
increasing performance of computers and the expansion of networking and communication
band width via the World Wide Web and the Internet have created unprecedented opportunities
for continued growth of digital image processing.

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Fields that Use Digital Image Processing :

Now a days the impact of Digital image processing is found in almost all the branches of science
and technology.For example (i) News paper printing (ii) Remote sensing (iii)Transportation (iv)
Gamma ray imaging (v) X-ray imaging (vi) Ultra violet imaging (vii)Imaging in visible and IR
band ,(viii).Imaging in the microwave region and (ixs) Imaging in the radio band.
(i).Gamma Ray imaging:
Gamma ray imaging uses the gamma rays and it includes nuclear medicine and astronomical
observations. In nuclear medicine, the approach is to inject a patient with a radioactive isotope
that emits gamma rays as it decays. Images are produced from the emissions collected by
gamma ray detectors. For example bone scan obtained by using gamma-ray imaging are used to
locate sites of bone pathology, such as infections or tumors. In nuclear imaging called positron
emission tomography (PET).In this technique the patient is given a radioactive isotope that
emits positrons as it decays .When a positron meets an electron, both are annihilated and two
gamma rays are given off. These are detected and a tomographic image is created using the
basic principles of tomography.The image shows the defects like tumors in the brain or in the
lung, easily visible as small white masses.
Similarly the same imaging technique can be used to take the photographs of stars and other
stellar objects. Here the images are obtained using the natural radiation of the object being
imaged. Also the gamma radiation can be used to get the images of gamma radiation from a
valve in a nuclear reactor.
(ii).X-ray Imaging

X-ray imaging is used in medical diagnosis and also used extensively in industry and other
areas, like astronomy. X-rays for medical and industrial imaging are generated using an X-ray
tube, which is a vacuum tube with a cathode and anode. When these X-rays of low intensity are
passed through the patient, and the resulting energy falling on the film develops it, much in the
same way that light develops photographic film. In digital radiography, digital images are
obtained by one of two methods: (1) by digitizing X-ray films; or (2) by having the X-rays that
pass through the patient fall directly onto devices (such as a phosphor screen) that convert X-rays
to light. The light signal in turn is captured by a light-sensitive digitizing system.
Angiography is another major application in an area called contrast enhancement radiography.
This procedure is used to obtain images (called angiograms) of blood vessels. A catheter (a

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small, flexible, hollow tube) is inserted, for example, into an artery or vein in the groin.The
catheter is threaded into the blood vessel and guided to the area to be studied.When the catheter
reaches the site under investigation, an X-ray contrast medium is injected through the catheter.
This enhances contrast of the blood vessels and enables the radiologist to see any irregularities or
blockages.

The best known use of X-rays in medical imaging is computerized axial tomography. Due to
their resolution and 3-D capabilities, CAT scans revolutionized medicine from the moment they
first became available in the early 1970s. Each CAT image is a ―slice‖ taken perpendicularly
through the patient. Numerous slices are generated as the patient is moved in a longitudinal
direction. The ensemble of such images constitutes a 3-D rendition of the inside of the patient,
with the longitudinal resolution being proportional to the number of slice images taken. Figure
1.7(c) shows a typical head CAT slice image. Techniques similar to the ones just discussed, but
generally involving high energy X-rays, are applicable in industrial processes. The x-ray images
are used to find the flaws in the industrial boards, such as missing components or broken traces.
Industrial CAT scans are useful when the parts can be penetrated by X-rays, such as in plastic
assemblies, and even large bodies, like solid-propellant rocket motors.
(iii).Imaging in the Ultraviolet Band : The ultra violet band imaging include lithography,
industrial inspection, microscopy, lasers, biological imaging, and astronomical observations.
Ultraviolet light is used in fluorescence microscopy which is one of the fastest growing areas of
microscopy. The basic task of the fluorescence microscope is to use an excitation light to
irradiate a prepared specimen and then to separate the much weaker radiating fluorescent light
from the brighter excitation light.Thus, only the emission light reaches the eye or other detector.
The resulting fluorescing areas shine against a dark background with sufficient contrast to permit
detection. The darker the background of the non-fluorescing material, the more efficient the
instrument. Fluorescence microscopy is an excellent method for studying materials that can be
made to fluoresce, either in their natural form (primary fluorescence) orwhen treated with
chemicals capable of fluorescing (secondary fluorescence).
(iii).Imaging in the Visible and Infrared Bands
The imaging in the visible range from pharmaceuticals and micro inspection to materials
characterization. Even in just microscopy, the application areas are too numerous to detail here.

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It is not difficult to conceptualize the types of processes one might apply to these images,
ranging from enhancement to measurements.Another major area of visual processing is remote
sensing, which usually includes several bands in the visual and infrared regions of the spectrum.

Images of finger prints comes under visible imaging. They are routinely processed by computer,
either to enhance them or to find features that help in the automated search of a database for
potential matches..Applications of digital image processing in this area include automated
counting and, in law enforcement, the reading of the serial number for the purpose of tracking
and identifying bills. The two vehicle images taken are used for the automated license plate
reading.
The infrared imaging is used in the Nighttime Lights of the World data set, which provides a
global inventory of human settlements. The images were generated by the infrared imaging
system mounted on satellite. The infrared imaging system operates in the band 10.0 to 13.4µm,
and has the unique capability to observe faint sources of visible near infrared emissions present
on the Earth’s surface, including cities, towns villages, gas flares, and fires. Even without formal
training in image processing, it is not difficult to imagine writing a computer program that would
use these images to estimate the percent of total electrical energy used by various regions of the
world.
(iv).Imaging in the Microwave Band
The important application of imaging in the microwave band is RADAR. The unique feature of
imaging radar is its ability to collect data over virtually any region at any time, regardless of
weather or ambient lighting conditions. Some radar waves can penetrate clouds, and under
certain conditions can also see through vegetation, ice, and extremely dry sand. In many cases,
radar is the only way to explore inaccessible regions of the Earth’s surface. An imaging radar
works like a flash camera in that it provides its own illumination (microwave pulses) to
illuminate an area on the ground and take a snapshot image. Instead of a camera lens, a radar
uses an antenna and digital computer processing to record its images. In a radar image, one can
see only the microwave energy that was reflected back toward the radar antenna.
(v).Imaging in the Radio Band
The major applications of imaging in the radio band are in medicine and astronomy. In medicine
radio waves are used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).This technique places a patient in a

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powerful magnet and passes radio waves through his or her body in short pulses. Each pulse
causes responding pulse of radio waves to be emitted by the patient’s tissues. The location from
which these signals originate and their strength are determined by a computer, which produces a
two-dimensional picture of a section of the patient. MRI can produce pictures in any plane.
(vi). Other Imaging fields:
Among other imaging examples the sound (ultra sound imaging) ,electron microscopy and
transporting are very important. Imaging using ―sound‖ finds application in geological
exploration, industry, and medicine. Geological applications use sound in the low end of the
sound spectrum (hundreds of Hertz) while imaging in other areas use ultrasound (millions of
Hertz). The most important commercial applications of image processing in geology are in
mineral and oil exploration.
In a typical ultrasound image, millions of pulses and echoes are sent and received each second.
The probe can be moved along the surface of the body and angled to obtain various views.The
sound waves travel into the body and hit a boundary between tissues (e.g., between fluid and soft
tissue, soft tissue and bone). Some of the sound waves are reflected back to the probe, while
some travel on further until they reach another boundary and get reflected. The reflected waves
are picked up by the probe and relayed to the computer.
A transmission electron microscope (TEM) works similar to a slide projector TEMs work the
same way, except that they shine a beam of electrons through a specimen (analogous to the
slide).The fraction of the beam transmitted through the specimen is projected onto a phosphor
screen. The interaction of the electrons with the phosphor produces light and, therefore, a
viewable image.
A scanning electron microscope (SEM), on the other hand, actually scans the electron beam and
records the interaction of beam and sample at each location. This produces one dot on a
phosphor screen.A complete image is formed by a raster scan of the bean through the sample,
much like a TV camera. The electrons interact with a phosphor screen and produce light. SEMs
are suitable for ―bulky‖ samples, while TEMs require very thin samples.
Electron microscopes are capable of very high magnification. While light microscopy is limited
to magnifications on the order 1000 X electron microscopes can achieve magnification of
10,000 X or more.

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Elements of Visual Perception :

The elements of visual perception deals with mechanics and parameters related to how images
are formed in the eye and physical limitations of human vision in terms of factors that are used
in digital images.
Structure of the Human Eye
It is a known fact that the eye is nearly a sphere, with an average diameter of approximately 20
mm. Three membranes enclose the eye : the cornea and sclera outer cover; the choroid and the
retina. The cornea is a tough, transparent tissue that covers the anterior surface of the eye.
Continuous with the cornea, the sclera is an opaque membrane that encloses the remainder of the
optic globe. The choroid lies directly below the sclera. This membrane contains a network of
blood vessels that serve as the major source of nutrition to the eye.Even superficial injury to the
choroid, often not deemed serious, can lead to severe eye damage as a result of inflammation that
restricts blood flow. The choroid coat is heavily pigmented and hence helps to reduce the amount
of extraneous light entering the eye and the backscatter within the optical globe. At its anterior
extreme, the choroid is divided into the ciliary body and the iris diaphragm. The latter contracts
or expands to control the amount of light that enters the eye. The central opening of the iris (the
pupil) varies in diameter from approximately 2 to 8 mm. The front of the iris contains the visible
pigment of the eye, whereas the back contains a black pigment. The lens is made up of
concentric layers of fibrous cells and is suspended by fibers that attach to the ciliary body. It
contains 60 to 70%water, about 6%fat, and more protein than any other tissue in the eye. The
lens is colored by a slightly yellow pigmentation that increases with age. In extreme cases,
excessive clouding of the lens, caused by the affliction commonly referred to as cataracts, can
lead to poor color discrimination and loss of clear vision. The lens absorbs approximately8% of
the visible light spectrum, with relatively higher absorption at shorter wavelengths. Both infrared
and ultraviolet light are absorbed appreciably by proteins within the lens structure and, in
excessive amounts, can damage the eye.The innermost membrane of the eye is the retina, which
lines the inside of the wall’s entire posterior portion. When the eye is properly focused, light
from an object outside the eye is imaged on the retina. Pattern vision is afforded by the
distribution of discrete light receptors over the surface of the retina. There are two classes of
receptors: cones and rods. The cones in each eye number between 6and 7 million. They are
located primarily in the central portion of the retina, called the fovea, and are highly sensitive to

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color. Humans can resolve fine details with these cones largely because each one is connected to
its own nerve end. Muscles controlling the eye rotate the eyeball until the image of an object of
interest falls on the fovea. Cone vision is called photopic or bright-light vision.The number of
rods is much larger: Some 75 to 150 million are distributed over the retinal surface. The larger
area of distribution and the fact that several rods are connected to a single nerve end reduce the
amount of detail discernible by these receptors. Rods serve to give a general, overall picture of
the field of view. They are not involved in color vision and are sensitive to low levels of
illumination. For example, objects that appear brightly colored in daylight when seen by
moonlight appear as colorless forms because only the rods are stimulated. This phenomenon is
known as scotopic or dim-light vision.

Image Formation in the Eye :

The basic difference between the lens of the eye and an ordinary optical lens is that the lens of
the eye is flexible and the lens is not. The radius of curvature of the anterior surface of the lens is
greater than the radius of its posterior surface.

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The shape of the lens is controlled by tension in the fibers of the ciliary body. To focus on
distant objects, the controlling muscles cause the lens to be relatively flattened. Similarly, these
muscles allow the lens to become thicker in order to focus on objects near the eye. The distance
between the center of the lens and the retina (called the focal length) varies from approximately
17 mm to about 14 mm, as the refractive power of the lens increases from its minimum to its
maximum. When the eye focuses on an object farther away than about 3 m, the lens exhibits its
lowest refractive power. When the eye focuses on a nearby object, the lens is most strongly
refractive. This information makes it easy to calculate the size of the retinal image of any object.
In Fig. above the observer is looking at a tree15 m high at a distance of 100 m. If h is the height
in mm of that object in the retinal image, the geometry yields 15/100= h/17 or h=2.55 mm.
Brightness Adaptation and Discrimination
The digital images are displayed as a discrete set of intensities, hence the eye’s ability to
discriminate between different intensity levels is an important consideration in presenting image-
processing results. The range of light intensity levels to which the human visual system can adapt
is enormous (of the order of1010—from the scotopic threshold to the glare limit. Experimental
evidence indicates that subjective brightness (intensity as perceived by the human visual system)
is a logarithmic function of the light intensity incident on the eye
Examples of human perception phenomena are optical illusions, in which the eye fills in non
existing information or wrongly perceives geometrical properties of objects.Optical illusions are
a characteristic of the human visual system that is not fully understood.
Image Sensing and Acquisition :
Image sensing is done by a sensor ,when it is illuminated by either reflected or transmitted
energy from the object or picture under consideration. In the process of image acquisition there
are three components .They are
(i) . Illumination (ii) Optical system (lens system) (iii). Sensor system.

The illumination may be either from a light source or from a source of electromagnetic energy
such as radar, infrared, or X-ray energy etc. Depending on the nature of the source, illumination
energy is reflected from, or transmitted through, objects.
To focus the reflected or transmitted energy certain lens or mirror like system is required. This
is called optical system. In some situations, the radiation is focused onto a photo converter (e.g.,

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a phosphor screen), which converts the energy into visible light. Electron microscopy and some
applications of gamma imaging use this approach.
The important part of the image acquisition is the Image sensor. The light reflected from the
object of is focused by a lens system must be recorded. This is done by an image sensor . An
image sensor consists of a 2D array of cells and each of these cells is denoted a pixel and is
capable of measuring the amount of incident light and convert that into a voltage, which in turn
is converted into a digital number. Actually the image sensor is a part of a digital camera. Before
a camera capture an image, all cells are emptied, meaning that no charge is present. When the
camera captures an image, light is allowed to enter and charges each cell. After a certain
amount of time, known as the exposure time, which is controlled by the shutter, the incident
light is shut out again. If the exposure time is too low the result is an underexposed picture or if
the time too high ,it forms overexposed image . Fig (a) ,(b) &(c) shows the three principal
sensor arrangements used to transform illumination energy into digital images. In this case the in
coming energy is transformed into a voltage by the combination of input electrical power and
sensor material that is responsive to the particular type of energy being detected. The output
voltage waveform is the response of the sensor(s), and a digital quantity is obtained from each
sensor by digitizing its response.

Fig (a) .Single imaging sensor

Fig(b).s Line sensor

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Fig (c). Sensor array

Image Acquisition Using a Single Sensor :

A single sensor is the simplest among all the image acquisition sensors. Fig below shows a single
sensor . The best example for a single sensor is the photodiode, which is constructed of silicon
material whose output voltage waveform is proportional to incident light. The use of a filter in
front of a sensor improves selectivity. For example, a green (pass) filter in front of a light sensor
allows only green light .As a consequence, the sensor output will be stronger for green light than
for other components in the visible spectrum. In order to generate a 2-D image using a single
sensor, there has to be relative displacements in both the x- and y-directions between the sensor
and the area to be imaged.

Fig. below shows an arrangement used in high-precision scanning, where a film negative is
mounted onto a drum whose mechanical rotation provides displacement in one dimension.The
single sensor is mounted ona lead screw that provides motion in the perpendicular direction.

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Since mechanical motion can be controlled with high precision, this method is an inexpensive
(but slow) way to obtain high-resolution images. Other similar mechanical arrangements use a
flat bed, with the sensor moving in two linear directions. These types of mechanical digitizers
sometimes are referred to as micro-densitometers.

Another example of imaging with a single sensor places a laser source coincident with the
sensor. Moving mirrors are used to control the outgoing beaming a scanning pattern and to direct
the reflected laser signal onto the sensor.
Image Acquisition Using Sensor Strips:
A sensor strip consists of an in-line arrangement of sensors in the form of a sensor strip and it is
more widely used than a single sensor. The strip provides imaging elements in one direction.
Motion perpendicular to the strip provides imaging in the other direction, as shown in Fig.
below.This type of arrangement is used in flat bed scanners.

Sensing devices with 4000 or more in-line sensors are used. In-line sensors are used routinely in
air borne imaging applications, in which the imaging system is mounted on an aircraft that flies
at a constant altitude and speed over the geographical area to be imaged. One-dimensional

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imaging sensor strips that respond to various bands of the electromagnetic spectrum are mounted
perpendicular to the direction of flight. The imaging strip gives one line of an image at a time,
and the motion of the strip completes the other dimension of a two-dimensional image. Lenses
are used to project the area to be scanned onto the sensors.

A similar sensor strip arrangement mounted in a ring configuration is used in X-ray medical
and industrial imaging to obtain cross-sectional images of 3-D objects .

Some Basic Relationships Between Pixels :

Any image is denoted by the function f(x, y) and the image is composed of many pixels.. The
important relationships between pixels are adjacency, connectivity, regions, and boundaries
and distance Measures.
(i). Neighbors of a Pixel

A pixel p at coordinates (x, y) has four horizontal and vertical neighbors whose coordinates are
given by

(x+1, y), (x-1, y), (x, y+1), (x, y-1)

This set of pixels, called the 4-neighbors of p, is denoted by N4(p). Each pixel is a unit distance
from (x, y), and some of the neighbors of p lie outside the digital image if (x, y) is on the border
of the image.
The four diagonal neighbors of p have coordinates
(x+1, y+1), (x+1, y-1), (x-1, y+1), (x-1, y-1)

and are denoted by ND(p). These points, together with the 4-neighbors, are called the 8-
neighbors of p, denoted by N8(p). Some of the points in ND(p) and N8(p) fall outside the image
if (x, y) is on the border of the image.

Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions, and Boundaries

Connectivity between pixels is a fundamental concept that simplifies the definition of numerous
digital image concepts, such as regions and boundaries. To establish if two pixels are connected,

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it must be determined if they are neighbors and if their gray levels satisfy a specified criterion of
similarity (say, if their gray levels are equal).
For instance, in a binary image with values 0 and 1, two pixels may be 4-neighbors, but they are
said to be connected only if they have the same value. Let V be the set of gray-level values used
to define adjacency. In a binary image, V={1} if we are referring to adjacency of pixels with
value 1. In a grayscale image, the idea is the same, but set V typically contains more elements.
For example, in the adjacency of pixels with a range of possible gray-level values 0to 255, set V
could be any subset of these 256 values. We consider three types of adjacency:
(a) 4-adjacency. Two pixels p and q with values from V are 4-adjacent if q is in the set N4(p).
(b) 8-adjacency. Two pixels p and q with values from V are 8-adjacent if q is in the set N8(p).
(c) m-adjacency (mixed adjacency).Two pixels p and q with values from V are m-adjacent if
(i) q is in N4(p), or (ii) q is in ND(p) and the set has no pixels whose values are from V.
Mixed adjacency is a modification of 8-adjacency. It is introduced to eliminate the ambiguities
that often arise when 8-adjacency is used. For example, consider the pixel arrangement shown in
Fig(a) .below for V={1}.The three pixels at the top of Fig(b). below show multiple
(ambiguous) 8-adjacency, as indicated by the dashed lines. This ambiguity is removed by using
m-adjacency, as shown in Fig. (c).Two image subsets S1 and S2 are adjacent if some pixel in S1
is adjacent to some pixel in S2. It is clear from the above that adjacent means 4-, 8-, or m-
adjacent.

Fig: (a) Arrangement of pixels (b) pixels that are 8-adjacent (shown dashed) to the center pixel
(c) m-adjacency.

A (digital) path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x, y) to pixel q with coordinates (s, t) is
a sequence of distinct pixels with coordinates
(x0 , y0), (x1 , y1) , ……(xn , yn)

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where (x0 , y0) = (x, y), (xn , yn) = (s, t), and pixels (xi , yi) and (xi-1 , yi-1) are
adjacent for 1≤ I ≤ n . In this case, n is the length of the path. If (x0,y0) = (xn,yn) the path is
a closed path.
Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image. Two pixels p and q are said to be connected in S if
there exists a path between them consisting entirely of pixels in S. For any pixel p in S, the set of
pixels that are connected to it in S is called a connected component of S. If it only has one
connected component, then set S is called a connected set.
Let R be a subset of pixels in an image. R is called a region of the image if R is a connected set.
The boundary (also called border or contour) of a region R is the set of pixels in the region that
have one or more neighbors that are not in R. If R happens to be an entire image (which we
recall is a rectangular set of pixels), then its boundary is defined as the set of pixels in the first
and last rows and columns of the image.
Distance Measures :

For pixels p, q, and z, with coordinates (x, y), (s, t), and (v, w), respectively, D is the distance
function or metric . The Euclidean distance between p and q is defined as
De(p,q) = [ ( x- s)2 + (y – t)2]1/2
For this distance measure, the pixels having a distance less than or equal to some value r from (x,
y) are the points contained in a disk of radius r centered at (x, y). The D4 distance (also called
city-block distance) between p and q is defined as
D4(p,q) = │ x- s│ + │y – t │
In this case, the pixels having a D4 distance from (x, y) less than or equal to some value r form a
diamond centered at (x, y). For example, the pixels with D4 distance ≤ 2 from (x, y) (the center
point) form the following contours of constant distance:

The pixels with D4=1 are the 4-neighbors of (x, y). The D8 distance (also called chessboard
distance) between p and q is defined as

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D8(p,q) = max(│ x- s│,│y – t │)

In this case, the pixels with D8 distance from (x, y) less than or equal to some value r form a
square centered at (x, y). For example, the pixels with D8 distance ≤ 2 from (x, y) (the center
point) form the following contours of constant distance

The pixels with D8=1 are the 8-neighbors of (x, y).

The D4 and D8 distances between p and q are independent of any paths that might exist between
the points because these distances involve only the coordinates of the points. If we elect to
consider m-adjacency, however, the Dm distance between two points is defined as the shortest
m-path between the points. In this case, the distance between two pixels will depend on the
values of the pixels along the path, as well as the values of their neighbors.
Basic Concepts in Sampling and Quantization :
In the digital image processing the most important part is digitizing the analog signals .To get
digital signals first the analog signals are discretized and then quantized . Digitizing the
coordinate values is called sampling and digitizing the amplitude values of the discrete signal is
called quantization.
This sampling can be as shown below.

Basic Concepts in Sampling and Quantization

To understand the basic idea behind sampling and quantization let us consider a continuous
image, f(x, y),which is to be converted into digital form.An image may be continuous with
respect to the x- and y- coordinates, and also in amplitude. To convert it to digital form, first it is

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sampled in both coordinates and in amplitude. Digitizing the coordinate values is called
sampling. Digitizing the amplitude values is called quantization.

Continuous image

(a) Sampling (b). Quantization

When a sensing strip is used for image acquisition, the number of sensors in the strip establishes
the sampling limitations in one image direction. Mechanical motion in the other direction can be
controlled more accurately, but it makes little sense to try to achieve sampling density in one
direction that exceeds the sampling limits established by the number of sensors in the other.
Quantization of the sensor outputs completes the process of generating a digital image.When a
sensing array is used for image acquisition, there is no motion and the number of sensors in the
array establishes the limits of sampling in both directions. Quantization of the sensor outputs is
as before.
In practice, the method of sampling is determined by the sensor arrangement used to generate the
image. When an image is generated by a single sensing element combined with mechanical

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motion, the output of the sensor is quantized. However, sampling is accomplished by selecting
the number of individual mechanical increments at which we activate the sensor to collect data.
Mechanical motion can be made very exact so, in principle, there is almost no limit as to how
fine we can sample an image. However, practical limits are established by imperfections in the
optics used to focus on the sensor an illumination spot that is inconsistent with the fine resolution
achievable with mechanical displacements.
Fundamental Steps in Digital Image Processing : The important steps involved in image
processing are
(i). Image acquisition
(ii).Image enhancement
(iii). Image restoration
(iv).Image Compression
(v).Image segmentation
(v).Image Recognition and
(vi).Color Image processing.
The various steps in the digital image processing are shown below.

Image acquisition is the first step where in the image of an object is acquired using a suitable
image sensor (camera).

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Image enhancement is the simplest and most appealing areas of digital image processing. The
enhancement technique bring backs the detail that is obscured, or simply to highlight certain
important features of the image. A familiar example of enhancement is changing the contrast of
an image to make it look better. But this Image enhancement is always subjective.
Image restoration is an area that deals with improving the appearance of an image. However,
unlike enhancement, which is subjective, image restorations objective, in the sense that
restoration techniques tend to be based on mathematical or probabilistic models of image
degradation. Enhancement, on the other hand, is based on human subjective preferences
regarding what constitutes a ―good‖ enhancement result.
Color image processing is an area that has been gaining in importance because of the significant
increase in the use of digital images over the Internet . Color is used also as the basis for
extracting features of interest in an image.
Wavelets are the foundation for representing images in various degrees of resolution.This
method is also used for image data compression and for pyramidal representation, in which
images are subdivided successively into smaller regions.
Compression, is a technique of reducing the storage required to save an image, or the
bandwidth required to transmit it. This is true particularly in uses of the Internet, which are
characterized by significant pictorial content. Image compression is widely used in computers
in the form of image file extensions, such as the jpg file extension used in the JPEG(Joint
Photographic Experts Group) image compression standard.

Morphological processing deals with tools for extracting image components that are useful in the
representation and description of shape.
Segmentation means partition of an image into its constituent parts or objects. In general,
autonomous segmentation is one of the most difficult tasks in digital image processing. A rugged
segmentation procedure provides successful solution of imaging problems that require objects to
be identified individually. On the other hand, weak or erratic segmentation algorithms always
gives failure results. In general, the more accurate the segmentation, the more successful is the
recognition.
Representation and description always follow the output of a segmentation stage, which usually
is raw pixel data, constituting either the boundary of a region (i.e., the set of pixels separating
one image region from another) or all the points in the region itself. In either case, converting the

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data to a form suitable for computer processing is necessary. The first decision that must be
made is whether the data should be represented as a boundary or as a complete region. Boundary
representation is appropriate when the focus is on external shape characteristics, such as corners
and inflections. Regional representation is appropriate when the focus is on internal properties,
such as texture or skeletal shape. In some applications, these representations complement each
other. Choosing a representation is only part of the solution for transforming raw data into a form
suitable for subsequent computer processing. A method must also be specified for describing the
data so that features of interest are highlighted. Description, also called feature selection, deals
with extracting attributes that result in some quantitative information of interest or are basic for
differentiating one class of objects from another. Recognition is the process that assigns a label
to an object based on its descriptors.

Image compression
A digital image is a 2D image I[x,y] represented by a discrete 2D array of intensity
samples(data), of the order of 105 to 106 .As the number of samples is very large ,it is always a
tedious job not only to process this data but also to store .I.e large amount of memory space is
required to store the digital images .Another important is that there will be some redundancy in
the data also. To overcome these limitations, it is always required to compress the data based on
certain procedure.
The method of efficiently coding the digital image data to reduce the number of bits is called
Image compression. This image compression reduces the data redundancy in the image and also
the amount of space required to store it.
Normally the redundancy is of three types. Spatial redundancy ,Spectrl redundancy and
Temporal Redudancy.
The spatial redundancy is mainly due to correlation between neighboring pixels and the spectral
redundancy arises due to the correlation between various color plans. The temporal redundancy
is due to the correlation between various frames in an image sequence.
To compress the digital image ,the first step is ,converting the continuous image into digital
image by using the ADC(Analog to Digital converter).This digital signal is fed to a Quantizer
using a serial to parallel converter. The quantized output is then coded by using suitable lossless

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coding device. This gives the compressed image signal .The block diagram of the image
compression system is shown below.

Image Enhancement
Image enhancement is a technique that improves the image features such as edges, boundaries
or the contrast so that the visual appearance of an image will become more suitable for display
and analysis.The enhancement process does not increase the information content in the data but
increases the dynamic range of the chosen features so that they can be detected easily.This
image enhancement is a very important process because of its utility in all the image processing
applications.This Image enhancement includes gray level and contrast manipulation ,noise
reduction ,edge crispening and sharpening, filtering ,interpolation ,magnification and
pseudocoding etc.
The commonly used image enhancement techniques are given below.

Under the point operations we consider (i) contrast stretching (ii) Noise clipping(iii) Window
slicing and (iv)Histogram modeling.

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Similarly under Spatial operations ,we consider the operations like (i)Noise smoothing
(ii)Median filtering (iii) Unsharp masking (iv) Filtering(L.P;H.P;B.P) and (v) Zooming
In Transform operations we consider (i) Linear filtering (ii)Root filtering and (iii) Homomorphic
filtering.
In Pseudocoloring we consider the operations (i) false coloring and (ii) Pseudocoloring.
The point operations are simplest and they are zero memory operations where a given gray level
u є [0 , L] is mapped into a gray level v є [0,L] according to the transformation
V= f(u).
One of the most common defects of photographic or electronic images is poor contrast resulting
from a reduced, and perhaps nonlinear, image amplitude range. Image contrast can often be
improved by amplitude rescaling of each pixel. Actually the low contrast images occur due to the
poor or non-uniform lighting conditions or due to non-linearity or small dynamic range of
imaging sensors.
The contrast stretching transformation can be expressed as
αu 0≤u≤a
v = β(u-a) +va a≤u≤b
γ (u-b) + vb b≤u≤L
here the parameters a and b can be obtained from the histogram of the image.

Clipping and Thresholding : A special case of contrast stretching where α = γ = 0is called
clipping. This is useful for noise reduction when the input signal is known to lie in the
range[a,b]. Thresholding is a special case of clipping in which the output becomes binary. For
example ,a seemingly binary image ,such as a printed page does not give binary output when
scanned ,because of sensor noise and back ground illumination variations..Thresholding is used
to make such an image binary.

Digital Negative :
A negative image can be obtained by reverse scaling of the gray levels based on the
transformation
v = L-u

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Digital negatives are useful in the display of medical images and in producing negative prints of
the images.

Histogram Modelling:
Histogram modelling is another image enhancement technique where the image is modified so
that the histogram will get a desired shape.The histogram of an image represents the relative
frequency of concurrency of the various gray levels in the image. The histogram modeling
technique modify an image so that its histogram has a desired shape.This is useful in stretching
the low-contrast levels of the images with narrow histograms.
Using the histogram equalization , a uniform histogram for the output image is obtained.

Spatial Operations : The spatial operations are performed on local neighborhoods of input
pixels.The image is convolved with a finite impulse resonse filter called spatial mask.
Under the spatial operations, averaging and spatial low-pass filters and median filters are used .
In the median filtering the input pixel is replaced by the median of the remaining pixels in a
window around the input pixel.

v(m,n) = median{y(m-k , n-l),(k, l)єW}

here W denotes the window around the pixel .Generally the window size is chosen such that N w
is odd. If the Nw is even the median is taken as the average of the two values in the middle.
Unsharp Masking and Crispening: The unsharp masking technique is used in the printing
industry for crispy edges.A signal proportional to the unsharp or low-pass filtered version of the
image is subtracted from the image. This is equivalent to adding the gradient or a high-pass
signal to the image.
Magnification and Zooming: Some times it is desirable to zoom the image on a given region so
that image can be displayed as a larger one.
Transform Operations : In the transform operation enhancement techniques ,zero memory
operations are performed on a transformed image followed by the inverse transformations.
Image Restoration : It is a process of filtering the image such that the effect of degradation
is minimized. The effectiveness of the image restoration filters depend on the extent and the
accuracy of the knowledge of the degradation process as well as on the filter design criteria.Any

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image is acquired by optical, electro-optical or electronic means is likely to be degraded by the

sensing environment. The degradations may be due to (i) sensor noise (ii) blur due to camera
misfocus (iii) relative object-camera motion (iv) random atmospheric turbulence etc.These
errors deteriorate the quality of the image. So,we can say that the process of image restoration is
one which produces a sharp, clean and high quality images.
This process of image formation and recording can be denoted by the following equation.
g(x,y) = R[ ∫∫ h(x-x1,y-y1)f(x1,y1)dx1dy1] + n(x,y)
Here g(x,y) is the actual image and R is the response characteristic of the recording process and
n(x,y) s is the additive noise source.
The restoration of digital image in the discrete form can be written as
N-1 N-1
g(p,q) = ∑ ∑ f(i,j)h(p-i,q-j)
i=0 j=0

Image restoration is different from the image enhancement. Because in image restoration ,the
degraded information of the image is restored back and in image enhancement the image features
are improved and extracted . The digital image restoration process is shown by the following
block diagram.

In the Image restoration process, first the analog image is converted into digital image by using
suitable ADC .The digital image is processed by using suitable digital filter depending on the
type of degradation present in the Image. Normally in the process of removing the noise from the
digital images ,non-linear filters are widely used. Among them Median filters or adaptive median
filters are very widely used. After removing the noise the digital image is again converted back
to analog image so that it can be either displayed or recorded.

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Voice Processing: It is one of the very important signal processing method used to remove the
noise from speech or sound and helps to transmit the signal over long distances at high speeds in
the real time environment. The recent developments in DSP algorithms have become very
important because the bandwidths associated with speech or voice are well matched to the
processing speeds available. The voice processing methodology can be broadly classified into
three types. They are (i) Speech analysis and sysnthesis (ii)Compression and coding and
(iii)Voice privacy.
Speech is produced by the excitation of an acoustic tube called vocal tract.The vocal tract starts
from the glottis and is terminated by lips.The speech signal consists of periodic sounds
associated with bursts of wide band noise and also short silences. As the vocal organs are in
motion continuously ,the signal generated is not stationary .So, to process this speech signal
Short time Fourier transforms are used.
To transmit the speech signal over long distances , first it is digitized ,encoded ,processed and
then transmitted over a limited bandwidth channel and finally converted back to speech signal.
Generally lot of redundancy is present in voice signals .To reduce the redundancy in the signal it
is properly compressed by coding. This signal compression improves the efficiency of the
transmission and storage capacity. The coding of the signal by using channel Vo-Coders is
shown in the block diagram below.

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The channel vocoders splits the speech signal into increasing non-overlapping sub-bands.The
whole range covers the frequencies that humans can hear. Incoming signal is periodically
sampled at every 20ms.
The channel vocoder uses a multiplexer to send two categories of information on the same
channel. The sampling rate for all signals is selected above the Nyquist rate .These samples are
then transmitted as a single signal. A De-Multiplexer at the receiving end can easily separate
each signal.This multiplexing scheme is called Time-Division multiplexing.As shown in the
diagram ,the band-pass filters divide the speech into smaller frequency bands and each sub-band
is rectified and filtered using a low-pass filter to determine the spectral envelop of the
speech.After this they are digitized and multiplexed for transmission. Normally there will be 16
-sub bands used to cover the entire audible range of frequencies. The pitch detector tries to
distinguish between the voiced and unvoiced segments.
Now the speech signals are synthesized .This is the reverse process of coding and compression.
The received signal is de-multiplexed to separate out the different information categories .The
part of the signal carrying the spectral envelope information is then converted into analog signal.
The process of synthesis is shown below .

Finally the signal segment is band-passed to its original frequency range. Digital signal
processors provide necessary block to perform all these operations. The digital filters can be
implemented easily using the DSP processors and their processing times are well within the
range required by speech signals..There are a number of pitch estimator algorithms which can be
implemented using the DSPs.

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The last part of voice processing is the voice privacy. In systems like telecommunications this is
very important. In these systems the encoding of the speech signals is done using various coding
techniques. The technique like PCM(Pulse coding Modulation ) is widely used.
RADAR :
RADAR is an acronym for Radio Detection And Ranging . It is used to detect a stationary or
moving target by sending radio waves towards it. The main sub-systems of a modern radar
are the antenna, the tracking computer and the signal generator. The tracking computer in the
modern radar performs and controls all the functions. By scheduling the appropriate antenna
positions and transmitted signals as a function of time, keeps track of targets and running the
display system.The RADAR model block diagram model is shown below.

The transmitter of the RADAR transmits the signals generated by the signal generator through the
anrenna.The receiver receives the echoed signal from the target .Based on the time lapse between
the transmitted and received signals ,the distance at which the target is located is found. During
the process of detection the signal is corrupted due to echoes, atmospheric noise or noise
generated in the RADAR receiver.The noise power existing at the output of the Radar receiver is
reduced by using the matched digital filters, whose frequency response function maximizes the
output peak-signal to mean-noise power ratio. The working of this matched filter is similar to
FIR filter and helps to store the filter impulse response in a memory chip.It can be used to
process the signal in real time to meet a changing target environment. The block diagram of
RADAR is shown below

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The front end of the receiver for RADAR is mainly analog due the high frequencies involved.
With fast ADC convertors - multiple channel, complex IF signals are digitized .But around the
antenna, digital technology is followed. Fast digital interfaces are necessary to detect antenna
position, or control other hard ware. The main task of a radar's signal processor is to make
decisions. After a signal has been transmitted, the receiver starts receiving return signals, with
those originating from near objects arriving first because time of arrival translates into target
range. The signal processor over the whole period of time has to make a decision for each of
the range as to whether it contains an object or not.This decision-making is severely hampered
by noise. Atmospheric noise enters into the system through the antenna, and all the electronics in
the radar's signal path produces noise too.These noises are reduced.
DSP in Telecommunications:
The fast developments in very large scale integrated technology (VLSI) revolutionized the digital
integrated circuit technology in terms of small size ,low power ,low cost ,noise immunity and
reliability. So , the today’s new and efficient Digital signal processors are found to be most
suitable solution to the ever expanding Telecommunication field.Using the DSP filters ,the
signals which are multiplexed on a high speed digital line can be filtered so that out of band
components can be reduced. Otherwise distortion occurs due to the inter-channel interference of
these signals. In today’s modern telephone systems , tone signaling is used instead of
conventional sequential pulsing. To generate and detect these signals , suitable signal

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processing techniques are applied. The signal processing is also applied in locating the faults in
the operation of the wide range signals.
Digital transmission system can carry easily the digital signals at a rate of 1.0Mbps .Based on
this a T-carrier system is developed which can transmit 24-voice band channels simultaneously
over a single twisted pair or wire pair. In this process pulse code modulation is used(PCM).
Digital switching is another important area which implements Time division Multiplex
operation.This TDM allows to carry nearly 120 signals simultaneously via time sharing method
on each of its 16 input or output connections.
Digital signal processing is also used in pulse code modulated transmission terminals to perform
basic band limiting functions using the digital filters. Generally the analog signals are digitized
at a high rate of around 32K.Hz and digitize these into linear PCM or differential PCM code.
Digital filters operating at the high sampling rate removes energy above 3.2K.Hz and the noise
or hum below 200Hz. The use of CODEC followed by a digital multiplexer reduces the chances
of inter channel intelligible cross talk.
One of the important and crucial problems in Telecommunications is the Echo generation. This
will create problems to the user , where the user hears his own voice in return during the
conversation over a telephone line. This echo is cancelled by using suitable digital transversal
filters. This technique is known as echo cancellation.
ECHO Canceller:
Echo is the repetition of a waveform due to reflection from different points or interface of the
medium. Echo can severely affect the quality and intelligibility of voice conversation in a
telephone system. In telecommunication, echo can degrade the quality of service, and echo
cancellation is an important part of communication systems. The development of echo reduction
started in 1950s . There are two types of echo in communication systems: acoustic echo and
telephone line hybrid echo. Acoustic echo results from a feedback path set up between the
speaker and the microphone in a mobile phone, hands-free phone, teleconference or hearing aid
system. Acoustic echo maybe reflected from a multitude of different surfaces, such as walls,
ceilings and floors, and travels through different paths. Telephone line echoes result from an
impedance mismatch at telephone exchange hybrids where the subscriber's 2-wire line is
connected to a 4-wire line.

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In telephone networks, the cost of running a 4-wire line from the local exchange to subscribers’
premises was considered uneconomical. Hence, at the exchange the 4-wire truck lines are
converted to 2-wire subscribers local lines using a 2/4-wire hybrid bridge circuit. At the receiver
due to any imbalance between the 4/2-wire bridge circuit, some of the signal energy of the 4-
wire circuit is bounced back towards the transmitter, constituting an echo signal. If the echo is
more than a few milliseconds long then it becomes noticeable, and can be annoying and
disruptive. So , Hybrid echo is the main source of echo generated from the public-switched
telephone network (PSTN) and . Echoes on a telephone line are due to the reflection of signals at
the points of impedance mismatch on the connecting circuits.

In digital mobile phone systems, the voice signals are processed at two points in the network:
first voice signals are digitized, compressed and coded within the mobile handset, and then
processed at the radio frequency interface of the network. The total delay introduced by the
various stages of digital signal processing range from 80 ms to 100 ms, resulting in a total round-
trip delay of 160–200 ms for any echo. A delay of this magnitude will make any appreciable
echo disruptive to the communication process. Owing to the inherent processing delay in digital
mobile communication systems, it is essential and mandatory to employ echo cancellers in
mobile phone switching centres.
The echo circuit attenuates the echo signal by detecting in which direction the conversation is
active and to break the round trip the echo cancellers are used.
An echo suppresser is primarily a switch that allows the speech signal during the speech-active
periods and attenuates the line echo during the speech-inactive periods. A line echo suppresser is
controlled by a speech/echo detection device. The echo detector monitors the signal levels on the
incoming and outgoing lines, and decides if the signal on a line from, say, speaker B to speaker
A is the speech from the speaker B to the speaker A, or the echo of speaker A. If the echo

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detector decides that the signal is an echo then the signal is heavily attenuated. There is a similar
echo suppression unit from speaker A to speaker B. The performance of an echo suppresser
depends on the accuracy of the echo/speech classification subsystem. Echo of speech often has a
smaller amplitude level than the speech signal, but otherwise it has mainly the same spectral
characteristics and statistics as those of the speech. Therefore the only basis for discrimination of
speech from echo is the signal level. As a result, the speech/echo classifier may wrongly classify and
let through high-level echoes as speech, or attenuate low-level speech as echo.

Adaptive Echo Cancellation : The working of an adaptive line echo canceller is shown in the
below diagram. The speech signal on the line from speaker A to speaker B is input to the 4/2wire
hybrid B and to the echo canceller. The echo canceller monitors the signal on line from B to A
and attempts to model and synthesis a replica of the echo of speaker A. This replica is used to
subtract and cancel out the echo of speaker A on the line from B to A. The echo canceller is
basically an adaptive linear filter. The coefficients of the filter are adapted so that the energy of
the signal on the line is minimized. The echo canceller can be an infinite impulse response (IIR)
or a finite impulse response (FIR) filter. The main advantage of an IIR filter is that a long-delay
echo can be synthesized by a relatively small number of filter coefficients. But in practice, echo
cancellers are based on FIR filters. This is mainly due to the practical difficulties associated with
the adaptation and stable operation of adaptive IIR filters.

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For satisfactory performance, the echo canceller should have a fast convergence rate, so that it
can adequately track changes in the telephone line and the signal characteristics.
SONAR :
SONAR is an acronym for Sound Navigation And Ranging.This technique, similar to RADAR is
used to determine the range ,velocity and direction of the objects that are remote from the
observer. SONAR employs sound waves of high frequencies (ultra sounds) to detect the objects
under water ,because radio waves cannot pass through water. SONAR s y s t e m s are
divided into two main categories – active and passive.
Passive SONAR system provides monitoring the undersea
environment without sending energy through the water. On
the other hand, active SONAR system can act same as
RADAR using responses from signals sent towards targets
The major sources of ambient noise in the under water systems is
i. Seismic disturbances ,ii. Biological organisms' activities
iii.Oceanic turbulence,iv. Distant shipping v. Wind and
vi. Thermal noise
In deep waters the distant shipping noise is dominant in
frequencies from about 10-20 Hz to about 200-300 Hz, and
wind noise is dominant in frequencies from about 200-300
Hz to several tens of kHz.

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Sonar hardware transmitter block diagram is shown below.In the diagram the wave form
generator generates CW (continuous waveforms), e.g. sinusoidal pulse with rectangular or
Gaussian envelope FM (frequency modulated) waveforms.

Array Shading performs Amplitude shading for side-lobe suppression Complex shading
amplitude shading and phase shifting / time delays) for main-lobe steering, shaping and
broadening.
Power Amplifier / Impedance Matching are the Switching amplifiers to achieve high source
levels and Linear amplifiers if moderate source levels are sufficient but an enhanced coherence
of consecutive pulses is required ,Impedance matching networks that supplies an optimal
coupling of the amplifiers to the transducers are used.

The SONAR receiver block diagram is shown below.

Signal Conditioning provides the Preamplifier and Band Pass Filter with Automatic Gain
Control (AGC) and/or (Adaptive) Time variable Gain ((A)TVG).The Quadrature Demodulation

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(analog or digitally) and anti-aliasing Filter and Analog-to-Digital Conversion with 16 up to 24

bits are used during the signal conditioning.
Signal Processing block performs the signal processing using Matched Filtering / Pulse so that
Conventional motion compensated near and far field beam forming in time or frequency domain

The Information Processing performs the Image Formation (range decimation, azimuth
decimation and interpolation, geo-coding) and Image Fusion (multi-ping and/or multi-aspect
mode) and also Computer aided detection and classification (CAD and CAC) of Targets (semi-
automatic for aiding an Operator or fully automatic for autonomous operations).
The Display Processing block performs the display of the image of the object detected on the
screen.

References: This class notes is prepared based on the book ―Digital Image Processing‖ by
Rafael C. Gonzalez and Richard E. Woods and other internet material .This is purely for
academic purpose ,not for commercial use

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