Algebra Cheat Sheet

Basic Properties & Facts

Arithmetic Operations Properties of Inequalities
 b  ab If a < b then a + c < b + c and a − c < b − c
ab + ac = a ( b + c ) a  =
c c If a < b and c > 0 then ac < bc and <
a b
a c c
  a a b
b = a
=
ac If a < b and c < 0 then ac > bc and >
c bc b b c c
 
c
Properties of Absolute Value
a c ad + bc a c ad − bc a if a ≥ 0
+ = − = a =
b d bd b d bd  −a if a < 0
a −b b−a a+b a b a ≥0 −a = a
= = +
c−d d −c c c c a a
ab = a b =
a b b
ab + ac   ad
= b + c, a ≠ 0 b = a+b ≤ a + b Triangle Inequality
a  c  bc
 
d Distance Formula
Exponent Properties If P1 = ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 = ( x2 , y2 ) are two
an 1
a n a m = a n+m m
= a n−m = m−n points the distance between them is
a a
(a )n m
= a nm a 0 = 1, a ≠ 0 d ( P1 , P2 ) = ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2

n
a
n
a
( ab ) = a nb n   = n
n

b b Complex Numbers

1 1
a −n = −n
= an i = −1 i 2 = −1 −a = i a , a ≥ 0
an a
−n ( a + bi ) + ( c + di ) = a + c + ( b + d ) i
( ) = (a )
n
a b bn n n 1

=  = n a = a
1
n m
  ( a + bi ) − ( c + di ) = a − c + ( b − d ) i
m m

b a a
( a + bi )( c + di ) = ac − bd + ( ad + bc ) i
Properties of Radicals
( a + bi )( a − bi ) = a 2 + b 2
1
n
a = an n
ab = n a n b a + bi = a 2 + b 2 Complex Modulus
m n
a = nm a n
a na
= ( a + bi ) = a − bi Complex Conjugate
b nb
( a + bi )( a + bi ) = a + bi
2

n
a n = a, if n is odd
n
a n = a , if n is even

For a complete set of online Algebra notes visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu. © 2005 Paul Dawkins
Logarithms and Log Properties
Definition Logarithm Properties
y = log b x is equivalent to x = b y log b b = 1 log b 1 = 0
log b b x = x b logb x = x
log b ( x r ) = r log b x
Example
log 5 125 = 3 because 53 = 125
log b ( xy ) = log b x + log b y
Special Logarithms x
ln x = log e x natural log log b   = log b x − log b y
 y
log x = log10 x common log
where e = 2.718281828K The domain of log b x is x > 0
Factoring and Solving
Factoring Formulas Quadratic Formula
x 2 − a 2 = ( x + a )( x − a ) Solve ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , a ≠ 0
x 2 + 2ax + a 2 = ( x + a )
2 −b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
x 2 − 2ax + a 2 = ( x − a )
2
If b − 4ac > 0 - Two real unequal solns.
2

x 2 + ( a + b ) x + ab = ( x + a )( x + b ) If b 2 − 4ac = 0 - Repeated real solution.

x3 + 3ax 2 + 3a 2 x + a 3 = ( x + a )
3 If b 2 − 4ac < 0 - Two complex solutions.

x3 − 3ax 2 + 3a 2 x − a 3 = ( x − a )
3
Square Root Property
x3 + a3 = ( x + a ) ( x 2 − ax + a 2 ) If x 2 = p then x = ± p

x3 − a 3 = ( x − a ) ( x 2 + ax + a 2 ) Absolute Value Equations/Inequalities

x −a
2n 2n
= (x −a
n n
)( x n
+a n
) If b is a positive number
p =b ⇒ p = −b or p = b
If n is odd then,
x n − a n = ( x − a ) ( x n −1 + ax n − 2 + L + a n −1 ) p <b ⇒ −b < p < b
p >b ⇒ p < −b or p>b
xn + a n
= ( x + a ) ( x n −1 − ax n − 2 + a 2 x n −3 − L + a n −1 )
Completing the Square
Solve 2 x − 6 x − 10 = 0
2 (4) Factor the left side
2
 3 29
(1) Divide by the coefficient of the x 2 x−  =
 2 4
x 2 − 3x − 5 = 0 (5) Use Square Root Property
(2) Move the constant to the other side.
3 29 29
x 2 − 3x = 5 x− = ± =±
2 4 2
(3) Take half the coefficient of x, square
it and add it to both sides (6) Solve for x
2 2 3 29
 3  3 9 29 x= ±
x 2 − 3x +  −  = 5 +  −  = 5 + = 2 2
 2  2 4 4

For a complete set of online Algebra notes visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu. © 2005 Paul Dawkins
 Functions and Graphs
Constant Function Parabola/Quadratic Function
y = a or f ( x ) = a x = ay 2 + by + c g ( y ) = ay 2 + by + c
Graph is a horizontal line passing
through the point ( 0, a ) . The graph is a parabola that opens right
if a > 0 or left if a < 0 and has a vertex
Line/Linear Function   b  b 
at  g  −  , −  .
y = mx + b or f ( x ) = mx + b   2a  2 a 
Graph is a line with point ( 0, b ) and
Circle
slope m.
( x − h) + ( y − k ) = r 2
2 2

Slope Graph is a circle with radius r and center

Slope of the line containing the two ( h, k ) .
points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is
y2 − y1 rise Ellipse
m= =
( x − h) ( y −k)
2 2
x2 − x1 run
+ =1
Slope – intercept form a2 b2
The equation of the line with slope m Graph is an ellipse with center ( h, k )
and y-intercept ( 0,b ) is with vertices a units right/left from the
y = mx + b center and vertices b units up/down from
Point – Slope form the center.
The equation of the line with slope m
and passing through the point ( x1 , y1 ) is Hyperbola
( x − h) ( y −k)
2 2
y = y1 + m ( x − x1 ) − =1
a2 b2
Graph is a hyperbola that opens left and
Parabola/Quadratic Function
right, has a center at ( h, k ) , vertices a
y = a ( x − h) + k f ( x) = a ( x − h) + k
2 2

units left/right of center and asymptotes

b
The graph is a parabola that opens up if that pass through center with slope ± .
a > 0 or down if a < 0 and has a vertex a
Hyperbola
at ( h, k ) .
(y −k) ( x − h)
2 2

− =1
Parabola/Quadratic Function b2 a2
y = ax 2 + bx + c f ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c Graph is a hyperbola that opens up and
down, has a center at ( h, k ) , vertices b
The graph is a parabola that opens up if units up/down from the center and
a > 0 or down if a < 0 and has a vertex asymptotes that pass through center with
 b b
 b  slope ± .
at  − , f  −   . a
 2a  2 a  

For a complete set of online Algebra notes visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu. © 2005 Paul Dawkins
 Common Algebraic Errors
Error Reason/Correct/Justification/Example
2 2
≠ 0 and ≠ 2 Division by zero is undefined!
0 0
−32 = −9 , ( −3 ) = 9 Watch parenthesis!
2
−32 ≠ 9

(x )
2 3
≠ x5 (x )
2 3
= x2 x2 x2 = x6
a a a 1 1 1 1
≠ + = ≠ + =2
b+c b c 2 1+1 1 1
1 A more complex version of the previous
≠ x −2 + x −3
x +x
2 3 error.
a + bx a bx bx
a + bx = + = 1+
≠ 1 + bx a a a a
a
Beware of incorrect canceling!
− a ( x − 1) = − ax + a
− a ( x − 1) ≠ − ax − a
Make sure you distribute the “-“!
( x + a) ≠ x2 + a2 ( x + a) = ( x + a )( x + a ) = x 2 + 2ax + a 2
2 2

x2 + a2 ≠ x + a 5 = 25 = 32 + 42 ≠ 32 + 42 = 3 + 4 = 7
x+a ≠ x + a See previous error.
More general versions of previous three
( x + a) ≠ x n + a n and x+a ≠ n x + n a
n n
errors.
2 ( x + 1) = 2 ( x 2 + 2 x + 1) = 2 x 2 + 4 x + 2
2

2 ( x + 1) ≠ ( 2 x + 2 )
2 2
( 2 x + 2)= 4 x2 + 8x + 4
2

Square first then distribute!

See the previous example. You can not
( 2 x + 2) ≠ 2 ( x + 1)
2 2
factor out a constant if there is a power on
the parethesis!
1
− x2 + a2 = ( − x2 + a 2 ) 2
− x2 + a2 ≠ − x2 + a2
Now see the previous error.
a
a
≠
ab  
 a  c  ac
=   =    =
a 1
b c
   b   b   1  b  b
c    
c c
a a
a    
  ac  b  =  b  =  a  1  = a
b ≠   
c  c   b  c  bc
c b  
1

For a complete set of online Algebra notes visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu. © 2005 Paul Dawkins
 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Limits
Definitions
Precise Definition : We say lim f ( x ) = L if Limit at Infinity : We say lim f ( x ) = L if we
x ®a x ®¥
for every e > 0 there is a d > 0 such that can make f ( x ) as close to L as we want by
whenever 0 < x - a < d then f ( x ) - L < e . taking x large enough and positive.

“Working” Definition : We say lim f ( x ) = L There is a similar definition for lim f ( x ) = L

x ®a x ®-¥

if we can make f ( x ) as close to L as we want except we require x large and negative.

by taking x sufficiently close to a (on either side
of a) without letting x = a . Infinite Limit : We say lim f ( x ) = ¥ if we
x ®a

can make f ( x ) arbitrarily large (and positive)

Right hand limit : lim+ f ( x ) = L . This has by taking x sufficiently close to a (on either side
x ®a
the same definition as the limit except it of a) without letting x = a .
requires x > a .
There is a similar definition for lim f ( x ) = -¥
x ®a
Left hand limit : lim- f ( x ) = L . This has the
x ®a except we make f ( x ) arbitrarily large and
same definition as the limit except it requires negative.
x<a.
Relationship between the limit and one-sided limits
lim f ( x ) = L Þ lim+ f ( x ) = lim- f ( x ) = L lim+ f ( x ) = lim- f ( x ) = L Þ lim f ( x ) = L
x ®a x ®a x ®a x ®a x ®a x ®a

lim f ( x ) ¹ lim- f ( x ) Þ lim f ( x ) Does Not Exist

x ®a + x ®a x ®a

Properties
Assume lim f ( x ) and lim g ( x ) both exist and c is any number then,
x ®a x ®a

1. lim éëcf ( x ) ùû = c lim f ( x ) é f ( x ) ù lim f ( x)

x ®a x ®a 4. lim ê ú = x ®a provided lim g ( x ) ¹ 0
x ®a g ( x ) g ( x)
û lim
x ®a
ë x ®a
2. lim éë f ( x ) ± g ( x ) ùû = lim f ( x ) ± lim g ( x ) n
5. lim éë f ( x ) ùû = élim f ( x ) ù
n
x ®a x®a x ®a
x ®a ë x ®a û
3. lim éë f ( x ) g ( x ) ùû = lim f ( x ) lim g ( x ) 6. lim é n f ( x ) ù = n lim f ( x )
x ®a x ®a x ®a x ®a ë û x®a

Basic Limit Evaluations at ± ¥

Note : sgn ( a ) = 1 if a > 0 and sgn ( a ) = -1 if a < 0 .
1. lim e x = ¥ & lim e x = 0 5. n even : lim x n = ¥
x®¥ x®- ¥ x ®± ¥

2. lim ln ( x ) = ¥ & lim ln ( x ) = - ¥ 6. n odd : lim x n = ¥ & lim x n = -¥

x ®¥ x ®0 - x ®¥ x ®- ¥

3. If r > 0 then lim

b
=0 7. n even : lim a x + L + b x + c = sgn ( a ) ¥
n
x ®± ¥
xr
x ®¥
8. n odd : lim a x n + L + b x + c = sgn ( a ) ¥
4. If r > 0 and x r is real for negative x x ®¥
b
then lim r = 0 9. n odd : lim a x n + L + c x + d = - sgn ( a ) ¥
x ®-¥
x ®-¥ x

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Evaluation Techniques
Continuous Functions L’Hospital’s Rule
If f ( x ) is continuous at a then lim f ( x ) = f ( a ) f ( x) 0 f ( x) ± ¥
x ®a If lim = or lim = then,
x ®a g ( x ) 0 x ®a g ( x ) ±¥
Continuous Functions and Composition f ( x) f ¢( x)
f ( x ) is continuous at b and lim g ( x ) = b then lim = lim a is a number, ¥ or -¥
x ®a g ( x ) x ®a g ¢ ( x )
x ®a

x ®a
( x ®a
)
lim f ( g ( x ) ) = f lim g ( x ) = f ( b ) Polynomials at Infinity
p ( x ) and q ( x ) are polynomials. To compute
Factor and Cancel
p ( x)
lim
x 2 + 4 x - 12
= lim
( x - 2 )( x + 6 ) lim
x ®± ¥ q ( x )
factor largest power of x out of both
x®2 x - 2x
2 x®2 x ( x - 2)
p ( x ) and q ( x ) and then compute limit.
x+6 8
= lim
x®2 x
= =4
Rationalize Numerator/Denominator
2
lim
3x 2 - 4
= lim 2 5
( )
x 2 3 - 42
x
3 - 42
= lim 5 x = -
3

3- x 3- x 3+ x
x ®-¥ 5 x - 2 x 2 x ®-¥ x
( )
x -2
x ®- ¥
x -2 2
lim 2 = lim 2 Piecewise Function
x ®9 x - 81 x ®9 x - 81 3 + x
ì x 2 + 5 if x < -2
= lim
9- x
= lim
-1 lim g ( x ) where g ( x ) = í
( )
( x - 81) 3 + x x®9 ( x + 9 ) 3 + x ( ) î1 - 3x if x ³ -2
x ®-2
x ®9 2

Compute two one sided limits,

-1 1 lim- g ( x ) = lim- x 2 + 5 = 9
= =-
(18)( 6 ) 108 x ®-2 x ®-2

lim g ( x ) = lim+ 1 - 3 x = 7
Combine Rational Expressions x ®-2+ x ®-2

1æ 1 1ö 1 æ x - ( x + h) ö One sided limits are different so lim g ( x )

lim ç - ÷ = lim çç ÷ x ®-2
h ®0 h x + h
è x ø h®0 h è x ( x + h ) ÷ø doesn’t exist. If the two one sided limits had
been equal then lim g ( x ) would have existed
1 æ -h ö -1 1 x ®-2
= lim çç ÷ = lim = -
h ®0 h x ( x + h ) ÷ h®0 x ( x + h ) x2 and had the same value.
è ø

Some Continuous Functions

Partial list of continuous functions and the values of x for which they are continuous.
1. Polynomials for all x. 7. cos ( x ) and sin ( x ) for all x.
2. Rational function, except for x’s that give
division by zero. 8. tan ( x ) and sec ( x ) provided
3. n x (n odd) for all x. 3p p p 3p
x ¹ L , - , - , , ,L
4. n x (n even) for all x ³ 0 . 2 2 2 2
9. cot ( x ) and csc ( x ) provided
5. e x for all x.
6. ln x for x > 0 . x ¹ L , -2p , -p , 0, p , 2p ,L

Intermediate Value Theorem

Suppose that f ( x ) is continuous on [a, b] and let M be any number between f ( a ) and f ( b ) .
Then there exists a number c such that a < c < b and f ( c ) = M .

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Derivatives
Definition and Notation
f ( x + h) - f ( x)
If y = f ( x ) then the derivative is defined to be f ¢ ( x ) = lim .
h ®0 h

If y = f ( x ) then all of the following are If y = f ( x ) all of the following are equivalent
equivalent notations for the derivative. notations for derivative evaluated at x = a .
df dy d df dy
f ¢ ( x ) = y¢ = = = ( f ( x ) ) = Df ( x ) f ¢ ( a ) = y ¢ x =a = = = Df ( a )
dx dx dx dx x =a dx x =a

Interpretation of the Derivative

If y = f ( x ) then,
1. m = f ¢ ( a ) is the slope of the tangent
line to y = f ( x ) at x = a and the
equation of the tangent line at x = a is
given by y = f ( a ) + f ¢ ( a )( x - a ) .
2. f ¢ ( a ) is the instantaneous rate of
change of f ( x ) at x = a .
3. If f ( x ) is the position of an object at
time x then f ¢ ( a ) is the velocity of
the object at x = a .

Basic Properties and Formulas

If f ( x ) and g ( x ) are differentiable functions (the derivative exists), c and n are any real numbers,
d
1. ( c f )¢ = c f ¢ ( x ) 5. (c) = 0
dx
2. ( f ± g )¢ = f ¢ ( x ) ± g ¢ ( x ) 6.
d n
( x ) = n x n-1 – Power Rule
dx
3. ( f g )¢ = f ¢ g + f g ¢ – Product Rule d
7. ( )
f ( g ( x )) = f ¢ ( g ( x )) g¢ ( x )
æ f ö¢ f ¢ g - f g ¢ dx
4. ç ÷ = – Quotient Rule This is the Chain Rule
èg ø g2

Common Derivatives
d d d x
dx
( x) = 1
dx
( csc x ) = - csc x cot x
dx
( a ) = a x ln ( a )
d d d x
dx
( sin x ) = cos x
dx
( cot x ) = - csc2 x
dx
( e ) = ex
d d 1 d 1
dx
( cos x ) = - sin x
dx
( sin -1 x ) =
dx
( ln ( x ) ) = , x > 0
x
1 - x2
d d 1
dx
( tan x ) = sec2 x d
( cos -1 x ) = -
1
dx
( ln x ) = x , x ¹ 0
dx 1 - x2
d d 1
dx
( sec x ) = sec x tan x d
( tan -1 x ) =
1
dx
( log a ( x ) ) =
x ln a
, x>0
dx 1 + x2

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Chain Rule Variants

The chain rule applied to some specific functions.
1.
d
dx
( ) n -1
éë f ( x ) ùû = n éë f ( x ) ùû f ¢ ( x )
n
5.
d
dx
( )
cos éë f ( x ) ùû = - f ¢ ( x ) sin éë f ( x ) ùû

2.
dx
e (
d f ( x)
)
= f ¢( x)e ( )
f x
6.
d
dx
( )
tan éë f ( x ) ùû = f ¢ ( x ) sec 2 éë f ( x ) ùû

f ( x)
¢ d
3.
d
(
ln éë f ( x ) ùû = ) 7. ( sec [ f ( x)]) = f ¢( x) sec [ f ( x)] tan [ f ( x)]
dx f ( x) dx
d f ¢( x)
4.
d
( )
sin éë f ( x ) ùû = f ¢ ( x ) cos éë f ( x ) ùû 8. (
tan -1 éë f ( x ) ùû = )
1 + éë f ( x ) ùû
2
dx dx

Higher Order Derivatives

The Second Derivative is denoted as The nth Derivative is denoted as
d2 f dn f
f ¢¢ ( x ) = f ( 2) ( x ) = 2 and is defined as f ( n ) ( x ) = n and is defined as
dx dx
f ¢¢ ( x ) = ( f ¢ ( x ) )¢ , i.e. the derivative of the ¢
( )
f ( n ) ( x ) = f ( n -1) ( x ) , i.e. the derivative of
first derivative, f ¢ ( x ) . the (n-1)st derivative, f ( n-1) x . ( )
Implicit Differentiation
¢
Find y if e 2 x -9 y
+ x y = sin ( y ) + 11x . Remember y = y ( x ) here, so products/quotients of x and y
3 2

will use the product/quotient rule and derivatives of y will use the chain rule. The “trick” is to
differentiate as normal and every time you differentiate a y you tack on a y¢ (from the chain rule).
After differentiating solve for y¢ .

e 2 x -9 y ( 2 - 9 y¢ ) + 3 x 2 y 2 + 2 x3 y y¢ = cos ( y ) y¢ + 11
11 - 2e 2 x -9 y - 3x 2 y 2
2e 2 x -9 y
- 9 y¢e 2 x -9 y
+ 3x y + 2 x y y¢ = cos ( y ) y¢ + 11
2 2 3
Þ y¢ = 3
2 x y - 9e2 x -9 y - cos ( y )
( 2 x y - 9e x
3 2 -9 y
- cos ( y ) ) y¢ = 11 - 2e2 x -9 y - 3x 2 y 2

Increasing/Decreasing – Concave Up/Concave Down

Critical Points
x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) provided either Concave Up/Concave Down
1. If f ¢¢ ( x ) > 0 for all x in an interval I then
1. f ¢ ( c ) = 0 or 2. f ¢ ( c ) doesn’t exist.
f ( x ) is concave up on the interval I.
Increasing/Decreasing 2. If f ¢¢ ( x ) < 0 for all x in an interval I then
1. If f ¢ ( x ) > 0 for all x in an interval I then
f ( x ) is concave down on the interval I.
f ( x ) is increasing on the interval I.
2. If f ¢ ( x ) < 0 for all x in an interval I then Inflection Points
x = c is a inflection point of f ( x ) if the
f ( x ) is decreasing on the interval I.
concavity changes at x = c .
3. If f ¢ ( x ) = 0 for all x in an interval I then
f ( x ) is constant on the interval I.

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Extrema
Absolute Extrema
1. x = c is an absolute maximum of f ( x )
if f ( c ) ³ f ( x ) for all x in the domain.
2. x = c is an absolute minimum of f ( x )
if f ( c ) £ f ( x ) for all x in the domain.
Fermat’s Theorem
If f ( x ) has a relative (or local) extrema at
x = c , then x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) .
Extreme Value Theorem
If f ( x ) is continuous on the closed interval
[ a, b] then there exist numbers c and d so that,
1. a £ c, d £ b , 2. f ( c ) is the abs. max. in
[ a, b] , 3. f ( d ) is the abs. min. in [ a, b] .
Finding Absolute Extrema
To find the absolute extrema of the continuous
function f ( x ) on the interval [ a, b ] use the
following process.
1. Find all critical points of f ( x ) in [ a, b] .
2. Evaluate f ( x ) at all points found in Step 1.
3. Evaluate f ( a ) and f ( b ) .
4. Identify the abs. max. (largest function
value) and the abs. min.(smallest function
value) from the evaluations in Steps 2 & 3.
Relative (local) Extrema
1. x = c is a relative (or local) maximum of
f ( x ) if f ( c ) ³ f ( x ) for all x near c.
2. x = c is a relative (or local) minimum of
f ( x ) if f ( c ) £ f ( x ) for all x near c.
1st Derivative Test
If x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) then x = c is
1. a rel. max. of f ( x ) if f ¢ ( x ) > 0 to the left
of x = c and f ¢ ( x ) < 0 to the right of x = c .
2. a rel. min. of f ( x ) if f ¢ ( x ) < 0 to the left
of x = c and f ¢ ( x ) > 0 to the right of x = c .
3. not a relative extrema of f ( x ) if f ¢ ( x ) is
the same sign on both sides of x = c .
2nd Derivative Test
If x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) such that
f ¢ ( c ) = 0 then x = c
1. is a relative maximum of f ( x ) if f ¢¢ ( c ) < 0 .
2. is a relative minimum of f ( x ) if f ¢¢ ( c ) > 0 .
3. may be a relative maximum, relative
minimum, or neither if f ¢¢ ( c ) = 0 .
Finding Relative Extrema and/or
Classify Critical Points
1. Find all critical points of f ( x ) .
2. Use the 1st derivative test or the 2nd
derivative test on each critical point.

Mean Value Theorem

If f ( x ) is continuous on the closed interval [ a, b ] and differentiable on the open interval ( a, b )
f (b) - f ( a )
then there is a number a < c < b such that f ¢ ( c ) = .
b-a

Newton’s Method
f ( xn )
If xn is the nth guess for the root/solution of f ( x ) = 0 then (n+1)st guess is xn +1 = xn -
f ¢ ( xn )
provided f ¢ ( xn ) exists.

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Related Rates
Sketch picture and identify known/unknown quantities. Write down equation relating quantities
and differentiate with respect to t using implicit differentiation (i.e. add on a derivative every time
you differentiate a function of t). Plug in known quantities and solve for the unknown quantity.
Ex. A 15 foot ladder is resting against a wall. Ex. Two people are 50 ft apart when one
The bottom is initially 10 ft away and is being starts walking north. The angle q changes at
pushed towards the wall at 14 ft/sec. How fast 0.01 rad/min. At what rate is the distance
is the top moving after 12 sec? between them changing when q = 0.5 rad?

We have q ¢ = 0.01 rad/min. and want to find

x¢ is negative because x is decreasing. Using
x¢ . We can use various trig fcns but easiest is,
Pythagorean Theorem and differentiating,
x x¢
x 2 + y 2 = 152 Þ 2 x x¢ + 2 y y¢ = 0 sec q = Þ sec q tan q q ¢ =
50 50
After 12 sec we have x = 10 - 12 ( 14 ) = 7 and We know q = 0.05 so plug in q ¢ and solve.
x¢
so y = 152 - 7 2 = 176 . Plug in and solve sec ( 0.5 ) tan ( 0.5 )( 0.01) =
for y¢ . 50
7 x¢ = 0.3112 ft/sec
7 ( - 14 ) + 176 y¢ = 0 Þ y¢ = ft/sec Remember to have calculator in radians!
4 176

Optimization
Sketch picture if needed, write down equation to be optimized and constraint. Solve constraint for
one of the two variables and plug into first equation. Find critical points of equation in range of
variables and verify that they are min/max as needed.
Ex. We’re enclosing a rectangular field with Ex. Determine point(s) on y = x 2 + 1 that are
500 ft of fence material and one side of the closest to (0,2).
field is a building. Determine dimensions that
will maximize the enclosed area.

Minimize f = d 2 = ( x - 0 ) + ( y - 2 ) and the

2 2

Maximize A = xy subject to constraint of constraint is y = x 2 + 1 . Solve constraint for

x + 2 y = 500 . Solve constraint for x and plug
x 2 and plug into the function.
into area.
x2 = y - 1 Þ f = x2 + ( y - 2)
2
A = y ( 500 - 2 y )
x = 500 - 2 y Þ
= y -1 + ( y - 2) = y 2 - 3 y + 3
2
= 500 y - 2 y 2
Differentiate and find critical point(s). Differentiate and find critical point(s).
A¢ = 500 - 4 y Þ y = 125 f ¢ = 2y -3 Þ y = 32
nd
By 2 deriv. test this is a rel. max. and so is By the 2nd derivative test this is a rel. min. and
the answer we’re after. Finally, find x. so all we need to do is find x value(s).
x = 500 - 2 (125 ) = 250 x 2 = 32 - 1 = 12 Þ x = ± 12
The dimensions are then 250 x 125. The 2 points are then ( 1
2 )
, 32 and - ( 1
2 )
, 32 .

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Integrals
Definitions
Definite Integral: Suppose f ( x ) is continuous Anti-Derivative : An anti-derivative of f ( x )
on [ a, b] . Divide [ a, b ] into n subintervals of is a function, F ( x ) , such that F ¢ ( x ) = f ( x ) .
width D x and choose x from each interval. Indefinite Integral : ò f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + c
*
i
¥
b
f (x )D x . where F ( x ) is an anti-derivative of f ( x ) .
ò a f ( x ) dx = nlim å
*
Then i
®¥
i =1

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Part I : If f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b ] then Variants of Part I :
d u( x)
f ( t ) dt = u ¢ ( x ) f éëu ( x ) ùû
dx ò a
x
g ( x ) = ò f ( t ) dt is also continuous on [ a, b ]
a
d x d b
and g ¢ ( x ) = () ( ) ò f ( t ) dt = -v¢ ( x ) f éëv ( x ) ùû
dx ò a
f t dt = f x .
dx v( x )

Part II : f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b ] , F ( x ) is d u( x)
f ( t ) dt = u ¢ ( x ) f [ u ( x ) ] - v¢ ( x ) f [ v ( x ) ]
dx ò v( x )
an anti-derivative of f ( x ) (i.e. F ( x ) = ò f ( x ) dx )
b
then ò f ( x ) dx = F ( b ) - F ( a ) .
a

Properties
ò f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx ± ò g ( x ) dx ò cf ( x ) dx = c ò f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
b b b b b
òa f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = òa f ( x ) dx ± ò a g ( x ) dx òa cf ( x ) dx = c ò a f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
a b b
òa f ( x ) dx = 0 òa f ( x ) dx = ò f ( t ) dt
a
b a
ò a f ( x ) dx = -òb f ( x ) dx
b b
ò f ( x ) dx £ ò
a a
f ( x ) dx
b a
If f ( x ) ³ g ( x ) on a £ x £ b then ò f ( x ) dx ³ ò g ( x ) dx
a b
b
If f ( x ) ³ 0 on a £ x £ b then ò f ( x ) dx ³ 0
a
b
If m £ f ( x ) £ M on a £ x £ b then m ( b - a ) £ ò f ( x ) dx £ M ( b - a )
a

Common Integrals
ò k dx = k x + c ò cos u du = sin u + c ò tan u du = ln sec u + c
ò x dx = n+1 x + c, n ¹ -1 ò sin u du = - cos u + c ò sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c
n 1 n +1

ò x dx = ò x dx = ln x + c ò sec u du = tan u + c ò a + u du = a tan ( a ) + c

-1 1 2 1 u
1 -1
2 2

ò a x + b dx = a ln ax + b + c
1 1
ò sec u tan u du = sec u + c ò a - u du = sin ( a ) + c
1
2 2
u -1

ò ln u du = u ln ( u ) - u + c ò csc u cot udu = - csc u + c

ò e du = e + c ò csc u du = - cot u + c
u u 2

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Standard Integration Techniques

Note that at many schools all but the Substitution Rule tend to be taught in a Calculus II class.

( )
ò a f ( g ( x ) ) g ¢ ( x ) dx = ò g (a ) f ( u ) du
b g b
u Substitution : The substitution u = g ( x ) will convert using

du = g ¢ ( x ) dx . For indefinite integrals drop the limits of integration.

cos ( x3 ) dx cos ( x3 ) dx = ò
2 2 8
Ex. ò 1 5x
2
ò 1 5x
2 5
1 3
cos ( u ) du
u = x 3 Þ du = 3x 2 dx Þ x 2 dx = 13 du ( sin (8) - sin (1) )
8
= 53 sin ( u ) 1 = 5
3
x = 1 Þ u = 1 = 1 :: x = 2 Þ u = 2 = 8
3 3

b b b
Integration by Parts : ò u dv = uv - ò v du and ò a u dv = uv a
- ò v du . Choose u and dv from
a

integral and compute du by differentiating u and compute v using v = ò dv .

ò xe
-x 5
Ex. dx Ex. ò3 ln x dx
u=x dv = e- x Þ du = dx v = -e - x u = ln x dv = dx Þ du = 1x dx v = x
ò xe dx = - xe + ò e dx = - xe - e
-x -x -x -x -x
+c
ln x dx = x ln x 3 - ò dx = ( x ln ( x ) - x )
5 5 5 5
ò3 3 3

= 5ln ( 5) - 3ln ( 3) - 2

Products and (some) Quotients of Trig Functions

For ò sin n x cos m x dx we have the following : For ò tan n x sec m x dx we have the following :
1. n odd. Strip 1 sine out and convert rest to 1. n odd. Strip 1 tangent and 1 secant out and
cosines using sin x = 1 - cos x , then use
2 2 convert the rest to secants using
the substitution u = cos x . tan 2 x = sec 2 x - 1 , then use the substitution
2. m odd. Strip 1 cosine out and convert rest u = sec x .
to sines using cos 2 x = 1 - sin 2 x , then use 2. m even. Strip 2 secants out and convert rest
the substitution u = sin x . to tangents using sec2 x = 1 + tan 2 x , then
3. n and m both odd. Use either 1. or 2. use the substitution u = tan x .
4. n and m both even. Use double angle 3. n odd and m even. Use either 1. or 2.
and/or half angle formulas to reduce the 4. n even and m odd. Each integral will be
integral into a form that can be integrated. dealt with differently.
Trig Formulas : sin ( 2 x ) = 2sin ( x ) cos ( x ) , cos 2 ( x ) = 2 (1 + cos ( 2 x ) ) , sin ( x ) = 2 (1 - cos ( 2 x ) )
1 2 1

Ex. ò tan 3 x sec5 x dx Ex. sin5 x

ò cos x dx 3

ò tan x sec5 xdx = ò tan 2 x sec 4 x tan x sec xdx

3 5 4 2 2
(sin x ) sin x
ò cos x dx = ò cos x dx = ò cos x dx
sin x sin x sin x
3 3 3

= ò ( sec2 x - 1) sec 4 x tan x sec xdx (1- cos x ) sin x 2 2

=ò
cos x
dx 3( u = cos x )
= ò ( u 2 - 1) u 4 du ( u = sec x ) 2 2
= - ò (1-u ) du = - ò 1-2u +u du
2 4
u 3 u 3
= 17 sec7 x - 15 sec5 x + c
= 12 sec2 x + 2 ln cos x - 12 cos 2 x + c

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Trig Substitutions : If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and
formula to convert into an integral involving trig functions.
a 2 - b 2 x 2 Þ x = ab sin q b 2 x 2 - a 2 Þ x = ba sec q a 2 + b 2 x 2 Þ x = ab tan q
cos 2 q = 1 - sin 2 q tan 2 q = sec 2 q - 1 sec2 q = 1 + tan 2 q

òx ó ( 23 cos q ) dq = ò sin122 q dq
16
Ex. dx 16
2
4 -9 x 2 õ 4 sin 2 q ( 2cosq )
9
x = 23 sin q Þ dx = 23 cos q dq
= ò 12 csc 2 dq = -12 cot q + c
4 - 9x 2 = 4 - 4sin q = 4 cos q = 2 cos q
2 2
Use Right Triangle Trig to go back to x’s. From
Recall x 2 = x . Because we have an indefinite substitution we have sin q = 32x so,
integral we’ll assume positive and drop absolute
value bars. If we had a definite integral we’d
need to compute q ’s and remove absolute value
bars based on that and,
ì x if x ³ 0 4 -9 x 2
x =í From this we see that cot q = 3x
. So,
î- x if x < 0
4 -9 x 2
òx dx = - 4 +c
16
In this case we have 4 - 9x = 2 cos q .
2 2
4 -9 x 2 x

P( x )
Partial Fractions : If integrating ò Q( x) dx where the degree of P ( x ) is smaller than the degree of
Q ( x ) . Factor denominator as completely as possible and find the partial fraction decomposition of
the rational expression. Integrate the partial fraction decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the
denominator we get term(s) in the decomposition according to the following table.

Factor in Q ( x ) Term in P.F.D Factor in Q ( x ) Term in P.F.D

A A1 A2 Ak
ax + b ( ax + b )
k
+ +L +
ax + b ax + b ( ax + b ) 2
( ax + b )
k

Ax + B A1 x + B1 Ak x + Bk
+L +
( ax + bx + c )
2 k
ax 2 + bx + c ax + bx + c ( ax 2 + bx + c )
2 k
ax + bx + c
2

7 x2 +13 x +C A( x2 + 4) + ( Bx + C ) ( x -1)
Ex. ò ( x -1)( x 2
+4)
dx 7 x2 +13 x
2
( x -1)( x + 4 )
= A
x -1 + Bx
x2 + 4
= ( x -1)( x 2 + 4 )

7 x2 +13 x Set numerators equal and collect like terms.

ò ( x -1)( x2 + 4 )
dx = ò x4-1 + 3xx2++164 dx
7 x 2 + 13x = ( A + B ) x 2 + ( C - B ) x + 4 A - C
= ò x4-1 + 3x
x2 + 4
+ 16
x2 + 4
dx Set coefficients equal to get a system and solve
= 4 ln x - 1 + 23 ln ( x 2 + 4 ) + 8 tan -1 ( x2 ) to get constants.
A+ B = 7 C - B = 13 4A - C = 0
Here is partial fraction form and recombined.
A=4 B=3 C = 16

An alternate method that sometimes works to find constants. Start with setting numerators equal in
previous example : 7 x 2 + 13x = A ( x 2 + 4 ) + ( Bx + C ) ( x - 1) . Chose nice values of x and plug in.
For example if x = 1 we get 20 = 5A which gives A = 4 . This won’t always work easily.

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Applications of Integrals
b
Net Area : ò a f ( x ) dx represents the net area between f ( x ) and the
x-axis with area above x-axis positive and area below x-axis negative.

Area Between Curves : The general formulas for the two main cases for each are,
b d
y = f ( x) Þ A = ò éupper function ù
ë û - éëlower function ùû dx & x = f ( y) Þ A = ò é right function ù
ë û - éëleft function ùû dy
a c
If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be found individually. Here are some
sketches of a couple possible situations and formulas for a couple of possible cases.

d
A = ò f ( y ) - g ( y ) dy
b c b
A = ò f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx c A = ò f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx + ò g ( x ) - f ( x ) dx
a a c

Volumes of Revolution : The two main formulas are V = ò A ( x ) dx and V = ò A ( y ) dy . Here is

some general information about each method of computing and some examples.
Rings Cylinders
(
A = p ( outer radius ) - ( inner radius)
2 2
) A = 2p ( radius ) ( width / height )
Limits: x/y of right/bot ring to x/y of left/top ring Limits : x/y of inner cyl. to x/y of outer cyl.
Horz. Axis use f ( x ) , Vert. Axis use f ( y ) , Horz. Axis use f ( y ) , Vert. Axis use f ( x ) ,
g ( x ) , A ( x ) and dx. g ( y ) , A ( y ) and dy. g ( y ) , A ( y ) and dy. g ( x ) , A ( x ) and dx.

Ex. Axis : y = a > 0 Ex. Axis : y = a £ 0 Ex. Axis : y = a > 0 Ex. Axis : y = a £ 0

outer radius : a - f ( x ) outer radius: a + g ( x ) radius : a - y radius : a + y

inner radius : a - g ( x ) inner radius: a + f ( x ) width : f ( y ) - g ( y ) width : f ( y ) - g ( y )

These are only a few cases for horizontal axis of rotation. If axis of rotation is the x-axis use the
y = a £ 0 case with a = 0 . For vertical axis of rotation ( x = a > 0 and x = a £ 0 ) interchange x and
y to get appropriate formulas.

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 Calculus Cheat Sheet

Work : If a force of F ( x ) moves an object Average Function Value : The average value
b
b of f ( x ) on a £ x £ b is f avg = 1
ò f ( x ) dx
in a £ x £ b , the work done is W = ò F ( x ) dx b-a a
a

Arc Length Surface Area : Note that this is often a Calc II topic. The three basic formulas are,
b b b
L = ò ds SA = ò 2p y ds (rotate about x-axis) SA = ò 2p x ds (rotate about y-axis)
a a a
where ds is dependent upon the form of the function being worked with as follows.

( ) ( dxdt ) ( )
2 2
dx if y = f ( x ) , a £ x £ b dt if x = f ( t ) , y = g ( t ) , a £ t £ b
dy 2 dy
ds = 1 + dx
ds = + dt

1+ ( ) ds = r 2 + ( ddrq ) dq if r = f (q ) , a £ q £ b
2 2
ds = dx
dy
dy if x = f ( y ) , a £ y £ b
With surface area you may have to substitute in for the x or y depending on your choice of ds to
match the differential in the ds. With parametric and polar you will always need to substitute.

Improper Integral
An improper integral is an integral with one or more infinite limits and/or discontinuous integrands.
Integral is called convergent if the limit exists and has a finite value and divergent if the limit
doesn’t exist or has infinite value. This is typically a Calc II topic.

Infinite Limit
¥ t b b
1. ò f ( x ) dx = lim ò f ( x ) dx 2. ò¥ f ( x ) dx = lim ò f ( x ) dx
a t ®¥ a - t ®-¥ t
¥ c ¥
3. ò ¥ f ( x ) dx = ò ¥ f ( x ) dx + ò
- - c
f ( x ) dx provided BOTH integrals are convergent.
Discontinuous Integrand
b b b t
1. Discont. at a: ò f ( x ) dx = lim+ ò f ( x ) dx 2. Discont. at b : ò f ( x ) dx = lim- ò f ( x ) dx
a t ®a t a t ®b a
b c b
3. Discontinuity at a < c < b : ò f ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx + ò f ( x ) dx provided both are convergent.
a a c

Comparison Test for Improper Integrals : If f ( x ) ³ g ( x ) ³ 0 on [ a, ¥ ) then,

¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
1. If ò f ( x ) dx conv. then ò g ( x ) dx conv. 2. If ò g ( x ) dx divg. then ò f ( x ) dx divg.
a a a a
¥
Useful fact : If a > 0 then òa dx converges if p > 1 and diverges for p £ 1 .
1
xp

Approximating Definite Integrals

b
For given integral ò a f ( x ) dx and a n (must be even for Simpson’s Rule) define Dx = b-na and

divide [ a, b] into n subintervals [ x0 , x1 ] , [ x1 , x2 ] , … , [ xn -1 , xn ] with x0 = a and xn = b then,

ò f ( x ) dx » Dx éë f ( x ) + f ( x ) + L + f ( x )ùû , xi is midpoint [ xi -1 , xi ]
b
* * * *
Midpoint Rule : 1 2 n
a

b Dx
Trapezoid Rule : ò f ( x ) dx » 2 éë f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + +2 f ( x ) + L + 2 f ( x ) + f ( x )ùû
a 0 1 2 n -1 n

b Dx
Simpson’s Rule : ò f ( x ) dx » 3 éë f ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + L + 2 f ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) + f ( x )ùû
a
0 1 2 n-2 n -1 n

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 Common Derivatives and Integrals

Derivatives
Basic Properties/Formulas/Rules
d
dx
( cf ( x ) ) = cf ¢ ( x ) , c is any constant. ( f ( x ) ± g ( x ) )¢ = f ¢ ( x ) ± g ¢ ( x )
d n d
dx
( x ) = nx n-1 , n is any number.
dx
( c ) = 0 , c is any constant.
æ f ö¢ f ¢ g - f g ¢
( f g )¢ = f ¢ g + f g ¢ – (Product Rule) ç ÷ = – (Quotient Rule)
ègø g2
d
dx
( )
f ( g ( x ) ) = f ¢ ( g ( x ) ) g ¢ ( x ) (Chain Rule)

g¢ ( x)
dx
e( )
d g ( x)
= g¢( x) e ( )
g x d
dx
( ln g ( x ) ) =
g ( x)

Common Derivatives
Polynomials
d d d d n d
dx
(c) = 0
dx
( x) = 1
dx
( cx ) = c
dx
( x ) = nxn-1 dx
( cx n ) = ncxn-1
Trig Functions
d d d
( sin x ) = cos x ( cos x ) = - sin x ( tan x ) = sec2 x
dx dx dx
d d d
( sec x ) = sec x tan x ( csc x ) = - csc x cot x ( cot x ) = - csc2 x
dx dx dx

Inverse Trig Functions

d 1 d 1 d 1
dx
( sin -1 x ) =
dx
( cos -1 x ) = -
dx
( tan -1 x ) =
1 + x2
1 - x2 1 - x2
d 1 d 1 d 1
dx
( sec -1 x ) =
dx
( csc -1 x ) = -
dx
( cot -1 x ) = -
1 + x2
x x2 - 1 x x2 -1

Exponential/Logarithm Functions
d x d x
dx
( a ) = a x ln ( a )
dx
( e ) = ex
d 1 d 1 d 1
dx
( ln ( x ) ) = , x > 0
x dx
( ln x ) = , x ¹ 0
x dx
( log a ( x ) ) =
x ln a
, x>0

Hyperbolic Trig Functions

d d d
( sinh x ) = cosh x ( cosh x ) = sinh x ( tanh x ) = sech 2 x
dx dx dx
d d d
( sech x ) = - sech x tanh x ( csch x ) = - csch x coth x ( coth x ) = - csch 2 x
dx dx dx

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 Common Derivatives and Integrals

Integrals
Basic Properties/Formulas/Rules
ò cf ( x ) dx = c ò f ( x ) dx , c is a constant. ò f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx ± ò g ( x ) dx
b b
ò a f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) a = F ( b ) - F ( a ) where F ( x ) = ò f ( x ) dx
b b b b b
òa cf ( x ) dx = c ò f ( x ) dx , c is a constant. òa f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx ± ò g ( x ) dx
a a a
a b a
ò a f ( x ) dx = 0 ò a f ( x ) dx = -òb f ( x ) dx
b c b b
òa f ( x ) dx = ò f ( x ) dx + ò f ( x ) dx ò a c dx = c ( b - a )
a c
b
If f ( x ) ³ 0 on a £ x £ b then ò a f ( x ) dx ³ 0
b b
If f ( x ) ³ g ( x ) on a £ x £ b then òa f ( x ) dx ³ ò g ( x ) dx
a

Common Integrals
Polynomials
1
ò dx = x + c ò k dx = k x + c ò x dx = n + 1 x
n +1
n
+ c, n ¹ -1

ó 1 dx = ln x + c 1
òx òx
-n
ô
-1
dx = ln x + c dx = x - n +1 + c, n ¹ 1
õx -n + 1
p p p+q
ó 1 dx = 1 ln ax + b + c 1 q +1 q
ò x dx = x +c = +c
q q
ô x
õ ax + b a q +1
p
p+q

Trig Functions
ò cos u du = sin u + c ò sin u du = - cos u + c ò sec u du = tan u + c
2

ò sec u tan u du = sec u + c ò csc u cot udu = - csc u + c ò csc u du = - cot u + c

2

ò tan u du = ln sec u + c ò cot u du = ln sin u + c

1
ò sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c ò sec u du = 2 ( sec u tan u + ln sec u + tan u ) + c
3

1
ò csc u du = ln csc u - cot u + c ò csc
3
u du =
2
( - csc u cot u + ln csc u - cot u ) + c
Exponential/Logarithm Functions
au
òe du = e + c ò a du = ln a + c ò ln u du = u ln ( u ) - u + c
u u u

e au
ò e sin ( bu ) du =
au

a2 + b2
( a sin ( bu ) - b cos ( bu ) ) + c ò ue du = ( u - 1) e
u u
+c

eau ó 1 du = ln ln u + c
ò e au
cos ( bu ) du =
a 2 + b2
( a cos ( bu ) + b sin ( bu ) ) + c ô
õ u ln u

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 Common Derivatives and Integrals

Inverse Trig Functions

ó 1 æuö
du = sin -1 ç ÷ + c ò sin
-1
ô u du = u sin -1 u + 1 - u 2 + c
õ a2 - u2 èaø
ó 1 1 æuö 1
ô 2 du = tan -1 ç ÷ + c ò tan
-1
u du = u tan -1 u - ln (1 + u 2 ) + c
õ a +u
2
a èaø 2
ó 1 1 æuö
du = sec -1 ç ÷ + c ò cos
-1
ô u du = u cos -1 u - 1 - u 2 + c
õ u u -a
2 2 a èaø

Hyperbolic Trig Functions

ò sinh u du = cosh u + c ò cosh u du = sinh u + c ò sech u du = tanh u + c
2

ò sech tanh u du = - sech u + c ò csch coth u du = - csch u + c ò csch u du = - coth u + c

2

ò tanh u du = ln ( cosh u ) + c ò sech u du = tan sinh u + c

-1

Miscellaneous
ó 1 du = 1 ln u + a + c ó 1 du = 1 ln u - a + c
ô 2 ô 2
õ a - u2 2a u - a õ u - a2 2a u + a
u 2 a2
ò a + u du = a + u + ln u + a 2 + u 2 + c
2 2 2

2 2
u 2 a2
ò u 2 - a 2 du =
2
u - a 2 - ln u + u 2 - a 2 + c
2
u 2 a2 æuö
ò a 2 - u 2 du =
2
a - u 2 + sin -1 ç ÷ + c
2 èaø
u-a a2 æ a -u ö
ò 2au - u 2 du =
2
2au - u 2 + cos -1 ç
2 è a ø
÷+c

Standard Integration Techniques

Note that all but the first one of these tend to be taught in a Calculus II class.

u Substitution

ò a f ( g ( x ) ) g ¢ ( x ) dx then the substitution u = g ( x ) will convert this into the

b
Given
g (b)
integral, ò f ( g ( x ) ) g ¢ ( x ) dx = ò
b
f ( u ) du .
a g (a)

Integration by Parts
The standard formulas for integration by parts are,
b b b
ò udv = uv - ò vdu òa udv = uv a - ò vdu
a
Choose u and dv and then compute du by differentiating u and compute v by using the
fact that v = ò dv .

Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus I & II notes. © 2005 Paul Dawkins
 Common Derivatives and Integrals

Trig Substitutions
If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and formula.
a
a2 - b2 x2 Þ x = sin q and cos 2 q = 1 - sin 2 q
b
a
b2 x2 - a2 Þ x = sec q and tan 2 q = sec2 q - 1
b
a
a2 + b2 x2 Þ x = tan q and sec 2 q = 1 + tan 2 q
b
Partial Fractions
ó P ( x)
If integrating ô dx where the degree (largest exponent) of P ( x ) is smaller than the
õ Q ( x)
degree of Q ( x ) then factor the denominator as completely as possible and find the partial
fraction decomposition of the rational expression. Integrate the partial fraction
decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the denominator we get term(s) in the
decomposition according to the following table.

Factor in Q ( x ) Term in P.F.D Factor in Q ( x ) Term in P.F.D

A A1 A2 Ak
ax + b ( ax + b )
k
+ +L +
ax + b ax + b ( ax + b ) 2
( ax + b )
k

Ax + B A1 x + B1 Ak x + Bk
+L +
( ax2 + bx + c )
k
ax 2 + bx + c ax + bx + c ( ax 2 + bx + c )
2 k
ax + bx + c
2

Products and (some) Quotients of Trig Functions

ò sin x cos x dx
n m

1. If n is odd. Strip one sine out and convert the remaining sines to cosines using
sin 2 x = 1 - cos 2 x , then use the substitution u = cos x
2. If m is odd. Strip one cosine out and convert the remaining cosines to sines
using cos 2 x = 1 - sin 2 x , then use the substitution u = sin x
3. If n and m are both odd. Use either 1. or 2.
4. If n and m are both even. Use double angle formula for sine and/or half angle
formulas to reduce the integral into a form that can be integrated.
ò tan x sec x dx
n m

1. If n is odd. Strip one tangent and one secant out and convert the remaining
tangents to secants using tan 2 x = sec 2 x - 1 , then use the substitution u = sec x
2. If m is even. Strip two secants out and convert the remaining secants to tangents
using sec2 x = 1 + tan 2 x , then use the substitution u = tan x
3. If n is odd and m is even. Use either 1. or 2.
4. If n is even and m is odd. Each integral will be dealt with differently.
Convert Example : cos 6 x = ( cos 2 x ) = (1 - sin 2 x )
3 3

Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus I & II notes. © 2005 Paul Dawkins
 Table of Laplace Transforms
f (t ) = L -1
{F ( s )} F ( s ) = L { f ( t )} f ( t ) = L -1 { F ( s )} F ( s ) = L { f ( t )}
1 1
1. 1 2. e at
s s-a
n! G ( p + 1)
3. t n , n = 1, 2,3,K 4. t p , p > -1
s n +1 s p +1
p 1 × 3 × 5L ( 2n - 1) p
, n = 1, 2,3,K
n - 12
5. t 3 6. t n+ 1
2s 2
2n s 2
a s
7. sin ( at ) 8. cos ( at )
s + a2
2
s + a2
2

2as s2 - a2
9. t sin ( at ) 10. t cos ( at )
(s + a2 ) (s + a2 )
2 2 2
2

2a 3 2as 2
11. sin ( at ) - at cos ( at ) 12. sin ( at ) + at cos ( at )
(s + a )
2 2 2
(s + a )
2 2 2

s (s - a ) 2 2
s ( s + 3a )
2 2

13. cos ( at ) - at sin ( at ) 14. cos ( at ) + at sin ( at )

(s + a )
2 2 2
(s + a )
2 2 2

s sin ( b ) + a cos ( b ) s cos ( b ) - a sin ( b )

15. sin ( at + b ) 16. cos ( at + b )
s2 + a2 s2 + a2
a s
17. sinh ( at ) 18. cosh ( at )
s - a2
2
s - a2
2

b s-a
19. e at sin ( bt ) 20. e at cos ( bt )
(s - a) (s - a)
2 2
+ b2 + b2
b s-a
21. e at sinh ( bt ) 22. e at cosh ( bt )
(s - a) (s - a)
2 2
-b 2
- b2
n! 1 æsö
23. t ne at , n = 1, 2, 3, K 24. f ( ct ) Fç ÷
(s - a)
n +1
c ècø
uc ( t ) = u ( t - c ) e - cs d (t - c )
25. 26. e - cs
Heaviside Function s Dirac Delta Function
27. uc ( t ) f ( t - c ) e F (s)
- cs
28. uc ( t ) g ( t ) e - cs L { g ( t + c )}
29. ect f ( t ) F (s - c) 30. t n f ( t ) , n = 1, 2,3,K ( -1)n F ( n) ( s )
1 ¥ t F (s)
31. f (t ) ò F ( u ) du 32. ò f ( v ) dv
t s 0
s
T
t
ò e- st f ( t ) dt
33. ò f ( t - t ) g (t ) dt F (s)G ( s) 34. f ( t + T ) = f (t ) 0
0
1 - e - sT
35. f ¢(t ) sF ( s ) - f ( 0 ) 36. f ¢¢ ( t ) s 2 F ( s ) - sf ( 0 ) - f ¢ ( 0 )

37. f ( n) ( t ) s n F ( s ) - s n-1 f ( 0 ) - s n- 2 f ¢ ( 0 ) L - sf ( n -2) ( 0 ) - f ( n-1) ( 0 )

© 2004 Paul Dawkins 1

 Table Notes
1. This list is not inclusive and only contains some of the more commonly used
Laplace transforms and formulas.

2. Recall the definition of hyperbolic trig functions.

et + e - t et - e- t
cosh ( t ) = sinh ( t ) =
2 2

3. Be careful when using “normal” trig function vs. hyperbolic trig functions. The
only difference in the formulas is the “+ a2” for the “normal” trig functions
becomes a “- a2” for the hyperbolic trig functions!

4. Formula #4 uses the Gamma function which is defined as

¥
G ( t ) = ò e - x xt -1 dx
0

If n is a positive integer then,

G ( n + 1) = n !

The Gamma function is an extension of the normal factorial function. Here are a
couple of quick facts for the Gamma function

G ( p + 1) = pG ( p )
G ( p + n)
p ( p + 1)( p + 2 )L ( p + n - 1) =
G( p)
æ1ö
Gç ÷ = p
è2ø

© 2004 Paul Dawkins 2

 Trig Cheat Sheet

Definition of the Trig Functions

Right triangle definition
For this definition we assume that Unit circle definition
π For this definition θ is any angle.
0 <θ < or 0° < θ < 90° .
2 y

( x, y )
hypotenuse 1
y θ
opposite x
x
θ
adjacent
opposite hypotenuse y 1
sin θ = csc θ = sin θ = =y csc θ =
hypotenuse opposite 1 y
adjacent hypotenuse x 1
cos θ = sec θ = cos θ = = x sec θ =
hypotenuse adjacent 1 x
opposite adjacent y x
tan θ = cot θ = tan θ = cot θ =
adjacent opposite x y

Facts and Properties

Domain
The domain is all the values of θ that Period
can be plugged into the function. The period of a function is the number,
T, such that f (θ + T ) = f (θ ) . So, if ω
sin θ , θ can be any angle is a fixed number and θ is any angle we
cos θ , θ can be any angle have the following periods.
⎛ 1⎞
tan θ , θ ≠ ⎜ n + ⎟ π , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,…
⎝ 2⎠ 2π
sin (ωθ ) → T=
csc θ , θ ≠ n π , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,… ω
⎛ 1⎞ 2π
sec θ , θ ≠ ⎜ n + ⎟ π , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,… cos (ωθ ) → T =
⎝ 2⎠ ω
cot θ , θ ≠ n π , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,… π
tan (ωθ ) → T =
ω
2π
Range csc (ωθ ) → T =
The range is all possible values to get ω
out of the function. 2π
−1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 csc θ ≥ 1 and csc θ ≤ −1 sec (ωθ ) → T =
ω
−1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1 sec θ ≥ 1 and sec θ ≤ −1 π
−∞ ≤ tan θ ≤ ∞ −∞ ≤ cot θ ≤ ∞ cot (ωθ ) → T =
ω

© 2005 Paul Dawkins

 Formulas and Identities
Tangent and Cotangent Identities Half Angle Formulas
sin θ cos θ
sin 2 θ = (1 − cos ( 2θ ) )
1
tan θ = cot θ =
cos θ sin θ 2
Reciprocal Identities
cos 2 θ = (1 + cos ( 2θ ) )
1
1 1
csc θ = sin θ = 2
sin θ csc θ 1 − cos ( 2θ )
tan 2 θ =
sec θ =
1
cos θ =
1 1 + cos ( 2θ )
cos θ sec θ
Sum and Difference Formulas
sin (α ± β ) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β
1 1
cot θ = tan θ =
tan θ cot θ
Pythagorean Identities cos (α ± β ) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β
sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1 tan α ± tan β
tan (α ± β ) =
tan 2 θ + 1 = sec 2 θ 1 ∓ tan α tan β
Product to Sum Formulas
1 + cot 2 θ = csc 2 θ
1
Even/Odd Formulas sin α sin β = ⎡⎣cos (α − β ) − cos (α + β ) ⎤⎦
2
sin ( −θ ) = − sin θ csc ( −θ ) = − csc θ 1
cos α cos β = ⎡⎣cos (α − β ) + cos (α + β ) ⎤⎦
cos ( −θ ) = cos θ sec ( −θ ) = sec θ 2
tan ( −θ ) = − tan θ cot ( −θ ) = − cot θ 1
sin α cos β = ⎡⎣sin (α + β ) + sin (α − β ) ⎤⎦
2
Periodic Formulas 1
If n is an integer. cos α sin β = ⎡⎣sin (α + β ) − sin (α − β ) ⎤⎦
2
sin (θ + 2π n ) = sin θ csc (θ + 2π n ) = csc θ Sum to Product Formulas
cos (θ + 2π n ) = cos θ sec (θ + 2π n ) = sec θ ⎛α + β ⎞ ⎛α − β ⎞
sin α + sin β = 2sin ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟
tan (θ + π n ) = tan θ cot (θ + π n ) = cot θ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛α + β ⎞ ⎛α − β ⎞
Double Angle Formulas sin α − sin β = 2 cos ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
sin ( 2θ ) = 2sin θ cos θ
⎛α + β ⎞ ⎛α − β ⎞
cos ( 2θ ) = cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ cos α + cos β = 2 cos ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 2 cos 2 θ − 1 ⎛α + β ⎞ ⎛α − β ⎞
cos α − cos β = −2sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
= 1 − 2sin θ 2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2 tan θ Cofunction Formulas
tan ( 2θ ) =
1 − tan 2 θ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞
sin ⎜ − θ ⎟ = cos θ cos ⎜ − θ ⎟ = sin θ
Degrees to Radians Formulas ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
If x is an angle in degrees and t is an ⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞
csc ⎜ − θ ⎟ = sec θ sec ⎜ − θ ⎟ = csc θ
angle in radians then ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
π t πx 180t ⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞
= ⇒ t= and x = tan ⎜ − θ ⎟ = cot θ cot ⎜ − θ ⎟ = tan θ
180 x 180 π ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

© 2005 Paul Dawkins

 Unit Circle

y
( 0,1)
π ⎛1 3⎞
⎜⎜ , ⎟⎟
⎛ 1 3⎞
⎜− , ⎟ 2 ⎝2 2 ⎠
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ π ⎛ 2 2⎞
2π 90° ⎜⎜ , ⎟⎟
⎛ 2 2⎞ 3 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
⎜− , ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 3
120° 60°
π
3π 4 ⎛ 3 1⎞
⎜⎜ , ⎟⎟
⎛ 3 1⎞ 4 ⎝ 2 2⎠
⎜− , ⎟ 135° 45° π
⎝ 2 2⎠ 5π
6
6 30°
150°

( −1,0 ) π 180° 0° 0 (1,0 )

360° 2π x

210°
7π 330°
11π
6 225°
⎛ 3 1⎞ 6 ⎛ 3 1⎞
⎜− ,− ⎟ 5π 315° ⎜ ,− ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 2 2⎠
4 240° 300° 7π
⎛ 2⎞ 4π 270°
5π
2 4
⎜− ,− ⎟ ⎛ 2 2⎞
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 3 3π ⎜ ,− ⎟
3 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
⎛ 1 3⎞ 2 ⎛
⎜ − ,− ⎟ 1 3⎞
⎜ ,− ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝2 2 ⎠
( 0,−1)

For any ordered pair on the unit circle ( x, y ) : cos θ = x and sin θ = y

Example
⎛ 5π ⎞ 1 ⎛ 5π ⎞ 3
cos ⎜ ⎟= sin ⎜ ⎟=−
⎝ 3 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 2

© 2005 Paul Dawkins

 Inverse Trig Functions
Definition Inverse Properties
y = sin −1 x is equivalent to x = sin y cos ( cos −1 ( x ) ) = x cos −1 ( cos (θ ) ) = θ
y = cos −1 x is equivalent to x = cos y sin ( sin −1 ( x ) ) = x sin −1 ( sin (θ ) ) = θ
y = tan −1 x is equivalent to x = tan y
tan ( tan −1 ( x ) ) = x tan −1 ( tan (θ ) ) = θ
Domain and Range
Function Domain Range Alternate Notation
π π sin −1 x = arcsin x
y = sin −1 x −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 − ≤ y≤
2 2 cos −1 x = arccos x
y = cos x−1
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1 0≤ y ≤π tan −1 x = arctan x
π π
y = tan −1 x −∞ < x < ∞ − < y<
2 2

Law of Sines, Cosines and Tangents

c β a

α γ

Law of Sines Law of Tangents

sin α sin β sin γ
= = a − b tan 12 (α − β )
=
a b c a + b tan 12 (α + β )
Law of Cosines b − c tan 12 ( β − γ )
=
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos α b + c tan 12 ( β + γ )
b 2 = a 2 + c 2 − 2ac cos β a − c tan 12 (α − γ )
=
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos γ a + c tan 12 (α + γ )
Mollweide’s Formula
a + b cos 12 (α − β )
=
c sin 12 γ

© 2005 Paul Dawkins