You are on page 1of 128

SWAMI PARMANAND COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY


SIX MONTHS INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT
ON

NETWORKING (MCSE & CCNA)


AT
JETKING
SEC 34 , CHANDIGARH

SUBMITTED AS A PART OF COURSE CURRICULUM

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Under the Guidance of


Mr. Baljit singh
Mr. Inder Gulati

Submitted To: Submitted By:


Er. Harpreet Kaur (HOD) Saroj Dogra (697041917)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS &


COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SWAMI PAMANAND COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY, DERA BASSI, MOHALI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I feel deeply indedted to Mr. Baljit Singh, Microsoft trainer who delivered valuable
lesson on MCSE, his indepth knowledge about the subject helped me understand the
subject in better way. His method of teaching the minute details helped me a lot to
acquire the insight into the subject.

I am also grateful to Mr. Inder Gulati, CCNA trainer for giving best knowledge about
CCNA.the way he instilled knowledge of the subject was undoubtly praise worthy and
valuable.

I am also thankful to Jetking institution as a whole that is doing yeoman’s service by


teaching the learner avreast with the computer , networking and hardware knowledge that
is the need of the day.

I will be failing in my duty if I do not acknowledge my husband Mr. Nardev Singh Rana
who always stood by my side during my studies. I am indepted to my son’s Anirudh
Rana and Romil Rana who never clamed my time and get bore by my long absence rather
silent.

Last but not the least, I thank all my classmates at Jetking for extending kind
co-operation.

SAROJ DOGRA

List of Figures
Figure No. Name of Figure Page No.
1 Computer network 6

2 Local Area Nework 9

3 LAN Classification 9

4 Campus Area Network 10

5 Metropolitan Area Network 11

6 To find location of a computer using FQDN 24

7 Tree structure 25

8 Structure of domain forest and domain tree 36

9 Multi-Master Mode 37

10 Parent child relationship model 40

11 Direct Sharing Scenario 43

12 ICS scenario 44

13 Scenario of win proxy server 45

14 NAT Server 46

15 VPN server 48

16 LAN routing 52

17 Static routing 53
18 Architecture of router 60

19 Variable Subnet Mask 75

20 Scenario of Telnet 76

21 Scenario of Static Routing 81

22 Routing table 86

23 Routing table of covered networks 86

24 Routing loops 87

25 OSPF Scenario 99

26 VLAN Operation
105
27 VTP Configuration 110

28 VTP Pruning 111

29 IEEE 802.11 Standard 114

List of tables
Table No. Name of table Page No.

1 Difference between Workgroup & Domain 7

2 Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6 12


3 Address Classes 13
4 Category and Speed of UTP cables 17
5 Colour Coding for straight Cable 18
6 Colour Coding for Crossover cable 19
7 Colour Coding for Rollover Cable 20
8 Operating Systems 21
9 Difference between Workgroup and Domain 34
10 Exchange Server with different operating systems 56
11 Router interfaces and connectors 62
12 Router Ports 63
13 Default address mask in binary & dotted decimals 71
14 Decimal and Binary values of subnet mask 72
15 Subnet mask, valid hosts, broadcast address 74
16 Routing table 86
17 Difference between RIPV1 & RIPV2 90
18 Difference between IGRP and RIP 91

CONTENTS
Sr. No. Topic Page No.

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Company Profile 1
2 LITERATURE RIEVIEW 5
3 NETWORKING 6
3.1 Introduction to networking 6

3.1.1 Models of Networking 6


3.1.2 Categories of network 8
3.2 IP ADDRESSES and MAC Addresses 12
3.2.1 IPAddressClasses 12
3.2.2 MAC Addressing 15
3.3 NETWORKING MEDIA 15
3.3.1 Ethernet Cabling 17
3.4 OPERATING SYSTEM 20
3.4.1 Types of Operating Systems 20
3.5 DNS SERVER 22
3.5.1 PARTS OF DNS SYSTEM 23
3.5.2 DNS Zone 26
3.6 DHCP SERVER 28
3.6.1 Working of DHCP Server 29
3.6.2 InstallationStepsofDHCPServer 31
3.7 ACTIVE DIRECTORY 33
3.7.1ActiveDirectoryServices 34
3.7.2 CHILD DOMAIN 40
3.8 INTERNET SHAREING 42
3.8.1 Direct Sharing 42
3.8.2 ICS (Internet Connection Sharing) 43
3.8.3 Win Proxy Server 45
3.8.4 NAT (Network Address Translation) 45
3.9 VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN) 47
3.9.1 VPN components 48
3.9.2 Types of VPN 49
3.10 ROUTING 51
3.10.1 Types of Routing 51
3.11 EXCHANGE SERVER 56
3.11.1 Elements of Exchange Server 56
3.11.2 Exchange Version 56
3.11.3 Requirements for Exchange Server 57

3.12 Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model 57


3.12.1 Description of Different Layers 58
3.13 ROUTERS 60

3.13.1 Router Architecture and its Key Component 60


3.13.2 Router Interfaces & Ports 62
3.13.3 Modes of Router 63
3.13.4 Configuring Password 65
3.13.5 Managing Configuration 66

3.14 SUBNETTING 70
3.14.1 Advantages of subnetting 70
3.14.2 Types of Subnetting 73
3.15 TELNET 75
3.15.1 To Access the Device Remotely 75
3.15.2 Commands to assign IP addresses to the interfaces 76

3.16 ROUTING 79
3.16.1 TYPES OF ROUTING 79
3.16.2 Routing Protocol Basics 84
3.1.3 R IP (Routing Information Protocol) 88
3.1.4 IGRP ( Interior Gateway Protocol) 91
3.1.5 EIGRP(Enhanced Interior Routing Protocol) 93
3.1.6 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) 95

3.17 LAN SWITCHING 100


3.17.1 SWITCH 100
3.17.1.1 VLAN (Virtual LAN) 103
3.17.1.2 Vlan Trunking Protocol (VTP) 108
3.18 Wi-Fi (WIRELESS FIDELITY) 113
3.18.1 Wireless LAN 113
3.18.2 Wireless Standards 114

3.18.3 Wireless Security 115


4 CONCLUSION 117
5 REFRENCES 118
1. INTRODUCTION

This project report pertains to six months industrial training that I had underwent
at JETKING, Chandigarh as part of curriculum of degree in Bachelor of technology in
Electronics and Communication engineering as required by Swami Parmanand College of
engineering and technology (affiliated to Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar) .

I learnt a lot from professional managers and skilled engineers. I had a great
learning experience as trainee in this firm. I learnt a lot about how different networks are
controlled in the industry or any department with the help of networking processes, under
MCSE and CCNA.
I have learnt about different type of servers like DHCP Server, DNS Server, NAT
Server. Also I have learnt how to control the LAN and MAN networks under MCSE
(Microsoft Certified System Engineers) and how to control MAN and WAN networks
under CCNA (CISCO Certified System Engineers).

Justification cannot be done to whatever I have learnt in these six months within a
few pages but I have still tried my best to cover as much as possible in this report. In this
report I have tried to sum up the technical knowledge I have gained in my six months of
training.

1.1 Company Profile


Jetking is an organization came into establishment in1947. Jetking is India’s
number one Computer Hardware and Networking Institute.
Birth and Evolution
It took a lot of failure before mankind tasted technological success. Jetking evolved in
tune with the changing face of technology. During 55 years in the field of electronic
technology. Jetking successfully trained thousands of students to overcome failure for
high paying careers.
1947 Birth
1962 Pioneered “Do-It-Yourself Kits” in India
1972 Introduced Asia- 72, Fairchild and Wildcat transistors
1986 Became a Public Limited Company and also introduced
entertainment electronics product-T.V sets, Two-in-ones and
amplifiers.
1990 Launched Jetking School of Electronics Technology
1993 Network of Jetking training centers spread all over India
1994 Opening of Jetking, Chandigarh
1995 Tie-up with Heath kit Educational System (U.S.A.)
1996 Introduced advanced courses on Pentium, Notebooks, Modems,
Email/Internet, LAN 4.X
1997 Novell Education Academic Partner
1998 Representative for International Correspondence School (ICS),
USA in India
1999 Added cyber technology to the curriculum
2003 ISO 9001-2000 company and Authorized Microsoft online testing
centre (VUE) for MS, CISCO, MCSA, MCSE, CCNA, A+ etc.

Mr. Suresh G. Bharwani is the CHAIRMAN and MANAGING Director of


Jetking Infotrain Ltd. India’s leading Computer Hardware and Networking Institute. With
the vision to promote and the conviction to deliver the widespread propagation of comp-
uter hardware and networking education across the nation, Mr. Bharwani was the first to
set up an training institute offering innovative courses in computer hardware in 1990.
Jetking’s core competency lies in providing complete training and developing hardware
engineers and professionals with sound technical knowledge. It focuses on the overall
development of personality of an individual with emphasis on personality development,
presentation and communication skills, leadership skills etc.
Jetking has established more than 125 operational centers and 250 faculties across
the country and has trained over 3,50,000 students who have move onto the crave
success- full career. With its alumni placed in the best of organizations in India and some
abroad,
Jetking,s vocational training and placement promises has helped build the career
prospects of many young boys and girls.
The company has been awarded the ISO 9000:2000 certification in 2003.The
company has been awarded the “ Maharashtra IT Award” for a key role in manpower
activities in year 2006-07,it was felicitated with Franchise Award as Best Franchisor for
the year 2007-08.Also,ranked 4th in the list of 26th hot franchises as per outlook money
magazine.
Mr. Suresh Bharwani was awarded with “Pike’s Peak Award” by the Bob Pike
Group USA for effective implementing smart lab plus for making technical training fun,
faster and easier for non- technical person.
Across all the sectors, industries are upgrading their information technology
system. Industries ranging from plastics, chemicals, textiles and power to the automotive
and telecom sector are now IT savy. Government and public sectors are going hi-tech
with EDI and computer networks. The IT industry, software companies, data centers, IT-
enabled services providers are all equipped with advance IT system and networks. The
increasing number of call centers, BPO’s etc., have given a further boost to the hardware
and networking industry.
The courses in jetking comprises lecture and theory session, with a great focus on
active participation through smart lab plus ,that focuses on audio visual and learning with
hands-on training and equips students with an in depth domain knowledge that is
technical; it also equips students with soft skills ,to face the multi-faceted challenges of
corporate world.
PLACEMENT: Jetking is the first and only institute that promises the 100%
jobs guarantee to its students. The companies that have recruited jetkings students
include:
Samsung, Sun Micro system, IBM, Canon, Siement, reliance, TATA, Compaq HP
invent, IT-T solutions, Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited, D-Link, Novell, Dell, Wipro, LG,
ICIC Infotech and several other MNCs.
Any student who has qualified his or her HSC/SSC examination is eligible to take
up a course at jetking. The one year program Jetking certified hardware and networking
professionals give 680 hours of in-depth knowledge to a student in Basic electronics and
computer applications. Computer hardware and peripherals, window 2003 administrator
and network administrator (soon it will be replaced with window server 2008).Apart
frame technical knowledge there are personality development sessions which groom the
student’s personality, their ability to perform better.
Jetking, India’s leading hardware and networking training institute has trained
over 3,00,000 students from its 125 centers spread across India. With its alumni placed in
the best of organizations in India and some abroad, Jetking vocational training and
placement promises has helped build the career prospects of many young boys and girls.
Jetking has partnered with some of the worlds most renowed names in networking
to provide you with cutting edge courses and technologies. With academic partnerships
with Microsoft, Comp TIA,LINUX, NOVELL, and person VUE .
Jetking Chandigarh is a division of Hi-Tech point. Hi-Tech point is an ISO 9001-
2000 IT company. It was established in year 1993 and run by a company of IT
professionals. Jetking Chandigarh branch is considered to be the best centre among all
centers. It has bagged number 1 center award consecutively for last 7 years. Here training
on various fields is going on like Basic Electronic, Hardware, Networking, JCHNP
Analog and Digital electronics and Hardware, RHCE, RHCSS, MNA, MCSE (Microsoft
System Engineers), MCITP, MNA, CCNA (CISCO Certified Network Associate),
CCNP(CISCO Certified Network Professional).
Partnership with industry leaders like Microsoft and Red Hat Jetking ensure its
students authentic courseware and technology.
2. LITERATURE RIEVIEW
Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of electronics
and communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range. All the
organizations are using multiple computers within their departments to perform their day
to day work. Computer network allows the user to share data , share folders and files with
other users connected in a network. Computer Networking has bound the world in a very
small area with it wide networking processes like LAN, MAN, WAN.

The courses in jetking comprises lecture and theory session, with a great focus on active
participation through smart lab plus ,that focuses on audio visual and learning with
hands-on training and equips students with an in depth domain knowledge that is
technical; it also equips students with soft skills ,to face the multi-faceted challenges of
corporate world.
3. NETWORKING

3.1 Introduction to networking

Networking is a practice of linking of two or more computing devices such as


PCs, printers, faxes etc., with each other Connection between two devices is through
physical media or logical media to share information, data and resources. Networks are
made with the hardware and software.

Cable/media

Fig 1: computer network

3.1.1 Models of Networking

Model means the connectivity of two computers. We have many types of


networking models.
(i) Client – Server Model
(ii) Peer to Peer Model (Workgroup Model)
(iii) Domain Model
(i) Client –Server Model
In a Client server model we have one server and many clients. A Client can share
the resources of server, but a server cannot share the resources on clients.
On the point of view of administrator it’s very easy to control the network
because we combine with the server also at security point of view. It is very useful
because it uses user level security in which users have to remember only one password to
share the resources.

(ii) Peer to Peer Model (Workgroup Model)


In Peer to Peer networking model all computers are in equal status, that is we
cannot manage centralization, administration secutity. In Peer to Perr networking client
use operating system like Window 98, Window XP, Window 2000, Window Vista.

(iii) Domain Model


It is a mixture of client server and peer-to-peer model. In this clients can share
their resources as peer-to-peer but with the permission of the server as in client server
model therefore it is commonly used model because in this security is more as we can put
restriction on both server and clients.

Difference between Workgroup & Domain

Table 1

Workgroup Domain

1. It is a peer to peer networking model. 1. It is a server based networking model.


2. There is no client and no server. All the 2. There is a centralized dedicated server
computers are in equal status. computer called domain controller which
controls all other computers called clients.
3. This model is recommended for small 3. This model is recommended for large
networks, upto 10 computers. networks.
4. There is no centralized administrated 4. There is centralized administration and
separately. each PC can be administrated and managed
from the server.
5. In this model, low grade OS like 5. in this model high grade OS like WIN
2000/XP professional, WIN 98 etc. can be 2000/2003 Server can be used.
used.
6. Users accounts are created in each PC 6. Users accounts are created on the server
and are called as Local Users. side and are called Domain Users.

3.1.2 Categories of network


Networks can be categorized as per geographical area to be covered by the
network. Computer network are divided into four categories includes: Local Area
Network (LAN), Campus Area Network (CAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and
Wide Area Network (WAN).

3.1.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)


LAN is a computer network that is used to connect computers and work station to
share data and resources such as printers or faxes. LAN is restricted to a small
area such as home, office or college. Devices used in LAN are : HUB and switch.
Media for LAN is UTP cables. Figure 1.2 shows how all work stations, server and
printer are interconnected with the help of the network device.
Fig 2: Local Area Network

Types of LAN
In LANs, data can be transferred using techniques like token passing. As per
techniques used for data sharing, LANS are classified into Ethernet, Token Bus, Token
Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).Figure 3.3 shows LAN classification.

Fig 3: LAN classification


Advantages of LAN
a). Provides communication in smaller networks, easy to install and configure.
b). many users can share data or network elements at the same time which results
in fast work.

Disadvantages of LAN
a). limited number of computers are connected in a LAN.
b). LAN cannot cover large area.
c). Network performance degrades as the number of users exceeds.

3.1.2.2 Campus Area Network (CAN)


Campus Area Network is a computer network made up of two or more LANs
within a limited area. It can cover many buildings in an area. The main feature of
CAN is that all of the computers which are connected together have some
relationship to each other e.g. different buildings in a campus can be connected
using different CAN. It will help to interconnect academic departments, library
and computer laboratories. CAN is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN.
Figure 3.4 shows a CAN network.

Fig 4: Campus Area Network


Devices used in CAN are : HUB, Switch, Layer-3 switch, Access Point .And the media
used for CAN is Unshielded twisted pair of cables and Fiber Optics Cable.
3.1.2.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
MAN is the interconnection of networks in a city. MAN is not owned by a single
organization. It act as a high speed network to allow sharing resources with in a
city. MAN can also be formed by connecting remote LANs through telephone
lines or radio links. MAN supports data and voice transmission. The best example
of MAN is cable T.V network in a city.

Fig 5 : Metropolitan Area Network

3.1.2.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)


WAN covers a wide geographical area which include multiple computers or
LANs. It connects computer networks through public networks like, telephone system,
microwave, satellite link or leased line.
Most of the WANs use leased lines for internet access as they provide faster data transfer.
WAN helps an organization to establish network between all its departments and offices
located in the same or different cities. It also enables communication between the
organization and rest world.

Devices used in WAN is only Router


3.2 IP ADDRESSES and MAC Addresses
It is also called as logical addresses. IP is a 32 bit long and it is divided into 4
octets and dot (.) is used to separate one octet from another. It is represented in the
form of decimals. There are two versions of IP addresses:
- IPv4
- IPv6
Table 2 Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6

IPv4 IPv6

- It is 32 bit long. - It is 128 bit long.


- It is divided into 4 octets. - It is divided into 16 octets.
- Ipv4 performs broadcasting, - IPv6 doesn’t support
multicasting and unicasting. broadcasting, it performs
- IPv4 is divided into 5 classes: multicasting and unicasting.
A to E. - Ipv6 doesn’t support classes.
IPv4 is in decimal form. - IPv6 is in hexadecimal form.

3.2.1 IP Address Classes


IP address is a 32 bit address. It is divided into various classes namely Class A, Class
B, Class C, Class D and Class E. TCP/IP defines Class D for experimental purpose.
TCP /IP address contains two addresses embedded within one IP address; Network
address and host address as shown in figure 3.1

NETWORK HOST ADDRESS


ADDRESS
0 bits 31 bits
Class A consists of 8-bit network ID and 24-bit host ID. Class B consists of 16-
bit network ID and 16-bit of host ID. And Class C consists of 24-bit of network
ID and 8-bit of host ID.

Address Classes

Table 3: Address Classes

Addres Starting Range of First Mask Value Valid Hosts


s Bits Octet
Class (first-byte)

Class A 0 1to 127 255.0.0.0 256*256*256-2=


16,777,214

Class B 10 128 to 191 255.255.0.0 256*256-2=65,534

Class C 110 192 to 223 255.255.255.0 256-2

Class D 1110 224 to 239 Reserved for multicasting

Class E 1111 240 to 255 Reserved for research and


development
`
3.2.1.1 How to Assign IP Address to Computer
An IP address assigned to a computer may either be permanent address or address
that is assigned to a computer on a time lease or for temporary basis. Hence, the address
granted to computers is divided into two categories Dynamic IP addresses and Static
addresses.

Dynamic IP Addresses
Dynamic IP addresses are assigned to the devices that require temporary
connectivity to the network or non-permanent devices such as portable computer. The
most common protocol used for assigning Dynamic IP address is DHCP also called
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. The DHCP grants IP address to the computer on
lease basis.

Static IP Addresses
Static IP addresses are assigned to the device on the network whose existence in
the network remains for a longer duration. These static IP addresses are semi-permanent
IP addresses which remain allocated to a specific device for longer time e.g. Server.

3.2.1.2 How to Configure IP Address in window 2003


• Right click on My Network Places- properties
• right click on working LAN card- properties
• select internet protocol (TCP/IP) -properties
• Tick on- Use the following IP addresses - now fill the IP address e.g
10.0.0.1
• Tick on –Use the following DNS server address
• Fill the preferred DNS server – 10.0.0.1
• Ok
• Close
Now check the connectivity of computer with itself with command
Start-run-cmd-ping 10.0.0.1

3.2.2 MAC Addressing


MAC address is a hardware address that is embedded in the NIC card. It is also known
as hardware address or physical address. Every NIC card has a unique MAC address
assigned by IEEE. MAC address is used to identify the nodes at lower levels of OSI
model. The MAC address operates at the data link layer of the OSI model.
MAC address is a 12 digit hexadecimal number (48 bit address). It is made up of
numbers from 0-9 or a letter from A-F. MAC address can be written in any one of the
formats:

► MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
► MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS

T o identify the MAC address in window:


• Click Start →Run
• Enter cmd in the Open text book
• Type ipconfig /all
• Press Enter

The 12 digit MAC address will be shown as say 00:11:11:EA:8D:F6

3.3 NETWORKING MEDIA


To do networking we need to use some type of media. There are many types of media.

(i) Coaxial Cable


(ii) Fiber optic cable
(iii) Twisted Pair of Cables
(iv) Micro- wave
(iv) Satellite

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of an insulated copper conductor surrounded by a tube
shaped copper braid outer copper tune and the inner conductor have the same axis of
curvature hence it called coaxial cable. It is basically of two types:

(i) Base Band Cable (RG – 59)


(ii) Broad Band Cable (RG – 58)

We used Base Band signal cable in Networking of Computers, It is so called because


it carries single frequency. Its speed is 10 Mbps and impedance is 50 Ω. Where as Broad
Band Cables carries multiple frequencies. Connector used for Coaxial cable is
BNC(British Novel Connector) connector. ARCnet uses RG-62 coaxial cable. It has an
impedance of 93 Ω and has a comparatively lesser attenuation, hence yield greater
distances. These cables are expensive and provide high propagation factor.

Fiber Optical Cable


Fiber optic cable consists of a very fine fiber made from two types of glass, one for the
inner core and the other for the outer layer. Here signal is transmitted in the form of light.
Different varieties of fiber optics is used depending on the size of the network. Single
mode fiber optics is used for networks spanning longer distance. Fiber Optics has lower
propagation factor than coaxial cable. It is a costly but more secure transmission media.

Twisted Pair Cable


There are two wires, which are twisted with each other to avoid EMI (Electro
Magnetic Induction).these cables are easy to terminate. However they have a slightly
higher value of attenuation value and hence have limited distance covering capacity.
Connector used for Twisted Pair of Cable is (Registered Jack) RJ-45 and RJ-11. There
are two types of twisted pair of cables:

• STP (Shielded Twisted Pair):


In this an extra wire which is called shielded wire is wrapped over the inner
cover which holds copper in pairs. This protection is used to protect signal from
external noise.

• UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)


In this type of wire no shielded cover is there for extra protection from noise.
There are different categories of UTP cables:

Categories of UTP Cables


Table 4: Category and Speed of UTP cables
Category Speed

56 Kbps
CAT-1
4 Mbps
CAT-2
10 Mbps
CAT-3
16-20 Mbps
CAT-4
100 Mbps
CAT-5
1Gbps
CAT-6
1Gbps
CAT-7

3.3.1 Ethernet Cabling


There are three types of Ethernet cables:
• Straight cable
• Crossover cable
• Rolled cable

3.3.1.1 Straight cable


It is used when we have to connect
• PC TO Switch
• PC to Hub
• Hub to Router
• Switch to Router

Colour Coding for straight Cable


TABLE 5
568A 568B

(one end) (other end) (one end) (other end)

Green/white Green/white Orange/white Orange/white


Green Green Orange Orange
Orange/white Orange/white Green/white Green/white
Blue Blue Blue Blue
Blue/white Blue/white Blue/white Blue/white
Orange Orange Green Green
Brown/white Brown/white Brown/white Brown/white
Brown Brown Brown Brown

3.3.1.2 Crossover Cable


It is used when we have to connect:
• PC to PC
• Hub to Hub
• Switch to switch
• Router to Router
• PC to Router
• Hub to Switch

Colour Coding for Crossover cable


Table 6 Colour Coding for Crossover cable

(one end) (other end)


Orange/white Green/white
Orange Green
Green/white Orange/white
Blue Blue
Blue/white Blue/white
Green Green
Brown/white Brown/white
Brown Brown

3.3.1.3 Rollover Cable


Rollover cable isn’t used to connect any Ethernet connections together, but
Rollover cable can be used to connect a host to a router console serial communication
(com) port.

NOTE: Straight cable and Cross cables are used for data transfer but Rollover
cables are not used for data transfer.
There are two methods for manufacturing Rollover cables:

Table 7 Colour Coding for Rollover Cable

568A 568B

(one end) (other end) (one end) (other end)


Green/white Brown Orange/white Brown
Green Brown/white Orange Brown/white
Orange/white Orange Green/white Green
Blue Blue/white Blue Blue/white
Blue/white Blue Blue/white Blue
Orange Orange/white Green Green/white
Brown/white Green Brown/white Orange
Brown Green/white Brown Orange/white

3.4 OPERATING SYSTEM


3.4.1 Types of Operating Systems

(i) DOS (Desktop Operating System) (ii) NOS (Network Operating System)
Table 8: Operating Systems
DOS NOS

1. It is a desktop operating system. 1. It is a network operating system.


2. It is used in small networks. 2. It is used for large networks.
3. In this OS, there is less security. 3. In this OS, there is more security.
4. In this OS, all computers are clients. 4. In this OS, there are servers and
5. In this OS, MS-DOS, GUI package clients.
Win 5. In this OS Win NT, Win 2000, Win
3.1, Win 95, Win 98, Win ME comes. 2003, LINUX, UNIX, Novell and
MAC comes.

3.4.1.1 Introduction to Window 2003 Server


Window server 2003 (also referred to as WIN 2k3) is a server operating system produced
by Microsoft. Introduced in 24th April 2003 as the successor to window 2000 server, it is
considered by Microsoft to be the corner stone of its window server system line of
business server products. An update version Window Server 2003 R2 was released
manufacturing on 6th dec, 2005. its successor window 2008 was released on 4th feb, 2008.
According to Microsoft, window server 2003 is more scalable and deliver better
performance than its predecessor window 2000.

Features of Window 2003


(i) A significant improved version of Internet Information Service (IIS)
(ii) Increased default security over previous version due to the built in firewall
and having most services disabled by default.
(iii) Manage your server-a role management administrative tools that allow an
administrator to choose what functionality the server should provide.
(iv) Improvement to Active Directory.
(v) Improvement to Group Policy handling and Administration.
(vi) Provides a Backup system to restore lost files.
(vii) Improved disk management, including the ability to Backup from shadows of
files, allowing the Backup of open files.
(viii) Improved security and command line tools which are part of Microsoft
initiative to bring a complete command shell to the next version of window.
(ix) Support for a hard based “Watch Dog Timer”, which can restart the server if
the operating system does not suspend with in a certain amount of time.

Removed Features
• The ability of creating server disk automated system recovery (ASR) is used
instead .

Edition of Window 2003


Window server 2003 comes in a number of editions, each targeted towards a
particular size and type of business. In general, all variant of window server 2003
have the ability to share files and printers, act as application server and host
message queue, provide email services, authenticate users, act as an X.509
certificate server, provide LDAP (Light Weight Directory Access Protocol)
services, serve streaming media, and to perform other server-oriented functions.

3.5 DNS SERVER


DNS stands for domain name system. DNS system is a standard technology
for managing the names of websites and other internet domains. DNS techniques allows
you to type names into your web browser like computer networking, about computer and
allow your computer to automatically find that address on internet. DNS is the resolution
mechanism used by Window Server 2003 clients to find other computers and services
running on those computers for computers in a window 2003 network infrastructure to
talk to one another, one of the key ingredients is the DNS server .Host name alone do not
communicate globally but communicate locally, but if domain name is added along with
it then the host name can communicate globally. DNS is use for name reservation i.e. to
convert IP address to host name and host name to IP address or the function of DNS is to
resolve host name such as www.yahoo.com to an IP address. User identify only user
friendly name and all computers and technologies identify IP address and MAC address
DNS is use to solve this problem because DNS is used to convert host name FQDN (fully
qualified domain name) to IP address and IP address to host name .

3.5.1 PARTS OF DNS SYSTEM


(i) Host name
(ii) Domain name
(iii) FQDN
(iv) Namespace
(v) DNS server

3.5.1.1 HOST NAME


Host name is a computer name and is also called is NetBIOS (network basic
Input/ output system) name. NetBIOS is actually an application layer protocol that can
use the transport services of TCP/ IP when used in routed network. A NetBIOS name is
16- byte addresses that identify a NetBIOS resource on the network.

3.5.1.2 DOMAIN NAME


Domain name is used to identifies the internet site one can identifies the location
without having to remember the IP address of every location e.g. yahoo.com or
gmail.com

3.5.1.3 FQD
FQDN means fully qualified domain name which represents a hostname appended to the
parent name space in hierarchy. Also in fully qualified domain name different levels of
namespace are visualize as in fig below this hierarchy is visualized─ the root level
namespace, top─ level domain, and so on, in use throughout the internet today. Left most
portion of the FQDN is the host portion of the name. A host name is alias we give to an
IP address.
Fig 6:To find location of a computer using FQDN

FQDN is a unique name in the computer on the network. We can identify host id and
location of a computer as in fig above. Suppose we want to find location of pc1 with
IP address 20.0.0.1, which is in lab2, 2nd floor in the organization center. The FQDN
for this is

Pc1.row3.lab2.floor2.center.com

But this address is very lengthy to locate pc1 so to simplify this we use “c name”
technique as:

Pc1.center.com=20.0.0.1
3.5.1.4 Domain Namespace
DNS operates in what is known as DNS namespace. The DNS namespace is an
organized, hierarchical division of DNS names. Domain namespace enable users to easily
locate the network services and resources. The domain namespace include the root
domain, the top level domain of the organization and organize these domain in a
hierarchical tree structure. Namespace works on the hierarchical tree structure of root
domain. There are total 13 root domain working in the internet, they are A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H, I, J, K, L and M. There is one root domain, which acts as the starting point of the
fully qualified domain names. This root domain is designated with a dot (.). Fig 6.2
shows the tree structure or domain namespace.

Fig 7: Tree structure or Domain Namespace

3.5.1.5 DNS server


Any computer providing domain namespace is a DNS server. DNS server is used to
convert host name FQDN into IP address and IP address into host name FQDN. To store
the name-to-IP-addresses mappings so crucial to network communication, name server
uses zone files.
3.5.2 DNS Zone
Zone is the part of DNS database that contain record of domain or multiple domain.
If the domains represents logical division of the DNS namespace, zones represents the
physical separation of the DNS namespace. In other words information about records of
the resources within DNS domain is stored in a zone files, and this zone files exist on
hard drive of server. Zone files are divided into one of two basic types:

• Forward lookup zone: Provides host-name-to-IP-address resolution


• Reverse lookup zone: Provides IP-address-to-host-name resolution

3.5.2.1 Resource record stored in a zone file


Each record stored in a zone file has a specific purpose. Some of the records set the
behavior of the name server, others have the job of resolving a host name or service into
an IP table.

(i) NS (Name Server):

These specify the name servers that are authoritative for a given portion
of DNS namespace. These records are essential when DNS servers are performing
iterative queries to perform name resolution.

(ii) SOA (Start of Authority):


This resource record indicates the name of origin for the zone contains the name
of the server that is the primary source for information about the zone. The information in
an SOA record affect how often transfer of the zone are done between servers
authoritative for the zone. It is also used to store other properties such as version
information and timings that affect zone renewal or expiration.

(iii) CNAME (Canonical Name):


CNAME can be used to assign multiple names of a single IP address.
For example, the server hosting the site www.abc.com is probably not named www, but a
CNAME record exist resolution of www to an IP address all the same. The CNAME
record actually points not to an IP address, but to an existing A record in the zone.

3.5.2.2 Steps to Install and configure DNS server


• Start → control panel→ add and remove program
• Add remove window components
• Select networking services and click on detail button
• Check box of DNS server
• Ok and finish

3.5.2.3 Creating a Forward Lookup Zone


• Statically fill the IP address
• Start →administrator tools
• DNS→ right click on forward lookup zone
• New zone→ next
• Select primary zone→ next
• Enter zone name (abc.com)→ next
• Tick Allow both secure and non secure updates and secure dynamic
updated
• next→ next
• now click on created zone (abc.com)
• new host→ enter host name for global level (i.e by entering www) fill IP
address of the web server , click on add button
• enter another host name, a blank host with same IP i.e do not fill its host name

steps to change SOA and NS records


• Right click on SOA records → properties
• Fill primary server e.g (www.abc.com)→ responsible person
• host master.abc.com→ apply→ ok
• right click on NS records
• click on add button→ enter FQDN→ www.abc.com
• resolve→ ok→ apply→ ok

Now go to start menu → ping abc.com


On Client Side → To access DNS server fill IP address of server then use ping command
e.g ping www.abc.com

3.5.2.3 Creating a Reverse Lookup Zone


• Right click on reverse lookup zone
• New zone→ next→ select primary zone→ next
• fill →Network ID→ next→ next
• Select allow both non secure and non secure dynamic updates
• Finish
• Right click on created reverse zone→ new pointer
• enter host IP number e.g (50.0.0.50)
• enter FQDN (www.chd.com)

3.5.2.4 Some DNS Commands


(i) c:>tracert www.yahoo.com
command is used to check the path , a data packet follow from one router
to another router.
(ii) c:>nslookup
command display the domain name with IP (works only when reverse lookup
zone is set up).
(iv) c:>ipconfig /all
This command display FQDN, IP address, MAC address.
(iv) c:>ipconfig /flushdns
This command flush or clear all the information in the cache that is retrieved
from DNS server.
(v) c:>ipconfig /displaydns
Display the current contents or entries in the cache.
(vi) c:>ip config /register
register any DNS name

3.6 DHCP SERVER


DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a protocol that allocates IP address to
computer on a network. DHCP centralized the management of IP address allocation and
reduces human error associated with manual IP configuration. DHCP server supplies all
the necessary networking param-eters. Two things are always handed out as a part of
DHCP configuration: IP address and subnet mask. Further DHCP will frequently
configure clients with optional values, such as a default gateway, DNS server address,
and the address of a Window Internet Naming Server, if one is present. Scenario showing
DHCP server IP address allocation.

3.6.1 Working of DHCP Server


(i) DHCP Scope
(ii) DHCP Super Scope
(iii) Exclusion IP Range
(iv) DHCP Lease Time
(v) IP Reservation
DHCP Scope
Scope having the range of IP address for providing dynamic IP address to other
computer. A group of IP address within a scope is called as DHCP scope.

DHCP Super Scope


A super scope is used to combine two or more scopes each serving different subnets, and
can make the administration of several scopes on window 2003 DHCP server more
manageable. Using super scope you can group multiple scopes as a single administrative
entity that allows the client to lease from either one. With this feature, a DHCP server
can:
• Support DHCP clients on a single physical network segment where multiple
logical IP networks are used. When more than one logical IP network is used on
each physical subnet or network, such configuration is called multinets.
• Support DHCP clients located on the far side of DHCP and BOOTP relay agent.
• In multinet configuration, DHCP superscope can be used to group and activate
individual scope ranges of IP addresses used on your network. In this way , a
DHCP server computer can activate and provide leases from more than one scope
to clients on a single physical network.

Exclusion IP range
If you want to reserve some IP for any computer i.e if we want that from the series of
192.168.0.2 to 192.168.0.100 if we want that a series of IP addresses must not be
assigned automatically then at can be done using exclusive IP range.

DHCP Leased Time


DHCP lease time is validity of IP address. By default DHCP lease time is 8 days
minimum,1 day maximum 999 days, 23 hours to53 day.
With in 8 days:-
After 80% of day clients demand new IP some times server refuse the client request.
After 87.5% of days it will retry, and if the server did not give the new IP address then
the client will receive APIPA address (Automatic Private IP Address).
When a DHCP client is unable to locate a DHCP server, the client picks out a random IP
address from the private APIPA address range of 169.254.*.*, with a subnet mask of
255.255.0.0. The 169.254.*.* IP range is private because that network number is not in
use on the internet, it is random because the client generates an arbitrary host number for
that network.
The significance of APIPA is that DHCP client computers that cannot find a
DHCP server can still be assigned an IP address and communicate with other computers
on the same subnet mask that also cannot find DHCP server. It allows communication
when DHCP server is down or just plain not there. Note that APIPA does not assign a
default gateway, and therefore it cannot communicate with any computer that lives on the
other side of a router.

IP Reservation
There are some DHCP clients that you want to be the DHCP clients, but you will also
want to make sure that they get same IP address every time. This can be done by
statically filling the IP address. We can reserve IP address with the help of MAC address
for a particular computer.

3.6.2 Installation Steps of DHCP Server


• start→ control panel
• add and remove program→ add and remove window components
• select networking services and click on detail button
• check box of DHCP server
• ok→ finish

3.6.2.1 Steps To Configure DHCP Server


• start→ program→ administrative tool
• select DHCP
• create new scope in action menu→ new scope → next
• give scope name→ next
• give IP address range→ next
• add exclusion name→ next
• check lease duration→ next→ finish

After DHCP server is configured, it is required to be authorized and DHCP scope


should be active. For that select DHCP server and click on authorize in action menu.
Then right click on scope name and click on active.
3.6.2.2 On Client Side
• Go to LAN card properties → select TCP/IP protocol→ properties
• Select obtain IP address automatically
• Go to command prompt (cmd)
• Give command

3.6.2.3 Backup of DHCP Server


We can take backup of all the configuration in DHCP server with the help of
administrator. Backup means to export the DHCP database to another system, as it is
helpful in case due to any reason our data is corrupted or deleted, we can take our
database from the place where it is stored. Steps of taking backup :
• Stop the DHCP server and disable the DHCP server services
• Copy the DHCP server directory to a temporary location, say pen drive or
on a new DHCP server.

3.6.3 DHCP Relay Agent


The DHCP relay agent is a software that listen DHCP discover packet and forward to
DHCP server. In window 2003 server system the DHCP relay agent can be enabled as a
part of Routing and Remote Access (RRAS).

3.6.3.1 Steps To Configure DHCP Relay Agent


• Set the network, fill the IP address and select two LAN cards
• Open Routing and Remote Access → enable Routing and Remote Access
• Right click on general new routing protocols
• Select DHCP relay agent
• New interface
• Select LAN card which is to be connected to the cross cable i.e L1
• Ok
• Right click on relay agent → properties
• Enter IP address of DHCP server
• add→ apply→ ok

3.7 ACTIVE DIRECTORY


With the release of Windows 2000, Microsoft introduced Active Directory, a scalable,
robust directory service. Active Directory is used to create server based networking.
Active Directory’s job is to store and make available a Directory database i.e information
about the user, its class, name, address, mails, phone numbers, location.
Active Directory is a technology created by Microsoft that provides a variety of
network services like Directory Services, DNS based naming and other network
information. Active Directory also allows administrator to assign policies, deploy
software and apply critical updates to an organizations. Active Directory was previewed
in 1999, released first with window 2000 server edition and revised to extend functionally
and improve administration in Window 2003. Additional improvements were made in
Window server 2003 and Window server 2008.
The fundamental building block of Microsoft’s Directory services continues to be a
domain. A domain is logically grouping of network resources, including shares, printers,
groups and users accounts. The user account represents the individual to domain, and
allows for different type of access and different types of tasks. Every users account is
unique. It has uniqueness of the user account that allows administrator to control access
for every member of domain.
There are two types of users accounts: local account and domain account. Local
accounts are maintained in the local database of a computer and cannot be used to grant
access to network resources. Local users are primarily used to administer a computer or
to allow several people to share a single computer that is not a member of a domain.
Whereas domain users accounts are much more widely used in organizations that local
user accounts because they allow for central administration and user can log onto any
computer in the domain. Domain users accounts are stored in Active Directory.
3.7.1 Active Directory Services
A computer network can be divided logically into two networking models.
• Workgroup
• Domain

Difference Between Workgroup and Domain


Table 9

Workgroup Domain

1. It is a peer-to-peer networking 1. It is a server based networking model.


model.
2.there is a centralized dedicated server
2. There is no client and no server. computer called domain controller
All computers are in equal status. (DC)which controls all other computers
called clients.
3.This model is recommended for
small networks (upto 10 pcs). 3. This model is recommended for large
networks.
4. There is no centralized Admin-
istration and each PC is 4. There is centralized administration
administrated separately. and each PC can be administrated and
managed from the server.
5.In this model, low grade operating
system like 2000/xp professional, 5.In this model high grade operating
win 98 etc can be used. system ,like win2000/2003 server are
used.
6. Workgroup can be given names
like sales, HR, accounts etc. 6. Domain can also given names like
abc.com, xyz.com etc.
7 Users accounts are created in each
PC and are called as “Local Users”. 7.Users accounts are created on sever
side DC and are called as ”Domain
Users”.

Active Directory uses domain to hold objects, each domain has security boundary.
Users must authenticates to the domain in which their users account resides before they
can access resources, such as a shared folders. Active Directory also links related
domains in a hierarchical structure and users can access resources in any of the domain in
which their user account resides. The hierarchical structures of related domain is called a
tree, and all domains in the tree share the same Domain Name System (DNS) namespace.
All the domains and the trees in a single organization are called a forest. All domains in
the forest share same schema.

3.7.1.1 Types of Domain


• Domain Forest
• Domain Tree
• Organization unit

Domain Forest

A forest is created when window 2k3 server computer is configured as a domain


controller. A forest is a collection of multiple domain link together and relationship
between the domains.

Domain Tree

A domain tree is made up when there is a parent child relationship between the domain
in the forest. The child domain includes the complete parent domain name. a tree is a set
of two or more domains sharing common namespace e.g we can create a parent domain
and then child domain like mail.yahoo.com; where mail- child domain, yahoo- parent
domain.
Fig 8: Structure of domain forest and domain tree
Organization Unit (OU)
Organization unit is the smallest unit in a domain network that can contain users,
computer groups, shared folders, printers and group policy object in simple words. OU
means department like sale department, accounts department like sales, accounts in a
company OU can be used to apply different security policies to computer and users in
different department. OU also helps in dividing administration among different
administrator of managing only computer and users of sales department.

3.7.1.2 Types of Domain Controller


(i) PDC : Primary domain controller
(ii) ADC : Additional domain controller
(iii) BDC : Backup domain controller
Primary Domain Controller (PDC)
This is the first domain controller, in this domain all entries are created in it like
users account, group policy, Organization unit etc. All FSMO role are done in PDC.

Additional Domain Controller (ADC)


It is a domain network, it is important to have more than one DC so that if one
DC fails, the other DC will continue serving the client. There is also load balancing of
Active Directory Service if we have more than one DC.
The first DC we create is simply called PDC and if we create an extra DC then
that DC is known as ADC. ADC has same configuration of AD as primary domain
controller.
All domain controllers in a domain networking are masters. We can make a
change in the active directory of any domain controller and that change is replicated to all
other domain controllers. Replication takes place among all the domain controllers and it
is controlled automatically. If we create a user in the first domain controller, it is
automatically created in the ADC because of replication.
All the domain controllers in the domain networking are peers and this model is
called as multi- master model .

Fig 9: Multi-Master Model

3.7.1.3 Requirements of Active Directory


(i) Window 2000/2003 server computer.
(ii) Atleast one NTFS partition.
(iii) Static IP address
(iv) Atleast 1GB free hard disk space
(v) LAN card enabled and connected to the network
(vi) Install DNS, if not installed of Active Directory and configure it.

It should be noted that active directory cannot work without DNS.DNS is


automatically installed and configured during the Active Directory installation.

3.7.1.4 Installation of Active Directory


First of all fill the static IP address, then install DNS service into it and after that
install the Active Directory
• start→ run→ dcpromo
• Ok
• Welcome to active directory → next→ next
• Select domain controller for a new domain e.g (gmail.com)
• Next
• Domain NETBIOS name (gmail.com)
• Next
• Data folder, folder new tech directory service→ next (SYS VOL)
• Next
• Click on install and configure the DNS server on this computer to use this
DNS server as its preferred DNS server.
• Tick on permission compatible only with window server
• Next
• Enter the restore mode and the password
• next→ next→ finish
• now restart computer

Command used for the removal of Active Directory


start→ run→ dcpromo
This command is also used to remove active directory, if after this command the
active directory is not removed then type
• start→run
• cmd→dcpromo /forceremoval
• Ok

How to identify Active Directory installation


• Start → administrator tool
After that if three options specified if come, it means that Active Directory
has been installed
─ Active Directory domain and trusts
─ Active Directory sites and services
─ Active Directory users and computer
Open DNS console by
• Administrator tools→DNS
• Forward lookup zone
─ msdcs.exam.edu
─ start of authority (SOA)
─ name server (NS)

Now ping active directory with domain name like


• start→ run→ ping gmail.com

Backup of Active Director


Active Directory backup come in use when there is some problem in active directory. If
there is any problem in active directory then remove it and restore the backup.
• Start→ run→ntbackup→ok
• Select advance mode and untick that is already ticked
• Select backup
• Selsct system state
• Change backup path browse keep in your hardware and then send it to the
pen drive
• D:\adbackup

3.7.2 CHILD DOMAIN


A domain is created say “xyz.com”. this domain is known as parent domain or the
root domain. Now “chd.xyz.com” will be the child domain or the sub domain of xyz.com.

Fig 10 : parent-child relationship model


A child domain is created to ease administration in a very large domain network. We can
create the parent domain in the head office of the company and the child domain in the
branch offices.
Each branch office will have its own administrator to manage the users of the
child domain present in the branch office.
A true relationship is automatically created between the parent domain and the
child domain. This means users in the child domain can access the file server of the
parent domain. Moreover users of either domain can use clients of either domain for
logging in the domain but a user can always logon only in the domain in which his
account resides, though he physically can use client pc of parent or client domain. Users
of either domain can logon its own domain from either side but only when it use its own
domain name. users of parent domain can communicate with child domain but he has to
use its domain name for that.

3.7.2.1 Steps to create child domain

First of all install the active directory on pc1 i.e on the parent domain. Now make Tom
user on it. On pc2 create the child domain, then make users on it, user- Ram
Below are the steps to cerate child domain.

• Fill the IP address in the child domain


• Now ping to the parent domain with the domain name (xyz.com)
• Run →dcpromo→ ok
• next→ select domain controller for a new domain
• next→ select child domain and existing domain name (mcse.com)
• next
• enter username, password and domain name
• enter user parent domain name also enter child domain name
• enter complete DNS name i.e xyz.mcse.com
• next→ next→ next→ next
it should be noted that parent domain can logon into child domain but on the other
hand child domain cannot logon to the parent domain. Also parent domain can apply
policies or security on the child domain.

Make the client member by entering particular user with its domain name.
• First right click on My Computer
• Properties
• Computer name
• Change
• Write domain name →ok

Now logoff start and then write user name - Tom


Domain name - mcse.com
Again logoff and check the other user
Start-user name- abc
Domain name – mail.mcse.com

3.8 INTERNET SHAREING


We can share a single internet connection to multiple computers with the help of
networking or internet sharing. There are four ways to share internet.

(i) Direct sharing


(ii) ICS – Internet connection sharing
(iii) Win Proxy
(iv) NAT – Network Address Translation
3.8.1 Direct Sharing
Internet sharing can be done between computers directly, just by taking internet
connection directly from ISP (Internet Server provider), then it is provided to ADSL
model, ADSL modem is connected to the ISP through RJ-11 connector. Then it is
connected to the switch with RJ-45 connector. Switch, further connects computers those
have to be provided with internet connection. The scenario for direct sharing is as shown
in figure:

Fig: 11: Direct Sharing Scenario

ADSL modem has IP address 192.168.1.1. All the PCs are assigned with a DNS
(Domain Name Server) and GW (gateway) -192.168.1.1. Also DHCP (Dynamic Host
Communication Protocol) is enabled which will provide IP addresses to the PCs
automatically.

3.8.2 ICS (Internet Connection Sharing)


Internet Connection sharing provides an alternate way to provide Internet Sharing.
ICS requires a server with two network interfaces, one for the private internal network
configured with IP 192.168.0.1 address and an adapter for public connection. ICS
requires two connections in order to work: one public and one private i.e. ICS server
requires two LAN cards, Internal (Private) and External (Public). Internal LAN card uses
Local LAN card (L2) and External LAN card (L1) is used by Internet. ICS is designed to
be as simple as possible. ICS works on following windows: XP, Vista, 2K3 Server, 2k3
Server SP1.it doesn’t work on the server in which AD+SP1 is present. The scenario for
ICS is shown below:

Fig 12: ICS scenario

Note:- When we configure ICS then the local card detect 192.168.0.1 address
automatically.
How to configure ICS
• Open network and sharing center
• Network- Properties
• Click on Manage network connections
• Right click on LAN Card which is used for internet- Properties
• Click on sharing
• Enable ICS
• Ok
• yes
3.8.3 Win Proxy Server
Win Proxy is a third party software which is used for sharing internet and we can
also block the web site with the help of win proxy. WIN Proxy supports all the three
classes A, B, C also it is supported by all operating systems. The scenario for WIN proxy
is shown below:

Fig 13: scenario of win proxy server

In win proxy as shown in the scenario above we can share internet. First of all a ADSL
modem is connected to the ISP (Internet Service Provider) by a RJ-11 connector and
other end of ADSL modem is connected to the PC1 through RJ-45. Assign IP address
192.168.1.1 to the ADSL modem also enable the DHCP server and set the start IP
address of 192.168.1.2 and end IP address of 192.168.1.254. Then after ADSL modem
connect PC1, assign GW 192.168.1.1 and

3.8.4 NAT (Network Address Translation)


If we have to connect many computers with a single IP address then we will use NAT.
NAT exchange IP packet between local network and internet. The routing and remote
access server of window 2K3 server provide us with a component known as NAT. By
enabling NAT on a Server 2003 system, you allow connected users on a private system to
share a single connection to access a public network such as the internet i.e. NAT enable
multiple client computer to connect the internet through a single publicly registered IP
address. A NAT server translate private IP address to public addresses. NAT eliminates
the need for large number of IP addresses by mapping externally assigned IP addresses.

Fig 14: NAT server

When deploying NAT, it is needed to configure setting on both the client side
and the server side. On the server side of NAT fill the IP address statically.
3.8.4.1 Steps to enable NAT server
• Open internet → Tools→ Internet options
• connections→ LAN settings
• untick the IP and port address
• ok→ ok→ give site name

. On the client side of NAT, client side is configured to obtain IP addresses


automatically and then restart the client system. Assuming NAT is used for address
assignment, the client system will receive TCP/IP information from the NAT server. The
client information includes:
• IP address from 192.168.0.0 private addressing range
• Subnet mask (255.255.255.0)
• DNS server address, which would be the address of the NAT interface
on the server.

With the client side configured, there are few things to do on NAT server:
The first step to configure NAT server is to actually install the Routing and Remote
Access Services. To do this, start the Routing and Remote Access Service Setup Wizard.
• Start→ administrator tools→ Routing & Remote Access
• Right click on My Computer→ right click on computer name
• Select option Configure and enable routing & remote access
• Welcome to routing → next→ next
• Select NAT→ next
• Select LAN card which is to be connected to internet
• next→ next
From any of the four methods of internet sharing only method is used at a
time to remove the other method
• go to start→ setting
• add & remove
• change/ remove, tick on remove.

3.9 VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN)


A virtual private network is used to convert public network address to private
network. All the clients of VPN dial to public IP address of VPN server and receive
private IP from virtual VPN dynamic host protocol (DHCP).in VPN one can have
multiple virtual connections to a single IP address. This way ,one network card can host
several inbound connections, rather than require a modem and telephone line for each
simultaneous remote user.
Fig 15 : scenario of VPN server
Using VPN server we can connect many private networks to internet services i.e the
remote connection. We can create a private network through public network, we can use
firewall for security and data encryption in VPN server.
3.9.1 VPN components
(i) VPN server
(ii) VPN Clients
(iii) WAN Option
(iv) Security Options
VPN Server
VPN server, serve as the end points of a VPN connection. When configuring a
VPN server, you can allow access to just that server, or pass traffic through VPN server
so that the remote user gain access the resources of the entire network.

VPN Client
VPN clients establish connection to VPN server. They can also be routers that
obtain the router-to-router secure connection. VPN client software is included in all the
modern window operating systems, including Window 2003 server. Router-to router
VPN connection can be made from computers running server2003 and Windows 2000
running Routing and Remote Access. Additionally, any client that support PPTP or
L2TP connections can be VPN clients of a window server 2003 system.

WAN Options
These provide the physical mechanism for passing data back and forth. These
connections typically include such similar network technologies such as T1or frame
relay. In order for VPN connections to be successful, the VPN client and VPN server
must be connected to each other using either permanent WAN connection or by dialing
into an internet server provider (ISP).

Security Options
Since a VPN uses a network that is generally open to the public, it is important
that the data passed over the connection remain secure. To aid with secure
communication routing and remote access supports such security measure as logon and
domain security, data encryption, smart cards, IP packet filtering and caller ID.
3.9.2 Types of VPN
(i) PPTP (Point to Point Tunneling Protocol )
(ii) L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol) according to CCNA.

Point to Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)


PPTP is Microsoft’s legacy protocol for supporting VPN. It was developed in
conjunction with other communications companies such as Robotics as an extension to
the PPP protocol. PPTP encapsulates IP or IPX packets inside of PPP datagram’s. This
means that you can remotely run programs that are dependent upon particular network
protocols. One of the keys to remember about PPTP is that the protocol provides
encryption capabilities, making it much safer to send information over nonsecure
networks.

Layer Two Tunneling Protocol (L2TP)


L2TP is a standard based encapsulation protocol with roughly the same
functionality as a Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP). One of the key differences
between Window’s server 2003 implementation of L2TPand it cousin PPTP is that
L2TPis designed to run natively over IP networks only. This implementation of L2TP
does not support native tunneling over X.25, frame relay, or ATM networks. Like PPTP,
L2TPencapsulates Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) frames, which then encapsulate IP or
IPX protocols, allowing users to remotely run programs that are dependent on specific
network protocols . But unlike the PPTP protocol, L2TP does not provide encryption of
the data. For data security L2TPrelies on the services of another standards- based
protocol, IPSec.

3.9.3 How to configure VPN


• start→administrative tools
• Routing and Remote access
• Right click on computer name configure and enable Routing and Remote
access
• next→ select remote access (dial up or VPN)
• next→ VPN→ next
• select LAN card which is connected to internet (172.15.15.50) public IP
• disable enable security → next
• from a specific range of address→ next→new
• enter the required range
• ok→next→ no radius
• next→ finish

3.9.4 Create users in VPN server


• open user properties→ dial in → allow access
• apply→ ok
3.9.5 Working on Client Side
• Right click on My Network Places→ properties
• Double click on New Network Wizard→ next
• Connect to network at my work place→ next
• Virtual private network connection→ next
• Enter company name (abc)→ next
• Enter public IP address of VPN server→ next
• Any one use →next
• finish

3.10 ROUTING
It is a process of transferring information through an inter network i.e from one
network to another. Routing connect different networks having ID help in process of
routing. The dial-in properties also allow for specific IP address to be assigned to a user.
This is the only way in Window Server 2003 that you can assign a specific IP to a user.
To assign a specific IP to a user, check the box next to assign A Static IP Address and
enter a valid IP in the space provided. Static routing can also be specified as per user. By
defining static routes, users can be limited to only specific parts of networks.
In an internetwork a router must then about all the networks present in the for
effort websites, there are hardware routers like CISCO. Even win 2003 server computer
configured as router. In simple words Router is a computer with two network cards.
These two network cards, then, are attached to two different logical IP networks. The
routing table helps direct traffic that is passed through the router.
Now when there is a router, also there is a routing table, there is a need to
configure the router in order for that router to pass along traffic to the proper network.
There are two ways the routing table can be built and modified: either manually or
automatically.
3.10.1 Types of Routing
(i) Static Routing
(ii) Dynamic Routing
3.10.1.1 Static Routing
In this routing information required for routing is manually entered into the router
by administrator.
How to configure LAN routing
• Enter the static IP in the router
• Administrator tools
• Routing and Remote access
• Right click on computer name (pcc1)
• Configure and enable routing and remote access
• next→ custom configuration
• select LAN routing→next→ finish
• yes and logon to see IP table route

Enable LAN routing enable LAN routing


Interface WAN Interface WAN 10.0.0.0
IP 172.15.0.0 IP 10.0.0.0
SNM 255.255.0.0 SNM 255.0.0.0
GW 20.0.0.2 GW 20.0.0.1

Fig 16 : scenario for LAN routing

How to configure static routing


At Router R1:
• enable LAN routing
• right click on static route
• interface WAN
• destination 172.15.0.0
• mask 255.255.0.0
• GW 20.0.0.2
At Router R2:
• Enable LAN routing
• Right click on static route
• Interface WAN
• Destination 10.0.0.0
• Mask 255.0.0.0
• GW 20.0.0.1

Fig 17 : static routing

3.10.1.2 Dynamic Routing


The other way to manage a router routing tables is to let the computer do it
for you. Just like DHCP allocate IP addresses, configuring the dynamic routing
protocol usually means less errors due to human error, and less administrative
overhead.
In dynamic routing, routing information is automatically entered in the
router using protocols like RIP AND OSPF. These routing protocols used by
Window Server 2003 use one of two kinds of algorithms to determine the best
possible path for a packet to get to its destination, either distance vector or link
state. RIP is used for small networks where as OSPF is used for large networks.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP)


The distance vector protocol in use on Window 2003 is called Routing
Information Protocol (RIP) for IP. This protocol was designed for the exchange of
the routing information within a small to medium size IP network.
When Router is enabled on Window 2003 machine, the routing table includes
entries only for the networks that are physically connected. When RIP is enabled
for an interface, the router will periodically send an announcement of its routing
table to inform other RIP routers of the networks it can reach. RIP version1 uses
broadcast packets for its announcement. RIP version2 offers an improvement and
can be configured to use either multicast or broadcast packets when
communicating with other routers. Also, RIP version2 offers more flexibility in
subnetted and classless inter domain routing (CIDR) environments.
The biggest advantage of RIPis its simplicity. With a few clicks in the Routing
and Remote Access Server and MMC console, you can deploy RIP. With the RIP
dynamic routing protocol installed on Window’s Server 2003, you get the
following features:

(i) RIP version1 and version2, with the ability to configure individual
network cards with separate versions.
(ii) Calculations used to avoid routing loops and speed recovery of the
network whenever topology changes occur.
(iii) Route filters; you can configure RIP to except information from
only certain networks, and also choose which routes will be shared
with RIP routers.
(iv) Peer filters, which allow control over which router announcements
are accepted.
(v) Simple password authentication support.

But there are significant drawbacks, which makes RIP a poor, if not unusable
solution for large networks. For example, the maximum hop count used for RIP routers
is15, making network 16 hops away (or more) unreachable where RIP is concerned.

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)


Where RIP is built to work to work in smaller networks, the Open Shortest Path
First (OSPF) routing protocol is designed for large or very large networks. The goal is the
same: information about connection to other networks is shared from one router to
another. It offers several advantages over RIP, especially significant in large networks:

(i) Routes calculated with OSPF are always loop free.


(ii) OSPF can scale much more easily than RIP.
(iii) Reconfiguration for network topology changes is faster.
The biggest reason OSPF is the choice in large networks is its efficiency; instead
of changing routing table via broadcast the way RIP does, OSPF configured routers
maintain a map of the network. The mapping is called the link state database, OSPF
routers keep the link state database up to date. Once changes have been made to link state
database, an OSPF router’s link state database is recalculated.
As the networks start to multiply, the size of the link state database increases, and
a corresponding hit on router performance results. To combat this, OSPF sub divide the
network into smaller sections, called areas. Areas are connected to each other through a
backbone area, with each router only responsible for the link state database for those
areas connected to the routers. Area Border Routers (ABRs) then connect one backbone
area to another.
The biggest drawback of OSPF is its complexity; OSPF requires proper planning
and is more difficult to configure and administer.

3.11 EXCHANGE SERVER


Exchange server is a mail server, we can send and receive mail from one user to another
user. Exchange server is the mail server of Microsoft.
3.11.1 Elements of Exchange Server
Mail Server
A server which helps to the users to send and receive mail is called mail server.
Mail Box
A storage place where senders and receivers mails are stored.

3.11.2 Exchange Version


Table 10: Exchange Server with different operating systems

Exchange Version Operating System

Exchange Server 5.5 WIN NT or 2000 server (without SP).

Exchange Server 2000 WIN NT or 2000 server (SP3,SP4)


without (SP).

Exchange Server 2003 WIN 2000 Server or WIN2003 server


(SP4) without SP.

Exchange server 2007 WIN2003 server or R2/WIN 2008


server with SP1.

Where SP stands for Service Pack. Service Pack are the services which are loaded
externally to remove some bugs that come during installation of server CD.
3.11.3 Requirements for Exchange Server
Protocols Required
• POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
This protocol is used for receiving e- mails.
• IMAE4 (Internet Messaging Access Protocol)
This protocol is advance version of POP, this is also used to receive mail.
• LMTP (Local Mail Transfer Protocol)/SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
This protocol is used to send mails.
• NNTP (Network News Transfer protocol)
This protocol is used for transferring messages on internet.

Hardware Requirements
• Processor: min. 133MHz Rec. 733MHz
• RAM: min. 256MB Rec. 512MB

Other Requirements
• OS: 2k or 2k3 Server
• NTFS partition
• Static IP address
• Active Directory
• DNS installation with AD zone
• IIS installed with ASP.net, SMTP, NNTP and www service

3.12 Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model


OSI model is the layer approach to design, develop and implement network. OSI
provides following advantages: -
(i) Development of new technology will be faster.
(ii) Devices from multiple vendors can communicate with each other.
(iii) Implementation and troubleshooting of network will be easy.

3.12.1 Description of Different Layers


Application Layer
Application layer accepts data and forward into the protocol stack. It creates user
interface between application software and protocol stack.
Presentation Layer
This layer decides presentation format of the data. It also able to performs other
function like compression/decompression and encryption/decryption.
Session Layer
This layer initiate, maintain and terminate sessions between different applications.
Due to this layer multiple application software can be executed at the same time.

Transport Layer
Transport layer is responsible for connection oriented and connection less
communication. Transport layer also performs other functions like
(i) Error checking
(ii) Flow Control
Buffering
Windowing
Multiplexing
(iii) Sequencing
(iv) Positive Acknowledgement
(v) Response
(vi)
Network Layer
This layer performs function like logical addressing and path
determination. Each networking device has a physical address that is MAC
address. But logical addressing is easier to communicate on large size network.
Logical addressing defines network address and host address. This type of
addressing is used to simplify implementation of large network. Some
examples of logical addressing are: - IP addresses, IPX addresses etc.
Network layer has different routing protocols like RIP, EIGRP, BGP, and
ARP etc. to perform the path determination for different routing protocol.
Network layer also perform other responsibilities like defining quality of service,
fragmentation and protocol identification.
Data Link Layer
The functions of Data Link layer are divided into two sub layers
• Logical Link Control
• Media Access Control
(i) Logical Link Control defines the encapsulation that will be used by the
NIC to delivered data to destination. Some examples of Logical Link
Control are ARPA (Ethernet), 802.11 wi-fi.
(ii) Media Access Control defines methods to access the shared media and
establish the identity with the help of MAC address. Some examples of
Media Access Control are CSMA/CD, Token Passing.

Physical Layer
Physical Layer is responsible to communicate bits over the media this
layer deals with the standard defined for media and signals. This layer may also perform
modulation and demodulation as required.

3.13 ROUTERS
13.13.1 Router Architecture and its Key Component

LAN
Processor
I/O
Controller WAN
Memory
Controller RAM
Ports

BIOS
Flash
ROM
RAM
Incomplete O/S
IOS
IOS
NVRAM

Startup Configuration

Fig 18 : Architecture of router


Processor
Speed: - 20 MHz to 1GHz
Architecture: - RISC
Reduce Instruction set computer
Manufacturers: - Motorola, IBM, Power PC, Texas, Orion, Intel.

Flash RAM
Flash memory is just like a hard copy of the computer. Flash RAM is the
permanent read/write memory. This memory is used to store one or more copies
of router O/S. Router O/S is also called IOS (Internetwork Operating System).The
size of Flash RAM in the router is 4MB to 256MB. This memory is Electrically
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM).
NVRAM
NVRAM is a “Non Volatile Random Access Memory”. It is used to store
the startup configuration of the Router. It is on chip RAM, its size is 32kb.
RAM (Random Access Memory)
It is a volatile memory. All the activities we do are stored in RAM,this means that
it holds the running configuration. RAM of the router is divided into two logical
parts.
• Primary RAM
• Shared RAM

Primary RAM
Primary RAM is used for: -
(i) Running copy of IOS.
(ii) Running configuration
(iii) Routing table
(iv) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) table (IP address to MAC
address)
(v) Processor & other data structure
Shared RAM
Shared RAM is used as a buffer memory to shared the data received from
different interfaces. Size of RAM in a router may vary from 2 MB to 512 MB.
The types of memory that may be present in a RAM are:
(i) DRAM -> Dynamic RAM
(ii) EDORAM -> Extended Data Out RAM
(iii) SDRAM -> Synchronous Dynamic RAM

ROM (Random Access Memory)


It has four components:
• POST (Power on Self Test)
It performs hardware testing.
• BOOT Strap
Boot strap specifies from where and which inter operating system is to be
loaded.
• Mini IOS
Cisco 2500, 1600
• ROM MOW

333333 Router Interfaces & Ports


Interface is used to connect LAN networks or wan networks to the router.
Interface will use protocol stacks to send/receive data. Ports are used for the
configuration of routers. Ports are not used to connect different networks. The primary
purpose of port is the management of router.

33333333 Router Interface


Table 11: Router interfaces and connectors

AUI – Attachment Unit Interface


EPABX – Electronic Private Automatic Branch
PSTN – Public Services Telephone Network

3.13.2.2 Router Ports


Table 12: Router Ports
333333 Modes of Router
When we access router command prompt the router will display different modes.
According to the modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user.
User mode
Router>
In this mode, we can display basic parameter and status of the router we can test
connectivity and perform telnet to other devices. In this mode we are not able to change
and save router configuration.

Privileged mode
Router#
In this mode, we can display all information, configuration, perform administration task,
debugging, testing and connectivity with other devices. We are not able to perform here
configuration editing of the router.
The command to enter in this mode is ‘enable’. We have to enter enable
password or enable secret password to enter in this mode. Enable secret has more priority
than enable password. If both passwords are configured then only enable secret will
work.
Global configuration
Route(config)#
This mode is used for the configuration of global parameters in the router. Global
parameters applied to the entire router. All the changes are performed in this mode. But
here we cannot see and save the changes.
For e.g: - router hostname or access list of router, password, Banner, Routing, Security.
The command to enter in this mode is ‘configure terminal’

Line configuration mode


In this mode we can set the password of the user mode, i.e to set user mode
password .This mode is used to configure lines like console, vty and auxiliary. There are
main types of line that are configured.
(i) Console
Router(config)#line console 0
(ii) Auxiliary
Router(config)#line aux 0
(iii) Telnet or vty
Router(config)#line vty 0 4

Interface configuration mode


In this mode we can set ip addresses of the interfaces. This mode is used to
configure router interfaces. For e.g:- Ethernet, Serial, BRI etc.

Router(config)#interface <type> <number>


Router(config)#interface serial 1

Routing configuration mode


This mode is used to configure routing protocol like RIP, EIGRP, OSPF etc.
Router(config)#router <protocol> [<option>]
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config)#router eigrp 10
333333 Configuring Password
There are five types of password available in a router
Console Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line console 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit

To erase password do all steps with no command.


Vty Password
router>enable
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line vty 0 4
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit

Auxiliary Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line Aux 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit

Enable Password
router>enable
router#configure terminal
router(config)#enable password <word>
router(config)#exit
Enable Secret Password
Enable Password is the clear text password. It is stored as clear text in
configuration where as enable secret password is the encrypted password.
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#enable secret <word>
Router(config)#exit

Encryption all passwords


All passwords other than enable secret password are clear text password. The
command to encrypt all password are
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#service password-encryption
3.13.5 Managing Configuration
There are two types of configuration present in a router
(i) Startup Configuration
(ii) Running Configuration
Startup configuration is stored in the NVRAM. Startup configuration is used to
save settings in a router. Startup configuration is loaded at the time of booting in to the
Primary RAM.
Running Configuration is present in the Primary RAM wherever we run a
command for configuration, this command is written in the running configuration.

To save configuration
Router#copy running-configuration startup-configuration
Or
Router#write
To abort configuration
Router#copy startup-configuration running-configuration
To display running-configuration
Router#show running-configuration
To display startup configuration
Router#show startup-configuration

Configuring Host Name


Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#hostname <name>
<name>#exit or end or /\z
Router#config terminal
Router(config)#hostname r1
R1(config)#

Configuration Interfaces
Interfaces configuration is one of the most important part of the router
configuration. By default, all interfaces of Cisco router are in disabled mode. We have to
use different commands as our requirement to enable and configure the interface.
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#ip address <ip> <mask>
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit

To display interface status


Router#show interfaces (to show all interfaces)
Router#show interface <type> <no>
This command will display following parameters about an interface
(1) Status
(2) Mac address
(3) IP address
(4) Subnet mask
(5) Hardware type / manufacturer
(6) Bandwidth
(7) Reliability
(8) Delay
(9) Load ( Tx load Rx load)
(10) Encapsulation
(11) ARP type (if applicable)
(12) Keep alive

Configuring optional parameter on WAN interface


Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interfac <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#encapsulation <protocol>
Router(config-if)#clock rate <value>
Router(config-if)#end

Command displaying history of Router


• To display commands present in history
Router#show history
• To display history size
Router#show terminal
• To change history size
Router#config terminal
Router(config)#line console 0
Router(config-if)#history size <value(0-256)>
Router(config-if)#exit
Configuring Banners
Banners are just a message that can appear at different prompts according to the type.
Different banners are: -
• Message of the day (motd)
This banner appear at every access method
• Login
Appear before login prompt
• Exec
Appear after we enter to the execution mode
• Incoming
Appear for incoming connections

Syntax:-
Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner <type> <delimation char>Text Massage
<delimation char>
Router(config)#

Example
Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner motd $ This router is distribution 3600 router
connected to Reliance $
Router(config)#

To set time in router


We can configure router clock with the help of two methods:
(i) Configure clock locally
(ii) Configure clock on NTP server (Network Time Protocol)
Router does not have battery to save the clock setting. So that clock will reset to the
default on reboot.
To display clock
Router#show clock
To configure clock
Router#clock set hh:mm:ss day month year
Router#clock set 7:15:10 9 June 2009

To configure clock from NTP server


Router#config terminal
Router(config)#ntp server <IP address>
Router(config)#exit
C:\>ping pool.ntp.org
To get ntp server ip from internet
C:\>route print

3.14 SUBNETTING
Subnetting is a process or a technique to divide large and complex networks into
smaller parts or smaller networks and each network is called as subnet. Subnetting is
done to reduce the wastage of IP addresses ie instead of having a single huge network for
an organization smaller networks are created within a given huge network. Subnetting
allows the user to create multiple logical networks within a single Class A, B or C based
networks.
In subnetting, the IPv4 address is broken into two parts; network id and host id.
This process borrows bits from the host id field. In this process, the network size does not
shrink but the size of hosts per network shrinks in order to include sub-networks within
the network.

333333 Advantages of subnetting


• Size of the physical networks is reduced and hence easy to manage.
• Reduce network traffic.
• Easy to troubleshoot.
• Reduce the wastage of IP address.
Subnet Mask
A subnet mask specifies the part of IP address that is to be used for identifying a
sub network. A subnet mask when logically ANDed with IPaddress provides a 32- bit
network address. This binary address gives the first address in the subnet block specified
in the large network.
Default Mask
Classfull addresses consists of three classes; Class A, Class B, Class C used for
subnet.Each class has a default subnet mask C lass A consists of eight 1s in the network
address field and 24 0s in remaining field, Class B consists of 16 1s in network address
field and 16 0s in remaining field, and Class C cointains 24 1s in the network address
field and remaining 8 bytes as 0s. the default address mask in binary and dotted-decimal
is shown in the table

To Calculate the Subnet Mask


1. Identify the class of address assigned. For this example the class of IP address
is Class B.
2. check the default address mask for the appropriate class and convert it to
binary format .for this example the default address mask is 255.255.0.0 and
the equivalent binary format is; 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
3. check the no. of 1s in the default mask. E.g this address contains 16 1s in class
B, 16 bits 2 octat are for net id and the last 16 bits 2 octates are for host id.
4. now if we need 9 subnets. This no. 9 is not a power of 2. the next no. that is
power of 2 and greater than 2 is 16. So, we require 4 extra 4 extra 1s in the
network field which has to be borrowed from the host id field.
5. the total no. of 1s is 16+4=20, as 16 1s are from network id and 4 1s are of
additional bits required for subnetwork. The no. of 0s in the n/w is 32-20=12.
which defines whole address.
6. hence address is given as 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000 and in
decimal format can be given as 255.255.240.0
Table 14: decimal and binary values of subnet mask

Decimal
Binary

00000000
0
10000000
128
11000000
192
11100000
224
11110000
240
11111000
248
11111100
252
11111110
254
11111111
255
333333 Types of Subnetting
• Fixed Length Subnet Mask (FLSM)
• Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)

Steps of Subnetting for FLSM


For IP address 192.168.10.0 (Class C)
Step 1:
• Identify the total no. of subnets 2^n = no.of subnets
• Where n are the no.s and borrowed bytes from host ID portion. Let we are given
that we have to make 4 subnets. Therefore 2^n =4 i.e n=2

Step 2:
• To idettify the total no. of the valid hosts for each subnet.
• 2^m-2= no.of valid hosts. Where m are the remaining no. of bits in host ID 2^6-
2=62
Step 3:
• Calculate the subnet mask and range
• Subnet mask for n/w 192.168.10.0/26 is
11111111.11111111.11111111.1100000000 ie 255.255.255.192
• range=> 256-192=64
step 4:
• Identify the total no of subnets, no. of valid hosts and the broadcast address.
Table 15: showing subnet mask, valid hosts, broadcast address

Subnetwork Valid Host Broadcast Address

192.168.10.0 192.168.10.1 to
192.168.10.63 192.168.10.63

192.168.10.64 192.168.10.65 to
192.168.10.126 192.168.10.127

192.168.10.12 192.168.10.129 to
8 192.168.10.190 192.168.10.191

192.168.10.193 to
192.168.10.19 192.168.10.254 192.168.10.255
2

VLSM
In VLSM to allocate IP addresses to subnets depending upon the no. of hosts. The
network having more no of hosts is given priority and the one having least no of host
comes at last and for each network the subnet is assigned separately. As in the scenario
given:
Fig 19: variable subnet mask

3.15 TELNET
Telnet stands for terminal network, telephone network, terminal encapsulation on
the network. Purpose of Telnet is to access the remote device in order to configure it. It
provides textual access of the remote device. It uses the services of TCP. Telnet service is
used where small bandwidth is low. It provides textual access of the remote device. Port
number of Telnet is 23.

3.15.1 To Access the Device Remotely


For this purpose we have to assign the IP addresses to the PCs and the interfaces.
For Telnet the Routers are to be configured with RIP version1 , so that the device can
ping each other. Also DCE cable is used to connect the Routers. The serial link should
have the speed of 64K also apply vty password and enable secret password. Set up the
Routers so that they can manage via Telnet.
First of all select the PCs and the routers connect the ports to the router, double
click on router, switch off the router if it is on. Then select the serial port according to the
routers, switch on the router. Select the cable to connect the Routers. Router to Router
connections are made by the serial cable, so go on first Router select the serial port as
s0/1/0 in the scenario, then go to the other Router and connect the serial cable at interface
s1/0. Accordingly connect the third Router with interfaces s1/1 and s1/2.
Now connect the PCs to the routers, to do this first select the console cable, click on the
PC select RS232 option, then connect it on the Router and select console cable. Now
select cross- over cable on the PC select Fast Ethernet option and on the Router select
f0/0 option now as the PCs and Routers are connected to each other assign IP addresses
to the PCs and the Routers. According to the fig set the IP addresses of the PCs→ double
click on the PC→ choose the option of desktop→ IP configuration. Now set the IP
address, subnet mask, and the default gateway. Like wise set the IP address of all the
PCs. Now set the IP address of the interfaces of router.

3.15.2 Commands to assign IP addresses to the interfaces:


At Router1:
Router>
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown

Fig 20: scenario of Telnet


Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 40.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router(config-if)#no shutdown

Now to check the assigned IPaddresses to the interfaces the command used is
Router#show ip interface brief

At router 2:
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 20.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown

Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 40.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/1
Router(config-if)#ip address 50.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config)#interface s1/1
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
At router 3:
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 30.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown

Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 50.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown

To Telnet a device from Router


At all the Routers use these commands
Router(config)#line vty 0 4
Router(config-line)#password cobra
Router(config-line)#login
Router(config)#enable password cobra
Router(config)#enable secret cobra1

To telnet a device from router


Router#telnet <IP>
Or
Router>telnet <IP>

To exit from telnet session


Router#exit

To exit from a hanged telnet session


Ctrl+shft+6
Or
Router#disconnect

To display connected session


Router#show sessions
This command shows those sessions, which are created or connected by us.
If we want anyone can telnet our router without password then on the line vty type
command “No Login”.

3.16 ROUTING
Routing is a process or technique to identify the path from one network to
another. Routers don’t really care about hosts—they only care about networks and the
best path to each network.

To route the packet the router must know the following things:
• Destination network
• Neighbour device from witch it can learn about remote Networking.
• Possible number of routers to reach the destination.
• Best route to reach the destination.
• How to maintain & verify the routing information.

3.16.1 TYPES OF ROUTING


• Static routing.
• Default routing.
• Dynamic routing.

3.16.1.1 STATIC ROUTING


In static routing an administrator specifies all the routes to reach the destination.
Static routing occurs when you manually add routes in each router’s routing table.By default,
Static routes have an Administrative Distance (AD) of 1
Features
 There is no overhead on the router CPU.
 There is no bandwidth usage between routers.
 It adds security, because the administrator can choose to allow routing access to certain
networks only.

Advantages of static routing


(1) Fast and efficient.
(2) More control over selected path.
(3) Less overhead for router.
(4) Bandwidth of interfaces is not consumed in routing updates.

Disadvantages of static routing


(1) More overheads on administrator.
(2) Load balancing is not easily possible.
(3) In case of topology change routing table has to be change manually.

Syntax for Static Routing


Router (config)# ip route <destination N/w> <Subnet mask> <Next
Hope- address or exit interface> [<administrative distance>Permanent].

To check the routing table of router


Router # show ip route
Fig 21: scenario of static routing

Static routing of router (R1)


Router(config)#ip route 20.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.2
Router(config)#ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.2
Router(config)#ip route 50.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.2

Router(config)#interface so/1/0

Router(config)# clock rate 64000

Router # show ip route

Static routing of router (R2)


Router(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.1
Router(config)#ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 50.0.0.2
Router#show ip route
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config)# clock rate 64000
Router(config)#interface s1/1
Router(config)#clock rate 64000
Router#show ip route

Static routing of router (R3)


Router(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 50.0.0.1
Router(config)#ip route 20.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 50.0.0.1
Router(config)#ip route 40.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 50.0.0.1
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config)# clock rate 64000
Router#show ip route

3.16.1.2 DEFAULT ROUTING


Default routing is used to send packets with a remote destination network
not in the routing table to the next-hop route.
Default routing is also a type of static routing which reduces the routing
overhead & default routing is also used with stub networks. Stub networks are those
having a single exit interface. Default routing is also used for unknown destination.
A special address is used to perform the default routing ie 0.0.0.0
The scenario for default routing is same and but the commands used at the routers
having single exit interface like R1 and R3 have different commands.

At Router (R1)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 40.0.0.2
Router#show ip route
At Router (R3)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 50.0.0.1
Router#show ip route
3.16.1.3 DYNAMIC ROUTING
Dynamic routing is when protocols are used to find networks and update
routing table on routers.
A routing protocol defines the set of rules used by router when it communicates
routing information between neighbor routers. In dynamic routing, we will enable a
routing protocol on router. This protocol will send its routing information to the neighbor
router. The neighbors will analyze the information and write new routes to the routing
table.
The routers will pass routing information receive from one router to other
router also. If there are more than one path available then routes are compared and best
path is selected. Some examples of dynamic protocol are: -

RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF


There are two type of routing protocols used in internetwors:
• Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs)
IGPs are used to exchange routing information with routers in the same
Autonomous System(AS) number. Routing which is performed within a single
autonomous system is known as interior routing. The protocol that are used to perform
this type of routing are known as IGP(Interior Gateway Protocol).
These protocols are:-

(i) RIPv1 (Routing Information Protocol Version 1)


(ii) RIPv2 (Routing Information Protocol Version 2)
(iii) EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
(iv) OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
(v) IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System)

• Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs)


EGPs are used to communicate between different Autonomous System.
Protocol that used to do this type of routing are called exterior gateway protocols.
Autonomous System:- An autonomous system is a collection of networks under a
common administrative domain, which basically means that all routers sharing the same
routing table information are in the same AS.

3.16.2 Routing Protocol Basics


(i) Administrative Distances
(ii) Routing protocol
(iii) Routing Loops
• Administrative Distances
The Administrative Distance (AD) is used to rate the trustworthiness of routing
information received on a router from a neighbor router. An Administrative Distance is
an integer from 0 to 255, where 0 is the most trusted and 255 means no traffic will be
passed via this route.
If a router receives two updates listing he sane remote network, the first thing the router
checks is the AD. If one of the advertised routes has lower AD than the other, then the
route with the lowest AD will be placed in the routing table.If both advertised routes to
the same network have the same AD, then routing protocol metrics (such as hop count or
bandwidth of the lines) will be used to find the best path to the remote network. The
advertised route with the lowest metric will be placed in the routing table.
But if both advertised routes have the same AD as well as the same metrics, then the
routing protocol will load-balance in the remote network.
Route Source Default AD
Connected interface 0
Static Route 1
EIGRP 90
IGRP 100
OSPF 110
RIP 120
External EIGRP 170
Unknown 255 This route will never be used

3.16.2.1 Classes of Routing Protocols


There are three classes of Routing Protocol
(i) Distance vector protocol
(ii) Link state protocol
(iii) Hybrid protocol.

• Distance vector protocol


The Distance-vector protocols find the best path to remote network by
judging distance. Each time a packet goes through a router, that’s called a hop. The route
with the least number of hops to the network is determined to be the best route. The
vector indicates the direction to the remote network. They send the entire routing table to
directly connected neighbors.
Ex: RIP, IGRP.

 The distance-vector routing algorithm passes complete routing table contents to


neighboring routers.
 A router receiving an update from a neighbor router believes the information
about remote networks without actually finding out for itself.
 It’s possible to have network that has multiple links to the same remote network,
and if that’s the case, the administrative distance is checked first. If the AD is the
same, the protocol will have to use other metrics to determine the best path to use
to that remote network.

Fig 16: Routing table

Converged Network

Fig 23 : Routing table of covered networks


• Routing Loops
Distance-vector routing protocols keep track of any changes to the internet work
by broadcasting periodic routing updates out all active interfaces. This broadcast includes
the complete routing table.
Routing loops can occur because a every router isn’t updated simultaneously.

Routing Loops Example

Router A Router B Router C Router E

Network 3 Network 4 Network 5

Router D

Fig 24: Routing loops

The interface to Network 5 fails. All routers know about Network 5 from Router
E. Router A, in its tables, has a path to Network 5 through Router B.
When Network 5 fails, Router E tells Router C. This causes Router C to stop
routing to Network 5 through Router E. But Routers A, B, and D don’t know about
Network 5 yet, so they keep sending out update information. Router C will eventually
send out its update and cause B to stop routing to Network 5, but Routers A and D are
still not updated. To them, it appears that Network 5 is still available through Router B
with a metric of 3.The problem occurs when Router A sends out its regular 30-second
“Hello, I’m still here—these are the links I know about” message, which includes the
ability to reach Network 5 and now Routers B and D receive the wonderful news that
Network 5 can be reached from Router A, so Routers B and D then send out the
information that Network 5 is available. Any packet destined for Network 5 will go to
Router A, to Router B, and then back to Router A. This is a routing loop.

• Link state protocol


Also called shortest-path-first protocols, the routers each create three
separate tables. One keeps track of directly attached neighbors, one determines the
topology of the entire internet work, and one is used as the routing tables. Link state
routers know more about the internet work than any distance-vector routing protocol.
Link state protocols send updates containing the state of their own links to all other
routers on the network
Ex: OSPF

• Hybrid protocol
Hybrid protocol use aspects of both distance-vector and link state protocol.
Ex: EIGRP

3.16.3 RIP (Routing Information Protocol)


Routing Information Protocol is a true distance-vector routing protocol. It
is an IGB (Inter Gateway Protocol). It sends the complete routing table out to all active
interfaces every 30 seconds to its immediate neighbour. This is slow convergence means
that one router sends a request to other about its route or network get networks which are
not assigned to it after all thee three routers have same networks, this process is repeated
to send and receive request so it is called slow convergence
RIP only uses hop count to determine the best way to remote network, but
it has a maximum allowable hop count of 0-15 by default, meaning that 16 is deemed
unreachable.
RIP version 1 uses only class full routing, which means that all devices in
the network must use the same subnet mask.
RIP version 2 provides something called prefix routing, and does send
subnet mask information with the route updates. This is called classless routing.
• Hop Count
It is a way of measurement. Hop count limit is15.This routing supports only 15
routers, if there is one more router in the network then this routing will fails.

• Default administrative distance (120)


Timers of RIP
(i) Update timers.
(ii) Hold timers.
(iii) Invalid timers.
(iv) Flush out timers.
Route update timer
Router update timer sets the interval 30 seconds between periodic routing
updates, in which the router sends a complete copy of its routing table out to all
neighbors.
Router invalid timers
A router invalid timer determines the length of time that must elapse 180 seconds
before a router determines that a route has become invalid. It will come to this conclusion
if it hasn’t heard any updates about a particular route for that period. When that happens,
thee router will send out updates to all its neighbors letting them know that the route is
invalid.
Hold-down timer
This sets the amount of time during which routing information is suppressed.
Routers will enter into the hold-down state when an update packet is received that
indicated the route is unreachable. This continues until entire an update packet is received
with a better metric or until the hold-down timer expires. The default is 180 seconds.
Route flush timer
Route flush timers’ sets the time between a route becoming invalid and its interval
from the routing table 240 seconds. Before it’s removed from the table, the router notifies
its neighbors of that route’s impending demise. The value of the route invalid timer must
be less than that of the route flush timers.
Difference between RIPV1 & RIPV2

Steps to do routing (version 1)

At router 1
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
Router#show ip route

At router 2
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 40.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 50.0.0.0
Router#show ip route

At router 3
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 50.0.0.0
Router#show ip route

3.16.4 IGRP ( Interior Gateway Protocol)


Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a Cisco-proprietary distance-vector
routing protocol. To use IGRP, all your routers must be Cisco routers. IGRP has a
maximum hop count of 255 with a default of 100. IGRP uses bandwidth and delay of the
line by default as a metric for determining the best route to an internetwork. Reliability,
load, and maximum transmission unit (MTU) can also be used, although they are not
used by default.

Table 18 : Difference between IGRP and RIP


IGRP RIP
Can be used in large internetworks Works best in smaller networks

Uses an autonomous system number for Does not yse aytibiniys system numbers
activation
Gives a full route table update every 90 Gives full route table update every 30
seconds seconds
Has an administrative distance of 100 Has an administrative distance of 120

Uses bandwidth and delay of the line as Uses only hop count to determine the best
metric (lowest composite metric),with a path to a remote network, with 15 hops
maximum hop count of 255 being the maximum

IGRP Timers
To control performance, IGRP includes the following timers with default settings:

• Update timers
These specify how frequently routing-update messages should be sent. The
default is 90 seconds.

• Invalid timers
These specify how long a router should wait before declaring a route invalid if it
doesn’t receive a specific update about it. The default is three times the update period.

• Hold down timers


These specify the hold down period. The default is three times the update timer
period plus 10 seconds.

• Flush timers
These indicate how much time should pass before a route should be flushed from
the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update period. If the update timer
is 90 seconds by default, then 7 × 90 = 630 seconds elapse before a route will be flushed
from the route table.
At Router 1
R1(config)#router igrp 10
R1(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
R1(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
R1#show ip route
At Router 2
R2(config)#router igrp 10
R2(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
R2(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0
R2(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0
R2#show ip route

At Router 3
R1(config)#router igrp 10
R1(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0
R1(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0
R1#show ip route

3.16.5 EIGRP(Enhanced Interior Routing Protocol)


Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP) is a classless, enhanced distance-vector protocol
that gives us a real edge over IGRP. Like IGRP, EIGRP uses the concept of an
autonomous system to describe the set of contiguous routers that run the same routing
protocol and share routing information. But unlike IGRP, EIGRP includes the subnet
mask in its route updates. The advertisement of subnet information allows us to use
VLSM and summarization when designing our networks.
EIGRP is sometimes referred to as a hybrid routing protocol because it has
characteristics of both distance-vector and link-state protocols. It sends traditional
distance-vector updates containing information about networks plus the cost of
reaching them from the perspective of the adverting router. EIGRP has a maximum
hop count of 255.

Powerful features that make EIGRP a real standout from IGRP


• Support for IP, IPX, and AppleTalk via protocol-dependent modules Considered
classless (same as RIPv2 and OSP
• Support for VLSM/CIDR
• Support for summaries and discontiguous networks
• Efficient neighbor discovery
• Communication via Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP)
• Best path selection via Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)

Cisco calls EIGRP a distance vector routing protocol, or sometimes an


advanced distance vector or even a hybrid routing protocol. EIGRP supports different
Network layer protocols through the use of protocol-dependent modules (PDMs). Each
EIGRP PDM will maintain a separate series of tables containing the routing information
that applies to a specific protocol. It means that there will be IP/EIGRP tables,
IPX/EIGRP tables, and AppleTalk/EIGRP tables.

Neighbor Discovery
Before EIGRP routers are willing to exchange routes with each other, they must
become neighbors. There are three conditions that must be met for neighborship
establishment:
 Hello or ACK received
 AS numbers match
 Identical metrics (K values)

To maintain the neighborship relationship, EIGRP routers must also continue


receiving Hellos from their neighbors. EIGRP routers that belong to different
autonomous systems (ASes) don’t automatically share routing information and they don’t
become neighbors.
The only time EIGRP advertises its entire routing table is when it discovers a new
neighbor and forms an adjacency with it through the exchange of Hello packets. When
this happens, both neighbors advertise their entire routing tables to one another. After
each has learned its neighbor’s routes, only changes to the routing table are propagated
from then on.

EIGRP maintains three tables containing information about the internetworks.


(i) Neighbor Table
Records information about routers with whom neighborship relationships
have been formed.
(ii) Topology Table
Stores the route advertisements about every route in the internetwork received
from each neighbor.

EIGRP Metrics
Another really sweet thing about EIGRP is that unlike many other protocols that
use a single factor to compare routes and select the best possible path, EIGRP can use a
combination of four:

• Bandwidth
• Delay
• Load
• Reliability

3.16.6 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)


Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an open standards routing protocol that’s been
implemented by a wide variety of network vendors, including Cisco. This works by using
the Dijkstra algorithm. First, a shortest path tree is constructed, and then the routing table
is populated with the resulting best paths. OSPF converges quickly, although perhaps not
as quickly as EIGRP, and it supports multiple, equal-cost routes to the same destination.
But unlike EIGRP, it only supports IP routing.
OSPF is an IGP protocol. It is a link state routing protocol. It is supported by
many operating systems. Its default AD is 110, hop count limit is unlimited.
It is classless routing protocol, supports VLSM/CIDR. By default the highest IP address
of interface will be elected as Router id.

OSPF provides the following features


 Consists of areas and autonomous systems
 Minimizes routing update traffic
 Allows scalability
 Supports VLSM/CIDR
 Has unlimited hop count
 Allows multi-vendor deployment (open standard)

OSPF is supposed to be designed in a hierarchical fashion, which basically means


that you can separate the larger internetwork into smaller internetworks called areas. This
is the best design for OSPF.

The reasons for creating OSPF in a hierarchical design include:


• To decrease routing overhead
• To speed up convergence
• To confine network instability to single areas of the network

Each router in the network connects to the backbone called area 0, or the
backbone area. OSPF must have an area 0, and all routers should connect to this area if
at all possible. But routers that connect other areas to the backbone within an AS are
called Area Border Routers (ABRs). Still, at least one interface must be in area 0.
OSPF runs inside an autonomous system, but can also connect multiple
autonomous systems together. The router that connects these ASes together is called an
Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR).

OSPF Terminology
• Link
A link is a network or router interface assigned to any given network. When an
interface is added to the OSPF process, it’s considered by OSPF to be a link.
• Router ID
The Router ID (RID) is an IP address used to identify the router. Cisco chooses
the Router ID by using the highest IP address of all configured loopback interfaces. If no
loopback interfaces are configured with addresses, OSPF will choose the highest IP
address of all active physical interfaces.

• Neighbors
Neighbors are two or more routers that have an interface on a common
network,such as two routers connected on a point-to-point serial link.
• Adjacency
An adjacency is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the direct
exchange of route updates. OSPF is really picky about sharing routing information—
unlike EIGRP, which directly shares routes with all of its neighbors. Instead, OSPF
directly shares routes only with neighbors that have also established adjacencies. And not
all neighbors will become adjacent—this depends upon both the type of network and the
configuration of the routers.

OSPF Topologies database


The topology database contains information from all of the Link State
Advertisement packets that have been received for an area. The router uses the
information from the topology database as input into the Dijkstra algorithm that computes
the shortest path to every network. LSA packets are used to update and maintain the
topology database.
A Link State Advertisement (LSA) is an OSPF data packet containing link-state
and routing information that’s shared among OSPF routers. There are different types of
LSA packets. An OSPF router will exchange LSA packets only with routers to which it
has established adjacencies.
A designated router (DR) is elected whenever OSPF routers are connected to the
same multi-access network. A prime example is an Ethernet LAN.
A backup designated router (BDR) is a hot standby for the DR on multi-access
links The BDR receives all routing updates from OSPF adjacent routers, but doesn’t
flood LSA updates.

OSPF areas
An OSPF area is a grouping of contiguous networks and routers. All routers in the
same area share a common Area ID.

Broadcast (multi-access)
Broadcast (multi-access) networks such as Ethernet allow multiple devices to
connect to (or access) the same network, as well as provide a broadcast ability in which a
single packet is delivered to all nodes on the network. In OSPF, a DR and a BDR must be
elected for each broadcast multi-access network.

Non-broadcast multi-access
Non-Broadcast Multi-Access (NBMA) networks are types such as Frame Relay,
X.25, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). These networks allow for multi-access,
but have no broadcast ability like Ethernet. So, NBMA networks require special OSPF
configuration to function properly and neighbor relationships must be defined.

• Point-to-point
Point-to-point refers to a type of network topology consisting of a direct
connection between two routers that provides a single communication path. The point-to-
point connection can be physical, as in a serial cable directly connecting two routers, or it
can be logical.

• Point-to-multipoint
Point-to-multipoint refers to a type of network topology consisting of a series of
connections between a single interface on one router and multiple destination routers. All
of the interfaces on all of the routers sharing the point-to-multipoint connection belong to
the same network. As with point-to-point, no DRs or BDRs are needed.
SPF Tree Calculation
Within an area, each router calculates the best/shortest path to every network in
that same area. This calculation is based upon the information collected in the topology
database and an algorithm called shortest path first (SPF)
OSPF uses a metric referred to as cost. A cost is associated with every outgoing
interface included in an SPF tree. The cost of the entire path is the sum of costs of the
outgoing interfaces along the path.
Cisco uses a simple equation of 108/ bandwidth.The bandwidth is the configured
bandwidth for the interface. Using this rule, a 100Mbps Fast Ethernet interface would
have a default OSPF cost of 1 and a 10Mbps Ethernet interface would have a cost of 10.
An interface set with a bandwidth of 64,000 would have a default cost of 1563.

Benefits of OSPF
(i) Minimum routing updates.
(ii) Priorities on all the CISCO routers the priority is 1.
(iii) The routers having highest IP address become BRD(Border Destination
Router)

Steps to apply OSPF


Syntax:
Router(config)#router ospf <ospf process id>
Router(config-router)#network <network address> <wild card mask> area
<area number>
Fig 25: OSPF Scenario
At Router r1
Router(config)#router ospf 1
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router#show ip route

At Router r1
Router(config)#router ospf 2
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router#show ip route

At Router r3
Router(config)#router ospf 1
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router#show ip route
3.17 LAN SWITCHING

3.17.1 SWITCH
Switches are generally used to segment a large LAN smaller segments. Smaller
switches such as the Cisco Catalyst 2924XL have 24 ports capable of of creating 24
different network segment for the LAN. Larger switches such as the Cisco Catalyst 6500
can have hundreds of ports. Switches can also be used to connect LANs with different
media, for example, a 10 Mbps Ethernet LAN and 100 Mbps Ethernet LAN can be
connected using a switch. Some switches support cut through switching, witch reduces
latency and delays in the network, while bridges support only store-and-forward traffic
switching. Finally switches reduce collision on network segment . A switch is a
networking device which filters and forward packets through the network. It is a layer 2
device. It is more advanced then hub but not as advanced as router.The basic function of
a switch is to manage the signal flow. When the switch is open, it allows the signal to
flow through it and when it is closed, it stopes the signal to flow. Switch connects
separate LAN segment. It allows multiple system to transmit simultaneously. A switch is
a hardware device that filters and forward data packets between network segments.
Ethernet switches are used in LAN to create Ethernet networks. Switches forward the
traffic on the basis of MAC address. Switches maintain a switching table in which MAC
addresses and port numbers are used to perform switching decision.

WORKING OF SWITCH
When switches receives data from one of connected devices, it forward data only
to the port on witch the destinated system is connected.It use the media access Control
(MAC) address of the device to determine the correct port.The MAC address is a uniqe
number that is programed in to every Network Interface Card(NIC). Concider, device A
wants to send data to device B.When device A passes the data, switch receives it. Switch
than cecks the MAC address of the destination system. It then transfer data to device B
only instead of brodcasting to all the devices. By forwarding data only to the system to
witch the data is addressed, switch decreases the amount of traffic on each network link.

SWITCHING METHODS
There are three types of switching method:
• Store-and-forward switching
The entire frame is received and the CRC is computed and verified before
forwarding the frame. If the frame is too short (i.e. less than 64 bytes including the
CRC), too long (i.e. more than 1518 bytes including the CRC), or has CRC error, it
will be discarded.
It has the lowest error rate but the longest latency for switching. However, for
high-speed network (e.g. Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet network), the latency is
not significant. It is the most commonly used switching method, and is supported by
most switches.

• Cut-through switching
It is also known as Fast Forward switching. A frame is forwarded as soon as
the destination MAC address in the header has been received (the 1st 6 bytes
following the preamble). It has the highest error rate (because a frame is
forwarded without verifying the CRC and confirming there is no collision) but
the shortest latency for switching

• Fragment-free switching ( Modified Cut-through switching )


A frame is forwarded after the first 64 bytes of the frame have been
received. Since a collision can be detected within the first 64 bytes of a frame,
fragment-free switching can detect a frame corrupted by a collision and drop
it.Therefore, fragment-free switching provides better error checking than cut-
through switching.
The error rate of fragment-free switching is above store-and-forward
switching and below cut-through switching. The latency of fragment-free
switching is shorter than store-and- forward switching and longer than cut-
through switching.

NOTE:

Bridges only support store-and-forward switching. Most new switch models also
use store-and-forward switching. However, it should be noted that Cisco 1900 switches
use fragment-free switching by default.

Types of switch based on OSI model


(i) Layer-2 switch
(ii) Layer-3 switch

• Layer-2 Switching
Layer-2 switching is hardware based, which means it uses the MAC
address from the host NIC card to filter the network traffic. Layer-2 switch can be
considered as multi- port bridge.
Layer 2 switches are fast because they do not look at the network layer
header information, instead it looks at the frames hardware address before deciding to
either forward the frame or drop it.

Limitations of Layer 2 Switching


With bridge the connected networks are still one large broadcast domain.
Layer 2 switch cannot break the broadcast domain, this cause performance issue which
limits the size of your network. For this one reason the switch cannot completely replace
routers in the internetwork.

3.17.1.1 VLAN (Virtual LAN)


VLAN provides Virtual Segmentation of Broadcast Domain in the network. The
devices, which are member of same Vlan, are able to communicate with each other. The
devices of different Vlan may communicate with each other with routing. So that
different Vlan devices will use different n/w addresses.
Vlan provides following advantages: -

• Logical Segmentation of network


• Enhance network security

Creating port based Vlan


In port based Vlan, first we have to create a Vlan on manageable switch then we
have to add ports to the Vlan. A Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a broadcast domain created
based on the functional, security, or other requirements, instead of the physical locations
of the devices, on a switch or across switches. With VLANs, a switch can group different
interfaces into different broadcast domains. Without VLANs, all interfaces of a switch
are in the same broadcast domain; switches connected with each other are also in the
same broadcast domain, unless there is a router in between. Different ports of a switch
can be assigned to different VLANs. A VLAN can also span multiple switches.

The advantages of implementing VLAN are


• It can group devices based on the requirements other than their physical
locations.
• It breaks broadcast domains and increases network throughput.
• It provides better security by separating devices into different VLANs.
• Since each VLAN is a separate broadcast domain, devices in different VLANs
cannot listen or respond to the broadcast traffic of each other.
• Inter-VLAN communication can be controlled by configuring access control
lists on the router or Layer 3 switch connecting the VLANs.

Types of VLAN
• Static VLAN
Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the port numbers. It is easier to set
up and manage.
• Dynamic VLAN
Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the MAC addresses of the
devices connected to the ports.
A VLAN management application is used to set up a database of MAC addresses, and
configure the switches to assign VLANs to the switch ports dynamically based on the
MAC addresses of the connected devices. The application used by Cisco switches is
called VLAN Management Policy Server (VMPS).
Cisco switches support a separate instance of spanning tree and a separate bridge
table for each VLAN.

A VLAN = A Broadcast Domain = Logical Network (Subnet)

VLAN Operation
Fig 26: VLAN Operation
• Each logical VLAN is like a separate physical bridge.
• VLANs can span across multiple switches.
• Trunks carry traffic for multiple VLANs.
• Trunks use special encapsulation to distinguish between different VLANs.

VLAN links

There are two different types of links in a switched network:


• Access link
A link from Pc to switch is called as access link or A link that is part of only one
VLAN. Therefore, a port connecting to an access link can be a member of only one
VLAN. And the mode of port is called as access mode.

• Trunk link
A link from switch to switch or switch to router is called as trunk link. A 100
Mbps or 1000 Mbps point-to-point link that connects switches or routers, and carries
frames of different VLANs . Therefore, a port connecting to a trunk link can be a member
of multiple VLANs. All VLANs are configured on a trunk link by default. VLAN
Trunking, by making use of frame tagging, allows traffic from different VLANs to
transmit through the same Ethernet link (trunk link) across switches.

VLAN Trunking identifies the VLAN from which a frame is sent by tagging the
frame with the source VLAN ID (12-bit long). This feature is known as frame tagging or
frame identification. When there are multiple switches then we have to use trunk links to
connect one switch with other. If we are not using trunk links then we have to connect
one cable from each vlan to the corresponding vlan of the other switch.
With frame tagging, a switch knows which ports it should forward a broadcast
frame (forward out the ports which have the same VLAN ID as the source VLAN ID). It
also knows which bridge table it should use for forwarding an unicast frame (since a
separate bridge table is used for each VLAN).
A frame tag is added when a frame is forwarded out to a trunk link, and is
removed when the frame is forwarded out to an access link. Therefore, any device
attached to an access link is unaware of its VLAN membership.

Commands to create Vlan


Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#vlan <no.> [name <name of vlan>]
Switch(vlan)#exit

Commands to configure ports for a Vlan

By default, all ports are member of single vlan that is Vlan1. we can change vlan
membership according to our requirement.
Switch(config)#interface <type> <no.>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan <no.>
Switch(config-if)#exit

Commands to configure multiple ports in a vlan


Switch(config)#interface range <type> <slot/port no. (space)–(space) port no.>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan <no.>
Switch(config-if)#exit

Example: - Suppose we want to add interface fast Ethernet 0/10 to 0/18 in vlan5
Switch(config)#interface range fastethernet 0/10 – 18
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 5
Switch(config-if)#exit

To display mac address table


Switch#show mac-address-table
Vlan Mac address type ports
20 00-08-a16-ab-6a-7b dynamic fa0/7

To Display Vlan and port membership


Switch#show vlan brief

Command to make Trunk link


Switch(config)#interface <type> <type number>

Note :- Trunk mode should not be a member of any vlan port.

3.17.1.2 Vlan Trunking Protocol (VTP)


With the help of VTP, we can simplify the process of creating Vlan. In multiple
switches, we can configure one switch as VTP server and all other switches will be
configured as VTP client. We will create Vlans on VTP server switch. The server will
send periodic updates to VTP client switches. The clients will create Vlans from the
update received from the VTP server.
VTP Operation
• VTP advertisements are sent as multicast frames.
• VTP servers and clients are synchronized to the latest revision number.
• VTP advertisements are sent every 5 minutes or when there is a change.

VTP Modes
• VTP server mode
By default all the switches in this mode are in server mode. VTP server is a
switch in which we can create, delete or modify Vlans.yhe switch in this mode
forwords the vlans to next switch. The server will send periodic updates for VTP
clients.
• VTP client mode
On VTP client, we are not able to create, modify or delete Vlans. The switch
in this mode creates the vlans that are received from server mode switch.The client
will receive and forward vtp updates. The client will create same Vlans as defined in
vtp update.
• VTP Transparent mode
Transparent is a switch, which will receive and forward VTP update. It is able
to create, delete and modify Vlans locally. A vlan created in this mode cannot be
forworded into next switch. A transparent will not send its own VTP updates and will
not learn any information from received vtp update.

VTP configuration
At Switch 1:
• Creat vlan
• Port assignment
• Trunk port
• Switch vtp
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco
Switch(config)#vtp password sun

At switch 2:
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco
Switch(config)#vtp password sun

At switch 3:
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco
Switch(config)#vtp password sun
Fig 27 : VTP Configuration
To see all the configurations
Switch#show vtp password
Switch#show vlan brief
Switch#show vtp status
• Vtp version
• Vtp domain
• Vtp mode
• Vtp pruning
• Vtp reusion number
• Maximum vlan supporting
• Total no. of vlans

VTP Pruning
Pruning is the VTP feature through which a trunk link can be automatically
disable, for a particular Vlan if neighbor switch does not contain ports in that Vlan. Vlan1
is not prun eligible.
• Increases available bandwidth by reducing unnecessary flooded traffic
• Example: Station A sends broadcast, and broadcast is flooded only toward
any switch with ports assigned to the red VLAN
Command to configure VTP Pruning
We have to use only one command on VTP server for VTP Pruning.
Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#vtp pruning
Switch(config)#exit

Fig 28 : VTP Pruning

Spanning Tree Protocol


When we connect multiple switches with each other and multiple path exist from
one switch to another switch then it may lead to the switching loop in the network.
Multiple paths are used to create redundancy in the network. STP is only required when
multiple path exist then there is possibility of loop in n/w.

Problems that occur with redundancy path


(i) Multiple copies of the frame will be received by destination.
(ii) Frequent changes in the mac address table of switch.
(iii) A mac address may appear at multiple ports in a switch.
(iv) Packets may enter in the endless loop.
Spanning Tree Protocol will solve this problem by blocking the redundancy
interface. So that only one path will remain active in the switches. If the primary path
goes down then disabled link will become enable and data will be transferred through that
path.

Spanning Tree Protocol Basics


• Spanning Tree Protocol or STP (IEEE 802.1d) is used to solve the looping
problem.It runs on bridges and switches in a network. It implements a Spanning
Tree Algorithm (STA), which calculates a loop-free topology for the network.
• STP ensures that there is only one active path between any two network segments
by blocking the redundant paths. A redundant path is used only when the
corresponding active path failed. It is not used for load-balancing.
• Because STP solves the looping problem by blocking one or more links in a
network, the frames traveling between some source / destination devices may not
be able to use the shortest physical path.
• Bridges exchange STP information using messages called Bridge Protocol Data
Units (BPDUs) through Layer 2 multicast.

3.18 Wi-Fi (WIRELESS FIDELITY)


The term "Wi-Fi" suggests "Wireless Fidelity", compared with the long-
established audio recording term "High Fidelity" or "Hi-Fi". The term "Wi-Fi", first used
commercially in August 1999. Wi-Fi is an IEEE standard 802.11.

3.18.1 Wireless LAN

Wi-Fi is also known as wireless LAN. The name of a popular wireless


networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and
network connections. "Wi-Fi works with no physical wired connection between sender
and receiver by using radio frequency (RF) technology, a frequency within the
electromagnetic spectrum associated with radio wave propagation. When an RF current is
supplied to an antenna, an electromagnetic field is created that then is able to propagate
through space.

The Typical Range of a Wi-Fi LAN

The range of a home Wi-Fi LAN depends on the wireless access point (WAP) or
wireless router being used. Factors that determine a particular WAP or wireless router's
range are:

• the specific 802.11 protocol employed


• the overall strength of the device transmitter
• the nature of obstructions and interference in the surrounding area

A general rule of thumb in home networking says that 802.11b and 802.11g
WAPs and routers support a range of up to 150 feet (46 m) indoors and 300 feet (92 m)
outdoors. Another rule of thumb holds that the effective range of 802.11a is
approximately one-third that of 802.11b/g.
Obstructions in home such as brick walls and metal frames or siding greatly can
reduce the range of a Wi-Fi LAN by 25% or more. Because 802.11a employs a higher
signalling frequency than 802.11b/g, 802.11a is most susceptible to obstructions.
Interference from microwave ovens and other equipment also affects range. 802.11b and
802.11g are both susceptible to these.

3.18.2 Wireless Standards


The different wireless standards that are used for IEEE 802.11 standard are
Fig 29: IEEE 802.11 Standards

802.11
It was released in year 1997. The standard was original of 802.11. the max. data
rate of this is 2Mbps and frequency of this is 2.4GHz and can cover upto 46m.

802.11a

It was modified in year 1999. this is improved version of original standard.


Operates at the frequency of 5GHz, which is less crowded than 2.4GHz where telephones
and microwaves may cause interference. Although the speed is up to 54Mbps, the range
is only up to 75 feet or distance covered is 46m. 802.11a standard is incompatible with
both 802.11b and g because it operates at a different frequency.

802.11b
This standard was released in 1999. Operates on the 2.4GHz frequency band and
can transmit data at speeds of up to 11Mbps within a range of up to 100-150 feet or a
distance of 90m.Wireless range can be affected by reflective or signal-blocking obstacles,
such as mirrors, walls, devices and location, whether indoors or outdoors.

802.11g

This standard was released in 2003. The max. data rate for the standard is 54Mbps.
It supports a frequency range of 2.4GHz, covers a distance of 90m.

802.11n
The latest version of IEEE 802.11 standard that is still in progress of
development. The next generation of high-speed wireless networking, capable of
delivering the range and capacity to support today's most bandwidth-hungry applications
like streaming high definition video, voice, and music. Wireless-n is based on MIMO
(Multiple Input, Multiple Output) technology, which uses multiple radios to transmit
multiple streams of data over multiple channnels.
Operates in two modes of frequency 2.4GHz and 5.6GHz frequency band and
can transmit data at speeds of up to 11Mbps within a range of up to 100-150 feet .
Wireless range can be affected by reflective or signal-blocking obstacles, such as mirrors,
walls, devices and location, whether indoors or outdoors.

Wi-Fi is supported by many applications and devices


• video game consoles
• home networks
• PDAs
• mobile phones
• major operating systems
• other types of consumer electronics

3.18.3 Wireless Security

A common but unproductive measure to deter unauthorized users is to suppress the


AP's SSID broadcast, "hiding" it. This is ineffective as a security method because the
SSID is broadcast in the clear in response to a client SSID query. Another unproductive
method is to only allow computers with known MAC addresses to join the network.
MAC address are easily spoofed. If the eavesdropper has the ability to change his MAC
address, then he may join the network by spoofing an authorized address.

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encryption was designed to protect against casual
snooping, but is now considered completely broken. Tools such as AirSnort or aircrack
can quickly recover WEP encryption keys.
To counteract this in 2002, the Wi-Fi Alliance blessed Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
for wireless security. Though more secure than WEP, it has outlived its designed lifetime,
has known attack vectors and is no longer recommended.

In 2004 the full IEEE 802.11i (WPA2) encryption standards were released. If used with a
802.1X server or in pre-shared key mode with a strong and uncommon passphrase WPA2
is still considered secure, as of 2009.

4. CONCLUSION

General Conclusion
Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of
electronics and communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range. All the
organizations are using multiple computers within their departments to perform their day
to day work. Computer network allows the user to share data , share folders and files with
other users connected in a network. Computer Networking has bound the world in a very
small area with it wide networking processes like LAN, MAN, WAN.

Applications
• Communication Field
• Industries
• Medical Field
• Rearch Field
• Organisations
• School
• Colleges

REFRENCES
• www.goole.com
• www.jetkinginfotrain.com
• www.microsoft.com
• www.nythimes.com
• www.digitech-engineers.com
• Network Essentials module
• 4-in-1 MCSE study material
• Introduction to Window Server2003
• CISCO Cretified Network Associate
• Faruk Husain

You might also like