MODELING A TRANSFORMER WITH DOBLE M SERIES INSTRUMENTS

Long Pong
Doble Engineering

1. ABSTRACT

This paper illustrates a technique to directly measure transformer impedance components for modeling a
transformer, verifying the transformer characteristics, studying system transients, and assessing the
transformer condition. It presents a transformer model, and the means by which the author was able to both
measure and calculate the model’s impedance components. The test results in this paper were all obtained
using Doble M series instruments. A circuit and two transformers are modeled as case studies. The tests
include a LC model circuit, a GE 2.4 kV oil filled core-form transformer and a Westinghouse 220 kV oil
filled shell-form transformer. The analysis and test results are provided including the excitation, voltage
and symmetrical impedance components, which consist of RLC networks. This paper will bring to light an
additional use of M series instruments, as tools with which to model and study transformer characteristics.

2. TRANSFORMER MODELING
Transformers are tested many times throughout their lifetime by different groups who have different
interests. At the factory, the tests are typically for quality control, compliance, or performance verification.
At the site, the tests are performed to verify that the unit has not sustained any damage in transit, matches
factory performance and to establish test baseline. During operating life, the tests are for condition
monitoring. Many sets of field test data are gathered by the transformer operators or owner, and are often
used only for maintenance or condition assessment purposes. Field tests commonly performed on a
transformer winding and their respective, measured electrical test parameters are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Common field tests
Field Tests Measured Parameters
1 Overall Insulation CH, CHL, CL
2 Excitation current Lex*, Rex*, Cex**
3 Turn Ratio (TTR) A = NH / NL
4 Leakage Reactance Test (LRT) RAC and XLRT
5 Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) Resonance frequencies, Cs**
6 DC winding resistance RHDC and RLDC
* Maximum test voltage are 10 kV or below. ** Values calculated from the test results

When we examine the parameters that are provided in Table 1, we realize that they contain valuable
information about the network impedance components of the transformer, as shown in Figure 1 for a
typical single-phase, two-winding transformer.
CsH CsL
CHL

rH xH xL rL

CH NH NL CL
Rex Lex Cex

Ideal

Figure 1 Simplified equivalent RLC circuit for single-phase two-winding transformer

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 1

All Rights Reserved
The black line traces what is commonly known as the impedance circuit of the two-winding transformer
while the blue line corresponds to the capacitance circuit. The components in Figure 1 represent the
following:
• rH and rL are the resistances of the High and Low voltage windings respectively;
• xH and xL are the leakage reactances of the high and low voltage windings respectively;
• Rex, Lex and Cex are the impedance components of excitation: conductance, susceptance and
capacitance respectively;
• NH and NL are the turn numbers of high and low voltage windings respectively. “a” is the ratio NH / NL;
• CH, CL and CHL are overall insulation capacitances of the high-voltage, low-voltage and inter
windings respectively;
• CsH and CsL are series-distributed capacitances of the high- and low-voltage windings, see Figure 4.

If we refer all of the components to either the high- or the low-voltage side of the transformer, the circuit in
Figure 1 becomes that in either Figures 2 or 3.

CsH CsL / a2 CsH CsL / a2

CHL CHL
rH xH a2xL 2
a rL rH xH a2xL a2rL

CH CL/ a2 CH CL/ a2
Rex Lex Cex Rex Lex Cex

a) Open circuit b) Short-circuit

Figure 2 Simplified equivalent RLC circuit referred to HV side
a2 CsH CsL a2 CsH CsL
CHL CHL
rH /a2 xH /a2 xL rL rH /a2 xH /a2 xL rL

a2 CH CL a2 CH CL
Rex Lex a2 Cex Rex Lex a2 Cex
2 2
a2 a a2 a

a) Open circuit b) Short-circuit

Figure 3 Simplified equivalent RLC circuit referred to the LV side

Series-distributed capacitances of CsH or CsL

Parallel-distributed capacitances of CH, CHL or CL

Figure 4 Schematic representation of distributed capacitance within a winding

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 2

All Rights Reserved
The inductive (L) and capacitive (C) components are responsible for the transient and resonance, which
occurs at a given frequency when the inductive reactance balances the capacitive reactance. There are two
types of resonances: parallel and series resonance. The parallel resonance is related to the parallel
connection of the capacitor and inductor and has high impedance (theoretically infinity) across the two
ends, causing a very low response at the output end. Therefore in the frequency response, a valley
characterizes this parallel resonance. On the contrary, the series resonance is related to the series
connection, has very low impedance (theoretically null), and in the frequency response is characterized by a
peak. At resonance frequency, the circuit impedance depends entirely on the resistive component, which is
known as damping factor. For this reason, the inductive, capacitive and resistive component values are
needed for transient study.
In a typical transformer, the susceptance or excitation inductance Lex is non-linear and varies with test
voltage and frequency. Also all excitation components (Rex, Lex and Cex) are much greater than the winding
components (resistances rH & rL and leakage reactances xH & xL). During an open-circuit test, the excitation
components and winding components are in series, so the excitation components dominate the circuit, and
the winding resistance and leakage reactance are negligible at low frequency such as at system frequency
60 (50) Hz. But during a short-circuit test, the phenomenon is reversed, with the opposite winding
components in parallel. The excitation components become negligible compared to the short-circuited
winding resistance and leakage reactance. Also the series-distributed capacitance of the short-circuited
winding will be shunted out by the short-circuiting lead as indicated in gray in Figures 2b and 3b, because
no voltage can be built up across that winding.
In a three-phase system, the three-phase impedance network can be split into three balanced component
networks [1]: positive, negative and zero sequence. This decomposition is useful for system analysis,
especially when the system becomes unbalanced, for example during a fault. In a three-phase transformer,
the positive and negative sequence components are identical to the per-phase equivalent components as
shown in Figure 2. The zero-sequence component, however, is dependent on the actual connection of the
transformer winding. Varying the possible combinations of the primary, secondary and tertiary windings, in
delta and wye configurations, will change the zero-sequence network [5], as shown in Table 2 for a typical
two-winding transformer. Fortunately, the zero-sequence impedance can be directly measured when the
winding has an available neutral.
Table 2 Zero-sequence equivalent circuit of two-winding transformer
No Connection Diagrams Zero-sequence equivalent circuit Note
H L H ZO L No zero-sequence current
1 can flow through H or L
terminal
Reference bus
H L H ZO L Zero-sequence current can
2 flow through H and L
terminals
Reference bus
H L H ZO L Zero-sequence current can
3 flow through H terminal
only
Reference bus
H L H ZO L No zero-sequence current
4 can flow through H or L
terminal
Reference bus
H L H ZO L No zero-sequence current
5 can flow through H or L
terminal
Reference bus
Zo is equivalent zero-sequence impedance and consists of the equivalent resistance and leakage reactance
impedance of the transformer in series with 3Zn. Zn is the impedance from neutral to ground and is null if
the neutral is solidly grounded.
TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 3
All Rights Reserved
3. FIELD TEST PROCEDURES

Three Doble M series instruments are used to determine the impedance components of Figure 1. Basically
the impedance components can be grouped in:
- Three capacitive components: Overall (CH, CHL, CL), excitation (Cex) and series (CsH and CsL)
capacitances;
- Two inductive components: Excitation inductance Lex, Leakage inductance LLRT and zero-sequence
inductance LZ0;
- Two resistive components: AC winding resistance RAC and excitation resistance Rex.
Five tests and three calculations are required for determining the above components:
1. Overall test;
2. Exciting current test;
3. Leakage reactance test;
4. Zero-sequence impedance test;
5. SFRA test.
The test procedures and calculations are described in the following:

3.1 Overall test: The M4000 Insulation Analyzer instrument can be used to measure overall capacitances.
These measurement are obtained during the power factor tests of the overall winding insulation and can be
summarized in Table 3 for a typical two-winding transformer. The details of the test procedures, including
those for a three-winding transformer, can be found in reference [2]. The measured value is the three-phase
equivalent and, if divided by three, is equal to the per-phase capacitance.

Table 3 Test procedures of Overall Capacitance

Test Per phase value of Per-phase value of
HV Cable LV lead Measure
# Mode 1-phase winding 3-phase winding
1 GST-Ground HV winding LV winding CH+CHL CH+CHL (CH+CHL) / 3
2 GST-Guard HV winding LV winding CH CH CH/3
3 UST HV winding LV winding CHL CHL CHL/3
4 GST-Ground LV winding HV winding CL+CHL CL+CHL (CL+CHL) / 3
5 GST-Guard LV winding HV winding CL CL CL/3
6 UST LV winding HV winding CHL CHL CHL/3
Test voltage is the rated line-to-ground voltage or 10kV if rated voltage is

3.2 Excitation current test: The M4000 instrument can be used to obtain the excitation inductance Lex,
resistance Rex and capacitance Cex. The exciting current test procedures are summarized in Table 4;
additional details can be found in reference [2]. Cex and Rex are calculated values, obtained by using the
excitation current and SFRA test data, as given in Equations 1 and 2.
Table 4 Test procedures of Excitation current [2]
No Winding HV Cable LV Lead Ground Obtained Lex and Rex
1 Single-phase H1 H2 - H1–H2 winding
2 H1 N - H1 winding
Three-phase
3 H2 N - H2 winding
wye
4 H3 N - H3 winding
5 H1 H2 H3 H1–H2 winding
Three-phase
6 H2 H3 H1 H2–H3 winding
delta
7 H3 H1 H2 H3–H1 winding
- All tests are in UST mode and test is at rated voltage of the winding or below.
- All opposite windings are left open during the test.
TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 4
All Rights Reserved
Note: The susceptance or excitation inductance is not linear and varies with the test voltage and frequency.
However, below the rated voltage, the change is more linear and smaller than at the rated voltage or above.
Also, the measured excitation reactance includes both the inductive and capacitive components, but at low
frequency measurements, such as at 60 Hz, the capacitive component is less significant and considered
negligible.
fn = 1 / [ 2π√LC ] → C = 1 / [(2πfn)2 L] Equation 1

Rex = V2 / Watt Equation 2

Where fn is the measured parallel (or series) resonance frequency in SFRA test described in section 3.4;
L is the measured inductance described in section 3.2 (if calculating Cex) or 3.3 (if calculating Cs); V is the
test voltage and Watt is the measured loss. The parallel resonance is the lowest point in the SFRA graph.

3.3 Leakage Reactance Test (LRT): The M4110 (LRT) instrument can be used to obtain the equivalent LRT
inductance Leq, AC winding resistance RAC and series-distributed capacitance Cs. The per-phase method of
leakage reactance test is preferred, for which the test connections and associated measurement are
summarized in Table 5. Further details of the test procedures can be found in reference [3]. Cs is a
calculated value using the measured LLRT and SFRA parallel resonance frequency fn, as given in Equations
1, 9 and 10.

Table 5 Test procedures of leakage reactance and AC winding resistance

No HV Winding Red lead Black Lead Measured Xeq, Leq and RAC
1 Single-phase H1 H2 Tested winding
2 H1 N H1 winding
Wye with
3 H2 N H2 winding
Neutral
4 H3 N H3 winding
5 H1 H2 Two windings (H1-N and N-H2)
Wye without
6 H2 H3 Two windings (H2-N and N-H3)
Neutral
7 H3 H1 Two windings (H3-N and N-H1)
8 H1 H2 H1–H2 winding
9 Delta H2 H3 H2–H3 winding
10 H3 H1 H3–H1 winding
All tests can be repeated on LV winding for obtaining the equivalent impedance from the LV side.
For all tests, the associated phase opposite winding under test is short-circuited.
Note: The test results of all three-phase windings are normally comparable. In tests 5, 6 and 7, the
measured test results have to be divided by two in order to obtain the per-phase value.

The LRT test requires one to short-circuit the winding opposite of that under test. This makes the excitation
components negligible, since they are shunted out by the opposite winding resistance and leakage
reactance, which are much smaller. Also the measured components are the equivalent components (Xeq, Leq
and RAC) of the two windings under test, as shown in Equations 3 and 4.
If referred to the high-voltage side, they are:
XH_eq = xH + a2 xL or LH_eq = LH + a2 LL and RH_AC = rH + a2 rL Equation 3
If referred to the low-voltage side, they become:
XL_eq = xL + xH /a2 or LL_eq = LL + LH /a2 and RL_AC = rL + rH /a2 Equation 4
Since the sizes of LV and HV winding conductors are proportional to the rated currents, the ratio of LV and
HV winding resistances in DC and AC measurement should be equal [8], as shown in Equation 5. We can
apply the same reasoning for the reactance to obtain the individual components of separate windings (xH,

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 5

All Rights Reserved
xL, rH and rL), as given in Equations 6 and 7. The individual inductive component value is needed for
calculation of the series-distributed capacitance of separate windings (see section 3.4).
rL / rH ≈ rL_DC / rH_DC → rL = rH rL_DC / rH_DC Equation 5

rH = RH_AC / [ 1 + a2 (rL_DC / rH_DC) ] and LH = LH_eq / [ 1 + a2 (rL_DC / rH_DC) ] Equation 6

LL = LH_eq – LH / a2 or LL = LL_eq / [ 1 + rH_DC / (a2 rL_DC) ] Equation 7

Where rH_DC and rL_DC are the DC winding resistances of HV and LV windings respectively and normally
available in the factory test report or can be easily measured in the field using a transformer winding
resistance instrument. For a delta connected winding, the measured per-phase resistance is the equivalent
resistance of one phase in parallel with two other phases. So the measured resistance multiplied by 1.5 will
be the resistance of the individual winding, assuming that the per-phase resistance are nearly equal.

3.4 SFRA test: The M5100 SFRA instrument can be used to measure the frequency responses of the circuit
including the resonance frequencies. In the transformer model, the lowest valley point in the SFRA graph
represents the main parallel resonance frequency (fn) and corresponds to Figures 2 and 3 circuit resonances.
The standard per-phase test procedures are summarized in Tables 6; additional detail may be found in
reference [4].
Table 6 Test procedure of SFRA
No Winding Red lead Black Lead Measured parallel resonance frequency fn
1 Single-phase H1 H2 fn_H of H1–H2 winding
2 H1 N fn_H of H1 winding
Three-phase
3 H2 N fn_H of H2 winding
wye
4 H3 N fn_H of H3 winding
5 H1 H2 fn_H of H1–H2 winding
Three-phase
6 H2 H3 fn_H of H2–H3 winding
delta
7 H3 H1 fn_H of H3–H1 winding
8 Repeat the tests above, but on LV winding fn_L of the LV windings
by changing H to X
For short-circuit (sc) test, only associated phase opposite winding is short-circuited (fn_SC).
For open-circuit test, all windings are open (fn_open)

The main parallel resonance frequency is used to extract the capacitive component when the inductance is
known. The open-circuit test results are for the Cex calculation, as given in Equation 8, and the short-circuit
test results are for CsH and CsL calculation, as given in Equations 9 and 10.
Cex = 1 / [(2πfn_H_open)2 Lex] Equation 8

CsH_Y = 1 / [(2πfn_H_SC)2 LH] and CsL_Y = 1 / [(2πfn_L_SC)2 LL] Equation 9

For the delta connected windings, the series-distributed capacitance of the tested winding is in parallel with
two other series capacitances. So the CsH and CsL in Equation 9 have to be divided by 1.5 to obtain the
actual series-distributed capacitance of an individual winding.
CsH_D = 2 / [3 (2πfn_H_SC)2 LH] and CsL_D = 2 / [3 (2πfn_L_SC)2 LL] Equation 10
The series-distributed capacitance Cs can also be determined by an alternate method using two measured
resonance frequencies and a calibrated capacitor Cc, as given in Equation 11. The first resonance frequency
(fn) is obtained by performing the first SFRA test on the isolated winding. The second resonance frequency
(fnc) is obtained by performing the second SFRA test on the same winding, but connected to the calibrated
capacitor in parallel.

Cs = Cc / [ (fn/fnc)2 – 1 ] Equation 11

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 6

All Rights Reserved
3.4 Zero-sequence impedance test: The M4110 LRT instrument can be used to measure the zero-sequence
impedance components: resistance and inductance. The test procedures are similar to the standard LRT test
procedures described in section 3.3. The difference from the LRT test is that the test voltage is applied
between the three shorted line terminals and neutral.
Table 7 Test procedures of zero-sequence impedance
No Winding Red lead Black Lead LV winding
1 Y–D H1H2H3 N Short-circuit or open makes no difference
1 Y–Y H1H2H3 N Short-circuit X1, X2, X3 and N
Test conditions should also comply with IEEE Std C57.12.90, section 9.5
The measured values of impedance components are one third of the actual values of zero-sequence
impedance components, because the instrument does not measure the phase current, but the total current
instead. So the three phase zero-sequence impedances are measured in parallel.

4. CASE STUDIES
For case studies and analysis, the following model LC circuit and two transformers are used:
1. Two inductors and five capacitors, as shown in Figure 5
2. GE 2.4 kV, oil-filled, core-form transformer
3. Westinghouse 220 kV, oil-filled, shell-form transformer.

4.1 Model circuit with LC elements: In the Doble HV lab, two simplified model circuits of leakage
reactance were used and consisted of the inductors and capacitors with known value, as shown in Figure 5
and Table 8. The difference between the two circuits were in the Cg value, first circuit with 800 pF and
then with 15,000 pF. These simulations helped to understand the effects of different components in the
frequency responses and to evaluate the degree of consistency between measured and predicted values. The
overall test was performed between the shorted H1 and H2 terminals to ground, and the LRT and SFRA
tests were performed between H1 and H2 terminals.

Table 8 Nameplate values for leakage reactance model

Element Value Unit Equivalent Circuit L1 L2
H1 H2
RL1= RL2 1 Ω 2 R= RL1+ RL2
L1=L2 2.75 mH 5.5 L = L1 + L2
Cs1=Cs2 5,000 2,500 Cs = Cs1 / 2 Cs1 Cs1
Cg1 Cg2 Cg1
Cg1= Cg2 5000 15,000 Cg = 3Cg1
ρF
Cg1= 300
800 Cg = 2Cg1 + Cg2
Cg2= 200
Figure 5 Simplified model circuit

Where L1 and L2 represent respectively the winding leakage inductances, and Cs and Cg represent
respectively series- and parallel distributed capacitances of a two-winding transformer.
Table 9 Lab Test results
M4000 M4110 M5100 Calculated
Model
Cg (pF) L (mH) RL (Ω)* fn (Hz) Cs(pF)**
Cg=15,000 pF 13,862 5.5 1.97 44,763 2,298
Cg = 800 pF 848 5.5 2.027 45,261 2,248
* RL is the AC resistive value of the inductor conductor.
** The Cs value is obtained from the parallel resonance frequency fn of the SFRA test and the inductance
of the LRT test.
Test data observations: The capacitance, inductance and resistance measurement tests were performed
according to the test procedures described above and the test results are in Table 9. The measured system
component values compare well to their respective nameplate values. If these measured system values are
TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 7
All Rights Reserved
compared with the measured values of the individual element rather than the nameplate value, then the
comparison is almost perfect.
SFRA test: The measured parallel resonance frequency and inductance were used to extract the series
capacitance successfully. The SFRA graphs in Figure 6 indicate clearly that parallel resonance occurs at the
intersection of the pink trace (inductance) and red trace (capacitance) or when the inductive component is
equal to the capacitive component.
It should be noted that the grounded capacitance Cg does not affect the parallel resonance frequency. It
only introduces a peak in the SFRA graph, as shown by the red arrow in light blue trace of Figure 6, and
changes the slopes of the graphs when Cg becomes greater, such as 15,000 pF. When it is small, such as
800 pF, no effect could be observed in the frequency response, as shown in the navy blue trace.
Freq (Hz)
0
1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07

-10

-20

-30
dB(RMS)

-40

-50

-60

-70

-80

-90
H1H2 (Cg=800pF) L Cs H1H2 (Cg=15kpF)

Figure 6 SFRA graphs of LC model circuit

The pink trace is the frequency response of two serial inductances (L1 in series with L2); the red
trace is the frequency response of the equivalent serial capacitances (Cs1 in series with Cs2).

4.2 Oil-filled core-form transformer: GE, D/Y grounded, core-form transformer, rated 112.5kVA, 2.4 kV
/480 V, was tested on the HV and LV windings in Doble HV lab. The test results are summarized in Tables
12 and 13. Detailed test results are in Section 6 of the Appendix.
Table 10 Capacitive components of GE oil-filled transformer
M4000 Calculated from SFRA, LRT & M4k
Winding 3CH 3CHL 3CL Cex CsH CsL
(pF) (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF)
1 712 6,853 3,611 113.5 2,993 872
2 712 6,853 3,611 21.2 3,240 868
3 712 6,853 3,611 95.1 3,287 863
Measured Ratio (a) = 8.6605 Nameplate ratio = 8.6603
Table 11 Reactive and resistive components of GE oil-filled transformer
M4000 M4110 Calculated individual component
Winding Lex* Rex LH_eq RH_AC LH rH LL rL
(H) (Ω) (mH) (Ω) (mH) (Ω) (mH) (Ω)
1 29.4 27,396 9.2 2.038 5.431 1.203 0.0511 0.0094
2 273.9 95,541 9.1 1.981 5.357 1.166 0.0513 0.0095
3 39.1 28,431 9.2 2.072 5.394 1.215 0.0516 0.0095
Z0 (LV) 0.0424 0.009

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 8

All Rights Reserved
* Tested at 1.8 kV on HV winding
DC HV winding resistances: RH13_DC=0.764 x 1.5, RH21_DC=0.759 x 1.5 and RH32_DC=0.758 Ω x1.5.
For delta winding, the single-phase resistance is equal to the measured resistance times 1.5
DC LV winding resistances: RX10_DC = 7.07, RX20_DC = 7.07 and RX30_DC = 7.13 mΩ

Table 12 Resonance frequencies of GE oil-filled transformer

M5100
Winding fn_ex fn_H fn_L
(Hz) (Hz) (Hz)
1 2,756 36,682 858,118
2 2,091 35,485 858,118
3 2,485 35,094 858,118

Test data observations: All test data is repeatable and consistent with model and between different tests.
All the individual impedance components are the same, either using the measured data from the test on the
HV or LV side.
Overall tests: All the measured capacitance values (CH, CHL and CL) are parallel-distributed along the
winding and three-phase equivalent; if divided by three, it is equal the per-phase capacitance value.
Exciting current tests: The measured individual components are comparable between phases with exception
of excitation components, because the normal excitation current pattern of two similar highs and one lower
was not obtained due to the residual magnetism in the core. This is a well-known phenomenon described in
the past Doble conference papers [6 and 7] for a typical core-form design transformer.
Also the measured excitation impedance components (Rex, Lex and Cex) are much higher (1,000 to 10,000
times) than the winding resistance (rH and rL) and the leakage inductance (xH and xL) and capacitance (CsH
and CsL). This confirms what was predicted in the theory.
SFRA tests: The red arrows indicate the main parallel resonance of the frequency response. The valley in
the open-circuit SFRA trace is much wider than the main valley of the short-circuit SFRA trace, see Figure
10 in Appendix, due to the resistive component influence.
In the open-circuit test, the first valley (parallel resonance frequency) on the HV winding is the same as the
first valley on the LV winding. This confirms the model circuit of Figures 2 and 3, which indicate the
excitation components from either side are the same.
The resonance point was shifted by a factor of √1.5 between the short-circuit single-winding test and the
short-circuit three-winding test, as shown in the blue and brown traces of Figure 10. This was due to the
increase 1.5 times of capacitance in delta connected winding while the inductance was not decreased in the
short-circuit single-winding test. In the short-circuit three-winding test, the inductance decreases by a factor
of 1.5, the same as the capacitance increase.
It is also interesting to note that the open-circuit frequency response after the first peak following the
biggest valley are the same as the short-circuit frequency response. This means that at frequencies higher
than that first peak, the excitation components have no effect and the leakage reactance components (xH,
Cs_H, xL and Cs_L) dominate the circuit.
In the open-circuit SFRA test on the LV winding, the frequency response include the main parallel
frequency of short-circuit test. This will allow us to use the open-circuit SFRA test results to extract the
capacitive component of the winding and then the short-circuit SFRA test becomes optional. However in
the HV side test, we did not observe this phenomenon. This may be due to the short-circuit parallel
resonance happening at a lower frequency, before the first peak in the open-circuit SFRA graph, see the red
and blues traces in Figure 10.

LRT tests: All the measured values are two-winding equivalent, and the measured impedance compares
favorably with the nameplate value. Using Equations 5, 9 and 10 to calculate the individual winding

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 9

All Rights Reserved
components (xH, LH, rH_AC, xL, LL and rL_AC) is accurate. We obtained the same value of the individual
components from the measurements from either HV or LV side.

Zero-sequence impedance test: The zero-sequence impedance (Z0) test could be performed only on the LV
winding and the measured Z0 components were exactly one third of the per-phase impedance as predicted
in Transformer Modeling section. This value needs to be multiplied by three to obtain the actual zero-
sequence values.

4.3 Oil-filled shell-form transformer: The Westinghouse (W) GSU shell-form transformer (S/N 7002796),
rated 315 MVA, 230/21 kV, grounded Y/D, 1980-vintage, was tested on the HV wye winding in April
2003 at a Doble client substation. The test results are summarized in Tables 14 and 15. Detailed test results
are in Section 7 of the Appendix.
Table 13 Capacitive components of W. shell-form transformer referred to HV winding
M4000 Calculated from SFRA, LRT & M4k
Winding 3CH 3CHL 3CL Cex CsH CsL
(pF) (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF)
1 8,418 19,761 35,267 266.3 897 7,568
2 8,418 19,761 35,267 296.4 828 7,808
3 8,418 19,761 35,267 274.8 915 7,720
Ratio 6.323

Table 14 Reactive and resistive components of W. shell-form transformer referred to HV winding

M4110 Calculated individual component
Winding Lex* Rex LH_eq RH_AC LH rH LL rL
(H) (Ω) (mH) (Ω) (mH) (Ω) (mH) (Ω)
1 149.16 116,591 44.3 0.946 15.404 0.3289 0.7206 0.0173
2 170.91 135,227 43.9 0.575 15.265 0.3555 0.7141 0.0272
3 147.76 115,687 44.4 1.165 15.439 0.6487 0.7223 0.0303
* Tested at 10 kV on HV winding
DC HV winding resistances: RH_DC=0.3559 Ω.
DC LV winding resistances: RX_DC = 0.0111 Ω x 1.5

Table 15 Resonance frequencies of Westinghouse shel-form oil-filled transformer

M5100
Winding fnex fn_H fn_L
(Hz) (Hz) (Hz)
1-3 799 42,826 68,150
2-1 707 44,763 67,400
3-2 790 42,355 67,400

Test data observations: We had similar observations mentioned in the previous case with the following
exceptions:
- The excitation conductance Rex is much higher. So this transformer has relatively lower core loss
- The main valley of open-circuit SFRA test is much narrower, see Figure 11
- The series-distributed capacitance of HV winding, Cs_H, is smaller than Cs_L
- The HV winding open-circuit SFRA trace includes the parallel resonance frequency of short-circuit
SFRA test
- There was less variation of excitation capacitance between the phases. This was attributed to the shell-
form design core and the normal excitation current pattern, i.e. no residual magnetism effect. Therefore
we obtained the correlated impedance pattern of two similar lows and one higher
TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 10
All Rights Reserved
- The zero-sequence impedance and the short-circuit SFRA test on LV winding test were not performed,
because we used whatever data was available in the historic routine test records of the transformers and
we successfully extracted all individual RLC components of the transformer
- The yellow trace in Figure 11 represent the projected frequency response we would obtain if the short-
circuit SFRA test on the LV winding was performed.

5. ANALYSIS
Resistive components: The measured AC resistance is the equivalent resistance of both HV and LV
windings, but can be easily separated using Equations 5 and 6. These equations are accurate and confirmed
by case study 4.2: the AC resistances of separate windings are the same whether we use the measurement
from the HV or from the LV side.
In the excitation circuit, the excitation conductance Rex is sensitive to the frequency. For a power
transformer, the core loss will increase significantly with frequency and at higher frequencies the
conductance Rex will shunt out the reactive components (Lex and Cex).
The resistance has the role of controlling the gain or magnitude of frequency response. In the parallel
resonance, the greater the resistance, the deeper and narrower the valley. This was observed in the two
transformer case studies. The core-form transformer with a lower excitation resistance Rex (i.e. higher core
loss) has a wider and shallower valley than that of the shell-form transformer, which has much higher Rex
(i.e. lower core loss). In general the distribution class (smaller) transformer has more relative core loss (i.e.
lower Rex) than the power class transformer. However in the series resonance, the greater the resistance, the
shorter and wider the peak is.
Inductive components: Methods by which to measure the inductive components, especially leakage
reactance, are well documented. The case studies herein clearly demonstrate that we can easily obtain these
values in the field with M series instruments. These measurements compare favorably with the nameplate
or factory test data. Also, Equations 6 and 7 proved to be accurate for separating the equivalent inductance,
since the same values were obtained whether using the measurement from the HV or from the LV side.
One exception is the excitation inductance Lex, which varies considerably with the test voltage and
frequency. Since the field test condition is different from the operating condition, the measured values
should be used with caution. Nevertheless we can utilize them to predict the excitation characteristic under
the operating conditions with regard to voltage: the measured inductance is normally the largest value and
will decrease when the voltage reaches the rated voltage or higher (near or exceeding the saturation point).
This means that the resonance frequency will be shifted to a higher frequency than measured by the M5100
SFRA.

Capacitive components: The measurement method for the overall capacitive components (CH, CHL and
CL) is also a proven method. The measured capacitances are the overall value, but in reality they are
parallel-distributed along the winding as shown in Figure 4. So each elementary capacitance is much
smaller and has a high frequency response. For this reason, these overall capacitive components start to
play a role at higher frequencies. They interact with the leakage reactance to produce secondary series
resonances (small peaks) and have no influence on the main parallel resonance (big valley). The LC model
in case study 4.1 demonstrated this: the grounded capacitance Cg only introduces a secondary peak,
indicated by the red arrow in Figure 6.
The series-distributed capacitance Cs could not be directly measured as could the previous capacitance, but
was calculated using the measured leakage inductance and parallel resonance frequency. This capacitance
is also distributed but in series. So the elementary capacitance is much bigger, therefore it starts to play a
role at medium frequencies. At medium frequencies, it resonates in parallel with the corresponding leakage
reactance. At higher frequencies, it shorts the winding out, explaining why both open- and short-circuit
SFRA test results are identical.
The excitation capacitance Cex was also obtained through a similar calculation as was Cs but using the
open-circuit test results. This component resonates with excitation inductance Lex at quite a low frequency
and is quickly shorted out by Rex, which decreases rapidly with frequency as shown in Figure 7c and 8c.

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 11

All Rights Reserved
SFRA: The frequency response reveals very interesting characteristics of the transformer, with the open-
circuit test results containing the most complete information. We observed two main parallel resonances or
valleys, which are caused by two component groups: the excitation components and the leakage reactance
components; respectively called excitation resonance (valley) and leakage reactance resonance (valley).
The first resonance occurs at lower frequencies and the second happens at medium frequencies. This means
that each group of components alternately dominates the circuit in ascending frequency sequence. This
sequential domination is identical on both HV and LV sides and is illustrated in Figures 7 and 8,
respectively.
CsH CsL / a2 CsH CsL / a2
CHL CHL
rH xH a2xL a2rL rH xH a2xL a2rL

CH CL/ a2 CH CL/ a2
Rex Lex Cex Rex Lex Cex

a) Low frequency (< 10 kHz) b) Medium frequency (10 k to 1M Hz)

Excitation component domination HV & LV leakage reactance domination
CsH CsL / a2
CHL
rH xH a2xL a2rL

CH CL/ a2
Rex Lex Cex

c) High frequency (> 100 k Hz),

Capacitor component domination

Figure 7 Sequential domination of components referred to HV side versus frequency

a2 CsH CsL a2 CsH CsL

CHL CHL
rH /a2 xH /a2 xL rL rH /a2 xH /a2 xL rL

a2 CH a2 Cex CL a2 CH
Rex Lex Rex Lex a2 Cex CL
2
a2 a a2 a
2

a) Low frequency (< 10 kHz), b) Medium frequency (10 k to 1M Hz),

Excitation component domination HV & LV leakage reactance domination
a2 CsH CsL
CHL
rH /a2 xH /a2 xL rL

a2 CH a2 Cex CL
Rex Lex
2
a2 a
c) High frequency (> 100 k Hz),
Capacitor component domination

Figure 8 Domination of components referred to LV side versus frequency

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 12
All Rights Reserved
In each figure’s sequence of circuits (low, medium and high frequency), the shadowed components
represent those with negligible effect in the circuit. The remaining components are characterized by either
thick or thin point size. The thick lines represent the circuit responsible for main resonance (big valley) and
the thin lines represent the circuit responsible for secondary resonances, which consist of small peaks or
valleys in SFRA graph.
Also it should be noticed that after the first peak in the open-circuit test, the frequency responses become
identical to those in the short-circuit test, regardless if the testing is performed on the HV or LV winding.
Therefore the open-circuit test provides more information including the leakage reactance resonance.
However, on the HV winding, the leakage reactance resonance could be masked in the open-circuit test if it
occurs at a frequency lower than the first peak, as observed in Figure 9. This seems to happen, though, only
in a smaller transformer, such as the distribution class transformer in the case study 4.2 and not in a power
transformer, such as that of case study 4.3.

Symmetrical components: The value of the positive and negative sequence components are identical to the
single-phase components and the zero-sequence component value can be easily measured between the
shorted line terminals and neutral terminal.
Test data consistency: All test results were repeatable and consistently validate the model proposed in this
study. The individual components were the same whether using the results generated from HV or LV tests.
The SFRA test results indicated that the resonance points matched with the measured components and in
the expected order, namely:
- The excitation resonance occurs before the leakage reactance resonance; since the excitation
inductance is much higher.
- The HV excitation resonance occurs at the same frequency as the LV excitation resonance; since the
excitation reactive components are the same.
- The ideal transformer does not affect the resonance frequency.
- The HV leakage reactance resonance occurs before the LV leakage reactance resonance; since the
leakage inductance of HV winding is greater.
- The secondary resonances occur in the medium frequency or higher and consist of shorter peaks; these
resonances should be attributed to the overall capacitance values (CH, CHL and CL), which are
parallel-distributed along the winding in the similar way as the series-distributed capacitance Cs.
- The frequency responses are identical between the open- and short-circuit test starting from the first
peak frequency of the open-circuit test. The combination of model circuits b and c in Figure 7 and 8 is
equivalent to the short-circuit model.
- At high frequencies, the transformer reacts more like a capacitive circuit since the inductive impedance
becomes too big; this had been mentioned in many technical transformer publications, and is shown in
Figures 7c and 8c and SFRA graph in the Appendix.

6. CONCLUSION
The proposed transformer model in this report is the classic transformer model being described in many
technical publications. This study appends the model by detailing the capacitive component network,
thereby completing the characterization of transformer impedances. It is hoped that this should open great
opportunity for numerous engineering studies. Also, the test methods and resultant data utilized in the
modeling should be very familiar to utility personnel, particularly the use of M series instruments. The
three case studies clearly demonstrate that we could use the test results from M series instruments to break
the equivalent RLC components down to the individual components of separate windings. This information
can then be used for the following engineering analyses:
- Predict the transformer responses during the transient or steady state;
- Study the transformer interaction with the line network;
- Determine the voltage stresses distributed within the winding insulation [9].
- Interpret the global electrical test results for better diagnostic and assessment of transformer condition
based on the test data correlation.

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 13

All Rights Reserved
These engineering analyses can be done for the harmonic, steady state and transient problem, such as
during the loading, energizing, switching, system disturbance or fault, and for determining a scenario for
the best transformer operation or a solution to an existing problem.
This study also calls attention to the correlation between the overall, excitation, LRT and SFRA test results.
A better understanding of the relationships between these diagnostic tests may lend to a better interpretation
of the resultant test data when assessing the condition of a transformer. For example, if a change in the
excitation valley of a SFRA trace occurs along with a change in the excitation current test results, then this
provides a more compelling indication of a magnetic circuit problem in the transformer.
As another application example, if the winding construction information was available, such as the turn
number (N), static plate, shielding, insulation type and coil type of the transformer winding, then the
voltage distribution can be studied using the elementary circuit as shown in Figure 9, which is based on
Figure 4, for a uniformly designed winding. We also can determine the voltage concentration or stress at a
particular location within the winding and predict the potential insulation failure mode. This study has to
consider all aspect of the winding construction and is normally more complex, because more often the
winding design is not uniform.

Elementary circuit of one turn 100

Neutral grounded

L/N α=√Cg/Cs
H1 1 st
2 nd
N th N

% Voltage
0
α=2
α=4
N * Cs
α=10
C1 + Cg’ Cg’ C1 + Cg’
N N N 0
100 50 0
Line end % winding Grounded end

a) Winding distributed components b) Voltage distribution

Figure 9 Schemas of a separate uniformly designed winding circuit and voltage stress
Where C1 is bushing capacitance, L is the winding leakage inductance; Cg’ and Cs are the respective
parallel- and series-distributed capacitances. Thus, this would allow a transformer engineer to optimize the
design and select a proper insulation system.

This report displays the need for further studies in the following areas:
- The effect of excitation components at operating condition versus the field measurement condition;
- The effect of parallel-distributed capacitance Cg (CH, CHL and CL) on SFRA test results
- A guideline for the electrical test data interpretation base on the correlation between test results.
It should be noted that the author has successfully used the M series instruments to test lines for a transient
recovery voltage study [10] in a circuit breaker application. He believes that they can also be used on other
power apparatus (line traps, capacitor banks, harmonic filters or HV cables) for any engineering application
which requires the value of the system impedance components or system resonance frequencies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thank Mr. Addam Taylor of Santee Cooper in South Carolina for authorizing the
use of the test results for this study and Mrs. Jill Duplessis and Mr. Bo Woodward of Doble Client Service
Engineers for reviewing the report.

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 14

All Rights Reserved
 APPENDIX
TEST RESULTS

6. GE Core-form oil filled Transformer in D/Y connection

Table 16 Overall and excitation current test results
No Test ID Desc. kV mA Watts %PF Cap./Ind.
1 CH+CHL GND-RB 10 28.54 1.436 0.5 7569 pF
2 CH GAR-RB 10 2.686 0.092 0.34 712.4 pF
3 CHL UST-RB 10 25.83 1.344 0.52 6853 pF
4 CL+CHL GND-RB 1 3.94 0.019 0.48 10454 pF
5 CL GAR-RB 1 1.36 0.006 0.44 3610.7 pF
6 CHL UST-RB 1 2.579 0.013 0.52 6843 pF
Excitation current tests
7 H1-H2 UST-R 1.8 25.89 33.912 77.37 273.85 H
8 H2-H3 UST-R 1.8 135.2 113.96 48.21 39.139 H
9 H3-H1 UST-R 1.7 160.3 105.49 40.54 29.381 H
Table 17 AC winding resistance, leakage reactance and zero-sequence test results
A: H1H3 B: H2H1 C: H3H2 A: X1X0 B: X2X0 C: X3X0 A: Z0_X
X10 X20 X30 H13 H12 H23
Test Voltage 8.041 7.525 8.599 V 0.7462 1.046 1.037 412.9
Current 2.005 1.895 2.122 A 14.3 20.11 19.74 22.64
Watts Loss 8.191 7.112 9.33 W 4.721 9.321 8.939 4.384
Power Factor 50.81 49.88 51.13 % 44.24 44.31 43.68 46.89
Inductance 9.2 9.1 9.2 mH 0.00012* 0.00012* 0.00012* 0
Resistance 2.038 1.981 2.072 Ohms 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.009
Impedance 4.011 3.969 4.051 Ohms 0.052 0.052 0.052 0.018
Reactance 3.454 3.44 3.481 Ohms 0.047 0.047 0.047 0.016

X1X0 OP X1X0 S1 H1H3 S1 H1H3 OP H1H3 S3

0
100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
First peak
-10
after valley

-20
dB

-30

-40
Wider
-50 valley Shifting factor √1.5
Narrower
valley
-60
Hz

Figure 10 SFRA test results of GE core-form transformer

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 15

All Rights Reserved
7. Westinghouse shell-form oil filled Transformer in Y/D connection
Table 18 Overall and excitation current test results
No Test ID Desc. kV mA Watts %PF Cap./Ind.
1 CH+CHL GND-RB 10 106.2 4.775 28178 pF
2 CH GAR-RB 10 31.73 1.608 0.5 8418 pF
3 CHL UST-RB 10 74.5 3.088 0.41 19761 pF
4 CL+CHL GND-RB 10 207.4 9.922 55028 pF
5 CL GAR-RB 10 132.9 6.803 0.5 35267 pF
6 CHL UST-RB 10 74.51 3.109 0.42 19764 pF
Excitation current tests
7 H1-H0 UST-R 10 107.9 857.7 H
8 H2-H0 UST-R 10 91.61 739.5 H
9 H3-H0 UST-R 10 108.5 864.4 H
Table 19 AC winding resistance, leakage reactance and zero-sequence test results
A: H1H0 X B: H2H0 X C: H3H0
X
Test Voltage 144.1 145.8 144.2 V
Current 8.614 8.807 8.582 A
Watts Loss 70.17 44.61 85.82 W
Power Factor 5.65 3.47 6.94 %
Inductance 44.3 43.9 44.4 mH
Resistance 1.023 1.447 1.866 Ohms
Impedance 16.72 16.55 16.79 Ohms
Impedance (%) 9.96 9.85 10 %
Reactance 16.7 16.54 16.75 Ohms

H1H0 SC H1H0 Op X1X3 Op Projected

10
X1X3 SC
0
100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
-10
First peak
after valley
-20

-30
dB

-40

-50
Wider Narrower
-60
valley valley
-70

-80 Hz

Figure 11 SFRA test results of Westinghouse shell-form transformer

Note: The yellow line is the projected frequency response of short-circuit test on LV winding.

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 16

All Rights Reserved
Reference

1. Fortescue, C. L. “Method of Symmetrical Coordinates Applied to the Solution of Polyphase Network”,

Trans. AIEE, vol.37, pp. 1027 – 1140, 1918
2. Doble Engineering, Manuals, “M4000 Insulation Analyzer User’s Guide”, PN 500-0110, Section “Test
Procedures - Transformer”
3. Doble Engineering, Manuals, “M4000 Insulation Analyzer User’s Guide”, PN 500-0110, Section “Test
Procedures - Leakage Reactance”
4. Doble Engineering, Manuals, “M5100 SFRA Instrument User’s Guide”, PN # 500-0295.
5. Blume, L.F. Camilli, G., Boyajian A., and Montsinger, V.M. “Transformer Engineering,” New York,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1938, p. 138.
6. Povey, E.H. “No-Load Loss on Power Transformer,” Minutes of the Tenth Annual Conference of
Doble Clients, 1943, Sec. 2-201.
7. Lachman, Mark F. “The Influence of Transformer Load Tap Changers on Single-Phase Exciting-
Current Test results”, Minutes of the Fifty-ninth Annual Conference of Doble Clients, 1992, Sec. 8-6.
8. Bouchard, Réal-Paul “Électrotechnique” Quatrième Éditions, Cours 3.408, Département de génie
électrique, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Canada, Septembre 1987, page 29
9. Bean, Chackan, Moore and Wentz, “Transformers for the Electric Power Industry”, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1959, section 3.13, page 59.
10. Pong, Long “Field Testing for TRV Determination”, Minutes of the Seventy-First Annual Conference
of Doble Clients, 2004, in Circuit-Breaker Committee.

TX 14 Model.doc © 2004 Doble Engineering Company 17

All Rights Reserved