Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I feel deeply indedted to Mr. Baljit Singh, Microsoft trainer who delivered valuable
lesson on MCSE, his indepth knowledge about the subject helped me understand the
subject in better way. His method of teaching the minute details helped me a lot to
acquire the insight into the subject.
I am also grateful to Mr. Inder Gulati, CCNA trainer for giving best knowledge about
CCNA.the way he instilled knowledge of the subject was undoubtly praise worthy and
valuable.
I will be failing in my duty if I do not acknowledge my husband Mr. Nardev Singh Rana
who always stood by my side during my studies. I am indepted to my son’s Anirudh
Rana and Romil Rana who never clamed my time and get bore by my long absence rather
silent.
Last but not the least, I thank all my classmates at Jetking for extending kind
co-operation.
SAROJ DOGRA
List of Figures
Figure No. Name of Figure Page No.
1 Computer network 6
3 LAN Classification 9
7 Tree structure 25
9 Multi-Master Mode 37
12 ICS scenario 44
14 NAT Server 46
15 VPN server 48
16 LAN routing 52
17 Static routing 53
18 Architecture of router 60
20 Scenario of Telnet 76
22 Routing table 86
24 Routing loops 87
25 OSPF Scenario 99
26 VLAN Operation
105
27 VTP Configuration 110
List of tables
Table No. Name of table Page No.
CONTENTS
Sr. No. Topic Page No.
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Company Profile 1
2 LITERATURE RIEVIEW 5
3 NETWORKING 6
3.1 Introduction to networking 6
3.14 SUBNETTING 70
3.14.1 Advantages of subnetting 70
3.14.2 Types of Subnetting 73
3.15 TELNET 75
3.15.1 To Access the Device Remotely 75
3.15.2 Commands to assign IP addresses to the interfaces 76
3.16 ROUTING 79
3.16.1 TYPES OF ROUTING 79
3.16.2 Routing Protocol Basics 84
3.1.3 R IP (Routing Information Protocol) 88
3.1.4 IGRP ( Interior Gateway Protocol) 91
3.1.5 EIGRP(Enhanced Interior Routing Protocol) 93
3.1.6 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) 95
This project report pertains to six months industrial training that I had underwent
at JETKING, Chandigarh as part of curriculum of degree in Bachelor of technology in
Electronics and Communication engineering as required by Swami Parmanand College of
engineering and technology (affiliated to Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar) .
I learnt a lot from professional managers and skilled engineers. I had a great
learning experience as trainee in this firm. I learnt a lot about how different networks are
controlled in the industry or any department with the help of networking processes, under
MCSE and CCNA.
I have learnt about different type of servers like DHCP Server, DNS Server, NAT
Server. Also I have learnt how to control the LAN and MAN networks under MCSE
(Microsoft Certified System Engineers) and how to control MAN and WAN networks
under CCNA (CISCO Certified System Engineers).
Justification cannot be done to whatever I have learnt in these six months within a
few pages but I have still tried my best to cover as much as possible in this report. In this
report I have tried to sum up the technical knowledge I have gained in my six months of
training.
The courses in jetking comprises lecture and theory session, with a great focus on active
participation through smart lab plus ,that focuses on audio visual and learning with
hands-on training and equips students with an in depth domain knowledge that is
technical; it also equips students with soft skills ,to face the multi-faceted challenges of
corporate world.
3. NETWORKING
Cable/media
Table 1
Workgroup Domain
Types of LAN
In LANs, data can be transferred using techniques like token passing. As per
techniques used for data sharing, LANS are classified into Ethernet, Token Bus, Token
Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).Figure 3.3 shows LAN classification.
Disadvantages of LAN
a). limited number of computers are connected in a LAN.
b). LAN cannot cover large area.
c). Network performance degrades as the number of users exceeds.
IPv4 IPv6
Address Classes
Dynamic IP Addresses
Dynamic IP addresses are assigned to the devices that require temporary
connectivity to the network or non-permanent devices such as portable computer. The
most common protocol used for assigning Dynamic IP address is DHCP also called
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. The DHCP grants IP address to the computer on
lease basis.
Static IP Addresses
Static IP addresses are assigned to the device on the network whose existence in
the network remains for a longer duration. These static IP addresses are semi-permanent
IP addresses which remain allocated to a specific device for longer time e.g. Server.
► MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
► MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of an insulated copper conductor surrounded by a tube
shaped copper braid outer copper tune and the inner conductor have the same axis of
curvature hence it called coaxial cable. It is basically of two types:
56 Kbps
CAT-1
4 Mbps
CAT-2
10 Mbps
CAT-3
16-20 Mbps
CAT-4
100 Mbps
CAT-5
1Gbps
CAT-6
1Gbps
CAT-7
NOTE: Straight cable and Cross cables are used for data transfer but Rollover
cables are not used for data transfer.
There are two methods for manufacturing Rollover cables:
568A 568B
(i) DOS (Desktop Operating System) (ii) NOS (Network Operating System)
Table 8: Operating Systems
DOS NOS
Removed Features
• The ability of creating server disk automated system recovery (ASR) is used
instead .
3.5.1.3 FQD
FQDN means fully qualified domain name which represents a hostname appended to the
parent name space in hierarchy. Also in fully qualified domain name different levels of
namespace are visualize as in fig below this hierarchy is visualized─ the root level
namespace, top─ level domain, and so on, in use throughout the internet today. Left most
portion of the FQDN is the host portion of the name. A host name is alias we give to an
IP address.
Fig 6:To find location of a computer using FQDN
FQDN is a unique name in the computer on the network. We can identify host id and
location of a computer as in fig above. Suppose we want to find location of pc1 with
IP address 20.0.0.1, which is in lab2, 2nd floor in the organization center. The FQDN
for this is
Pc1.row3.lab2.floor2.center.com
But this address is very lengthy to locate pc1 so to simplify this we use “c name”
technique as:
Pc1.center.com=20.0.0.1
3.5.1.4 Domain Namespace
DNS operates in what is known as DNS namespace. The DNS namespace is an
organized, hierarchical division of DNS names. Domain namespace enable users to easily
locate the network services and resources. The domain namespace include the root
domain, the top level domain of the organization and organize these domain in a
hierarchical tree structure. Namespace works on the hierarchical tree structure of root
domain. There are total 13 root domain working in the internet, they are A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H, I, J, K, L and M. There is one root domain, which acts as the starting point of the
fully qualified domain names. This root domain is designated with a dot (.). Fig 6.2
shows the tree structure or domain namespace.
These specify the name servers that are authoritative for a given portion
of DNS namespace. These records are essential when DNS servers are performing
iterative queries to perform name resolution.
Exclusion IP range
If you want to reserve some IP for any computer i.e if we want that from the series of
192.168.0.2 to 192.168.0.100 if we want that a series of IP addresses must not be
assigned automatically then at can be done using exclusive IP range.
IP Reservation
There are some DHCP clients that you want to be the DHCP clients, but you will also
want to make sure that they get same IP address every time. This can be done by
statically filling the IP address. We can reserve IP address with the help of MAC address
for a particular computer.
Workgroup Domain
Active Directory uses domain to hold objects, each domain has security boundary.
Users must authenticates to the domain in which their users account resides before they
can access resources, such as a shared folders. Active Directory also links related
domains in a hierarchical structure and users can access resources in any of the domain in
which their user account resides. The hierarchical structures of related domain is called a
tree, and all domains in the tree share the same Domain Name System (DNS) namespace.
All the domains and the trees in a single organization are called a forest. All domains in
the forest share same schema.
Domain Forest
Domain Tree
A domain tree is made up when there is a parent child relationship between the domain
in the forest. The child domain includes the complete parent domain name. a tree is a set
of two or more domains sharing common namespace e.g we can create a parent domain
and then child domain like mail.yahoo.com; where mail- child domain, yahoo- parent
domain.
Fig 8: Structure of domain forest and domain tree
Organization Unit (OU)
Organization unit is the smallest unit in a domain network that can contain users,
computer groups, shared folders, printers and group policy object in simple words. OU
means department like sale department, accounts department like sales, accounts in a
company OU can be used to apply different security policies to computer and users in
different department. OU also helps in dividing administration among different
administrator of managing only computer and users of sales department.
First of all install the active directory on pc1 i.e on the parent domain. Now make Tom
user on it. On pc2 create the child domain, then make users on it, user- Ram
Below are the steps to cerate child domain.
Make the client member by entering particular user with its domain name.
• First right click on My Computer
• Properties
• Computer name
• Change
• Write domain name →ok
ADSL modem has IP address 192.168.1.1. All the PCs are assigned with a DNS
(Domain Name Server) and GW (gateway) -192.168.1.1. Also DHCP (Dynamic Host
Communication Protocol) is enabled which will provide IP addresses to the PCs
automatically.
Note:- When we configure ICS then the local card detect 192.168.0.1 address
automatically.
How to configure ICS
• Open network and sharing center
• Network- Properties
• Click on Manage network connections
• Right click on LAN Card which is used for internet- Properties
• Click on sharing
• Enable ICS
• Ok
• yes
3.8.3 Win Proxy Server
Win Proxy is a third party software which is used for sharing internet and we can
also block the web site with the help of win proxy. WIN Proxy supports all the three
classes A, B, C also it is supported by all operating systems. The scenario for WIN proxy
is shown below:
In win proxy as shown in the scenario above we can share internet. First of all a ADSL
modem is connected to the ISP (Internet Service Provider) by a RJ-11 connector and
other end of ADSL modem is connected to the PC1 through RJ-45. Assign IP address
192.168.1.1 to the ADSL modem also enable the DHCP server and set the start IP
address of 192.168.1.2 and end IP address of 192.168.1.254. Then after ADSL modem
connect PC1, assign GW 192.168.1.1 and
When deploying NAT, it is needed to configure setting on both the client side
and the server side. On the server side of NAT fill the IP address statically.
3.8.4.1 Steps to enable NAT server
• Open internet → Tools→ Internet options
• connections→ LAN settings
• untick the IP and port address
• ok→ ok→ give site name
With the client side configured, there are few things to do on NAT server:
The first step to configure NAT server is to actually install the Routing and Remote
Access Services. To do this, start the Routing and Remote Access Service Setup Wizard.
• Start→ administrator tools→ Routing & Remote Access
• Right click on My Computer→ right click on computer name
• Select option Configure and enable routing & remote access
• Welcome to routing → next→ next
• Select NAT→ next
• Select LAN card which is to be connected to internet
• next→ next
From any of the four methods of internet sharing only method is used at a
time to remove the other method
• go to start→ setting
• add & remove
• change/ remove, tick on remove.
VPN Client
VPN clients establish connection to VPN server. They can also be routers that
obtain the router-to-router secure connection. VPN client software is included in all the
modern window operating systems, including Window 2003 server. Router-to router
VPN connection can be made from computers running server2003 and Windows 2000
running Routing and Remote Access. Additionally, any client that support PPTP or
L2TP connections can be VPN clients of a window server 2003 system.
WAN Options
These provide the physical mechanism for passing data back and forth. These
connections typically include such similar network technologies such as T1or frame
relay. In order for VPN connections to be successful, the VPN client and VPN server
must be connected to each other using either permanent WAN connection or by dialing
into an internet server provider (ISP).
Security Options
Since a VPN uses a network that is generally open to the public, it is important
that the data passed over the connection remain secure. To aid with secure
communication routing and remote access supports such security measure as logon and
domain security, data encryption, smart cards, IP packet filtering and caller ID.
3.9.2 Types of VPN
(i) PPTP (Point to Point Tunneling Protocol )
(ii) L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol) according to CCNA.
3.10 ROUTING
It is a process of transferring information through an inter network i.e from one
network to another. Routing connect different networks having ID help in process of
routing. The dial-in properties also allow for specific IP address to be assigned to a user.
This is the only way in Window Server 2003 that you can assign a specific IP to a user.
To assign a specific IP to a user, check the box next to assign A Static IP Address and
enter a valid IP in the space provided. Static routing can also be specified as per user. By
defining static routes, users can be limited to only specific parts of networks.
In an internetwork a router must then about all the networks present in the for
effort websites, there are hardware routers like CISCO. Even win 2003 server computer
configured as router. In simple words Router is a computer with two network cards.
These two network cards, then, are attached to two different logical IP networks. The
routing table helps direct traffic that is passed through the router.
Now when there is a router, also there is a routing table, there is a need to
configure the router in order for that router to pass along traffic to the proper network.
There are two ways the routing table can be built and modified: either manually or
automatically.
3.10.1 Types of Routing
(i) Static Routing
(ii) Dynamic Routing
3.10.1.1 Static Routing
In this routing information required for routing is manually entered into the router
by administrator.
How to configure LAN routing
• Enter the static IP in the router
• Administrator tools
• Routing and Remote access
• Right click on computer name (pcc1)
• Configure and enable routing and remote access
• next→ custom configuration
• select LAN routing→next→ finish
• yes and logon to see IP table route
(i) RIP version1 and version2, with the ability to configure individual
network cards with separate versions.
(ii) Calculations used to avoid routing loops and speed recovery of the
network whenever topology changes occur.
(iii) Route filters; you can configure RIP to except information from
only certain networks, and also choose which routes will be shared
with RIP routers.
(iv) Peer filters, which allow control over which router announcements
are accepted.
(v) Simple password authentication support.
But there are significant drawbacks, which makes RIP a poor, if not unusable
solution for large networks. For example, the maximum hop count used for RIP routers
is15, making network 16 hops away (or more) unreachable where RIP is concerned.
Where SP stands for Service Pack. Service Pack are the services which are loaded
externally to remove some bugs that come during installation of server CD.
3.11.3 Requirements for Exchange Server
Protocols Required
• POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
This protocol is used for receiving e- mails.
• IMAE4 (Internet Messaging Access Protocol)
This protocol is advance version of POP, this is also used to receive mail.
• LMTP (Local Mail Transfer Protocol)/SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
This protocol is used to send mails.
• NNTP (Network News Transfer protocol)
This protocol is used for transferring messages on internet.
Hardware Requirements
• Processor: min. 133MHz Rec. 733MHz
• RAM: min. 256MB Rec. 512MB
Other Requirements
• OS: 2k or 2k3 Server
• NTFS partition
• Static IP address
• Active Directory
• DNS installation with AD zone
• IIS installed with ASP.net, SMTP, NNTP and www service
Transport Layer
Transport layer is responsible for connection oriented and connection less
communication. Transport layer also performs other functions like
(i) Error checking
(ii) Flow Control
Buffering
Windowing
Multiplexing
(iii) Sequencing
(iv) Positive Acknowledgement
(v) Response
(vi)
Network Layer
This layer performs function like logical addressing and path
determination. Each networking device has a physical address that is MAC
address. But logical addressing is easier to communicate on large size network.
Logical addressing defines network address and host address. This type of
addressing is used to simplify implementation of large network. Some
examples of logical addressing are: - IP addresses, IPX addresses etc.
Network layer has different routing protocols like RIP, EIGRP, BGP, and
ARP etc. to perform the path determination for different routing protocol.
Network layer also perform other responsibilities like defining quality of service,
fragmentation and protocol identification.
Data Link Layer
The functions of Data Link layer are divided into two sub layers
• Logical Link Control
• Media Access Control
(i) Logical Link Control defines the encapsulation that will be used by the
NIC to delivered data to destination. Some examples of Logical Link
Control are ARPA (Ethernet), 802.11 wi-fi.
(ii) Media Access Control defines methods to access the shared media and
establish the identity with the help of MAC address. Some examples of
Media Access Control are CSMA/CD, Token Passing.
Physical Layer
Physical Layer is responsible to communicate bits over the media this
layer deals with the standard defined for media and signals. This layer may also perform
modulation and demodulation as required.
3.13 ROUTERS
13.13.1 Router Architecture and its Key Component
LAN
Processor
I/O
Controller WAN
Memory
Controller RAM
Ports
BIOS
Flash
ROM
RAM
Incomplete O/S
IOS
IOS
NVRAM
Startup Configuration
Flash RAM
Flash memory is just like a hard copy of the computer. Flash RAM is the
permanent read/write memory. This memory is used to store one or more copies
of router O/S. Router O/S is also called IOS (Internetwork Operating System).The
size of Flash RAM in the router is 4MB to 256MB. This memory is Electrically
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM).
NVRAM
NVRAM is a “Non Volatile Random Access Memory”. It is used to store
the startup configuration of the Router. It is on chip RAM, its size is 32kb.
RAM (Random Access Memory)
It is a volatile memory. All the activities we do are stored in RAM,this means that
it holds the running configuration. RAM of the router is divided into two logical
parts.
• Primary RAM
• Shared RAM
Primary RAM
Primary RAM is used for: -
(i) Running copy of IOS.
(ii) Running configuration
(iii) Routing table
(iv) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) table (IP address to MAC
address)
(v) Processor & other data structure
Shared RAM
Shared RAM is used as a buffer memory to shared the data received from
different interfaces. Size of RAM in a router may vary from 2 MB to 512 MB.
The types of memory that may be present in a RAM are:
(i) DRAM -> Dynamic RAM
(ii) EDORAM -> Extended Data Out RAM
(iii) SDRAM -> Synchronous Dynamic RAM
Privileged mode
Router#
In this mode, we can display all information, configuration, perform administration task,
debugging, testing and connectivity with other devices. We are not able to perform here
configuration editing of the router.
The command to enter in this mode is ‘enable’. We have to enter enable
password or enable secret password to enter in this mode. Enable secret has more priority
than enable password. If both passwords are configured then only enable secret will
work.
Global configuration
Route(config)#
This mode is used for the configuration of global parameters in the router. Global
parameters applied to the entire router. All the changes are performed in this mode. But
here we cannot see and save the changes.
For e.g: - router hostname or access list of router, password, Banner, Routing, Security.
The command to enter in this mode is ‘configure terminal’
Auxiliary Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line Aux 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
Enable Password
router>enable
router#configure terminal
router(config)#enable password <word>
router(config)#exit
Enable Secret Password
Enable Password is the clear text password. It is stored as clear text in
configuration where as enable secret password is the encrypted password.
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#enable secret <word>
Router(config)#exit
To save configuration
Router#copy running-configuration startup-configuration
Or
Router#write
To abort configuration
Router#copy startup-configuration running-configuration
To display running-configuration
Router#show running-configuration
To display startup configuration
Router#show startup-configuration
Configuration Interfaces
Interfaces configuration is one of the most important part of the router
configuration. By default, all interfaces of Cisco router are in disabled mode. We have to
use different commands as our requirement to enable and configure the interface.
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#ip address <ip> <mask>
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit
Syntax:-
Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner <type> <delimation char>Text Massage
<delimation char>
Router(config)#
Example
Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner motd $ This router is distribution 3600 router
connected to Reliance $
Router(config)#
3.14 SUBNETTING
Subnetting is a process or a technique to divide large and complex networks into
smaller parts or smaller networks and each network is called as subnet. Subnetting is
done to reduce the wastage of IP addresses ie instead of having a single huge network for
an organization smaller networks are created within a given huge network. Subnetting
allows the user to create multiple logical networks within a single Class A, B or C based
networks.
In subnetting, the IPv4 address is broken into two parts; network id and host id.
This process borrows bits from the host id field. In this process, the network size does not
shrink but the size of hosts per network shrinks in order to include sub-networks within
the network.
Decimal
Binary
00000000
0
10000000
128
11000000
192
11100000
224
11110000
240
11111000
248
11111100
252
11111110
254
11111111
255
333333 Types of Subnetting
• Fixed Length Subnet Mask (FLSM)
• Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
Step 2:
• To idettify the total no. of the valid hosts for each subnet.
• 2^m-2= no.of valid hosts. Where m are the remaining no. of bits in host ID 2^6-
2=62
Step 3:
• Calculate the subnet mask and range
• Subnet mask for n/w 192.168.10.0/26 is
11111111.11111111.11111111.1100000000 ie 255.255.255.192
• range=> 256-192=64
step 4:
• Identify the total no of subnets, no. of valid hosts and the broadcast address.
Table 15: showing subnet mask, valid hosts, broadcast address
192.168.10.0 192.168.10.1 to
192.168.10.63 192.168.10.63
192.168.10.64 192.168.10.65 to
192.168.10.126 192.168.10.127
192.168.10.12 192.168.10.129 to
8 192.168.10.190 192.168.10.191
192.168.10.193 to
192.168.10.19 192.168.10.254 192.168.10.255
2
VLSM
In VLSM to allocate IP addresses to subnets depending upon the no. of hosts. The
network having more no of hosts is given priority and the one having least no of host
comes at last and for each network the subnet is assigned separately. As in the scenario
given:
Fig 19: variable subnet mask
3.15 TELNET
Telnet stands for terminal network, telephone network, terminal encapsulation on
the network. Purpose of Telnet is to access the remote device in order to configure it. It
provides textual access of the remote device. It uses the services of TCP. Telnet service is
used where small bandwidth is low. It provides textual access of the remote device. Port
number of Telnet is 23.
Now to check the assigned IPaddresses to the interfaces the command used is
Router#show ip interface brief
At router 2:
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 20.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 40.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/1
Router(config-if)#ip address 50.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config)#interface s1/1
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
At router 3:
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 30.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router#
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface s1/0
Router(config-if)#ip address 50.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
3.16 ROUTING
Routing is a process or technique to identify the path from one network to
another. Routers don’t really care about hosts—they only care about networks and the
best path to each network.
To route the packet the router must know the following things:
• Destination network
• Neighbour device from witch it can learn about remote Networking.
• Possible number of routers to reach the destination.
• Best route to reach the destination.
• How to maintain & verify the routing information.
Router(config)#interface so/1/0
At Router (R1)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 40.0.0.2
Router#show ip route
At Router (R3)
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 50.0.0.1
Router#show ip route
3.16.1.3 DYNAMIC ROUTING
Dynamic routing is when protocols are used to find networks and update
routing table on routers.
A routing protocol defines the set of rules used by router when it communicates
routing information between neighbor routers. In dynamic routing, we will enable a
routing protocol on router. This protocol will send its routing information to the neighbor
router. The neighbors will analyze the information and write new routes to the routing
table.
The routers will pass routing information receive from one router to other
router also. If there are more than one path available then routes are compared and best
path is selected. Some examples of dynamic protocol are: -
Converged Network
Router D
The interface to Network 5 fails. All routers know about Network 5 from Router
E. Router A, in its tables, has a path to Network 5 through Router B.
When Network 5 fails, Router E tells Router C. This causes Router C to stop
routing to Network 5 through Router E. But Routers A, B, and D don’t know about
Network 5 yet, so they keep sending out update information. Router C will eventually
send out its update and cause B to stop routing to Network 5, but Routers A and D are
still not updated. To them, it appears that Network 5 is still available through Router B
with a metric of 3.The problem occurs when Router A sends out its regular 30-second
“Hello, I’m still here—these are the links I know about” message, which includes the
ability to reach Network 5 and now Routers B and D receive the wonderful news that
Network 5 can be reached from Router A, so Routers B and D then send out the
information that Network 5 is available. Any packet destined for Network 5 will go to
Router A, to Router B, and then back to Router A. This is a routing loop.
• Hybrid protocol
Hybrid protocol use aspects of both distance-vector and link state protocol.
Ex: EIGRP
At router 1
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
Router#show ip route
At router 2
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 40.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 50.0.0.0
Router#show ip route
At router 3
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 50.0.0.0
Router#show ip route
Uses an autonomous system number for Does not yse aytibiniys system numbers
activation
Gives a full route table update every 90 Gives full route table update every 30
seconds seconds
Has an administrative distance of 100 Has an administrative distance of 120
Uses bandwidth and delay of the line as Uses only hop count to determine the best
metric (lowest composite metric),with a path to a remote network, with 15 hops
maximum hop count of 255 being the maximum
IGRP Timers
To control performance, IGRP includes the following timers with default settings:
• Update timers
These specify how frequently routing-update messages should be sent. The
default is 90 seconds.
• Invalid timers
These specify how long a router should wait before declaring a route invalid if it
doesn’t receive a specific update about it. The default is three times the update period.
• Flush timers
These indicate how much time should pass before a route should be flushed from
the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update period. If the update timer
is 90 seconds by default, then 7 × 90 = 630 seconds elapse before a route will be flushed
from the route table.
At Router 1
R1(config)#router igrp 10
R1(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
R1(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
R1#show ip route
At Router 2
R2(config)#router igrp 10
R2(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0
R2(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0
R2(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0
R2#show ip route
At Router 3
R1(config)#router igrp 10
R1(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0
R1(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0
R1#show ip route
Neighbor Discovery
Before EIGRP routers are willing to exchange routes with each other, they must
become neighbors. There are three conditions that must be met for neighborship
establishment:
Hello or ACK received
AS numbers match
Identical metrics (K values)
EIGRP Metrics
Another really sweet thing about EIGRP is that unlike many other protocols that
use a single factor to compare routes and select the best possible path, EIGRP can use a
combination of four:
• Bandwidth
• Delay
• Load
• Reliability
Each router in the network connects to the backbone called area 0, or the
backbone area. OSPF must have an area 0, and all routers should connect to this area if
at all possible. But routers that connect other areas to the backbone within an AS are
called Area Border Routers (ABRs). Still, at least one interface must be in area 0.
OSPF runs inside an autonomous system, but can also connect multiple
autonomous systems together. The router that connects these ASes together is called an
Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR).
OSPF Terminology
• Link
A link is a network or router interface assigned to any given network. When an
interface is added to the OSPF process, it’s considered by OSPF to be a link.
• Router ID
The Router ID (RID) is an IP address used to identify the router. Cisco chooses
the Router ID by using the highest IP address of all configured loopback interfaces. If no
loopback interfaces are configured with addresses, OSPF will choose the highest IP
address of all active physical interfaces.
• Neighbors
Neighbors are two or more routers that have an interface on a common
network,such as two routers connected on a point-to-point serial link.
• Adjacency
An adjacency is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the direct
exchange of route updates. OSPF is really picky about sharing routing information—
unlike EIGRP, which directly shares routes with all of its neighbors. Instead, OSPF
directly shares routes only with neighbors that have also established adjacencies. And not
all neighbors will become adjacent—this depends upon both the type of network and the
configuration of the routers.
OSPF areas
An OSPF area is a grouping of contiguous networks and routers. All routers in the
same area share a common Area ID.
Broadcast (multi-access)
Broadcast (multi-access) networks such as Ethernet allow multiple devices to
connect to (or access) the same network, as well as provide a broadcast ability in which a
single packet is delivered to all nodes on the network. In OSPF, a DR and a BDR must be
elected for each broadcast multi-access network.
Non-broadcast multi-access
Non-Broadcast Multi-Access (NBMA) networks are types such as Frame Relay,
X.25, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). These networks allow for multi-access,
but have no broadcast ability like Ethernet. So, NBMA networks require special OSPF
configuration to function properly and neighbor relationships must be defined.
• Point-to-point
Point-to-point refers to a type of network topology consisting of a direct
connection between two routers that provides a single communication path. The point-to-
point connection can be physical, as in a serial cable directly connecting two routers, or it
can be logical.
• Point-to-multipoint
Point-to-multipoint refers to a type of network topology consisting of a series of
connections between a single interface on one router and multiple destination routers. All
of the interfaces on all of the routers sharing the point-to-multipoint connection belong to
the same network. As with point-to-point, no DRs or BDRs are needed.
SPF Tree Calculation
Within an area, each router calculates the best/shortest path to every network in
that same area. This calculation is based upon the information collected in the topology
database and an algorithm called shortest path first (SPF)
OSPF uses a metric referred to as cost. A cost is associated with every outgoing
interface included in an SPF tree. The cost of the entire path is the sum of costs of the
outgoing interfaces along the path.
Cisco uses a simple equation of 108/ bandwidth.The bandwidth is the configured
bandwidth for the interface. Using this rule, a 100Mbps Fast Ethernet interface would
have a default OSPF cost of 1 and a 10Mbps Ethernet interface would have a cost of 10.
An interface set with a bandwidth of 64,000 would have a default cost of 1563.
Benefits of OSPF
(i) Minimum routing updates.
(ii) Priorities on all the CISCO routers the priority is 1.
(iii) The routers having highest IP address become BRD(Border Destination
Router)
At Router r1
Router(config)#router ospf 2
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config)#interface s0/1/0
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
Router#show ip route
At Router r3
Router(config)#router ospf 1
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router#show ip route
3.17 LAN SWITCHING
3.17.1 SWITCH
Switches are generally used to segment a large LAN smaller segments. Smaller
switches such as the Cisco Catalyst 2924XL have 24 ports capable of of creating 24
different network segment for the LAN. Larger switches such as the Cisco Catalyst 6500
can have hundreds of ports. Switches can also be used to connect LANs with different
media, for example, a 10 Mbps Ethernet LAN and 100 Mbps Ethernet LAN can be
connected using a switch. Some switches support cut through switching, witch reduces
latency and delays in the network, while bridges support only store-and-forward traffic
switching. Finally switches reduce collision on network segment . A switch is a
networking device which filters and forward packets through the network. It is a layer 2
device. It is more advanced then hub but not as advanced as router.The basic function of
a switch is to manage the signal flow. When the switch is open, it allows the signal to
flow through it and when it is closed, it stopes the signal to flow. Switch connects
separate LAN segment. It allows multiple system to transmit simultaneously. A switch is
a hardware device that filters and forward data packets between network segments.
Ethernet switches are used in LAN to create Ethernet networks. Switches forward the
traffic on the basis of MAC address. Switches maintain a switching table in which MAC
addresses and port numbers are used to perform switching decision.
WORKING OF SWITCH
When switches receives data from one of connected devices, it forward data only
to the port on witch the destinated system is connected.It use the media access Control
(MAC) address of the device to determine the correct port.The MAC address is a uniqe
number that is programed in to every Network Interface Card(NIC). Concider, device A
wants to send data to device B.When device A passes the data, switch receives it. Switch
than cecks the MAC address of the destination system. It then transfer data to device B
only instead of brodcasting to all the devices. By forwarding data only to the system to
witch the data is addressed, switch decreases the amount of traffic on each network link.
SWITCHING METHODS
There are three types of switching method:
• Store-and-forward switching
The entire frame is received and the CRC is computed and verified before
forwarding the frame. If the frame is too short (i.e. less than 64 bytes including the
CRC), too long (i.e. more than 1518 bytes including the CRC), or has CRC error, it
will be discarded.
It has the lowest error rate but the longest latency for switching. However, for
high-speed network (e.g. Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet network), the latency is
not significant. It is the most commonly used switching method, and is supported by
most switches.
• Cut-through switching
It is also known as Fast Forward switching. A frame is forwarded as soon as
the destination MAC address in the header has been received (the 1st 6 bytes
following the preamble). It has the highest error rate (because a frame is
forwarded without verifying the CRC and confirming there is no collision) but
the shortest latency for switching
NOTE:
Bridges only support store-and-forward switching. Most new switch models also
use store-and-forward switching. However, it should be noted that Cisco 1900 switches
use fragment-free switching by default.
• Layer-2 Switching
Layer-2 switching is hardware based, which means it uses the MAC
address from the host NIC card to filter the network traffic. Layer-2 switch can be
considered as multi- port bridge.
Layer 2 switches are fast because they do not look at the network layer
header information, instead it looks at the frames hardware address before deciding to
either forward the frame or drop it.
Types of VLAN
• Static VLAN
Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the port numbers. It is easier to set
up and manage.
• Dynamic VLAN
Assigning VLANs to switch ports based on the MAC addresses of the
devices connected to the ports.
A VLAN management application is used to set up a database of MAC addresses, and
configure the switches to assign VLANs to the switch ports dynamically based on the
MAC addresses of the connected devices. The application used by Cisco switches is
called VLAN Management Policy Server (VMPS).
Cisco switches support a separate instance of spanning tree and a separate bridge
table for each VLAN.
VLAN Operation
Fig 26: VLAN Operation
• Each logical VLAN is like a separate physical bridge.
• VLANs can span across multiple switches.
• Trunks carry traffic for multiple VLANs.
• Trunks use special encapsulation to distinguish between different VLANs.
VLAN links
• Trunk link
A link from switch to switch or switch to router is called as trunk link. A 100
Mbps or 1000 Mbps point-to-point link that connects switches or routers, and carries
frames of different VLANs . Therefore, a port connecting to a trunk link can be a member
of multiple VLANs. All VLANs are configured on a trunk link by default. VLAN
Trunking, by making use of frame tagging, allows traffic from different VLANs to
transmit through the same Ethernet link (trunk link) across switches.
VLAN Trunking identifies the VLAN from which a frame is sent by tagging the
frame with the source VLAN ID (12-bit long). This feature is known as frame tagging or
frame identification. When there are multiple switches then we have to use trunk links to
connect one switch with other. If we are not using trunk links then we have to connect
one cable from each vlan to the corresponding vlan of the other switch.
With frame tagging, a switch knows which ports it should forward a broadcast
frame (forward out the ports which have the same VLAN ID as the source VLAN ID). It
also knows which bridge table it should use for forwarding an unicast frame (since a
separate bridge table is used for each VLAN).
A frame tag is added when a frame is forwarded out to a trunk link, and is
removed when the frame is forwarded out to an access link. Therefore, any device
attached to an access link is unaware of its VLAN membership.
By default, all ports are member of single vlan that is Vlan1. we can change vlan
membership according to our requirement.
Switch(config)#interface <type> <no.>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan <no.>
Switch(config-if)#exit
Example: - Suppose we want to add interface fast Ethernet 0/10 to 0/18 in vlan5
Switch(config)#interface range fastethernet 0/10 – 18
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 5
Switch(config-if)#exit
VTP Modes
• VTP server mode
By default all the switches in this mode are in server mode. VTP server is a
switch in which we can create, delete or modify Vlans.yhe switch in this mode
forwords the vlans to next switch. The server will send periodic updates for VTP
clients.
• VTP client mode
On VTP client, we are not able to create, modify or delete Vlans. The switch
in this mode creates the vlans that are received from server mode switch.The client
will receive and forward vtp updates. The client will create same Vlans as defined in
vtp update.
• VTP Transparent mode
Transparent is a switch, which will receive and forward VTP update. It is able
to create, delete and modify Vlans locally. A vlan created in this mode cannot be
forworded into next switch. A transparent will not send its own VTP updates and will
not learn any information from received vtp update.
VTP configuration
At Switch 1:
• Creat vlan
• Port assignment
• Trunk port
• Switch vtp
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco
Switch(config)#vtp password sun
At switch 2:
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco
Switch(config)#vtp password sun
At switch 3:
Switch(config)#vtp mode server
Switch(config)#vtp domain cisco
Switch(config)#vtp password sun
Fig 27 : VTP Configuration
To see all the configurations
Switch#show vtp password
Switch#show vlan brief
Switch#show vtp status
• Vtp version
• Vtp domain
• Vtp mode
• Vtp pruning
• Vtp reusion number
• Maximum vlan supporting
• Total no. of vlans
VTP Pruning
Pruning is the VTP feature through which a trunk link can be automatically
disable, for a particular Vlan if neighbor switch does not contain ports in that Vlan. Vlan1
is not prun eligible.
• Increases available bandwidth by reducing unnecessary flooded traffic
• Example: Station A sends broadcast, and broadcast is flooded only toward
any switch with ports assigned to the red VLAN
Command to configure VTP Pruning
We have to use only one command on VTP server for VTP Pruning.
Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#vtp pruning
Switch(config)#exit
The range of a home Wi-Fi LAN depends on the wireless access point (WAP) or
wireless router being used. Factors that determine a particular WAP or wireless router's
range are:
A general rule of thumb in home networking says that 802.11b and 802.11g
WAPs and routers support a range of up to 150 feet (46 m) indoors and 300 feet (92 m)
outdoors. Another rule of thumb holds that the effective range of 802.11a is
approximately one-third that of 802.11b/g.
Obstructions in home such as brick walls and metal frames or siding greatly can
reduce the range of a Wi-Fi LAN by 25% or more. Because 802.11a employs a higher
signalling frequency than 802.11b/g, 802.11a is most susceptible to obstructions.
Interference from microwave ovens and other equipment also affects range. 802.11b and
802.11g are both susceptible to these.
802.11
It was released in year 1997. The standard was original of 802.11. the max. data
rate of this is 2Mbps and frequency of this is 2.4GHz and can cover upto 46m.
802.11a
802.11b
This standard was released in 1999. Operates on the 2.4GHz frequency band and
can transmit data at speeds of up to 11Mbps within a range of up to 100-150 feet or a
distance of 90m.Wireless range can be affected by reflective or signal-blocking obstacles,
such as mirrors, walls, devices and location, whether indoors or outdoors.
802.11g
This standard was released in 2003. The max. data rate for the standard is 54Mbps.
It supports a frequency range of 2.4GHz, covers a distance of 90m.
802.11n
The latest version of IEEE 802.11 standard that is still in progress of
development. The next generation of high-speed wireless networking, capable of
delivering the range and capacity to support today's most bandwidth-hungry applications
like streaming high definition video, voice, and music. Wireless-n is based on MIMO
(Multiple Input, Multiple Output) technology, which uses multiple radios to transmit
multiple streams of data over multiple channnels.
Operates in two modes of frequency 2.4GHz and 5.6GHz frequency band and
can transmit data at speeds of up to 11Mbps within a range of up to 100-150 feet .
Wireless range can be affected by reflective or signal-blocking obstacles, such as mirrors,
walls, devices and location, whether indoors or outdoors.
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encryption was designed to protect against casual
snooping, but is now considered completely broken. Tools such as AirSnort or aircrack
can quickly recover WEP encryption keys.
To counteract this in 2002, the Wi-Fi Alliance blessed Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
for wireless security. Though more secure than WEP, it has outlived its designed lifetime,
has known attack vectors and is no longer recommended.
In 2004 the full IEEE 802.11i (WPA2) encryption standards were released. If used with a
802.1X server or in pre-shared key mode with a strong and uncommon passphrase WPA2
is still considered secure, as of 2009.
4. CONCLUSION
General Conclusion
Computer Networking is a very vast project in the present developing era of
electronics and communication. Now a days, computers are used in a wider range. All the
organizations are using multiple computers within their departments to perform their day
to day work. Computer network allows the user to share data , share folders and files with
other users connected in a network. Computer Networking has bound the world in a very
small area with it wide networking processes like LAN, MAN, WAN.
Applications
• Communication Field
• Industries
• Medical Field
• Rearch Field
• Organisations
• School
• Colleges
REFRENCES
• www.goole.com
• www.jetkinginfotrain.com
• www.microsoft.com
• www.nythimes.com
• www.digitech-engineers.com
• Network Essentials module
• 4-in-1 MCSE study material
• Introduction to Window Server2003
• CISCO Cretified Network Associate
• Faruk Husain