Eduqas A Level Geography

Weather and Climate

Unit 1: Global Controls on Climate

TRICELLULAR CIRCULATION MODEL

Key Themes
 Structure of the atmosphere
 The atmospheric heat budget
 Processes of global atmospheric circulation
 Distribution of the world’s high and low pressure belts and their impact
on planetary surface winds
 Oceanic circulation and its impact on climate
 The regional impacts of continentality and altitude on climate
 Introduction to Weather and Climate
What is the difference between weather and climate?
Weather
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere for a specific location for a short period of time.

Climate
Climate is the long term predictable patterns of the conditions in the atmosphere.

Activity 1
Look out of the window.
(a) Describe the weather in as much detail as possible

(b) Will the weather be the same:

- 100 miles away?
- Tomorrow?

Activity 2
(a) Using the graph, describe
the climate of the Birmingham:

Temperature:

Precipitation:

(b) What doesn’t the graph tell you about the climate of Birmingham?
Structure of the
Atmosphere
The Earth’s atmosphere is
not a single layer but is
divided into 4 main zones
extending from the
Earth’s surface outwards
to a distance of 1000km:
 Troposphere

 Stratosphere

 Mesosphere

 Thermosphere

Each Layer has its

own distinct characteristics.

Activity 3
Use the diagram and following website below to complete the table below, summarising
the main characteristics of each layer in the atmosphere.
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/geography/introduction-to-weather-and-climate/revise-
it/heating-of-the-atmosphere

Layer Characteristics
Troposphere Altitude range (m):
Temperature change:
Upper boundary name:
Stratosphere Altitude range (m):
Temperature change:
Important layer:
Upper boundary name:
Mesosphere Altitude range (m):
Temperature change:
Upper boundary name:
Thermosphere Altitude range (m):
Temperature change:
Where does the weather occur?
The most important layer in terms of weather and climate is
the Troposphere layer.
A thin band extending to an average distance of just 12km,
the troposphere contains 75% of total atmosphere’s mass.

The weight of the atmosphere is referred to as ‘atmospheric

pressure’ which is measured in ‘millibars’ or mb.

Activity 4
Watch the Ian Stewart Video as he travels through the
troposphere to the stratosphere
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rn3R8cLkD5k

Activity 5
(a) Use the resource below to identify the 3 gases which make up over 99% of the
atmosphere:
Importance Gas Percentage
1st
2nd
3rd

(b) List some of the other constituents of the atmosphere:

The Atmospheric Heat Budget
The sun is the energy source that drives the weather and climate systems in the
troposphere.
The incoming energy from the sun is in the form of light energy (shortwave radiation). This
energy is referred to as insolation (incoming solar radiation).
Only about half of the insolation reaching the outer atmosphere reaches and is absorbed by
Earth’s surface. As the energy passes through the atmosphere some reflected and scattered
back into space whilst some is absorbed in the atmosphere.
Once absorbed the energy is converted into heat energy (long wave radiation). The energy
absorbed by the Earth’s surface radiates outwards and passes to the atmosphere by various
processes and ultimately goes back into space.
This concept is shown below in the Heat Budget Diagram:

32 28

Activity 6
Watch the animations of the process on the web link and hyperlink below:

https://www.gao.gov/images/earth_energy.swf
M:\Subjects\Geography\Climate Change animations\Energy budget.swf
 Activity 7
Apart from absorption within the troposphere, which other layer plays an important role
in the role in absorbing insolation?

What is ‘latent heat’ and ‘sensible heat’?

You can see from the diagram above, that some heat energy is transferred to the
atmosphere from the ground surface through the process of latent heat and sensible heat.
What is latent heat?
Put simply, this is the energy involved when water changes from one state to
another ie gas to liquid, solid to liquid, etc. This concept is shown below:

Activity 8
In the Heat Budget Diagram, 24 units of energy are involved in transferring energy
from the surface to the atmosphere. What is this process of transfer commonly
known as?

What is sensible heat?

Put simply, this is the transfer of energy by the processes of conduction and
convection. Convection occurs due to differences in air temperature. When the
Earth’s surface heats the air above it by conduction the warmed air expands,
becomes less dense and rises. Pockets of rising air are otherwise known as thermals.
 Activity 9. Use the Heat Budget Diagram to calculate the following:

(a) What % of insolation is absorbed in the atmosphere?

(b) What % of insolation is reflected and scattered back to space?

(c) Account for the 28% of outgoing longwave radiation from clouds:

(d) Account for the 32 % of outgoing longwave radiation from water vapour, Carbon
Dioxide and Ozone:

Regional Differences in the Energy Budget

The % figures used in the Energy Budget Diagram are global averages and do not represent
every location on the planet. Variations in the atmosphere and conditions at the surface will
change the % figures absorbed at the Earth’s surface.

Activity 10.
Think of reasons why:
(a) some places will have a higher or lower % of insolation reaching the
surface

https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/GlobalMaps/view.php?d1=MODAL2_M_CLD_FR

(b) some places will have a higher or lower % of insolation being reflected from the
surface (albedo).

http://climate.ncsu.edu/edu/k12/.albedo
Latitudinal Differences in the Amount of Insolation Received
As you will be aware the Equator is hotter than the Poles. But why is this? The simple
answer is that the Equator receives more intense insolation than the Poles.
The key reasons for this difference is due to the angle of incidence.

The angle of incidence is the angle of the isolation relative to the Earth’s surface. This is
important as it will control:
- the spread of insolation over the surface
- the amount of atmosphere insolation passes through
-
Spread of Insolation:
http://www.eram.k12.ny.us/education/components/docmgr/default.php?sectiondetailid=17500&fileitem=2798&catfilter=451

At the Equator insolation strikes the Earth’s

surface at right angles (90o) and consequently
the energy is concentrated over a small
surface area.

At 60o North or South the insolation

strikes the surface at an acute angle of
just 30o; the insolation is spread over a
larger surface area and consequently is
less intense. At this latitude the surface
receives only half of the energy from the
sun compared to the Equator.
Amount of Atmosphere Insolation Passes Through
The amount of atmosphere through which insolation has to pass through before reaching the
Earth’s surface varies with latitude.

Activity 11.

(a) On the diagram below, continue the lines of insolation through the atmosphere
to the Earth’s surface

Atmosphere

Earth
Equator

(b) What do you notice about the thickness of atmosphere through which insolation
passes?

(c) How does this affect the intensity of insolation received at the Earth’s surface?
(look back at the Heat Budget diagram)
Latitudinal Heat Budgets
Because the intensity of insolation varies with latitude, the heat budget also varies. The
consequence of this is:
 low latitudes between 35o North and 35o South receive more energy from insolation
than they lose from outgoing radiation and therefore have a net positive energy balance
 higher latitudes above 35o North and 35o South receive less energy from insolation than
they lose from outgoing radiation and therefore have a net negative energy balance

This relationship is shown in the diagrams below:

Activity 12.
In theory what should happen to the
temperature of areas with:

(a) positive energy balance?

(b) negative energy balance?

Does this actually happen?

Global Transfer of Energy
The low latitudes of do not continually heat up and
the high latitudes do not continually cool down.
This is because the temperatures are regulated by
global transfers of energy from low latitudes to high
latitudes from two main mechanisms:

 Global Atmospheric Circulation

 Ocean Currents

Global Atmospheric Circulation

Heat is transferred from the low latitudes to the high latitudes by convection currents in the
atmosphere. NOTE:
Simply put: This is a
 intense insolation, around the simplification of
Equator heats the Earth’s reality. The actual
surface circulation is
 the air here is heated by explained on the
conduction following pages.
 the less dense heated air
expands and rises.

 air cools in the upper

troposphere and becomes
denser
 The denser air sinks to the
surface

 A convection cell is therefore

created transferring heat from
the low latitudes to the high latitudes
The Tricellular Model – the actual global atmospheric circulation
The reality of atmospheric circulation is more complex. A simple single convection cell does
not exist as the Earth is not a flat surface but a spinning sphere.
There are 3 convection cells in each hemisphere hence the name tricelluar (three cells).
You need to understand the following in relation to this diagram:
 Zones of high and low pressure
 Surface wind directions

TRICELLULAR CIRCULATION MODEL

Activity 13.

Watch the video and animation below to visualise what is happening in the model:
Moodle Video: 7.45 to 9.50
M:\Subjects\Geography\Climate Change animations\Atmos circulation.swf
Understanding High and Low Pressure
Areas of high and low atmospheric pressure is created by differences in temperature of the
air.
 Low pressure occurs where warm air rises up through the atmosphere
 High Pressure occurs where cold air descends down through the atmosphere

Winds are created between pressure zones and blow:

 From high pressure to low pressure at the surface
 From low pressure to high pressure in the upper troposphere

Weather conditions are in part controlled by pressure systems:

 In low pressure where air rises, the air cools, moisture condenses and clouds form
 In high pressure where air descends, the air warms resulting in clear skies
If we now relate this to the
Tricellular model:

Activity 14. Draw and label the following on the Earth outline below:
o 0
• Key Latitudes: Equator, 30 , 60 , Poles
• Around the left hand edge of the diagram draw the atmospheric convection cells
(Hadley Cells, Ferrel Cells and Polar Cells). Use red for warm air and blue for cold air
• On the right hand side of the diagram label: Equatorial low pressure , sub-tropical
high pressure, sub-polar low pressure, polar high pressure
• On the diagram between the key latitudes label: Direction of surface winds
Understanding the Direction of Surface Winds - The Coriolis Effect
In the tricellular model we established that over the Earth’s surface winds
move from an area of high pressure (where air is descending) to an area of low
pressure (where air is rising).
This concept is shown below:

However unlike the flat stationary surface of the table above, the Earth is a spinning sphere.
The spinning of the Earth affects the direction of the wind due to the ‘Coriolis Effect’.

Activity 15.
Watch the videos below to see the Coriolis Effect in action:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_36MiCUS1ro

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bsufq2y_FVA
The Coriolis Effect on Surface Winds:

Key

Theoretical
wind
direction

Actual wind
direction due
to Coriolis
Effect

So wind spirals out of a high pressure area and spirals into a low pressure area:

Note.
This diagram is for the northern
hemisphere where:
- Winds spiral clockwise out of a
high pressure
- Winds spiral anti-clockwise into a
low pressure

The directions are reversed in the

southern hemisphere.
 Activity 16. Testing Your Understanding
Account for the pattern of surface received insolation shown on the map below:

Activity 17. Watch the video to introduce next part of this Unit:

Moodle: Planet Earth 2. Temperature (15 min programme)

Ocean Currents
Study the map below showing the main ocean currents of the world.

Activity 18.

(a) Explain how their pattern plays a role in the transfer of energy.

(b) What effect does the warm North Atlantic Drift Current have on the climate of the UK?
Continentality
Continentality refers to the difference in climate resulting from a location be located within
the centre of a large land mass.

Activity 19.
(a) Using the map below to help you, identify which areas of the planet might have a
continental climate?

(b) How do you think the climate near the centre of a continent might be different
compared to coastal regions?
Continentality and Temperature

Activity 20.
Study the temperature (average max and min) graphs below for Vancouver and Winnipeg in
Canada.
Both cities are located on the same latitude, however Vancouver is coastal and Winnipeg is
inland.

Compare the temperature patterns between the two locations:

Why does Continentality affect climate?
The reason that locations near the coast and locations inland are different is due to ‘Specific
Heat Capacity’.
Specific heat capacity ids the amount of energy required to raise 1 gram of a substance by
1oC.

Water has to absorb 4.184 Joules of heat for the temperature of one gram of water to
increase 1 °C.
In contrast one gram of land needs to absorb just 1 Joule of energy for the same increase in
temperature.

The effect on this is that water heats up slowly but also cools down slowly. Whereas land
heats up more rapidly and cools down rapidly

Activity 21.
Watch the video below that shows this process being demonstrated in lab conditions:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SpFPOtvGjRw

Continentality and Precipitation

The amount of precipitation of any location is
controlled by a range of factors:
 Latitude and atmospheric
pressure
 Altitude
 Wind direction
 Continentality

Activity 22.
Describe and account for the pattern of precipitation in Australia
Altitude and Climate
This section is revision from Unit 2 of the Water and Carbon Cycles

Altitude affects the following:

 Temperature
 Precipitation

Temperature and Altitude

If you look back at the ‘Structure of
the Atmosphere’ diagram at the
start of this unit you noted that in
the Troposphere temperature
decreases with altitude.

Activity 23. Using the graph below, if the temperature at sea level (0m) is 15 oC
what would the temperature be at:
 4000m
 8000m

This change in temperature with altitude is known as a ‘lapse rate’.

In the troposphere the lapse rate is a decrease in temperature of between 6.5 to 9.8 oC for
every 1000m increase in altitude.
The reason for the range in temperature decrease is related to the moisture content
(humidity) of the air. Moist air cools less quickly as condensation (water vapour turning back
to water droplets) releases latent heat and slows down the rate of cooling.
Altitude and Global Average Temperature

Activity 22. The map below shows global average temperature. Identify on the map
locations with a low average temperature caused by altitude.

Precipitation and Altitude

Activity 24. Look at the topographical and average rainfall maps of the UK below.
Describe the relationship between the these maps.
 Activity 25.

Using the information on ‘orographic (relief) rainfall’ in Unit 2 of the Water Cycle and the
diagrams at the bottom of the page, annotate the blank diagram below to explain the
difference in rainfall levels through a cross section across northern England.

Altitude and Aspect

Altitude also creates slope with different aspect.
Activity 26. Explain the difference in climate between north and south facing slopes
in the UK
Unit Summary
You should now have a good understanding of the concepts and processes that control
weather.
This knowledge will be applied in Unit 2 and 3 where you will study global and UK weather
patterns.

Activity 27.
In this Unit many new terms have been used. Complete the glossary of key terms below:

Term Definition
Troposphere

Atmospheric
Pressure
Insolation

Latent heat

Albedo

Thermal

Low Pressure

High Pressure

Hadley, Ferrel and

Polar Cells
Coriolis Effect

Continentality

Lapse Rate

Orographic Rainfall