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Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.15 (3&4):115-122. 2017 www.world-food.net
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Impact of the traditional gold mine management on public health and agricultural land:
A Study of traditional gold mining in Poboya, Sausu and Dongi-Dongi Village, Central
Sulawesi, Indonesia
Muhammad Basir-Cyio1, Mahfudz1, Takanobu Inoue2, Alam Anshary1, Tomori Kawakami3, Nurdin Rahman4,
Golar5, Muhammad Rusydi6, Muhammad Nur Ali7, Muhammad Rizal Razman8 and Bohari4*
1
Department of Agroecotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Tadulako University, Jalan Soekarno-Hatta Km 09 Palu 94118, Indonesia.
2
Toyohashi University of Technology, 1-1, Hibarigaoka, Tenpaku-cho, Toyohashi, Aichi 441-8580, Japan. 3Department of
Environmental Engineering, Toyama Prefectural University, 5180 Kurokawa, Imizu, Toyama 939-0398, Japan. 4Department of
Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Tadulako University, Jalan Soekarno-Hatta Km 09 Palu 94118, Indonesia.
5
Department Forestry, Faculty of Forestry, Tadulako University, Jalan Soekarno-Hatta Km 09 Palu 94118, Indonesia. 6Department
of Geophysics, Faculty of Natural Science and Mathematics, Tadulako University, Jalan Soekarno-Hatta Km 09 Palu 94118,
Indonesia. 7Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Tadulako University, Jalan Soekarno-Hatta Km 09
Palu 94118, Indonesia. 8Research Centre for Sustainability Science and Governance (SGK), Institute for Environment and
Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. *e-mail: bohmks@gmail.com

Received 18 July 2017, accepted 4 August 2017.

Abstract
This study aimed to assess the impact of the traditional gold mine management use of mercury in uncontrolled number on public health and
agricultural land. This study used an observational studies method on the three traditional mining locations: Poboya, Sausu, and Dongi-Dongi as the
representative locations of the mine area. The data is mercury level and acute respiratory infection (ARI) and skin allergies were the secondary data,
and agriculture land degradation was performed using a “key of interpretation” in the form of “monogram” Landsat satellite. The results showed that
the mercury level in the air in Poboya reached 12,782 ng/m3 and around Palu City between 2,096-3,299 ng/m3. At least 200-500 kg of mercury is
released to the environment in one day and about 73-183 tons of mercury per year. ARI and skin allergies have increased significantly from 2012-2016
with the average of increase of 46. 10% sufferers (ARI) and 61.75% people with skin allergies. The changes land use form agriculture become to mine
area namely 32.91 ha (Poboya) and 21.35 ha (Sausu). In conclusion, uncontrolled use of mercury in traditional gold mining activities, eventually
caused problems to the environment as well as public health of the society.

Key words: Traditional mining, mercury, acute respiratory infection, land degradation.

Introduction
Gold mining activities in Central Sulawesi province of Indonesia uncontrolled use of mercury in Central Sulawesi has accelerated
continue to expand along with the discovered areas that have a the environmental damage in the two regions, namely, Poboya,
high gold content 1. More than 90% of the gold mining activities Palu City and SausuTorono, Parigi Moutong. The impact is
are traditionally managed and categorized illegal, so the especially on the air, rivers, soil, and plants. The high concentration
environmentally friendly rules are not considered, including in of the use of mercury is approaching 17,400 ngl-1 in water 12. The
terms of mercury use 2,3. In general, traditional gold mines are using highest mercury concentration in soil is in Poboya, i.e. 17.62 ng/
heavy metal of mercury in mining activities as a gold extractor from mg, indicating that the region has a heavy level of mercury
the rock. The use of heavy metal of mercury may impact on public pollution 12.
health 4, 19, 78, 79 and environmental degradation which in the long Meanwhile, the concentration of mercury contained in the air
term can reduce the land productivity 5, 75, 76, 77. The uncontrolled at the mine site and surrounding, both in Poboya and in
use of mercury in the gold mining process happens since 95% of SausuTorono is approaching 40,000 ngm-3 and specifically over
the miners are the people with a primary school level, even some Palu City is 1,488 ngm-3 9. The concentration of mercury is far
have not finished the primary school 6. The low education of the above the standard set by WHO, i.e. 1,000 ngm-3 13. Some findings
miners implies on their lack of knowledge in maintaining the safety indicate that the use of mercury that exceeds the threshold could
and environment sustainably 7-9. The threat to public health from potentially result in environmental and health problems. One
the use of heavy metal mercury has been studied by various negative impact is disease, such as acute respiratory infection
scientists from different countries 10, 11, 19. The impact of the (ARI) and skin allergies. The prevalence of acute respiratory

Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.15 (3&4), July-October 2017 115
infection at Central Sulawesi in 2013 at 1-4 years old very high and Assessment data: Level mercury in the Poboya is secondary data
number of case ARI in Palu City namely 35,436 cases 14. Public from some findings of mercury levels measuring in the mine sites12.
perception of the environmental pollution from mining activities The data of acute respiratory infection and skin allergies is
is not directly related to the educational level of the miners in secondary data on the three public health centers in the mining
Ghana, although mining can improve the welfare of the community areas 21, 22. Acute respiratory infection and skin allergies were the
with increased income 15. Perception measuring of society on the diagnosis by the health workers, especially in the group of
activities of traditional gold mining in Indonesia especially in Central mothers and children who came to the public health centers for
Sulawesi with low and medium educational levels of the miners, treatment. Community perceptions is the primary data were the
related to the negative impacts on health on workers, families, and mining community perceptions related to health obtained by using
wide community is very important in order to get the results of questionnaires. Any question related to the public perception in
analysis that can used by the Central Sulawesi Provincial the questionnaires had been tested by validity and reliability tests.
Government in making decisions towards the mining activities as Assessment of agriculture land degradation obtained from the
well as in the handling of the health sector wisely. image recording from 2014 until 2016 was performed using a “key
Previous studies 8, 9, 12, 16-18 only focused on the high concentration of interpretation” in the form of “monogram” Landsat satellite
of mercury in air, water, and soil, and the plants in the area of the images are constructed using the results of image recording in
mine without any information related to the impact. Report of 2015.
public health service (Puskesmas) Singgani Palu City in 2016 shows
an increase of the number of acute respiratory infections namely Data analysis: The data analysis is descriptive-quantitative.
3,270 cases on children at mine area. In addition, the dry soil Levels of mercury in Poboya and around the mine sites is a
conditions and activities of plantation and farmland decreased in collection of several studies since the year 2011 - 2016. However,
the mine area. Thus, a significant increase of the number of people the data series of estimation of mercury release to the environment
acute respiratory infections and decreased plantations and in Poboya, diseases trends of acute respiratory infection and skin
agricultural activities with crop failure associated with the presence allergies used equation function: Y1 (mercury release to the
of gold mining activities in Poboya Palu where the use of mercury environment) = a + bx, Y2 (acute respiratory infection) = a + bx,
exceeds the threshold set by WHO and conversion of the land and Y3 (skin allergies) = a + bx 23. The data analysis of mining
into mine area. This article presents the results of further research community’s perceptions was conducted using Excel application.
that focuses on aspects of public health and the environment. Conducted on land cover change forest to non-forest in the period
Health aspects are the focus of the study on acute respiratory 2014-2016. Plantations, settlements, agricultural land, rice fields,
infection and skin allergies, the environmental effects in particular shrub swamps, thickets, open land including mine sites,
agricultural land resources of the physical aspect. waterways, and airports are grouped into non-forest.

Methods Results
Study area: This research used an observational studies method Mercury vapor levels around the mine sites: Table 1 shows that
on the three mine sites in Central Sulawesi, located in Poboya the mercury pollution in each sample point in the community
Village of Palu City, Sausu Village of Parigi Moutong Regency, residential areas is above the normal value, that is the mercury
and Dongi-Dongi of Poso Regency from November 2016 to March level of 0.001 ppm 13. Mercury contamination is a serious
2017. environmental problem around the world with two main sources,
namely, inorganic mercury disposal and mercury from mining
Population and sampling: The population in this study was all industries 24. The use of mercury in Central Sulawesi in large
the citizens who work as miners. The numbers of the miners based quantities to extract gold in traditional mining has resulted in
on the village profile data were 490 people. The samples in this environmental problems around Palu City 8. The mercury level in
study were 220 people by using Slovin’s formula 20 with an alpha the outdoor air near a drum facility of Poboya has exceeded a
value of 0.05. The sampling technique used was simple random threshold, which reached 12,782 ng/m3 and around Palu City, the
sampling. value ranges between 2,096 to 3,299 ng/m3.

Table 1. Mercury levels in the mine sites in Central Sulawesi.


Objects of research Mercury content Year Sources
1 Water of local water company (dirty tub) 0.005 ppm 2011 25
2 Water of local water company (clean tub) 0.0004 ppm
3 Settlement land around the mine sites 0.596 ppm
4 Poboya river water downstream-upstream 0.005 to 0.060 ppm
5 Poboya river sediments downstream-upstream 0.004 to 0.580 ppm
6 Liquid waste in drum area 0.005 to 0.040 ppm
7 Solid waste in tromol area 0.808 to 0.882 ppm
9 Poboya air 12,782 ngm-3 2016 9
10 Palu air 2,096 to 3,299 ngm-3
11 Mercury on Poboya estuaries 0.0103 to 0.185 mg/kg 2013 18
12 Mercury in soil 0.04 to 17.62 ng/mg 2016 12
13 Mercury in plants 0.05 to 6.5 ng/mg
14 Mercury (Hg) in waste of processing 84.15 to 575.16 ppm 2013 16
15 Mercury (Hg) in soil 0.57 to 8.19 ppm

116 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.15 (3&4), July-October 2017
Estimation of mercury release to the environment in Poboya: Disease trends of acute respiratory infection and skin allergies:
Total of the drums operating in Poboya are 20,000. Mercury was Fig, 2 shows that acute respiratory infection and skin allergies
first introduced in 2004 by local merchant who taught people to relatively increased from year to year, starting from 2012 until
add three drops of mercury at the end of the panning process. In 2016. The sufferers of ARI in 2013 can be suppressed compared to
2008, mercury was used to process larger volumes of ores for 4 2012, decreased about 13.15% as a result of reduced mercury
hours, 3-4 times in 24 hours. Approximately 300-500 g of mercury supplies to the mine sites (Fig. 2). The number of Central Sulawesi
is added in each drum every 4 hours. Assuming all drums operate people with ARI was increased significantly from 2012 to 2016,
at least once a day, and approximately 20-50 g of mercury is released the increase reached 46.1% sufferers. The similar thing happened
to the environment to process one gram of gold, then at least 200- to the number of people who suffer from skin allergies. The
500 kg of mercury is released to the environment in one day and sufferers of skin allergies increased significantly in 2012 to 2016
about 73-183 tons of mercury per year 17 (Fig. 1). In 2013, the use with increase of 61.75% in five years 21, 22.
of mercury decreased considerably compared to 2012 due to the
law enforcement by the Regional Police in Central Sulawesi that Mining community perceptions of health: Fig. 3 shows the public
closes all access of mercury delivery from airport and port to the perceptions of the impacts of mining activities on the ability to
mine sites. In 2014-2016, the use of mercury increased due to the meet the family needs: 47.3% agree, and 50.9% less agree that the
increase in the supply of mercury to the mine sites. This condition family health has increased. Then, 40.0% agree about the
occurred due to the replacement of the Central Sulawesi Regional emergence of social diseases and the increase of crime in the
Police Chief coincided with the pursuit of terrorists in Poso mining areas. In addition, 60.5% less agree that the use of mercury
Regency. The whole force of Central Sulawesi Regional Police in gold processing can be a health risk, and 34.5% agree and
focused on the pursuit of terrorists that led to the weakening of strongly agree that people have difficulty obtaining clean water
direct control of the access of mercury supply to all gold mine sources after the presence of mining activities.
sites in Central Sulawesi. In addition, a significant increase in
2014-2016 was because of the processing of gold from Dongi- Agricultural land degradation: Community mining locations in
Dongi and Sausu that was done in Poboya at that time. Poboya each of these locations are all in the forest area. Community mining
served as a gold processing center since it has thousands locations in Palu and Poso district are in conservation forest
operating drums 17. locations, while at Parigi Moutong district are in production forests.
Palu city there are 23 mining region and the District Sausu there

Figure 1. Estimation of mercury release to the environment (ton/year) in Poboya, Central Sulawesi.

Figure 2. Disease trends of acute respiratory infection and skin allergies in children.

Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.15 (3&4), July-October 2017 117
Figure 3. Mining community perceptions of health (n = 220).

are 21 mining areas, while at the Poso district there is only one such exposure. Excessive exposure to mercury may cause pollution
mining area, because this case just happened. The results of the of air, water, and soil. Public Health Center Health Report showed
analysis of Landsat 8 that has been done on all three shows an increase in ARI cases in Poboya and the surrounding area after
annually mining sites have added location starting from the rural the presence of mining activities (Fig. 2). Respiratory symptoms
areas to the surrounding forest area. Land conversion of are the prominent effects of short-term, high-level exposure to
agricultural land into land mines of Poboya which is an average of elemental mercury vapors and the most commonly reported
32.91 ha and 21.35 ha of Sausu. Over the function of causes symptoms include cough, dyspnoea, and chest tightness or
changes in soil conditions such as temperature, humidity, nutrient burning pains in the chest 13. Acute elemental mercury poisoning
unbalanced and insufficient, excess of certain minerals, as well as causes acute interstitial pneumonitis, bronchitis, and bronchiolitis
extreme pH. The result showed that the impact of mining activities accompanied by symptoms of chest tightness, chest pain,
more damaging forests and farmland community, then followed dyspnoea and cough, metallic taste, nausea, abdominal pain,
the river for mining damage are mostly located in the mining area. vomiting, diarrhea, headache, and long-term effect that can damage
This study examines the biggest impact of mining activity that the organ body such as brain, heart, lungs, and can cause
has been performed at three locations for the surrounding area personality changes, coma, and death 26, 27, 29. Air pollution
from upstream to downstream. emissions related to industrial gold or copper mines mainly
occurring in rural Chilean communities might Increase the risk of
Discussion respiratory diseases in children 30. In general, the particles include
Processing of gold of the three mine sites was centered in Poboya, minerals, chemicals, heavy metals, aluminium, mercury, and
Palu City. The main location of the source of contamination had arsenic; several of these components are known to be associated
been identified in Poboya 26. 1) Open burning of amalgam are with impaired respiratory health 31. Respiratory manifestations in
performed in more than 400 locations in the processing areas, the forms of pneumomediastinum, pneumonia, and respiratory
especially near the location of the processing drum and in the failure in patients were reported after a few weeks of exposure to
stores selling gold. 2) More than 10,000 people are at high risk of mercury vapor poisoning 32. Other investigators reported that the
mercury poisoning. This number consists of those who live and manifestation of respiratory disorders in the forms of
work in the three areas of contamination (especially in Poboya) pneumomediastinum, pneumonia, dyspnoea experienced by the
where the air is already heavily contaminated from open burning patients after a few weeks of exposure to mercury vapor, and the
of amalgam, and contamination through direct contacts with skin majority of sufferers were children 24, 33, 34.
as well as food and beverages. 3) More than 300,000 people living The results of this study are relevant to other studies indicating
in Palu City are at low risk level of increased levels of mercury in that the relationship between mercury exposure and respiratory
the atmosphere, contamination into the food chain, and increased disorder, namely, acute exposure of mercury vapor quickly leads
levels of mercury in drinking water. Humans generally take up to lungs disorders with dyspnoea, cough, chest pain, fever, and
mercury in two ways: (1) as methylmercury (CH3Hg+) from fish chills, and metallic taste in the mouth 29, 35, 36. Satoh also adds that
consumption, or (2) by breathing vaporous mercury (Hg0) emitted the mercury vapor causes a number of cases of respiratory
from various sources such as metallic mercury, dental amalgams, disorders 37. A direct inhalation of the vapor with very high mercury
and ambient air. Our bodies are much more adapted for reducing exposure (about 5-10 mg/m3 or more) may cause erosive bronchitis
the potential toxicity effects from vaporous mercury, so health and bronchiolitis a few hours later. Survival International’s survey
effects from this source are relatively rare. Methylmercury, on the results indicate that 80% of the Nahua tribe-Peru has experienced
other hand, affects the central nervous system, and in severe mercury poisoning from illegal gold mining and suffered from ARI
cases irreversibly damages areas of the brain 27. and other health problems 38. In Ghana, the diseases such as upper
Many studies have shown that high mercury concentrations in respiratory tract infections, ear infections, sexually transmitted
mine site risk to health problems both on workers and surrounding diseases such as HIV/AIDS and syphilis, certain skin diseases
communities, especially children and mothers are susceptible to and rheumatism and joint pains may have a higher prevalence in

118 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.15 (3&4), July-October 2017
Obuasi when compared to Asankrangwa due to the mining in involved in mining activities in order to increase family income.
Obuasi 39. Mining often involves occupational and community health and
The findings of this study also indicated the emergence of skin safety hazards that do not only affect the miners, but also their
problems in society in mining areas, namely, skin allergies. families and communities. Family members are frequently involved
Although the reported cases of skin allergies are not as many as with ore processing thereby exposing them to mercury, dust, and
acute respiratory infections, the results sufficiently gave an other chemicals. Women are especially vulnerable to the health
overview of danger to the public around the mining areas. Skin and safety risks associated with mining 50-52. Children are often
diseases are also quite prevalent in mining areas. Problems such used in mining operations to help transport, sort, or wash material
as water and air contamination and waste disposal are associated and because of their size, they may also work in narrow
with mining activities. Skin rashes result from cyanide and mercury underground tunnels 53. Children of female miners frequently
pollution, a byproduct of gold processing 39-41. A team from the accompany their mothers to mine sites, exposing them to health
Faculty of Health of Sam Ratulangi University conducted a study and safety risks. Migrant laborers are also the vulnerable
of the cause of the skin diseases suffered by Ratatotok residents, population, and the impacts of mining activities on this group are
and concluded that they were caused by unsanitary conditions, virtually unknown. Since by the time, certain mining related to
rather than high mercury or arsenic levels in the Buyat Bay area 42. disease like pneumoconiosis is clinically manifested. Many workers
Although the studies of the direct effects of mercury against skin left the area and the mining trade altogether 54. The lack of people
allergies are still limited, mercury is so dangerous to children’s understanding of the excessive use of mercury to the health
health after all, thus precautions should be immediately taken. impacts is in line with the study on HutaBargot society, showing
The exposure to mercury in the river water in Poboya is 0.005 to the mining activities using mercury cause a decrease in public
0.060 ppm above the normal limit (Table 1). Community, especially health and the total cost of the decrease in public health due to
children still have the habit of bathing and washing in the river in mining is Rp 19,936,000/year 55. In addition, gold mining causes a
Poboya. The reports of the Supporting Public Health Center in decrease in water resources which occurs in water quality and
Poboya showed an increase in the cases of skin allergies in quantity both on surface and ground water and the production of
children after the presence of mining activities and excessive use medicinal plants that can be consumed by people. It is
of mercury in Poboya (Fig. 2). The mercury that enters the skin strengthened by the public statement that they have difficulty in
causes reaction of skin allergies like skin irritation that occurs accessing clean water. The results further indicate that rivers in
quickly after bathing with mercury-contaminated river water 43. Huta Bargot serve as the places for bathing, washing and latrine
Children should not live close to mercury emissions, such as gold and the water supply for daily needs. The decrease in water
mining areas. Separation of housing and mining is essential. resources makes the community must pay for water due to the
Children should not work as miners or in any other way with differences in the quantity and quality of water before and after
immediate contact to mercury. Children should not play with liquid the presence of mining. The local authorities urge the public to
mercury 44. The protection of children’s health depends on realize the impacts of mining activities on public health, especially
members of the family and community, as well as on local, regional, in the communities directly related to mining activities.
national, and international bodies. The exposure to elemental Related to existence of mining on agricultural land, number of
mercury on children often occurs due to inapproprite handling identified problems, namely the decrease in land productivity that
and cleanup. Health education and policy initiatives are needed resulted in intensity vulnerability of society to meet the needs of
as primary prevention 45, 69-71. families into the problems that occur widely in the research area.
The mining community perception of mercury that it is not The land area is degraded before and after the mining activity
harmful to health showed that the mining community awareness showed significant improvements, not only in terms of area, but
on health is very low. In fact, the mercury content in the water and air may cause a decrease also on the productivity of the land. Many farmers have complained
in public health. Mercury may cause various diseases both in that more frequent crop failure. Empirical facts unequivocally prove
long term and short term. The short-term effects can be seen from that the decline in land productivity is caused as a result of mining
the health problems directly, while the long-term effects can be activities. The land farm area affected is 1,153.32 ha and wetlands
seen from the mercury deposited in the body through consumption area of 2,196.8 ha. In some traditional mining site, the social
of contaminated water, contaminated fish, the air inhaled, and conditions of indigenous people major lifeblood of traditional
absorption through the skin 28, 65-68. This is in line with the study in farming has experienced a significant shift, given their efforts land
Tanzania that the people at the mine site have a low awareness of turned into land mines 56, 57. Their yields have decreased drastically
the health threat from exposure to mercury and arsenic 46, 47 and so as to meet their needs to be brought in from other areas, both
the risk perception towards mercury toxicity is very low in the in Central Sulawesi region or from outside the province. This
community (mining is the only economic activity)48, 72-74. Another situation continues to weigh on the economic conditions of local
study shows that 89% of traditional gold miners had very low to communities 58.
low levels of knowledge whereas 11% had moderate to very high According to Berhe 59, land degradation can vary in both
levels of knowledge of deleterious health effects of Hg and temporal and spatial scales, and quality. Land degradation
individuals who perceived their health-related working conditions indicates a drop in rank or status; and signifies the loss of utility
to be excellent had very low to low levels of knowledge of the (including particular current use or possible intended future uses)
environmental and health effects of mercury 49 . or the reduction, loss or change of features or organisms that are
The focus of the risk of mercury exposure in this study was the hard, if not entirely impossible, to replace 59. The chemicals pollute
group of mothers and children. This was based on the direct the soil and even the water leading to poor crop growths. Due to
observation at the mine sites, where mothers and children are the vast nature of mining, and water erosion thereby reducing soil

Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.15 (3&4), July-October 2017 119
fertility that has led to poor crop cultivation 60, 61. In other research 5
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11
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Conclusions
14
Health Department of Palu City (HDPU) 2014. Health Profil of the
Uncontrolled use of mercury in traditional gold mining activities, Palu City. HDPC, Palu.
15
Obiri, S., Mattah, P.A.D., Mattah, M.M., Armah, F.A., Osae, S., Adu-
eventually caused problems to the environment as well as public
Kumi, S. and Yeboah, P.O. 2016. Assessing the environmental and
health to society, especially acute respiratory infection and skin socio-economic impacts of artisanal gold mining on the livelihoods of
allergies. These problems getting serious, when the amount of communities in the Tarkwa Nsuaem municipality in Ghana. Int. J.
usage on mercury has been increased without proper control by Environ. Res. Public Health. 13:1–15.
the regulation in traditional gold mining activities. Sadly, this study 16
Mirdat, Patadungan, Y.S. and Isrun 2013. Status Logam Berat Merkuri
has identified that the traditional mining community is unaware (Hg) Dalam Tanah Pada Kawasan Pengelohan Tambang Emas di
on the negative impacts of the excessive usage on mercury. Finally, Kelurahan Poboya (The Level Of Heavy Metal Of Mercury (Hg) In
Poboya has been shown facing the highest problem on Soil Of Agricultural Area Around), E-Journal Agrotekbis. 1 (2013):
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17
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Situs PESK: Poboya dan Sekotong di Indonesia. IPEN, Bali.
18
Purnawan, S., Sikanna, R. and Prismawiryanti 2013. Distribusi logam
Acknowledgments merkuri pada sedimen laut di sekitar muara Sungai Poboya. Online J.
The authors thank Governor of Central Sulawesi, Mayor of Palu Nat. Sci. 2:18–24.
City, and traditional leaders of Poboya who had given helped and 19
Razman, M.R. and Azlan, A. 2009. Safety issues related to
facilitated this study. polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated
dibenzofurans (PCDFs) in fish and shellfish in relation with current
Malaysian laws. Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment
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