Edc

Contents
Unit - 1: Conducting Materials 1.1 - 1.42
1.1 Introduction 1.1

1.1.1 Classical free electron theory 1.1
1.1.2 Quantum free electron theory 1.1
1.1.3 Zone theory (or) Band theory 1.2
1.2 Assumptions (postulates) of Classical free electron theory 1.2
1.3 Basic terms involved in the free electron theory 1.3
1.4 Success or uses of Classical free electron theory 1.4
1.5 Drawbacks of Classical free electron theory 1.4
1.6 Expression for Electrical Conductivity () 1.5
1.6.1 Expression for electrical conductivity 1.5
1.6.2 Correct expression for electrical conductivity of conductors 1.7
1.7 Thermal conductivity (K) 1.7
1.7.1 Expression for thermal conductivity (K) of an electron 1.7
1.8 Wiedemann-franz Law 1.10
1.8.1 Derivation 1.10
1.8.2 By Quantum theory 1.11
1.9 Quantum Free Electron Theory 1.12
1.9.1 Assumptions (Postulates) of Quantum free electron theory 1.13
1.9.2 Advantages of Quantum free electron theory 1.13
1.9.3 Drawbacks of Quantum free electron theory 1.13
1.10 Fermi – Dirac Distribution Function 1.14
1.10.1 Effect of Temperature on Fermi Function 1.14
1.10.2 Fermi level, Fermi Energy and their importance 1.15
1.11 Density of States 1.16
1.11.1 Carrier concentration in metals 1.19
1.11.2 Average energy of an electron at 0K 1.20
1.12 Work Function 1.21
1.12.1 Explanation 1.21
Solved Problems 1.23
Short Questions with Answers 1.35
Part – B Questions 1.41
Assignment Problems 1.42
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Unit - 2: Semiconducting Materials 2.1 - 2.54

2.1.1 Properties of semiconductor 2.2
2.2 Classification of Semiconductors 2.2
2.2.1 Intrinsic semiconductors 2.3
2.2.2 Compound Semiconductors 2.3
2.2.3 Difference between N-type and P-type semiconductor 2.3
2.2.4 Difference between Elemental and Compound Semiconductors 2.4
2.3 Classification of Conductors, Insulators
and Semiconductors Based on Band Theory 2.4
2.3.1 Conductors 2.4
2.3.2 Insulators 2.5
2.3.3 Semiconductors 2.6
2.3.4 Mobility and Conductivity in Semiconductors 2.6
2.4 Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semi-conductors 2.7
2.4.1 Density of electrons in conduction band 2.8
2.4.2 Density of Holes in Valence band 2.10
2.4.3 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration 2.13
2.5 Fermi level and variation of fermi level
with temperature in an intrinsic semiconductor 2.14
2.6 Density of Electrons and Holes In Terms of E g 2.15
2.7 Variation of Fermi level in Intrinsic semiconductor 2.16
2.8 Electrical Conductivity in Intrinsic Semi-conductor 2.17
2.9 Determination of Band Gap Energy of a Semiconductor 2.18
2.10 Extrinsic Semiconductor 2.19
2.10.1 N-type Semiconductor (Donor impurity) 2.20
2.10.2 P – type Semiconductor (Acceptor Impurities) 2.21
2.11 Charge Densities in a Semiconductor 2.22
2.12 Carrier Concentration in P-type Semi-conductor 2.23
2.12.1 Expression for the density of holes in valence band in termsof N A 2.25
2.13 Carrier Concentration in N-type Semi Conductor 2.26
2.13.1 Expression for the density of electrons in
conduction band in terms of ND 2.28
2.14 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature and
Concentration of Impurities in P-type Semiconductor 2.30
2.15 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature and
Concentration of Impurities in N-type Semiconductor 2.31
2.16 Hall Effect 2.31
2.16.1 Hall Effect 2.32
2.16.2 Hall Effect in n –type Semiconductor 2.32
2.16.3 Hall Effect in p-type Semiconductor 2.34
2.16.4 Hall Coefficient Interms of Hall Voltage 2.35
2.16.5 Experimental Determination of Hall Effect 2.36
2.16.6 Application of Hall Effect 2.37
Short Questions with Answer 2.46
Part - B Questions 2.53
Unit - 3: Magnetic and Superconducting Materials 3.1 - 3.76

3.1.1 Basic Definitions 3.1
3.2 Origin of Magnetic Moments 3.4
3.3 Classification of Magnetic Materials 3.6
3.3.1 Diamagnetic materials 3.7
3.3.2 Paramagnetic Materials 3.8
3.3.3 Ferromagnetic materials 3.9
3.3.4 Dia, Para and Ferro magnetic materials – Comparison 3.11
3.4 Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism 3.12
3.4.1 Energies involved in the domain growth (or)
Origin of Domain theory of Ferromagnetism 3.13
3.5 Antiferromagnetic Materials 3.16
3.6 Ferrimagnetic Materials 3.17
3.7 Hysteresis 3.17
3.7.1 Explanation of hysteresis on the basis of Domains 3.19
3.8 Hard and Soft Magentic Material 3.20
3.8.1 Hard Magnetic Materials 3.20
3.8.2 Soft Magnetic Materials 3.22
3.8.3 Difference between Hard and Soft magnetic materials 3.23
3.9 Ferrites 3.23
3.9.1 Properties 3.23
3.9.2 Structures of Ferrites 3.24
3.9.3 Regular spinal 3.24
3.9.4 Inverse spinal 3.25
3.9.5 Types of interaction present in the ferrites 3.25
3.9.6 Properties of ferromagnetic materials 3.26
3.9.7 Application of Ferrites 3.26
3.10 Magnetic Recording and Readout Memory 3.27
3.10.1 Magnetic parameters for Recording 3.27
3.10.2 Storage of Magnetic Data 3.28
3.10.3 Magnetic Tape 3.29
3.10.4 Magnetic Disc Drivers 3.29
3.10.5 Floppy Disk 3.31
3.10.6 Magnetic bubble Materials 3.32
SUPER CONDUCTORS
3.11 Introduction to Superconductivity 3.34
3.12 Properties of Superconductors 3.35
3.12.1 Critical magnetic field (Magnetic Property) 3.35
3.12.2 Diamagnetic property (Meissener effect) 3.36
3.12.3 SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device) 3.37
3.12.4 Effect of heavy Current 3.38
3.12.5 Persistence of Current 3.38
3.12.6 Effect of pressure 3.38
3.12.7 Isotope effect 3.39
3.12.8 General properties 3.39
3.13 Types of Super Conductors 3.39
3.13.1 Difference between Type I and II superconductors 3.42
3.13.2 Difference between High T C and Low T C superconductors 3.43
3.14 High Temperature (High-T c) Superconductors 3.43
3.15 Bcs Theory of Superconductivity 3.44
3.16 Applications of Superconductors 3.47
3.17 Engineering Applications 3.48
3.17.1 Cryotron 3.48
3.17.2 MAGLEV (MAGnetic LEVitation) 3.49
3.17.3 Josephson Devices 3.50
Part B – Questions 3.74
Unit - 4: Dielectric Materials 4.1 - 4.41

4.2 Basic Definitions 4.1
4.2.1 Electric flux density (D) 4.1
4.2.2 Permittivity [] 4.1
4.2.3 Dipole moment () 4.2
4.2.4 Polarization 4.2
4.2.5 Polarization vector 4.2
4.2.6 Polar and Non-polar Molecules 4.2
4.2.7 Dielectric Constance (or) Relative Permittivity (r) 4.3
4.2.8 Electric Susceptibility ( e ) 4.3
4.2.9 Different between Polar and Non - Polar molecules 4.4
4.3 Polarization Mechanisms Involved in a Dielectric Material 4.4
4.3.1 Electronic Polarization 4.4
4.3.2 Calculation of electronic polarization e 4.5
4.3.3 Electronic polarization in terms of and r 4.8
4.3.4 Ionic Polarization 4.8
4.3.5 Orientation Polarization 4.10
4.3.6 Space Charge Polarization 4.11
4.3.7 Total Polarization 4.12
4.4 Frequency and Temperature Dependence of Polarization Mechanism 4.13
4.4.1 Frequency dependence 4.13
4.4.2 Temperature dependence 4.14
4.5 Comparision of Types of Polarisation 4.15
4.6 Internal Field (or) Local Field 4.15
4.6.1 Clausius Mosotti Equations 4.20
4.7 Dielectric Loss 4.21
4.8 Dielectric Breakdown 4.23
4.8.1 Types of dielectric breakdown 4.23
4.9 Ferro – Electricity and Its Applications 4.26
4.9.1 Properties of Ferroelectric Materials 4.26
4.9.2 Hysteresis of Ferroelectric Materials 4.27
4.9.3 Application of Ferroelectric Materials 4.28
4.10 Applications of Dielectric Materials 4.28
4.10.1 Dielectrics in Capacitors 4.29
4.10.2 Insulating materials in transformers 4.29
Part - B Questions 4.41
Unit - 5 : Modern Engineering Materials 5.1 - 5.30

5.2 Metallic Glasses 5.1
5.2.1 Glass transition temperature 5.1
5.2.2 Methods of production of Metallic Glasses 5.2
5.2.3 Types of Metallic Glasses 5.3
5.2.4 Properties of Metallic glasses 5.3
5.2.5 Applications of Metallic glasses 5.5
5.3 Shape Memory Alloys 5.6
5.3.1 Definition 5.6
5.3.2 Working Principle of SMA 5.7
5.3.3 Characteristics of SMA 5.8
5.3.4 Properties of Ni – Ti alloy 5.9
5.3.5 Advantages of SMA’s 5.9
5.3.6 Disadvantages of SMA’s 5.9
5.3.7 Applications of SMA’s 5.9
5.4 Nano Materials 5.10
5.4.1 Introduction 5.10
5.4.2 Definitions 5.11
5.4.3 Synthesis of Nanomaterials 5.11
5.4.4 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) 5.13
5.5 Properties of Nanoparticles 5.14
5.6 Applications of Nanoparticles 5.15
5.7 Non linear materials (NLO materials) 5.17
5.7.1 Higher Harmonic Generation 5.17
5.7.2 Experimental Proof 5.19
5.7.3 Optical mixing 5.20
5.8 Biomaterials 5.20
5.8.1 Biomaterials Classifications 5.21
5.8.2 Conventional implant devices 5.21
5.8.3 Biomaterials Properties 5.23
5.8.4 Modern Engineering MaterialsBiomaterials Applications 5.24
Part B - Questions 5.30
Index I.1 - I.2
1
Conducting Materials
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The electron theory of solids explains the structures and properties of solids
through their electronic structure. This theory is applicable to all solids both metals
and non metals. This theory also explains the bending in solids behavior of conductors
and insulators, electrical and thermal conductivities of solids, elasticity and repulsive
forces in solids etc,.. The theory has been developed in three main stages.
1.1.1 Classical free electron theory

This theory was developed by Drude and Lorentz. According to this theory, a
metal consists of electrons which are free to move about in the crystal molecules of a
gas it contains mutual repulsion between electrons is ignored and hence potential energy
is taken as zero. Therefore the total energy of the electron is equal to its kinetic
energy.
1.1.2 Quantum free electron theory

Classical free electron theory could not explain many physical properties. In
classical free electron theory, we use Maxwell-Boltzman statics which permits all free
electrons to gain energy. In Somerfield developed a new theory, in which he retained
some of the features of classical free electron theory included quantum mechanical
concepts and Fermi-Dirac statistics to the free electrons in the metals. This theory is
called quantum free electron theory. Quantum free electron theory permits only a few
electrons to gain energy.
1.2 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II
1.1.3 Zone theory (or) Band theory

Bloch developed the theory in which the electrons move in a periodic field
provided by the Lattice concept of holes, origin of Band gap and effective mass of
electrons are the special features of this theory of solids. This theory also explains the
mechanism of super conductivity based on band theory.
1.2 ASSUMPTIONS (POSTULATES) OF CLASSICAL FREE

ELECTRON THEORY
1. A Solid metal has nucleus with revolving electrons. The electrons move freely
like molecules in a gas.
2. The free electrons move in a uniform potential field due to the ions fixed in
the lattice.
3. In the absence of electric field (E=0), the free electrons move in random
directions and collide with each other. During this collision no loss of energy
is observes since the collisions are elastic as shown in figure.
4. When the presence of electric field ( E  0 ) the free electrons are accelerated
in the direction opposite to the direction of applied electric field, as shown in
figure.
Fig1.1 Absence of electric field (E= 0) Presence of electric field ( E  0 )
5. Since the electrons are assumed to be perfect gas, they obey the laws of classical
theory of gases.
6. Classical free electrons in the metal obey Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics.
CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.3
1.3 BASIC TERMS INVOLVED IN THE FREE ELECTRON

THEORY
1. Drift Velocity (Vd)
The drift velocity is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electron
in particular direction, due to the applied electric field.
Average distance travelled by the electron
Drift Velocity =
Time taken

Vd  ms 1
t
2. Mobility ()
The mobility is defined as the drift velocity (Vd) acquired by the electron per
unit electric field (E).
Vd 2 1 1
 m V s
E
3. Mean free path ()
The average distance travelled by a electron between two successive collision
is called mean free path.
4. Mean collision time (c) (or) Collision time
It is the time taken by the free electron between two successive collision.

c  sec
Vd
5. Relaxation time ()
It is the time taken by the electron to reach equilibrium position from disturbed
position in the presence of electric field.
l
 sec
Vd
Where l is the distance travelled by the electron. The value of relaxation time is
of the order of 10–14 sec.
6. Band gap (Eg)
Band gap is the energy difference between the minimum energy of conduction
band and the maximum energy of valence band.
7. Current density (J)

It is defined as the current per unit area of cross section of an imaginary plane
holded normal to the direction of the flow of current in a current carrying conductor.
I
J A m –2
A
1.4 SUCCESS OR USES OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON

THEORY
1. It is used to verify Ohm’s law.
2. It is used to explain electrical conductivity () and thermal conductivity of
(K) of metals.
3. It is used to derive Widemann-Franz law.
4. It is used to explain the optical properties of metal.
1.5 DRAWBACKS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1. It is a macroscopic theory.
2. According to classical free electron theory, all the free electrons will absorb
energy, but the quantum free electron theory states that only few electrons
will absorb energy.
3. This theory cannot explain the Compton effect, Photo-electric effect, para-
magnetism and ferromagnetism, etc.,
4. This theory cannot explain the electrical conductivity of semiconductors and
insulators.
5. Dual nature of light radiation cannot be explained.
6. The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific
heat are not matched.
K
7. By classical theory = T is constant for all temperature, but by quantum

K
theory = T is not a constant for all temperatures.

8. The Lorentz number obtained by classical theory does not have good
agreement with experimental value and theoritical value, it is rectified by
quantum theory.
1.6 EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (  )

Definition
The electrical conductivity is defined as the quantity of electricity flowing
per unit area per unit time at a constant potential gradient.
ne2 
 = Ohm1m 1
m
1.6.1 Expression for electrical conductivity
Fig 1.2 Moment of Electron
When an electric field (E) is applied to a conductor the free electrons are
accelerated and give rise to current (I) which flows in the direction of electric filed
flows of charges is given in terms of current density.
Let ‘n’ be the number of electrons per unit volume and ‘e’ be the charge of the
electrons.
The current flowing through a conductor per unit area in unit time (current density)
is given by
J = nVd ( e)
J = – nVd (e) ... (1)
The negative sign indicates that the direction of current is in opposite direction
to the movement of electron.
Due to the applied electric field, the electrons acquire an acceleration ‘a’ can be
given by
Drift Velocity (Vd )

Accelaration (a) =
Relaxation time ()
Vd
a =

Vd = a ... (2)
When an electric field of strength (E) is applied to the conductor, the force
experienced by the free electrons in given by
F = – eE ... (3)
From Newton’s second Law of motion, the force acquired by the electrons can
be written as
F = ma ... (4)
Comparing equation (3) & (4)
–eE = ma
e E
a = ... (5)
m
Now, substituting the value of ‘a’ from the equation (2),we get
eE
Vd = ... (6)
m
Substitute equation (6) in (1)
  eE 
J = n  (e)
 m 
ne 2 E
J = ... (7)
m
J
The electrical conductivity  =
E
ne2 
 =
m
ne 2
The electrical conductivity  
m
The electrical conductivity of a material is directly proportional to the free electron
concentration in the material.
1.6.2 Correct expression for electrical conductivity of

conductors
By using the classical free electron theory, quantum free electron theory and
band theory of solids we can get,
ne2 
The electrical conductivity, =
m*
Where m*- effective mass of free electron
 - Electrical conductivity
 - Relaxation time
n - Number of electrons
1.7 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (K)

Definition
The thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of heat flowing
through an unit area per unit temperature gradient.
Q
 =  Wm 1 K 1
 dT 
A 
 dx 
The negative sign indicates that heat flows hot end to cold end.
Where K is the thermal conductivity of metal. Q is the amount of heat energy.
dT
is the temperature gradient.
dx
In general, the thermal conductivity of a material is due to the presence of lattice
vibrations (ie., photons and electrons). Hence the total thermal conduction can be
written as.
K tot al = K electron  K photons
1.7.1 Expression for thermal conductivity (K) of an electron

Consider a metal bar with two planes A and B separated by a distance ‘’
from C. Here T1 is hot end and T2 is cold end. ie., T1 > T2
 
A C B
Direction of T T2
1
flow of heat

Fig.1.3 Thermal Conductivity
Let ‘n’ be the number of conduction electrons and ‘v’ be the velocity of the
electrons. K B is the Boltzmann constant
From kinetic theory of gases
1
Energy of an electron at A = mv 2
2
3K BT1
= ... (1)
2
The kinetic energy of an electron at
1
B = mv 2
2
3K BT2
= ... (2)
2
The net energy  3K B (T1  T2 )
 ... (3)
transferred from A to B 2
Fig.1.4 moment of electron field
Let as assume that there is equal probability for the electrons to move in all the
six directions. Each electrons travels with thermal velocity ‘V’ and ‘n’ is the free electron
density then on average of 1/6 nv electron will travel in any one direction.
No. of electrons crossing per unit area in unit time at C
1
= nv ... (4)
6
(Average energy transfer from A to B)

The energy carried by Q  
the electrons from A to B 
 (No of electron

cros sin g per unit area)
3K B (T1  T2 )  1 
Q =  nv 
2 6 
1
Q = K (T  T )nv ... (5)
4 B 1 2
We know that the thermal conductivity,
Q
K =
 dT 
A 
 dx 
The heat energy transferred per unit sec per unit area
dT
Q = K [A=1 unit area]
dx
K(T1  T2 )
Q = ... (6)
2
 dT  T1  T2 , dx  2
Comparing equations (5) and (6),
K(T1  T2 ) 1
= K (T  T )nv
2 4 B 1 2
1
 Thermal conductivity K = K nv
2 B
K Bnv
Thermal conductivity KK 
2
1.8 WIEDEMANN-FRANZ LAW

Statement
The ratio between the therm al conductivity (K) and electrical
conductivity (σ) of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the metal.
K K
T or  LT
 
Where L is called Lorentz number, the value of L is 2.44 × 10–8 WK–2
(as per Quantum Mechanical value).
1.8.1 Derivation
By Classical theory, we can drive Widemann-Franz law using the expressions
for electrical and thermal conductivity of metals.
The expression for thermal conductivity
K B nv
K =
2
The expression for electrical conductivity
ne2 
 =
m
K 1 / 2K Bnv
=
 ne2  / m
2
K 1 m K Bv   
=   v 
 2 e2   
K 1 2 KB
= mv 2
 2 e
We know that kinetic energy of an electron
1 3
 mV 2 = K T
2 2 B
K 3 KB
= K BT 2
 2 e
2
K 3 KB T
=
 2 e2
2
K 3 KB
=
T 2 e2
K
L  L is called Lorentz number
T
Thus, it is proved that the ratio of thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity
of a metal is directly propotional to the absolute temperature of the metal.
2
3 KB
Where Lorentz number L =
2 e2
L =

3  1.38  1023 
2

2 1.6  1019 
L = 1.12  108 WK 2
It is found that the classical value of Lorentz number is only one half of the
experimental value (2.44 × 10–8 WK–2). The discrepancy of L value is the failure of
the classical theory (Experimental and Theoretical). This can be rectified by quantum
theory.
1.8.2 By Quantum theory

By Quantum theory the mass ‘m’ is replaced by effective mass m*
ne2 
The electrical conductivity  =
m
According to Quantum theory, the expression for thermal conductivity is modified

by considering the electron specific heat as
2
2 nK B T
K=
3 m
  2 nK 2T  
B
  
K
=  3 2m 
  ne  
  
 m 
  2 K 2T 
K B
=  3 e2  T
  
K
= LT

 2 K 2 
B
Where L =  3 2 
 e 
(3.14) 2 (1.38  1023 ) 2

L =
3  (1.6  1019 ) 2
L = 2.44 × 10–8 WK–2
This is gives the correct value of Lorentz number and it in good agreement with
the experiment value.
1.9 QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

The failure of classical free electron theory paved this way for Quantum free
electron theory. It was introduced by Sommer field in 1928. This theory is based on
making small concepts. This theory was proposed by making small changes in the
classical free electron theory and by retaining most of the postulates of the classical
free electron theory.
1.9.1 Assumptions (Postulates) of Quantum free electron

theory
1. In a metal the available free electrons are fully responsible for electrical
conduction.
2. The electrons move in a constant potential inside the metal. They cannot
come out from the metal surface have very high potential barrier.
3. Electrons have wave nature, the velocity and energy distribution of the electron
is given by Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
4. The loss of energy due to interaction of the free electron with the other free
electron.
5. Electron’s distributed in various energy levels according to Pauli Exclusion
Principle.
1.9.2 Advantages of Quantum free electron theory

1. This theory explains the specific heat capacity of materials.
2. This theory explains photo electric effect, Compton Effect and block body
radiation. etc.
3. This theory gives the correct mathematical expression for the thermal
conductivity of metals.
1.9.3 Drawbacks of Quantum free electron theory

1. This theory fails to distinguish between metal, semiconductor and Insulator.
2. It also fails to explain the positive value of Hall Co-efficient.
3. According to this theory, only two electrons are present in the Fermi level
and they are responsible for conduction which is not true.
1.10 FERMI – DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

Statement
It is an expression for the distribution of electrons among the energy
levels as a function of temperature, the probability of finding an electron
in a particular energy state of energy E is given by
1
F(E) =
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 K BT 
Where, EF - Fermi energy (highest energy level of an electron)

KB - Boltzmann’s constant
T - Absolute temperature
1.10.1 Effect of Temperature on Fermi Function

Case 1:
AT = 0 K and E < E F
1 1
F(E) = 
1  exp (-) 1  0
F(E) = 1= 100 %
It means that 100% probability for the electrons to occupy the energy level
below the Fermi energy level.
Case 2:
AT = 0 K and E > E F
1 1 1
F(E) =   0
1  exp () 1   
F(E) = 0 = 0%
It means that 0% probability (electron) for the electrons to occupy the energy
level above the Fermi energy level.
Case 3 :
At T > 0K and E = EF
1 1 1
F(E) = = = = 0.5
1  exp (0) 1  1 2
F(E) = 0.5 = 50%
It means that 50% probability for the electrons to occupy the Fermi energy
level. (above Fermi energy level are empty and below Fermi energy level are filled).
At 0 K energy states above E F are empty and below E F are filled.
(a)At T=0K (b) at T>0K

Fig.1.5 Fermi Dirac distribution function
1.10.2 Fermi level, Fermi Energy and their importance

These are defined as the highest energy level filled by the electrons in that energy
level with higher energy values.
Fermi level : The Fermi level is the highest reference energy level of
a particle at absolute zero.
Importance : It is the reference energy level which separates the filled
energy levels and vacant energy levels.
Fermi energy (EF) : The Fermi energy is the maximum energy of the quantum
state corresponding to Fermi energy level at absolute
zero.
Importance : Fermi energy determines the energy of the particle at
any temperature.
1.11 DENSITY OF STATES

A parameter of interest in the study of conductivity of metals and semiconductors
is the density of states.
The Fermi function F(E) gives only the probability of filling up of electrons in a
given energy state. It does not give the information about the number of electrons that
can be filled in a given energy state, to know that we should know the number of
available energy states called density of states.
Density of states is defined the as the number of energy states per unit
volume in an energy interval of a metal. It is use to calculate the number
of charge carriers per unit volume of any solid.
Number of energy states between E and E + dE

N(E) dE =
Volume of the metal
D(E) dE
N(E) dE = ... (1)
V
nz
dn
E+dE
E
n
O ny
nx
Fig.1.6 Positive octant of n space
Let us constant a sphere of radius “n” in space with quantum numbers n n , n y

and n z
n 2 = n 2x  n 2y  n z2
The sphere is further divided into many shells represents a particular combination
of quantum numbers and represents particular energy value.
Therefore, the number of energy states within a sphere of radius
4
n =  n3
3
Let us consider two energy values E and E + dE can be found by finding the
number of energy states between the shells of radius n and n+ dn from the origin.
Since the quantum numbers are positive integers, n values can be defined only in the
positive octant of the n – space.
The number of available energy states within the sphere of radius “n” due to one
octant.
1 4 
n    n3 
8 3 
Similarly the number of available energy states within the sphere of radius n+dn
corresponding energy.
1 4 3
n + dn =    n + dn  
8 3 
The number of available energy states between the shells of radius n and n + dn
(or) between the energy levels E and E + dE
1 4 3 4 
D (E) dE =    n + dn   n 3 
8 3 3 
The number of available energy states between the energy interval dE
1 4 
D (E) dE = 
8 3
 
 n 3 + dn 3 +3n 2dn+3n dn 2 – n 2 

Since the higher powers of dn is very small, dn2 and dn3 terms can be neglected.
1 4 
 D (E) dE = 
8 3
 
 3n 2 dn 

 
n 2dn
D (E) dE = ... (3)
2
We know that the allowed energy values is
n 2h 2
E = ... (4)
8mL2
Differentiating equation (4) with respect to ‘n’
h2
dE = 2 ndn
8mL2
8mL2
ndn = dE ... (5)
2h 2
2 8mL2 E
From equation (4) n =
h2
1/2
n =
8mL2E 
1/2 ... (6)
 h2 
On substituting equation (6) and (5) in equation (3) we get,
n (ndn)
D (E) dE =
2
1/ 2


 8mL2 E  
8mL2
dE
D (E) dE =
2h 2
1/ 2
2
 
h2
3/ 2


8mL2  E1/ 2 dE

D (E) dE = 3/ 2
4
h2  

D (E) dE = 3
8m 3/ 2 L3E1/ 2 dE
4h
If volume of the metal, V = L3

D (E) dE = 3
8m 3/ 2 VE1/ 2 dE
4h
For unit volume of a metal,

V = 1m3
D(E) dE
From equation (1) N (E) dE =
V

Density of States, N (E) dE = 3
 8m 3/2 E1/2 dE  
4h
Each electron energy level can accommodate two electrons as per Pauli’s
exclusion principle. (Spin up and Spin down = 2 (e) × density of states).
N (E) dE = 2 × N(E) dE

N (E) dE = 2 x 3
8m 3/ 2 E1/ 2 dE F(E)
4h

N (E) dE = 3
8m 3/ 2 E1/ 2 dE F(E)
2h
1.11.1 Carrier concentration in metals

Let N(E) dE represents the number of filled energy states between the interval
of energy dE, normally all the energy states will not be filled
dN = N (E) dE F(E)

dN = 2 x 3
 8m 3/2 E1/ 2 dE F(E) ... (8)
4h
The actual number of electrons in dE,  F(E) = 1

dN = 3
8m 3/ 2 E1/ 2 dE
2h
Normally all the states are not filled states, filling of electrons is a given energy
state is given by Fermi-function F(E). Let dn represents the number of filled energy
states.
In this case of material of absolute zero the upper occupied level is EF and for
all the levels below EF, F(E)=1 (at T = 0 K the maximum energy level that can be
occupied by the electron is called Fermi energy level EF T = 0 K F(E) = 1).
Integrating equation (8) within the limits 0 to EF us can get the number of energy
0
states of electron (N)
N E Fo

 dN =  3
8m 3/2 E1/2 dE
0 0 2h
E
  E3/2  Fo
N = 3
8m3/2  
 3/2 
2h 0

N = 3
 8m 3/ 2 E 3/F 2 ... (9)
3h o
 3 
E3F/ 2  3Nh 
=  3/ 2 
0
  
 8m 
2/3
 3Nh 3  h 2  3N 
2/3
EF =    ... (10)
0    8m 3 / 2  8m   
 
Hence the Fermi energy of a metal depends only on the density of electrons of
that metal.
1.11.2 Average energy of an electron at 0 K

Average energy of electron
Total energy of the electrons at 0 K (E T )

Eavg = ... (11)
Number of energy states at 0 K (N)
Total energy of   Number of energy   Energy of 

= 
electrons at 0 K (E T )    
 States at 0 K   electron 
E Fo
ET =  N (E) dE E
0
E Fo
2
=  3
8m 3/2 E1/2 E dE
0 4h
EFo
2 3/2
ET = 8m  E3/2 dE
3
4h 0
E Fo
5/ 2 
 3/2  E
= 8m   
2h 3  5 / 2  0
2  3/ 2
=  3  8m E5/ F
2
5 2h o

ET = 3
8m 3/ 2 E5/Fo2 ... (12)
5h
Substitute equation (12) and (9) in equation (11)


3
8m 3 / 2 E5Fo/ 2
E avg = 5h

3
8m 3 / 2 E Fo 3 / 2
3h
The average of  3
  Eavg = EF
electron at 0K is  5 o
1.12 WORK FUNCTION

It is defined as the minimum energy required to remove an electron from
the metal surface at absolute zero (0 K) is called as work function.
1.12.1 Explanation
Let EF be the maximum energy of an electron called Fermi energy and EB be the
energy of the metal barrier surface.
1. If we supply energy EB greater than EF, then no of electron escapes from the
metal.
2. In order to make it to escape, an additional amount of energy equal to
(E B – E F ) is required. i.e., EB + (EB – EF )
3. This difference in energy EW = EB – EF is called Work function of a

metal.
4. This Concept is shown in energy diagram.
5. Different metals have different work functions.
Fig. 1.7 Work function
Work functions for Some Metals
Metal Work function (eV)

Cu 4.30
Fe 4.74
K 1.90
Na 2.00
Al 3.00
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. The following datas are given for copper
i) Density = 8.92 × 103 kgm–3
ii) Resistivity = 1.73 × 108 m
iii)Atomic weight = 63.5 kg
Calculate the mobility and the average time collision of electrons in copper
obeying classical laws (AU - NOV 2003)
Solution:
Given data:
The density of the copper is d = 8.92 × 103 kgm 3
The resistivity of the copper  = 1.73 × 108m
The Atomic weight of the copper A = 63.5 kgs
Avagadro number × Density
We know the carrier concentration (n) =
Atomic weight
6.023  1023  8.92  103

=
63.5
The conductivity of copper is n = 8.46 × 1025m3
1 1
The electrical conductivity  = 
 1.73  108
9 1 1
= 5.78  10  m
ne 2 
We know  =
m
m
Average time colllision  =
ne2
5.78  10 –9  9.11  10 –31

=
8.46  1025  (1.6  10 –19 ) 2
 = 2.380 × 10–27 sec

Mobility  =
ne
5.78  109
=
8.46  1025  1.6  10 –19
 = 4.27 m2 v–1 s–1
 = 4.27 × 10–16 m2 V–1 s–1
2. A uniform silver wire has a resistivity of 1.54×10 –8 m at room
temperature. For an electric field along the wire of 1 volt cm–1 , compute
the average drift velocity of electron assuming that there is 5.8 × 1028
conduction electrons /m3 . Also calculate the mobility. (AU - MAY 2011)
Solution:
Given data:
The resistivity of silver  = 1.54 × 10–8 m
Electric field along the wire E = 1 volt cm–1 (or) 100 volts m–1
The carrier concentration of electron n = 5.8 × 1028 m–3
a) Mobility of the electron
 1  1
 = (or)   
ne ne  
1
 = 8
1.54  10  5.8 × 1028 × 1.6 × 1019
Mobility  = 6.9973 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1
b) Drift velocity
Vd = E
Vd = 6.9973 × 10–3 ×100
Drift velocity (Vd) = 0.69973 m s–1
3. The density of silver 10.5 × 103 kg–3 assuming that each silver atom provides
one conduction electron. The conductivity of silver at 20°C is
6.8 × 107  –1 m–1 . Calculate the density and mobility of electron in silver
with atomic weight 107.9 × 10–3 kg m–2. (A.U - JUNE 2010)
Solution:
Given:
Density of silver d = 10.5 × 103 kgm–3
Conductivity of silver at 20OC  = 6.8 × 107  –1 m–1
Atomic weight A = 107.9
Avagadro Number  Density
We know the carrier concentration n =
Atomic weight
6.023  1023  10.5  103
=
107.9
= 5.86 × 1025 m3
We know, the conductivity is given by  = ne

 =
ne
6.8  107
=
5.86  1025  1.6  1019
 = 7.2525 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1

4. Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in copper and current density in
wire of diameter 0.16 cm which carries a steady current of 10 A. Given
n = 8.46 × 1028 m–3 .
Solution:
Given:
Diameter of the wire d = 0.16 cm
Current flowing = 10 A
Current
Current density J =
Area of cross section (A2 )
10 10  d
= =  r  2 
r 2   d / 2
2  
10
= 2
3.14  0.16  102 / 2 
 
J = 4.976 × 106 Am–2
J = neVd
J
Vd =
ne
4.97  106
=
8.46  1028  1.6  1019
Drift velocity Vd = 3.67 × 10–4 m s–1
5. The resistivity of a piece of silver at room temperature 1.6 × 10–8 m.
The effective number of conduction electrons is 0.9 per atom and the Fermi
energy is 5.5 eV. Estimate the mean free path of the conduction electrons.
Calculate the electronic relaxation time and the electronic drift velocity in
a field of 100 Vm–1 . The density of silver is 1.05 × 104 kgm–3 (m/m* = 1).
Solution:
Given:
Resistivity silver  = 1.6 × 10–8 m
Electric field E = 100 Vm–1
1 1
The conductivity of silver is  = 
 1.6  108
= 6.25  107  1m 1
Avagadro Number × Density

We know the carrier concentration n =
Atomic weight
6.023  1023  1.05 104

n =
107.9
= 5.86 ×1025 m–3
m
Relaxation time  =
ne2
6.25  107  9.11  1031

=
5.86  1025  (1.6  1019 ) 2
= 3.79 × 10–11 sec
Mean free path  = c
= 3 × 108 × 3.78 × 10–11
 = 1.134 × 10–3 m
J = E
= 6.25 × 107 × 100
= 6.25 × 109 Am–2
J 6.25  109
Vd = ne 
5.86  1025  1.6  1019
Vd = 0.666 × 102 ms–1

6. A conducting rod contains 8.5 × 1028 electrons/m3 . Calculate its resistivity
at room temperature and also the mobility of electrons if the collision time
for electron scattering is 2 × 10–14 sec. (AU - JUNE 2010, MAY 2011)
Solution:
Given data:
Number of electrons n = 8.5  10 28 electrons m 3
Collision time  = 2  1014 sec
ne2 τ
Electrical conductivity  =
m
8.5  10 28  (1.6 × 1019 ) 2  2  1014
=
9.11 1031
7 1 1
 = 4.77  10  m
1 1
Electrical Resistivity  = =
 4.77  107
 = 2.09  108 m

Mobility of electron  =  ( = ne )
ne
4.77 107
=
8.5  1028  1.6 × 1019
 = 3.512  10 3 m 2 V 1s1

7. Evaluate the Fermi function for energy K B T above the Fermi energy.
(AU - MAY 2009)
Solution:
1
We know Fermi Function F(E) =
EE F K B T
1 e
For an energy KBT aboveFermi energy
E  E F = K BT
1 1
F(E) = 
1 e 1 1  2.7183
Fermi distribution function F(E) = 0.2689
8. F r ee el ect r on d en si t y of al u m i n u m i s 18.1 × 10 28m –3 Calculate its

Fermi energy at 0 K. [Planck’s constant and mass of free electron are
6.62 × 10–34Js, and 9.1 × 10–34Kg] (AU - JUNE 2012)
Solution:
Given data:
Planck’s constant h = 6.62 × 10–34 Js
Mass of electron m = 9.1 × 10–34 Kg
Electron density N = 18.1 × 1028 m–3
2/3
 3N  h2
Fermi energy at 0 K  
E Fo = 
   8m
2/3 
 3  18.1 × 1028  34 2 
 EFo =    (6.62 × 10 ) 
 3.14   8  9.1 × 1031 
 
2/3
= 
1.7292 × 1029   6.019  1038
EFo = 1.8689 × 10–18 J
1.8689  1018
(or) EFo = eV
1.6  1019
Fermi energy at 0 K EFo = 11.68 eV
9. The Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi velocity.
(AU - NOV 2003)
Solution:
Given data:
Temperature = 24600 K
The relation between Fermi energy, Fermi velocity and Fermi temperature is given by
3 1
EF = K BTF = mV 2F
2 2
3K BTF 31.38x1023 x24600
VF = =
m 9.11x1031
3 1
Fermi velocity VF = 863.30  10 ms
10. Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of F(E) for
E – EF = 0.01 eV at 200K.
Solution:
Given data:
1
Fermi Function F (E) =
1  e
E  E F  / K BT
Boltzman constant KB = 1.38 × 10–23 JK–1

E –EF = 0.01 eV = 0.01 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 1.6 × 10–21J
T = 200 K
1
F (E) =
1 e
1.6 × 10 21

/ 1.38 × 1023  200 
1
=
1  e0.5797
1 1
= 
1  1.7855 2.7855
Fermi function F (E) = 0.3589
11. Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons (with a mobility of
3.5 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1) in copper for an electric field strength of 0.5 V m–1.
Solution:
Given data:
Mobility  = 3.5 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1
Electric field strength = 0.5 vm –1
Drift Velocity, Vd = E
= 3.5 × 10–3 × 0.5
= 1.75 × 10–3 ms–1
13. Copper has electrical conductivity at 300 K as 6.40 × 107 m–1. Calculate
the thermal conductivity of copper.(Lorentz number is 2.44 × 10–8 W  k–2).
(AU - JUNE 2012)
Solution:
Given data:
Electrical conductivity  = 6.40 × 107  –1 m–1
T = 300 K
K
= LT

K = LT
K = 6.40 × 107 × 2.44 10–8 × 300
K = 468.48 Wm–1 K–1
14. The thermal and electrical conductivities of copper at 20°C are
380 Wm–1 K –1 and 5.67 × 107  –1 m–1 respectively. Calculate the Lorentz
number.
Solution:
Given data:
Thermal conductivity K = 380 m–1 K–1
Electrical conductivity  = 5.67 × 107  –1m–1
T = (273 + 20)
= 293 K
K
= LT

K
L =
T
380
L = 5.67 × 107 × 293
Lortentz number L = 2.2874 × 10–8 W K–2
15. Calculate the Fermi energy of copper at 0 K if the concentration of electron

is 8.5 × 1028 m–3 . (AU - JUNE 2010)
Solution:
Electron density n = 8.5 × 1028 m–3
2/3
h 2  3N 
Fermi energy at 0 K (E Fo ) =
8m   
2/3
(6.62 × 1034 ) 2  3 × 8.5 × 1028 
=  
8 × 9.1 × 1031  3.14 
= 6.019 × 1038  (8.121 × 1028 ) 2 / 3
= 6.019 × 1038  1.875 × 1019
E Fo = 1.1287 × 1018J
1.1287 × 1018
E Fo = eV
1.6 × 1019
E Fo = 7.05 eV
16. The mobility of electrons in copper 3×103m2 V–1 s–1 assuming e=1.6×10–19C
and me=9.1×10–31 kg. Calculate the mean collision time. (AU - JUN.2009)
Solution:
Given data:
Mobility of electrons in copper µ = 3×103m2V–1s–1
Charge of electrons e = 6×10 –19C
Mass of electrons me= 9.1×10–31 kg
ne 2 
Electrical conductivity =
m
m
 
ne 2
m 
     
e ne
9.1 1031  3  103


1.6  1019
Mean collision time of electron  17.06 × 10–15 sec

17. The thermal conductivity of a metal is 123.92 Wm–1 K–1. Find the electrical
conductivity and Lorentz number when the metal posses relaxation time
10–14 sec at 300 K. (Density of electron = 6×1028 per m3 ) (AU - DEC 2010)
Solution:
Given data:
The Thermal conductivity of a metal K = 123.92 Wm–1K–1
Relaxation time   10–14 sec
ne 2 
Electrical conductivity  
m
2
6  1028  1.6  1019   1014
 
9.1  10 31
   1.686  107  m 1
K
Lorentz number L =

123.92
= 1.68  107  300
L = 2.45 × 10–8
18. Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons in copper for electric field
strength of 2Vm–1 . (Mobility of electrons µ = 3.5 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1 ).
(AU - DEC 2009, JUN 2012)
Solution:
Given data:
Electric field strength E = 2V–1m
Mobility of electrons µ = 3.5 × 10–3 m2V–1s–1
Drift velocity Vd = µ E
= 3.5 × 10–3 × 2
Vd = 7 × 10–3 ms–1
19. Find the velocity of copper wire whose cross-sectional area is 1 mm when
the wire carries a current of 10 A. Assume that each copper atom
contributes one election to the electron gas. (AU - DEC 2009)
Solution:
Given data:
Current I = 10 A
Number of electrons n = 8.5 × 1028 m–3
Area of cross-section A = 1 mm = 1 × 10–3m
We know J = neVd
J
Vd =
ne
Current (I) 10
Current density J = = 3
Area A cross sec tion (A) 1  10
J = 10  103 Am 2
J 10  103
 Vd = = 28 19
ne 8.5  10  1.6  10
Drift velocity Vd = 7.353 × 10–7 ms–1
SHORT QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

1. What is meant by a free electron?
The electron moves freely in all directions in the absence of electric field is called
free electron (or) valance electron. These electrons collide with each other, the
collisions are perfectly elastic collisions hence there is no loss of energy. Since
the free electron is in random motion.
2. Define Drift velocity of electrons. (AU - June 2010, 2011, Nov 2012)
Drift velocity (Vd) is the average velocity acquired by an electron in a particular
direction due to applied electric field.
Average distance travelled by the electron
Drift Velocity =
Time taken
 1
vd = ms
t
3. Define mobility of electrons. (AU- April 2003, June 2009, 2010)
The mobility is defined as the drift velocity (Vd) acquired by the free electron per
unit electric field (E)
Vd 2 1 1
 = m V s
E
4. Define mean free path. (AU - June 2006, Nov 2009, 2010)
The average distance travelled by an electron between two successive collisions
is called mean free path.
5. Define relaxation time. (AU - June 2009)
Relaxation time is the time taken by the electron to reach equilibrium position
from its disturbed position in the presence of electric field.

c =
Vd sec
6. Define electrical conductivity. (AU - April 2002)
The electrical conductivity is defined as the quantity of electricity flowing per unit
area per unit time at a constant potential gradient.
ne2 
 = Ohm1m 1
m
7. Define Thermal Conductivity.

Thermal conductivity of material is defined as the amount of heat flowing through
an unit area per unit time of temperature gradient.
Q
K Wm –1 K –1
 dT 
A 
 dx 
8. State Widemann-Franz law.

(AU - June 2006, 2007,2010 May 2009, Nov 2009, 2010,2011)
The ratio between the thermal conductivity (K) and electrical conductivity () of
a metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal.
K K
T or  LT
 
9. List out the three main theories developed to describe the structure of
materials. (or) List the types of electron theory of metals.
1. Classical free electron theory
2. Quantum free electron theory
3. Zone (or) Band theory
10. What are the Sources of resistance in metals? (AU - Nov 2003)
The resistance in metals is due to
1. Presence of impurities in the metals.
2. Temperature of the metal.
3. Number o free electrons.
11. What is the effect of temperature on metals
When temperature of the metal increases, the mobility of the electron decreases
and hence the electrical conductivity decreases. The addition of impurities in the
metal decreases the electrical conductivity.
12. What are the uses (or) success of classical free electron theory?
(AU - June 2006, 2011)
1. It is used to verify the Ohm’s law.
2. It is used to explain electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of metals.
3. It is used to derive Widemann-Franz law.
3. It is used to explain the optical properties of metal.
13. What are the drawbacks of classical free electron theory? (or) State any
four demerits of Classical free electron theory?
(AU - June 2006, June 2010,2011)
1. It is a macroscopic theory.
2. According to classical free electron theory, all the free electrons will absorb
energy, but the quantum free electron theory states that only few electrons will
absorb energy.
3. This theory cannot explain the Compton effect, Photo-electric effect,
para-magnetism and ferromagnetism, etc.,
4. This theory cannot explain the electron conductivity of semiconductors and
insulators.
5. Dual nature of light radiation cannot be explained.
6. The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific
heat are not matched.
K
7. By classical theory =T is constant for all temperature, but by quantum

K
theory =T is not a constant for all temperature.

8. The Lorentz number obtained by classical theory does not have good agreement
with experimental value and it is rectified by quantum theory.
14. What is Lorentz Number?

3K 2
Lorentz Number L = B
2e 2
3 × (1.38 × 1023 ) 2
L =
(2 × 1.6 × 1019 ) 2
L = 1.12 × 10–8 W K–2
It is found that the classical value of Lorentz number is only one half of the
experimental value (2.44 × 10–8 WK–2). The discrepancy of L value is the
failure of the classical theory. This can be rectified by quantum theory.
15. What is the basic assumption of Zone theory or Band theory of solids?
According to quantum free electron theory, the electrons in a metal were assumed
to be moving in a region of constant potential but it fails to explain, why some
solids behave as conductors, some as insulators and some as semiconductors.
Therefore instead of considering an electron to move in a constant potential, the
Zone theory of solids tells that the electrons are assumed to move in a field of
periodic potential.
16. Distinguish between Electrical conductivity and Thermal conductivity.
S.No Electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity
1. The electical conductivity is defined Thermal conductivity is defined as

as the quantity of electricity flowing the amount of heat flowing through
per unit area per unit time at a an unit area per unit time of
constant potential gratient. temperature gratient.
2. Electrical conductivity is purely Thermal conductivity is due to
depend on free electrons. both free electrons and photons.
3. Conduction of electricity takes Conduction of heat takes place
place from higher potential end from hot end to cold end.
to lower potential end.
Q
2
ne  K Wm –1 K –1
4.  = Ohm1m 1  dT 
A 
m  dx 
5. Unit : Ohm–1 m–1 Unit : W m–1 K–1
17. What are the similarities between electrical and thermal conductivity of
metals?
1. The electrical and thermal conductivities decrease with the increase in
temperature and impurities.
2. The electrical and thermal conductivity is very high at low temperatures.
3. For non-metals the electrical and thermal conductivity is very less.
18. Distinguish between relaxation time and collision time.
(AU - June 2009, 2010)
S.No Relaxation time Collision time
1. It is the time taken by the electron It is the time taken by the free
to reach equilibrium position from electron between two succesive
its distrubed position in the presence collisions.
of electrical field.
2.  = 10–14 sec c =  / vd
19. Write microscopic form of Ohm’s law and state whether it is true for all
temperature. (AU - June 2009)
1) Microscopically we can write V = IR as J = E
2) Since the resistivity varies with respect to the temperature, the microscopic
form of ohm’s law is not true for all the temperature.
20. What are the factors that affect the electrical resistivity of materials?
1. Temperature
2. Impurities
3. Inperfections
4. Magnetic field
5. Pressure and strain.
21. Define Fermi level, Fermi energy and this importance.

(AU - June 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, Dec 2012)
Fermi level : The Fermi level is the highest reference energy level of a particle
at absolute zero.
Importance : It is the reference energy level which separates the filled energy
level and vacant energy levels.
Fermi energy: It is the maximum energy of the quantum state corresponding
to Fermi energy level at absolute zero.
Importance : Fermi energy determines the energy of the particle at any
temperature.
22. Define Fermi Distribution function. (AU - June 2010)
It is an expression for the distribution of electrons among the energy levels as a
function of temperature and it is the probability of finding an electron in particular
energy state of energy E is given by,
1
F(E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 K BT 
23. Define density of states and its importance. (AU - May 2008, June 2010)
Density of states is defined the as the number of energy states per unit volume in
an energy interval of a metal. It is use to calculate the number of charge carriers
per unit volume of any solid.
Number of energy states between E and E + dE

N (E) dE =
Volume of metal
Importance : It is used for the Fermi energy calculation at any temperature.
24. Define work function
It is define as the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the metal
surface at 0K. in order to make it escape, an additional amount of energy equal
to is required. i.e., .This difference in energy is called Work function.
25. What do you mean by carrier concentration in metal? (AU - June 2009)
In metal carrier concentration is number of free electrons per unit volume in between
the energy interval 0 to it is given by
Carrier concentration N   D (E) F(E) dE
26. How classical free electron theory failed to account for specific heat of
solid? (AU - June 2009)
According to classical free electron theory, the experimental and theoretical value
of specific heat of solid are not matched. Hence classical free electron theory is
failed.
PART – B QUESTIONS
1. Deduce a mathematical expression for electrical conductivity and thermal
conductivity of a conducting metal and hence, obtain Widemann-Franz law.
(AU - April 2002, May 2008, T2009, Ch2009)
2. Define Fermi energy, and Derive an expression for the Fermi energy of a system
of free electrons. (AU - Nov 2003)
3. i) Define density of states in metals in
ii) Write down the expression for Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
iii) Derive an expression for the Fermi energy of a system of free electrons.
4. With a neat diagram and derive an expression for density of states.
(AU - May 2004)
5. Write Fermi-Dirac distribution function. Explain how Fermi function varies with
temperature. (AU - May 2004, T2009)
6. With the help of Fermi-Dirac statistics, derive the expression for density of states
and deduce Fermi energy. (AU - May 2004, Dec 2005)
7. i) What are the special features of classical free electron theory?
ii) Derive an expression for the electrical conductivity of a metal.
iii) How it is affected by temperature and alloying?
(AU - June 2006, CB2009)
8. Derive an expression for density of states in a metal and hence obtain the
Fermi energy in terms of density of free electrons, at 0K. (AU - Nov 2007)
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. A Copper wire whose is 0.16 cm carries a steady current of 20 A. What is the
current density of wire? Also calculate the drift velocity of the electrons in copper.
(Ans : J = 9.952 A/m 2 , and Vd = 7.35 x 10-4 ms-1 )
2. The thermal and electrical conductivities of Cu at 20°C are 390 Wm1 K1 and
5.87 × 10–7  –1 m–1respectively. Calculate the Lorentz number.
(Ans : 2.267 × 10–8 W  K –1 )
3. Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities of a metal rod with relaxation
time 1014 second at 300K. Also calculate the Lorentz number..
(Density of electron = 6 × 1028 m–3)
(Ans :  = 1.6879 × 10 –7  –1 m –1 , K = 123.927 Wm –1 K –1 ,
L = 2.4474 × 10–18 WK –2 )
4. Calculate the drift velocity and mean free path of copper when it carries a steady
current of 10 amperes and whose radius is 0.08 cm. Assume that the mean
thermal velocity 1.6 × 106 m/s and the resistivity of copper 2 × 10–8  m.
(Ans : (i) 36.6 x 10-5m/s (ii) 3.94 x 108m)
5. The resistivity of aluminum at room temperature is 2 × 10–8  m.Calculate
i) The drift velocity ii) mean free path on the basis of classical free electron theory.
(Ans : (i) 0.396 ms-1; (ii) 2.65nm)
6. Using the Fermi function, evaluate the temperature at which there is 1% probability
in a solid will have an energy 0.5 eV above EF of 5 eV. (Ans : 1260 K)
2
Semiconducting Materials
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A semiconductor has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an
insulator. Semiconductors differ from metals in their characteristic property of
decreasing electrical resistivity with increasing temperature. Semiconductors can also
display properties of passing current more easily in one direction than the other, and
sensitivity to light.
Because the conductive properties of a semiconductor can be modified by
controlled addition of impurities or by the application of electrical fields or light,
semiconductors are very useful devices for amplification of signals, switching, and
energy conversion. The comprehensive theory of semiconductors relies on the principles
of quantum physics to explain the motions of electrons through a lattice of atoms.
Current conduction in a semiconductor occurs via free electrons and holes,
collectively known as charge carriers. Adding a small amount of impurity atoms greatly
increases the number of charge carriers within it. When a doped semiconductor contains
excess holes it is called “p-type,” and when it contains excess free electrons it is
known as “n-type”.
The semiconductor material used in devices is doped under highly controlled
conditions to precisely control the location and concentration of p- and n-type dopants.
A single semiconductor crystal can have multiple p and n type regions; the p-n junctions
between these regions have many useful electronic properties.
Semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronics, including radio,

computers, and telephones. Semiconductor-based electronic components include
transistors, solar cells, many kinds of diodes including the light-emitting diode (LED),
the silicon controlled rectifier, photo-diodes, digital analog integrated circuits. Increasing
understanding of semiconductor materials and fabrication processes has made possible
continuing increases in the complexity and speed of semiconductor devices, an effect
known as Moore’s Law.
2.1.1 Properties of semiconductor

1. The resistivity of semiconductors lies between a conductor and an Insulator.
(It various from 10–4 to 0.5 m).
2. At 0 K it behave as insulator.
3. They have negative temperature Coefficient of resistance. ( when the
temperature is increased large number of charge carriers are produced due
to breaking of covalent bonds and hence these electrons move freely and
gives rise to conductivity)
4. In semiconductors, both electrons and holes are charge carriers.
  e  h
Where e and  h is the conductivities due to electron and holes.
5. If we increase the temperature of semiconductor, its electrical conductivity
also increases.
6. They have an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band 0 K.
7. They are formed by a covalent bonds.
8. They have small energy gap (or) band gap.
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Based on the purity, semiconductor is classified into two types.
1. Intrinsic semiconductors or Elemental semiconductors
2. Extrinsic semiconductors or Compound semiconductors
SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS 2.3
2.2.1 Intrinsic semiconductors

A pure semiconductor without any impurities is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Example: Ge, Si (In the form of pure)
These are made from single element. They also known as indirect band gap
semiconductors. In which the recombination of free electron from the conduction
band with the hole in the valence band takes place via traps. During recombination
phonons [lattice vibrations] are produced and they heat the crystal lattice (position of
the atom). These are the IV group element in the periodic table.
2.2.2 Compound Semiconductors

The Compound Semiconductor is a semiconductor compound composed of
elements from two or more different groups of the periodic table. They also known as
direct band gap semiconductors.
i.e., III – V group, II – VI group and IV – VI group.
Here the recombination electron and hole takes place directly, during
recombination photons are emitted.
Example : GaAs, GaP,
Based on the type of impurity they are classified into
i) N-type semiconductor
ii) P-type semiconductor
2.2.3 Difference between N-type and P-type semiconductor
S. No N-type P-type
1. It is donor type It is acceptor type

2. Impurity atom is pentavalent Impurity atom is trivalent
3. Donor level lies close to the Acceptor level lies close to the
bottom of the conduction band top of the valence band.
2.2.4 Difference between Elemental and Compound

Semiconductors
S.No Elemental semiconductors Compound semiconductors
1. These are made from single element. These are made from compound
(mixed) element.
2. These are made from IV group These are made from III and V [or]
and VI group elements II and VI elements.
3. These are called as indirect band gap These are called as direct band gap
semiconductor (electron-hole semiconductor (electron-hole
recombination takes place through traps) recombination takes place directly)
4. Heat is produced in the recombination Photons are emitted during
recombination
5. Life time of charge carriers is more Life time of charge carriers is less
due to indirect recombination due to direct recombination.
6. Current amplification is more Current amplification is less.
7. These are used for making diodes, These are used for making LED,
transistor, etc. laser diodes, etc.
8. Example : Ge, Si Example : GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO
2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS

AND SEMICONDUCTORS BASED ON BAND THEORY
The electrical conduction properties of different elements and compounds can
be explained in terms of the electrons having energies in the valence and conduction
bands. The electrons lying in the lower energy bands, which are normally filled, play
no part in the conduction process.
2.3.1 Conductors
Conductors are those materials in which plenty of free electrons are available
for electric conduction.
In terms of energy bands, it means that electrical conductors are those which
have overlapping valence and conduction bands as shown in Figure. In fact, there is
no physical distinction between the two bands, hence, the availability of a large number
of conduction electrons.
Hence the free electrons can easily move from the valence band to conduction
band, and are available for electrical conduction under the action of an electric field.
Another point worth noting is that in the absence of forbidden energy band in
good conductors, there is no structure to establish holes. The total current in such
conductors is simply a flow of electrons. It is exactly for this reason that the existence
of holes was not discovered until semiconductors were studied thoroughly.
Conduction band Conduction band

Conduction band
Band energy
Band energy
Band energy
Large Small
Overlap
energy gap energy gap
Valence band
Valence band
Valence band
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.2.1 Energy band gap (a) conductor (b) insulator and (c) semiconductor
2.3.2 Insulators
Stated simply, insulators are those materials in which valence electrons are tightly
bonded to their parent atoms, thus requiring very large electric field to remove them
from the attraction of the nuclei.
a) Have a filled valence band
b) Have an empty conduction band and
c) Have a large energy gap (the order of > 3 eV) between them.
This is shown in Fig. 2.1(b). For conduction process, electrons must be given sufficient
energy to jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Increase in temperature
enables some electrons to go to the conduction band which infact accounts for the negative
resistance – temperature coefficient of insulators. Only at very high temperature, the thermal
energy will be sufficient to raise the electrons from valence band to conduction band.
Therefore at high temperatures even insulators can conduct electric current.
2.3.3 Semiconductors
A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between those
of insulators and good conductors. (Example: Ge, Si).
In terms of energy band, semiconductors can be defined as those materials
which have almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a
very narrow energy gap (of the order of 1 eV) separating the two as shown in Figure.
In semiconductors, there is a small energy gap. Hence, the electrons require
small energy to jump from valence band to conduction band. This energy may be in
the form of heat or light. Even at room temperature, the thermal energy is sufficient to
transfer electrons from valence band to conduction band. But when the semiconductor
is at zero Kelvin, the thermal energy is not sufficient to transfer the electrons from the
valence band to conduction band.
Semiconductors at 0K behave like insulators. In semiconductors the resistance
decreases with increase in temperature.
The resistivity of the above three classes of materials as follows
Conductors = 10–8 to 10–6 ohm m
Insulators = 1010 to 1016 ohm m
Semiconductors = 10–4 to 0.5 ohm m
2.3.4 Mobility and Conductivity in Semiconductors

When an electric field (E) is applied to a semiconductor, the free electrons and
holes are drifted in opposite direction of the electric field, due to this a current is
produced called drift velocity (Vd)
Vd  E
Vd  E
Where is called mobility.

Mobility is defined as the ratio of drift velocity to the applied electric field.
The total current in a semiconductor I = Ie + Ih

I = n e e E A + p e h E A
I = e E A [n e + p h]
Where e - mobility of the free electrons (n)
h - mobility of the holes (p)
In the case of intrinsic semiconductor, number of free electrons [n] in the
conduction band is equal to the number of holes [p] in the valence band.
 n = p = ni [intrinsic charge carrier concentration]
I = e E A [ni e + ni h]
I = ni e E A [e + h]
The electrical conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor is due to drifting action
of electrons and holes is given by,
i = ni e [e + h]
The electrical conductivity of the extrinsic semiconductor is
p = nn e e
N = np e h
2.4 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN INTRINSIC SEMI-

CONDUCTORS
In a semiconductor both electrons and holes are charge carriers (know as carrier
concentration). A semiconductor in which holes and electrons are created by thermal
excitation across the energy gap is called an intrinsic semiconductor.
In an intrinsic semiconductor the number of holes is equal to the number of free
electrons.
At T = 0K, valence band is completely filled and conduction band is completely
empty. Thus the intrinsic semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator.
At T > 0K, the electron from the valence band shifted to conduction band
across the band gap.
Thus there are number of free electrons and holes in intrinsic semiconductor.
Fermi level lies in midway between conduction band and valance band in intrinsic
semiconductors.
At T = 0 K At T > 0 K
 
Conduction band
EC EC
EF (at 0K) EF (at 0K)
EV EV
Valance band
 
Fig. 2.2 Energy Band Diagram in an Intrinsic Semiconductor
2.4.1 Density of electrons in conduction band

Let dN be the number of electrons in the energy interval E and E + dE in the
conduction band.
dN = N(E) dE F(E) ... (1)
Where N (E) dE is the density of states in the energy interval E and E + dE and
F (E) is the probability that a state of energy E is occupied.
The number of electrons in conduction band can be calculated by integrating the
equation(1) from energy Ec (ie., energy from the bottom of the conduction Ec to the
top of conduction band  )

Ne = Ec N(E) dE F(E) ... (2)
We know that,

N (E) dE = (8m)3/ 2 E1/ 2dE
3
2h
Since, the semiconductor is a crystal, the electron motion is considered in the
periodic potential. So, the mass ‘m’ is replaced as effective mass m *e and the kinetic
energy of the electron, E = E – Ec

N (E) dE = (8m*e )3/ 2 [E  Ec ]1/ 2 dE ... (3)
3
2h
1
F (E) =
 [E  E F ] 
1  exp  
 K BT 
In the above expression E  E F , So we can neglect one (1) in the denominator..
1
F (E) = ... (4)
 [E  E F ] 
exp  
 K BT 
Substituting equation (3) & (4) in equation (2)

  [E  E] 
Ne =  (8m*e )3 / 2 [E  E ]1 / 2 exp  F  dE  
3 c  K BT 
E 2h
c
To solve this integral

Put E – Ec = x KBT
E = Ec + x KBT
Differentiating above equation, we get
dE = KBT dx
Lower limits Upper limits
When E – E c  x K BT When E – Ec  x K BT
E  Ec  – Ec  x K BT
Ec  Ec  x K BT x
0x
 The limits are 0 to 

 3/ 2 1/ 2  E  xK B T  E C 
Ne = (8m*e )  (xK BT) exp  F  K B Tdx
3  K BT 
2h 0

 3/ 2  E  EC    xK B T 
Ne = (8m*e )3/ 2  (x)
1/ 2
(K B T) exp  F  exp   dx
3  K BT   K BT 
2h 0
  3/ 2  E F  EC   1/ 2
Ne = (8me K BT) exp    (x) exp( x)dx
2h 3  K BT  0
 

sin ce  (x)1/ 2 exp( x)dx  
 2 
0 
 * 3/ 2  E F  EC  
Ne = 2h 3 (8m e K B T) exp  K T  2
 B 
3/ 2
1  (8me K B T)   E  EC 
Ne =   exp  F 
4 h2   K BT 
Density of electrons in conduction band
3/2
 (2me K BT)   E  EC 
Ne = Ne  2   exp  F  ... (6)
 h2   K BT 
2.4.2 Density of Holes in Valence band

Let dP be the number of holes in the energy interval E and E + dE in the valence
band.
dP = N (E) dE [1 – F(E)] ... (7)
(1– F (E) is the remaining probability after finding the density of electrons)
The total number of holes within limits  to E v is
Ev
Nh   N(E) dE [1–F(E)] ... (8)
We know that,

N (E) dE = (8m)3/2 E1/2 dE
3
2h
Since, the semiconductor is a crystal, the electron motion is considered in the
periodic potential. So, the mass m is replaced as effective mass mh and the kinetic
energy of the electron, E = Ev – E.
 1/ 2
N (E) dE = (8mh )3/ 2  E v  E  dE  
3
2h
 [E  E F ] 
1  exp  1
1  K B T 
1 –F (E) = 1- 
 [E  E F ]   [E  E F ] 
1  exp   1  exp  
 K BT   K BT 
In the above expression E << EF (in valence band),
 E  EF 
So we can neglect exp   in the denominator when compared with one (1).
 K BT 
 E  EF 
1 – F (E) = exp    
 K BT 
Substituting eqn (9) & (10) in eqn (8)
Ev
  3/ 2  [E  E F ] 
Nh =  3 (8mh ) [E v  E]1/ 2 dE exp  
 2h  K BT 
To solve this Integral
Put EV – E = x KBT
E = EV – x KBT
Differentiating above equation, we get
dE = – KBT dx
Lowerlimits
Lower limits Upper limits
When E V – E  x K BT When E V – E  x K BT
E E  EV
EV    x K BT E V – E V  x K BT
x 0x
 The limits are  to 0

Density of holes in valence band
0
  3/ 2 1/ 2  E v  xK BT  E F 
Nh =
2h 3
(8m h ) 

(xK B T) (  K B Tdx) exp 
 K BT


0
 3/2  E  EF    xK BT 
Nh = 3
(8mh )3/ 2  (x)
1/ 2
(K BT) exp  v  exp   dx
2h   K BT   K BT 
 3/ 2
  8m h K B T   E  E F  0 1/ 2
Nh =    exp  V   (x) exp(  x)dx
2  h 2   K BT  
3/ 2
 E v  E F   1/ 2

  8mh K B T 
Nh =    exp    (x) exp(  x)dx
2  h 2   K BT  0
 

sin ce  (x)1/ 2 exp   x  dx  
 2 
0 
 3/ 2
  8m h K B T   E  EF  
Nh =   exp  v 
2  h 2   K BT  2
 3/ 2
1  8m h K B T   E  EF 
Nh =   exp  v 
4  h2   K BT 
Density of holes in valence band
3/ 2
 2mh K BT   E  EF 
Nh = Nh  2   exp  v  ... (9)
 h2   K BT 
2.4.3 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

In intrinsic semiconductors N e = N h = n i is called intrinsic carrier concentration.
ni2 = N e N h
3/ 2  3/ 2
 2me K B T   E F  E c   2m h K B T   E  EF 
ni2 = 2  exp  2  exp  v 
 h2   K BT   h2   K BT 
3/ 2 2

2 = 4  2K B T 
 3/ 2    Ec  E v  
ni  2    e h
 m m  exp  
  h    K BT 
3/ 2 2
   E g 
2 = 4  2K B T   m 
m  3/ 2
 exp
ni  2    e h  
  h   K BT 
1/ 2
  2K T 3/ 2  2  Eg  
  B   3/ 2


ni = 4     me m h  exp 
   h 2    K T
 B  

3/ 2 1/ 2
 2K BT    3/ 4  E g 
ni = 2    mem h  exp  
 h2   K BT 
3/ 2
 2K BT  3/ 4  E g 
ni  2    me mh  exp   ... (12)
 h2   2K BT 
The equation (12) is called as intrinsic carrier concentration.
Where Eg  Ec  E v is the energy gap between conduction band and valence
band.
Therefore for intrinsic semiconductor even if impurity is added to increase
N e there will be decrease in Nh and hence the product Ne Nh will remain constant.
This is called Law of mass action.
2.5 FERMI LEVEL AND VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH

TEMPERATURE IN AN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Derivation of Fermi Level
In an intrinsic semiconductor,
i.e., Density of electrons ( N e ) = Density of holes ( N h )
3/ 2
 2me K BT   E  Ec   2mh K B T 
3/ 2
 Ev  EF 
2  exp  F  = 2  exp  
 h2   K B T   h 2
  K BT 
3/ 2  E  Ec   3/ 2  Ev  EF 
 me  exp  F  =  m h  exp  
 K BT   K BT 
3/ 2
 mh   E F  Ec  E v  E F 
  = exp  
 me   K BT 
3/ 2
 mh   2E F  Ec  E v 
  = exp  
 me   K BT 
Taking log on both sides, we get,
3/ 2
 mh   2E F  E c  E v 
log    =
 m e  K BT
3  mh   2E F  Ec  E v 
log    =
2  m e  K BT
3  mh 
K B T log    =  2E   E  E  
2  F c v 
 m e 
3  mh 
2E F =  E c  E v   K B T log   
2  me 
Ec  E v 3  mh 
EF =  K B T log    . (13)
2 4  m e 
3  mh 
If mh = me , then at T = 0 K, K B T log   
2  m e 
 Ec  Ev 
EF =   ... (12)
 2 
Therefore, the Fermi level lies in the midway between Conduction level Ec and
Valence level E v at T = 0K.
But in general mh = me so the Fermi level is a function of temperature and is
raised slightly with temperature.
2.6 DENSITY OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES IN TERMS OF Eg

In terms of energy gap ( E g ). Where E g  E c  E v we can get the expressions
of Ne and Nh by substituting the value of E F in terms of Ec and E v
Substituting equation (13) in equation (6) we get,
 EC  EV 3  m*h  
3/ 2   K BT log  *   EC 
 2 K B T  2 4  me 
Ne = 2  2  exp  
 h  4 K BT 
 
 
  m*h  
3/ 2  C2E  2E V  3 K B T log  *   4E C 
 2  K BT  3/ 2
 m*e  exp   me  
= 2 2   
 h  4 K BT
 
 
3/ 2
 2K B T  
3/ 2  2(E  E ) 3
C V
 mh  
= 2  me  exp   log    
 h 2   4K B T 4  me  
Since Eg  Ec  E v , we can write
3/ 4
3/ 2  2E  mh  
 2K B T   3/ 2 g
Ne = 2  h 2   me  exp   log    
 4K B T  me  

3/ 4
3/ 2  2E  mh  
 2K B T   3/ 2 g
Ne = 2   me  exp   log    
 h 2   4K B T  me  

3/ 4
3/ 2  E  mh  
 2K B T   3/ 2 g
= 2  me  exp   log    
 h 2   2K B T  me  

3/ 4 3/ 4
 2K B T  3/ 2    Eg 
= 2  me   mh  exp 
 
 h2   m 
 e  2K B T 
3/ 2
 2K BT  3/ 4 3/ 4  Eg 
= 2  me   mh  exp  
 h 2   2K BT 
3/ 2
 2K B T   E g 3/ 4
Ne = 2   memh 
exp   ... (13)
 h 2   2K B T 
Similarly by substituting equation (13) in equation (11)
3/ 2
 2K B T  3/ 4  E g 
Nh = 2   memh  exp   ... (14)
 h 2   2K B T 
Thus, it is found that Ne = Nh = ni where n i is a intrinsic carrier concertration.
2.7 VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Fig. 2.3 Variation of Fermi level in Intrinsic semiconductor
1. At T = 0 K, the Fermi level lies exactly in midway between conduction

band and Valence band.
2. At T > 0 K, the Fermi level rises slightly upward since mh > me .
2.8 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN INTRINSIC SEMI-

CONDUCTOR
Expression for electrical conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor
The general expression for the electrical conductivity,
=ne
The intrinsic electrical conductivity,
i =  n e e  p e  h 
But n = p = ni
i =  n i e e  n i e  h 
Therefore, i = ni e  e   h 
Where e - electron mobility and  h - hole mobility
3/ 2
 2K B T  3/ 4  Eg 
i = e   h  e 2   m*e m*h  exp   
 h 2   2K B T 
The electrical conductivity depends on the negative exponential of band gap Eg
between the valance band and conduction band and also for the mobilities of both
holes and electrons. The mobilities in a pure semiconductor are determined by the
interaction of electron with lattice waves or phonons.
So that we can neglect  e   h  .

The electrical conductivity
 Eg 
i = C exp    ... (1)
 2K BT 
Where C is a constant.
Taking log on both sides of equation (1),
  E 
log i = Log  C exp   g  
  2K B T  
 E g 
log i = Log C +  
 2K BT 
 E 
log i = Log C –  g 
 2K BT 
log  i
1/T
Fig. 2.4 Variation of Electrical with temperature in intrinsic semiconductor
A graph is drawn between 1/T and Log i from the graph it is noted that this
electrical conductivity increases with temperature.
2.9 DETERMINATION OF BAND GAP ENERGY OF A

SEMICONDUCTOR
We know that the electrical conductivity,
 Eg 
i = C exp  
 2K BT 
1
The resistivity  i = 
i
1  Eg 
i = exp   ... (1)
C  2K BT 
We know resistivity is resistance per unit area per unit length
RiA
i = ... (2)
L
 i  Resistivity
A  Cross sectional area
L  Length
Equating equation (1) and (2)
RiA 1  Eg 
= C exp  2K T 
L  B 
L  E 
Ri = exp  g 
AC  2K BT 
Taking log on both sides
L  Eg 
log R i = log  
AC  2K BT 
The above equation gives us a method of determining the energy gap of an
intrinsic material. If we find the resistance of the intrinsic semiconductor using post
office box or carry Foster’s bridge at various temperatures, we can plot a graph
between 1/T and log R i
1/T
Fig. 2.5 Variation of resistance with temperature in intrinsic semiconductor
dy Eg
From the curve =
dx 2K BT
Therefore by finding the slope of line we can calculate the energy band gap
with the following expression.
 dy 
E g = 2K B   Joules
 dx 
2.10 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

A semiconductor in which the impurity atoms are added by doping process is
called Extrinsic semiconductor. The addition of impurities increases the carrier
concentration and conductivity. There are two types of impurities.
1. Donor impurity which leads to N-type semiconductor.
2. Acceptor impurity which leads to P-type semiconductor.
2.10.1 N-type Semiconductor (Donor impurity)

 Donor impurity means it donates the electron to the semiconductor materials.
 Pentavalent atoms (five valence electrons in their outer most orbit) are called
as donor impurities. Example : Phosphorous, Arsenic and Antimony.
 When a pentavalent atom is added with tetravalent atoms (Ge and Si), the
covalent bond is formed and one element is left free. Thus one impurity atom
is surrounded by four Ge or Si atoms.
 The remaining electron is loosely bound to the parent impurity atom is detached
from the impurity atom by supplying ionization energy.
 Each impurity atom donates one free electron. Thus this type of semiconductor
is called as N-type semiconductor.
 The donor atoms form the new energy level called donor energy level ( E D )
very near and below the conduction band.
 At room temperature, almost all the excess electrons donated by the donor
atoms are raised to the conduction band as majority charge carriers (free
electrons) in N-type semiconductor.
Fig. 2.6 N type semiconductor
2.10.2 P – type Semiconductor (Acceptor Impurities)

1. Acceptor impurity means it ready to accept an electron to form the covalent
bond in semiconductor materials.
2. Trivalent atoms (three valence electrons in their outer most orbits) are called
as acceptor impurities. Example: Aluminum, Gallium, Boron and Indium.
3. When a trivalent atom is added with tetravalent atoms (Ge or Si), the covalent
bond is formed and there is one vacancy (hole) for one electron in one of the
covalent bonds, thereby one impurity atom is surrounded by four Ge or Si
atoms.
4. Thus each impurity atom hole is ready to accept an electron. Thus this type
of semiconductor is called P-type semiconductor.
5. The Acceptor atoms form the new energy level called acceptor energy level
(EA) very near and above the valence band.
6. When a small amount of energy is applied, the electrons from valence band
are moved to the acceptor level and creating holes in the valence band.
7. These valence band holes are the majority charge carriers in the P-type
semiconductor material.
EC
EA
EV
Fig. 2.7 P type semiconductor
2.11 CHARGE DENSITIES IN A SEMICONDUCTOR

In intrinsic semiconductor, the electron density is equal to hole density.
In Extrinsic semiconductor the electron and hole densities are related by
n i2  N e N h ... (1)
The law of charge neutrality also relate the densities of free electron and holes in
an Extrinsic semiconductor.
The law of charge neutrality states that the total positive charge density is equal
to the total negative charge density.
N D  N h  N A  Ne ... (2)
Where N D is the number of donor atoms.
N A is the number of acceptor atoms.
N e is the density of electrons .
N h is the density of holes.
Case 1:
In N-type semiconductors, there is no acceptor doping atoms. i.e., N A =0 and
also the majority carriers are electrons. The number of electrons is greater than the
number of holes.
i.e., Ne  Nh .  Nh can be neglected.
 equation (2) becomes ND = Ne
Thus in N-type material, the free electron concentration equals to the density of
donor atoms.
Case 2:
In the P-type semiconductor, there is no donor doping atoms. i.e., N D  0 and also
the majority carriers are holes. The number of holes is greater than the number of electrons.
i.e., Ne  Nh . Necan be neglected.
 equation (2) becomes N A  N h
Thus P-type material, the hole concentration equals to the density of acceptor
atoms.According to the law of mass action.
N e N h  n i2
N e  n i2 / N h and N h  n i2 / Ne
N e  n i2 / N A and N h  n i2 / N D
2.12 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN P-TYPE SEMI-

CONDUCTOR
P-Type Semiconductor : If trivalent (Aluminum, Gallium, Indium) impurities are
doped with pure semiconducting material the holes are produced, this is called
P - type semiconductor.
Fig. 2.8 Energy level diagram for P-type Semiconductor
We know that,
Density of holes in the valence band in an intrinsic semiconductors is
3/ 2
 2m*h K B T   E  EF 
Nh 2
=   exp  v  ... (1)
 h2   K BT 
3/ 2
 2m*h K B T 
Put NV = 2  ... (2)
 h2 
 Ev  EF 
Density of holes Nh = N v exp   ... (3)
 K BT 
Density of ionized acceptor atoms is
 EF  EA 
N A F[E A ] = N A exp   ... (4)
 K BT 
At equilibrium condition,
 Number of holes   Number of electron 
 per unit volume in    per unit volume in accepter 
   
 valence band (eqn (3)   energy level (eqn (4) 
 E  EF   EF  EA 
N v exp  v  = N A exp  
 K BT   K BT 
 E  EF    EF  E A   NA
exp  v  exp   =
 K BT   K BT  Nv
 E  EF  EF  E A  NA
exp  v  =
 K BT  Nv
  E  E F  EF  E A   N 
log exp  v  = log  A 
K BT
    Nv 
 E v  EF  EF  E A   NA 

K BT
 = log  
   Nv 
N 
E v  E F  E F  E A = K BT log  A 
 Nv 
N 
2E F =   E v  E A   K BT log  A 
 Nv 
 E v  E A   K BT log  N A 
EF =  
2 2  Nv 
Substituting the value N v
 NA 
 Ev  EA   K BT  3/
log   2m*h K BT  
2 
EF = ... (5)
2 2 2
  h2
 
 
At T = 0 K
 Ev  EA  
EF =  2

 
At 0 K fermi level in p type semiconductor lies exactly at the middle of the
acceptor level and the top of the valance band.
2.12.1 Expression for the density of holes in valence band

in termsof NA
As the temperature is increased more and more the acceptor atoms are ionized.
Further increase in temperature results in generation of electron hole pairs due to
breaking of covalent bonds and materials tends to behave in a intrinsic manner. The
fermi level gradully moves towards the intrinsic fermi level.
We know density of holes in valence band
3/ 2
 (2m*h K BT)   E  E F  
Nh = 2   exp  v  ... (1)
 h2    K BT  
Substituting the equation (5) in (1) we get
  
  
   E v  E A    K BT log NA 
 EV   2

2 * 3/ 2  
    2m h K B T   
3 2  
 2m*h K B T  2 K BT    h2  
Nh  2  2  exp  log  
 h  2  K BT 
  NA 
3/ 2
 (2m*h K BT)   E  E  1  *
3/ 2  
exp  v   log    2m h K B T    
A
= 2 
 h2   2K B T  2  2  
  h2 
    
1/ 2
  NA  
*
 (2m h K BT) 
3/ 2   Ev  EA   3/ 2  
*
= 2    
  log   2m h K B T    
2  exp  2  
 h    2K B T    
  h2 
     
1/ 2
  NA 
3/ 2
 (2m*h K BT)   E  E   3/ 4  
*
exp  v   log  1/ 2   2m h K BT    
A
= 2 
 h2   2K BT  2   
   h2   
  
1/ 2
 NA 
3/ 2
 (2m*h K BT)   E  EA   *
3/ 4 
= 2  exp  v   1/ 2   2m h K B T   
 h2   2K B T   2   
  h2  
  
3/ 2 3/ 4
1/ 2  E  E A   (2m*h K B T)   (2m*h K B T) 
= (2N A ) exp  v    
 2K B T   h2   h2 
3/ 4
1/ 2  E  E A   (2m*h K B T) 
= (2N A ) exp  v  
 2K B T   h2 
Here E A – E V = E is known as ionisation energy of acceptors
i.e. E represents the energy required for an electron to move from valance band (EV)
to acceptor energy level (EA)
3/ 4
1/ 2  E   (2m*h K BT) 
N h  (2N A ) exp   
 2K BT   h2 
2.13 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN N-TYPE SEMI

CONDUCTOR
If pentavalent (Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony) impurities are doped with pure
semiconducting material the free electrons are produced, this is called N-type
semiconductor.
Fig. 2.9 Energy level diagram for N-type Semiconductor
We know that,
Density of electrons in conduction band in an intrinsic semiconductor is
  2m K T  3/ 2  EF  Ec  
N e = 2  e B
 exp   ... (1)
  h2   K BT  

3/ 2

 2m e K B T 
Put Nc = 2  
 h2 
Density of electrons
 E  Ec 
Ne = N c exp  F  ... (2)
 K BT 
EV
Density of ionized donor atoms is

 E  EF 
N D [1  F(E D )] = N D exp  D  ... (3)
 K BT 
At equilibrium condition,
 Number of electrons   Number of holes 

 per unit volume in    per unit volume in donar 
   
 conduction band (eqn (2)  energy level (eqn (3) 
 E  EC   ED  EF 
N c exp  F  = N D exp  K T 
 K BT   B 
 E  Ec 
exp  F 
 K BT  ND
= N
 E  EF  c
exp  D 
 K BT 
 E  Ec  E D  E F  ND
exp  F  = N
 K BT  c
  E  Ec  E D  E F    ND 
log exp  F   = log  
  K BT   Nc 
 E F  Ec  E D  E F   ND 
  = log  N 
 K BT   c
 ND 
2EF =  Ec  E D   K BT log  
 Nc 
 Ec  E D   K BT log  N D 
EF =   ... (4)
2 2  Nc 
  EC  ED  
At T = 0 K. EF =   ... (5)
 2 
At T = 0 K. Thus, the Fermi level in N-type semiconductor lies exactly in
middle of the conduction level (EC) and donor level (ED).
This equation shows that the electron concentration in the conduction band is
proportional to the square root of the donor concentration.
2.13.1 Expression for the density of electrons in conduction

band in terms of ND
As the temperature is increased more and more the donor atoms are ionized
and the fermi level drops. For a particular temperature all donor atoms are ionized,
further increase in temperature results in generation of electron hole pairs due to
breaking of covalent bonds and materials tends to behave in a intrinsic manner.
We know density of electrons in conduction band
3/ 2
 (2m*e K B T)   E  EC 
Ne = 2   exp  F  ... (1)
 h2   K BT 
Substituting the equation (4) in (1) we get
  ND  
 E  E  K BT  *
3/ 2  
 C D
 log    2m e K B T     E C 
3/ 2  2  2  2  h2
  
 (2m*e K B T)        
Ne = 2  2  exp  
 h   K BT 
  ND  
3/ 2
 *
  E  E  1  3/ 2  
= 2  (2m K T) 
e B
2
exp  C D

 2 log    2m*e K B T     E C 
 
 h   2   2  h 2  K BT 
    
  
1/ 2
  ND  
*
 (2m K T) 
3/ 2  E  E   3/ 2  
*
exp  D   log    2me K B T    
e B C
= 2 2 
 h   2K B T   2  
  h2  
     
1/ 2
  ND 
3/ 2
 (2m*e K BT)   E  E   3/ 4  
= 2  exp  D C
  log  1/ 2   2m*e K BT    
 h2   2K B T  2   
   h2   
  
1/ 2
 ND 
3/ 2
*
 (2m K T)   E  EC   3/ 4 
*
  1/ 2   2me K BT   
e B
= 2 
2
exp  D
 h   2K BT   2   
  h2  
 
3/ 2 3/ 4
1/ 2  E D  E C   (2m*e K B T)   (2 m*e K BT) 
= (2N D ) exp     
 2K B T   h2   h2 
3/ 4
1/ 2  E  E C   (2m *e K B T) 
= (2N D ) exp  D  
 2K B T   h2 
Here EC – ED = E is known as ionisation energy of donars i.e. E represents

the amount of energy required to transfer on an electron to from donor envergy level
(ED) to conduction band (EC)
3/ 4
1/ 2  E   (2m*e K B T) 
N e  (2N D ) exp   
 2K B T   h2 
2.14 VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE

AND CONCENTRATION OF IMPURITIES IN P-TYPE
SEMICONDUCTOR
  E v  EA  
1) W hen T = 0 K , E F    i.e., at T = 0 K, the Fermi level lies at
 2 
mid way between the acceptor level and valence level.
2) When temperature increases, some of the electrons from valence band will
go to acceptor energy level [EA]. Therefore the Fermi level shifts upward.
At high temperature 500 K, the Fermi level reaches intrinsic level Ei .
3) If the impurity atoms are increased from 1021 atoms /m3 to 1024 atoms / m3
the hole concentration increases and hence the Fermi level decrease.
Fig. 2.10 variation of Fermi level with Temperature and Concentration of

Impurities in P-type Semiconductor.
2.15 VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE

AND CONCENTRATION OF IMPURITIES IN N-TYPE
SEMICONDUCTOR
  E v  ED  
1) When T = 0 K, EF    i.e., at T = 0 K, the Fermi level lies at
 2 
mid way between the Donar level and valence level.
2) When temperature increases, some of the electrons moves from valence band
to Donar energy level [ED]. Therefore the Fermi level shifts upward.
At high temperature 500 K, the Fermi level reaches intrinsic level E D .
3) If the impurity atoms are increased from 1021 atoms /m3 to 1024 atoms / m3,
the electron concentration increases and hence the Fermi level decrease.
Fig. 2.11 variation of Fermi level with Temperature and

Concentration of Impurities in N-type Semiconductor.
2.16 HALL EFFECT

Measurement of conductivity will not determine whether the conduction is due
to electron or holes and therefore will not distinguish between p-type and n-type
semiconductor.
Therefore Hall Effect is used to distinguish between the two types of charge
carriers and their carrier densities and is used to determine the mobility of charge
carriers.
2.16.1 Hall Effect

When conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current is placed in a
transverse magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction
normal to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as
“Hall effect” and the generated voltage is called “Hall voltage”.
Fig 2.12 Hall effect
2.16.2 Hall Effect in n –type Semiconductor

Let us consider an n-type material to which the current is allowed to pass along
x-direction from left to right (electrons move from right to left) and the magnetic field
is applied in z-directions, as a result Hall voltage is produced in y direction.
Since the direction of current is from left to right the electrons moves from right
to left in x-direction as shown in Figure.
j
2
e- F
B
y
1
Z X
Fig 2.13 Hall effect in N- type semiconductor
Now due to the magnetic field applied the electrons move towards downward
direction with the velocity ‘v’ and cause the negative charge to accumulate at face (1)
of the material as shown Figure.
Therefore a potential difference is established between face (2) and face (1) of
the specimen which gives rise to field EH in the negative y direction.
Here, the force due to potential difference = – eEH ... (1)
Force due to magnetic field = – Bev ... (2)
At equilibrium eqn. (1) = eqn. (2)
– eEH = – Bev
EH = Bv ... (3)
We know the current density Jx in the x direction is
Jx = – n e ev
Jx
v = Ne ... (4)
e
Substituting eqn. (4) in eqn. (3) we get
BJ x
EH = n e ... (5)
e
EH = RH Jx B ... (6)
Where ‘RH’ is known as the Hall coefficient, given by
RH = –(1/nee) ... (7)
The negative sign indicates that the field is developed in the negative ‘y’ direction.
2.16.3 Hall Effect in p-type Semiconductor

Let us consider a p-type material for which the current is passed along x-direction
from left to right and magnetic field is applied along z-direction as shown in Figure
Since the direction of current is from left to right, the holes will also move in the same
direction.
j
2
F
B h+
y
1
Z X
Fig 2.14 Hall effect in P- type semiconductor
Now due to the magnetic field applied, the holes move towards the downward
direction with velocity ‘v’ and accumulate at the face (1) as shown in Figure.
A potential difference is established between face (1) and (2) in the positive y
direction.
Force due to the potential difference = eEH ... (8)
[Since hole is considered to be an electron with same mass but positive charge
negative sign is not included].
At equilibrium eqn. (7) = eqn . (8)
eEH = Bev
EH = Bv
We known current density Jx = nhev ... (9)
Jx
v = e ... (10)
nh
Where nh is hole density
Substituting eqn. (10) in (9) we get
BJ x
EH =
nhe
EH = RHJxB ... (11)
1
Where RH = n e
h
Equation (11) represents the hall coefficient and the positive sign indicates that
the Hall field is developed in the positive y direction.
2.16.4 Hall Coefficient Interms of Hall Voltage

Half coefficient (RH) is defined as the Hall field developed per unit current density
per unit applied magnetic field.
If the thickness of the sample is‘t’ and the voltage developed is ‘VH’ then Hall
voltage
VH = EHt ... (12)
Substituting eqn. (11) in eqn (12) we have
VH = RHJx Bt ... (13)
we know Current density Jx = Ix
Ix
Area of the specimen = ... (14)
bt
where b - is the breath of the sample
t - is the thickness of the sample
Substituting eqn. (14) in eqn (13) we get
R H I x Bt
VH =
bt
R H Ix B
VH =
b
VH b
Hall coefficient RH = I B
x
2.16.5 Experimental Determination of Hall Effect

A semiconductor slab of thickness ‘t’ and breadth ‘b’ is taken and current is
passed using the battery as shown in Figure.
The slab is placed between the pole of an electromagnet so that current direction
coincides with x-axis and magnetic field coincides with z-axis. The hall voltage (VH) is measured
by placing two probes at the center of the top and bottom faces of the slab (y-axis).
b
VH
d x
A
Ba
Fig. 2.15 Experimental setup for Hall effect
If B is magnetic field applied and the VH is the Hall voltage produced, then the
Hall coefficient can be calculated from the formula
VH b
RH = ... (1)
Ix B
Mobility of Charge Carriers
In general the hall co-efficient can be written as
1
RH = ... (2)
ne
The above expression is valid only for conductors where the velocity is taken
as the drift velocity. But for semiconductors velocity is taken as average velocity so
RH for an ‘n’ type semiconductor is modified as
–3π  1 
RH =
8  n e e 
–1.18
RH = ... (3)
n ee
We know the conductivity for n type is σ =n e μ e
σe
μe = ... (4)
nee
Eqn. (3) can be rewritten as
1 –R H
= (5)
n ee 1.18
Substituting eqn. (5) in (4) we get,
– σe R H
μe = ... (6)
1.18
The mobility of electron is in an n-type semiconductor is
σe VH b  VH b 
μe = –  R H = I  B 
1.18 I × B  
Similarly for p-type Semiconductor, the mobility of hole is
σ h VH b
μe = ... (7)
1.18  I × B 
Thus by finding hall voltage, hall coefficient can be calculated and thus the mobility
of the charge carriers can also be determined.
2.16.6 Application of Hall Effect

1. The sign (N-type (or ) P-type) of charge carriers can be determined.
 1.18 
2. The carrier concentration can be determined  n = qR 
 H 
 R H 
3. The mobility of charge carriers in measured directly   = .
 1.18 
4. Electrical conductivity can be determined   = n q   .
5. It can be used to determine whether the given material is metal, insulator, or
semiconductor and the type of the semiconductor.
6. It can be used to determine the power flow in an electromagnetic wave.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the intrinsic concentration of charge carriers at 300 K given
that m*e =0.12mo ,m*h =0.28mo and the value of brand gap = 0.67 eV..
Solution:
Given:
m*e  0.12m o  0.12  9.1  10 31  1.092  10 31 Kgm 3
m*h  0.28m o  0.28  9.1  10 31  2.548  1031 Kgm 3
T300K.
Intrinsic carrier concentration is given by,
3/ 2
 2kT   E g 
ni = 2  2  (m*e m*h )3/ 4 exp  
 h   2K BT 
3/2 3/ 2
 2kT   2 × 1.38 × 1023 × 300 
2  = 2  
 h2   6.626× 1034 
= 2 (1.4421 × 1070)
= 2.884 × 1070
(m*e m*h )3/4 = (1.092 × 1031 × 2.548 × 10–31)3/4
= 6.813 × 10–47
 E g    0.67 × 1.6 × 1019  

exp   = exp   
 2K BT    2 × 1.38 × 1023 × 300  
= exp ( 12.9468)
= 2.3838 × 10–6
n i = [1.442 × 1070] × 6.813 × 10–47 × 2.3836 × 10–6

= 2.3407 × 1018
Intrinsic carrier 
 n i = 2.3407 × 1018 m–3
concentration 
2. The intrinsic carrier density is 1.5 × 1016 m–3 . If the mobility of electron
and hole are 0.13 and 0.05 m2 V–1 s–1 , calculate the conductivity.
(AU - NOV 2003)
Solution :
Given :
n i = 1.5 × 1016 m–3
e = 0.13 m2 V–1 s–1
h = 0.05 m2 V–1 s–1
Conductivity  = ni e (e + h)
 = 1.5 × 1016 × 1.6 × 10–19 (0.13 + 0.05)
Conductivity  = 4.32 × 10–4  –1m–1
3. The Intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in Ge is 2.37 × 1019 m3
if the electron and hole mobilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m2 V–1 s–1 respectively,
calculate the resistivity. (AU - OCT 2002, DEC 2010)
Solution:
Given:
ni = 2.37 × 1019 m3
e = 0.38 m2 V–1 s–1
h = 0.18 m2 V–1 s–1
Conductivity  = ni e (e + h)
= 2.37 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10–19 (0.38 + 0.18)
= 2.1235  –1 m–1
1
Resistivity  =

1
 =
2.1235
Resistivity  = 0.4709  m
4. The Hall coefficient of certain silicon specimen was found to be

–7.35 × 10–5 m3 C–1 from 100 to 400 K. Determine the nature of the
semiconductor. If the conductivity was found to be 200  –1 m–1. Calculate
the density and mobility of the charge carrier. (AU - NOV 2002, JUNE 2012)
Solution:
Given:
Conductivity  = 200  1m 1
Hall co-efficient R H = 7.35  105 m3C1 ... (1)
a) Density of electrons
1
n = (from equation (1))
R He
1
n =
(7.35  105  1.609  1019 )
(i.e) = 8.455 × 10 22 m 3
We know Conductivity
 = n e e
b) Mobility
 200
= =
ne 8.455 × 1022  1.6  1019
= 0.0147
Mobility  = 0.0147m 2 v 1s 1
Density of electrons (n) = 8.053 × 10 22 m 3
Mobility ()  0.0147m 2 v 1s 1

5. In a P-type germanium, ni = 2.1 × 1019 m–3density of boran 4.5 × 1023 atoms /m3.
The electron and hole mobility are 0.4 and 0.2 m2 v–1 s–1 respectively. What
is its conductivity before and after addition of boron atoms.
(AU - APRIL 2003)
Solution:
Given:
Intrinsic carrier concentration n i = 2 .1 × 1019 m–3
Mobility of electrons e = 0.4 m2 v–1 s–1
Mobility of holes h = 0.2 m2 v–1 s–1
a) Conductivity before the addition of boron atoms
 = n i e  e   h 
= 2.1  1019  1.6  1019  0.4  0.2

= 2.016  –1 m–1
b) Conductivity after the addition of boron atoms, Boron is a P-type
impurity atom
 = p e h
= 4.5 × 1023 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 0.2
 = 14400  –1 m–1
6. An N-type semiconductor has hall coefficient = 4.16 × 10–4 m3 C–1 . The
conductivity is 108  –1 m–1 . Calculate its charge carrier density ‘ne’and
electron mobility at room temperature. (AU - APRIL 2003)
Solution:
Given:
Hall Co-efficient RH = 4.16 × 10–4 m3 C1
Conductivity  = 108 m–1
1
1. For ‘n’ type the charge carriers densitynnee=
 Here the negative signindicates
R He
the field direction alone.
3 1
ne = 8 R He
 3  3.14   1 
ne =    19

 8 1.6 × 10  4.6  104 
n e = 1.7690 × 1022 m 3
e
2. Electron mobility e =
n ee
108
=
1.7690 ×210221 1 1.6 × 10–19 
e = 0.0381 m v s
7. In an N-type semiconductor, the concentration of electron is 2 × 1022 m–3 .

Its electrical conductivity is 112  –1 m–1. Calculate the mobility of electrons.
(AU - NOV 2005)
Solution:
Given:
Conductivity  = 112  –1 m–1
Carrier conerntration of electron
n i = 2 × 1022 m–3
1
Hall coefficient RH =
ne
1
=
2 × 1022  1.6 × 1019
= 3.125 × 10–4 m–3 C–1
Mobility  = RH = 112 × 3.125 × 10–4
= 0.035 m2 v–1 s–1
8. For an intrinsic Semiconductor with a band gap of 0.7 eV, determine the
position of EF at T = 300 K if m*h = 6m*e. (AU - NOV 2003)
Solution:
Bandgap Eg = 0.7 eV = 0.7 × 1.6 × 10–19V
T = 300 K
Fermi energy for an intrinsic semiconductor
Eg 3KT  m*h 
E 
EF F= 2  log  *
4  me 
 0.7  1.6 × 1019   3 × 1.38 × 1023  300  6

EF =    log e
 2   4 
= 6.1563 × 10–20 Joules
6.1563  1020
EF =
1.6 × 1019
Fermi energy level EF = 0.3847 eV
9. A semiconducting crystal with 12 mm long, 5 mm wide and 1 mm thick has

a magnetic density of 0.5 Wbm–2 applied from front to back perpendicular
to largest faces. When a current of 20 mA flows length wise through the
specimen, the voltage measured across its width is found to be 37μV .
What is the Hall coefficient of this semiconductor?(AU - DEC 2001, JUNE 2012)
Solution:
Given:
Hall voltage VH = 37 V = 37 × 10–6 V
Breath of the material t = 1 mm = 1 × 10–3 m
Current IH = 20 mA = 20 × 10–3 A
Magnetic flow density
B = 0.5 Wbm–2
VH t
Hall coefficient RH =
IH B
37 × 106  1  103
=
20 × 103  0.5
RH = 3.7 × 10–6 C–1 m3
 Hall coefficient RH = 3.7 × 10–6 C–1 m3
10. Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod 1 mm long, 1 mm wide and 1 mm
thick at 300 K. the intrinsic carrier density 2.5 ×1019 m–3 is at 300 K and
the mobility of electron and hole are 0.39 and 0.19 m2 v–1 s–1 .
(AU - APRIL 2003, JUNE 2012)
Solution:
Given:
Length of Ge rod l = 1mm = 1 × 10–3 m
Breath b = 1mm = 1 × 10–3 m
Thickness t = 1mm = 1 × 10–3 m
Intrinsic carrier concentration ni = 2.5 × 1019 m–3
Mobility of electron e = 0.39 m2 v–1 s–1
Mobility of hole h = 0.19 m2 v–1 s–1
a) Conductivity
 = n i e  e   h 
= 2.5  1019  1.6  1019  0.39  0.19 

 = 2.32  –1 m–1
b) Resistance

R =
A
1 × 103
=  A  b  t

2.32 × 1 ×103 1  103 
R = 431 
11. Hall coefficient of a specimen of depend silicon found to be 3.66 × 10–4 m3 C–1.
The resistivity of the specimen is 8.93 × 10–3 m. Find the mobility and
density of the charge carriers. (AU - APRIL 2004, DEC 2010)
Solution:
Hall coefficient RH = 3.66 × 10–4 m3 C–1
Resistivity  = 8.93 × 10–3 m
i) Density of holes
1
nh =
R He
1
=
3.66 × 104  1.6 × 1019
nh = 1.7076 × 1022 m–3
1
ii) Mobility of holes n 
 ne
1
=
8.93 × 103  1.7076 × 1022  1.6 × 1019
n = 0.041 m2 V–1 s–1
12. The intrinsic carrier density of a semiconductor is 2.1 × 1019 m–3. The electron
and hole mobilities are 0.4 and 0.2 m2 V–1 s–1 respectively. Calculate the conductivity.
Solution:
Given data:
Intrinsic carrier concentration ni = 2.1 × 1019 m–3
Mobility of electron e = 0.4 m2 V–1 s–1
Mobility of hole h = 0.2 m2 V–1 s–1
Conductivity  = nie (e + h)
= 2.1 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10–19 × (0.4 + 0.2)
Conductivity  = 2.016  –1 m–1
13. The electron mobility and hole mobility in Si are 0.135 m2 V–1 s–1 and
0.048 m2 V–1 s–1 respectively at room temperature. If the carrier concentration
is 1.5 × 1016 m–3 . Calculate the resistivity of Si at room temperature.
(AU - JUNE 2009)
Solution:
Given data:
Carrier concentration ni = 1.5 × 1016 m–3
Mobility of electron e = 0.135 m2 V–1 s–1
Mobility of hole h = 0.048 m2 V–1 s–1
i) Electrical Conductivity 
 = nie (e + h)
= 1.5 ×1016 × 1.6×10–19 × (0.135+0.048)
 = 0.4392 × 10–3  –1 m–1
ii) Resistivity pf silicon
1
 =

1
=
0.4392  103
 = 2.2768  m
SHORT QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

1. What is semiconductor? (AU - April 2002)
The materials in which the electrical conductivity lies between conductors and
insulators are called semiconductors. They have resistivity value between 10–4 to
0.5 m . The electrical conductivity of semiconductor increases, when we added
to impurities and by increasing the temperature and it is contrary to the metals.
They have negative temperature Coefficient of resistance and which are formed
by covalent bonds.
2. Distinguish between elemental semiconductors and Compound semiconductors
(AU - Dec 2003, June 2009, Nov 2012)
S.No Elemental semiconductors Compound semiconductors
1. These are made from single element. These are made from compound
(mixed) element.
2. These are made from IV group These are made from III and V
and VI group elements [or] II and VI elements.
3. These are called as indirect band gap These are called as direct band
semiconductor (electron-hole gap semiconductor (electron-hole
recombination takes place through traps) recombination takes place directly)
4. Heat is produced in the recombination Photons are emitted during
recombination
5. Life time of charge carriers is more Life time of charge carriers is less
due to indirect recombination due to direct recombination.
6. Current amplification is more Current amplification is less.
7. These are used for making diodes, These are used for making LED,
transistor, etc. laser diodes, etc.
8. Example : Ge, Si Example : GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO
3. What are intrinsic semiconductors?

A semiconductor in which holes and electrons are created only by thermal excitation
across the energy gap is called an intrinsic semiconductor. A pure crystal of
silicon or germanium is an intrinsic semiconductor. In an intrinsic semiconductor
the number of holes in the valence band is equal to number of electrons in the
conduction band. The Fermi level for an intrinsic semiconductor lies at midway in
the forbidden gap.
4. What is meant by compound semiconductor? Give an example.
(AU - Nov 2010, June 2011)
The compound Semiconductor is a semiconductor compound composed of
elements from two or more different groups of the periodic table.
i.e., III-V group, II-Vi group and IV-VI group.
Example: GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO.
5. What are extrinsic semiconductors? (or) What is the effect of impurity
states over intrinsic semiconductor?
It is an impure semiconductor made by doping process thereby reducing the band
gap up to 0.01 eV.
In this case of N-type semiconductor, the donar energy level is very close to the
unfilled energy band (Conduction band). So it can easily donate an electron to
that unfilled state.
In this case of P-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level is very close to
the filled energy band (Valance band). So it can easily accept the electrons from
the filled state.
6. Differentiate N-type and P-type semiconductor. (AU - Nov 2010, Dec 2009)
S. No N-type P-type
1. It is donor type It is acceptor type

2. Impurity atom is pentavalent Impurity atom is trivalent
3. Donor level lies close to the bottom Acceptor level lies close to the
of the conduction band top of the valence band.
4. Electrons are the majority carriers Holes are the majority carriers and
and holes are the minority carriers electrons are the minority carriers.
7. Sketch the variation of Fermi level in intrinisic semiconductor.

(AU - June 201)
1. At T = 0 K, the Fermi level lies exactly in midway between conduction band

and Valence band.
2. At T > 0 K, the Fermi level rises slightly upward since.
8. What are donor and acceptor impurities?
A semiconductor in which the impurity atoms are added by doping process is
called Extrinsic semiconductor. The addition of impurities increases the carrier
concentration and conductivity. There are two types of impurities.
1. Donor impurity which leads to N-type semiconductor.
2. Acceptor impurity which leads to P-type semiconductor.
Donor impurity means it donates the electron to the semiconductor materials and
Acceptor impurity means it ready to accepts an electron to form the covalent
bond in semiconductor materials.
9. State law of mass action.
Therefore for intrinsic semiconductor even it impurity is added to increase ne there
will be decrease in nh and hence the product ne nh will remain constant. This is
called Law of mass action.
 N e N h = ni 2
10. Sketch the variation of Fermi level with temperature for various
concentration in P-type semiconductor. (AU - June 2009)
  E  EA  
1) When T = 0 K, E F   v  i.e., at T = 0 K, the Fermi level lies at
 2 
2) When temperature increases, some of the electrons from valence band will go
to acceptor energy level [EA]. Therefore the Fermi level shifts upward. At high
temperature 500 K, the Fermi level reaches intrinsic level Ei.
3) If the impurity atoms are increased from 1021atoms / m 3 to 1024 atoms / m3,
11. Sketch the variation of Fermi level with temperature for various
concentration in N-type semiconductor. (AU - June 2010)
  E v  EA  
1) When T = 0 K, E F    i.e., at T = 0 K, the Fermi level lies at
 2 
2) When temperature increases, some of the electrons from valence band will go
to acceptor energy level [EA]. Therefore the Fermi level shifts upward. At high
temperature 500 K, the Fermi level reaches intrinsic level Ei.
3) If the impurity atoms are increased from 1021atoms / m 3 to 1024 atoms / m 3 ,

12. What is pair production or generation?
When an energy is supplied to the semiconductor, the covalent bonds are broken
and the electrons are raised from valence band to conduction band and a vacant
site is created in the valence band. It is called pair production or generation of
electron-hole pair.
13. What is Recombination?
Recombination is the conversion of a free electron into a bound electron by
occupying a vacant site. An electron jumps from the conduction band to the valence
band vacant site is called as band to band recombination of electron-hole pair.
During band to band combination the excess energy is released in the form of light
photon. The recombination also occurs via recombination centre and traps.
14. Define Hall effect? (AU - May 2004, 2007, Dec 2009, June 2009)
If a semiconductor or a conductor carrying current (I) is placed in a magnetic
field (B), an electric field is produced in the direction normal to both the current
and magnetic field. The generated voltage is called the Hall voltage (VH) and the
field is called Hall field(EH).
15. What are the applications of hall effect? (AU - June 2010, 2012)
1. The sign (N-type (or ) P-type) of charge carriers can be determined.
 1.18 
2. The carrier concentration can be determined  n = qR 
 H 
 R H 
3. The mobility of charge carriers in measured directly   = .
 1.18 
4. Electrical conductivity can be determined   = n q   .
5. It can be used to determine whether the given material is metal, insulator, or
semiconductor and the type of the semiconductor.
6. It can be used to determine the power flow in an electromagnetic wave.
16. Give on externisic semiconductor. How will you find whether it is n-type
(or) P type. (AU - June 2010, 2012)
If pentavalent (Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony) impurities are doped with pure
semiconducting material the free electrons are produced, this is called n-type
semiconductor. In n-type semiconductor majority charge carriers is electron.
If trivalent [Aluminium, Gallium, Indium] impurities are doped with pure
semiconducting material the holes are produced, this is called p - type
semiconductor. In p - type semiconductor the majority charge carrier is holes.
17. Define diffusion current
In addition to drift current, there is also another current called diffusion current.
Diffusion current does not takes place in metals.
Diffusion current is defined as the motion of charge carriers from the region of
higher concentration to the region of lower concentration.
18. State the properties of Semiconductors. (AU - May 2003, June 2010)
1. They are formed by covalent bonds.
2. They have small energy gap.
3. They have an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band 0K.
4. They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
5. They resistivity of semiconductors lies between a semiconductor and Insulator.
(10–4 to 0.5 Ohms m).
6. At 0 K it behave as insulator.
19. What are the differences between conductor and a semiconductor?
S.No Conductor Semiconductor
1. The conductor is a The semiconductor is a material which has

material which has resistivity lying between the conductor and
low resistivity an insulator.
2. They will not behave The pure form of semiconductor can
as an insulator at any behave as an insulator at 0K.
temperature.
3. They have positive They have negative temperature coefficient
coefficient of resistance of resistance.
20. Why do we prefer silicon for transistor and Ga As for Laser diodes?
(AU - June 2009)
Silicon in an indirect band gap semiconductor for which the life time of the charge
carriers is more and the current amplification is also very high. Hence it is preferable
for use it in transistor.
Ga As is a direct band gap semiconductor, in which electrons and holes recombine
directly to produce photons and hence used in laser diodes.
21. What happens when the temperature increase in the case of semiconductor
and conductor? (AU - June 2010)
With increase of temperature the conductivity of semiconductor increase and hence
resistivity decrease because more and more charge carriers are created by the temperature.
22. Write the expression for electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor.
(AU - Dec 2012)
Electrical conductivity   nie (µe + µh)
Where ni - is the intrinsic carrier concentration
µe - is the mobility of electrons
µh - is he mobility of holes
23. Give the carrier concentration of an intrinsic semiconductor. (AU - Jun 2010)
The carrier concentration A an intrinsic semiconductor is
3
 2k BT  2 * * 3/ 4  Eg
ni = 2 2   me m h  e / 2K B T
 h 
24. Write the expression for energy gap (Eg ) of an intrinsic semiconductor.
(AU - May 2011)
 dy 
Energy gap of a semiconductor Eg = 2K B  
 dx 
 dy 
  - is the slope of the curve
 dx 
PART - B QUESTIONS
1. Assuming Fermi-Dirac statistics, derive expressions for the density of electrons
and holes in an intrinsic semiconductor. Hence, obtain expression for the electrical
conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor. (AU - April 2002)
2. Derive an expression for,
i) Density of electrons in the conduction band in an intrinsic semiconductor.
ii) Density of holes in the valance band in an intrinsic semiconductor.
3. Describe the method of determining the band gap of a semiconductor. How does
the electrical conductivity vary with temperature for an intrinsic semiconductor.
(AU - Nov 2003)
4. Obtain an expression for, density of electrons in the conduction band of an
N-type semiconductor and density of holes in the conduction band of an P-type
semiconductor by assuming Fermi-Dirac distribution function.(AU - May 2004)
5. Discuss the variation of carrier concentration with temperature in n-type
semiconductor.
6. Derive an expression in intrinsic semiconductor.
7. i) Derive an expression for the carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor.
ii) Explain the variation of electrical conductivity with respect to temperature in
the case of an intrinsic semiconductor. (AU - June 2006)
8. Describe a method of determining the band gap energy of a semiconductor.
9. Derive an expression for carrier concentration with temperature N-type
semiconductor, and describe an experimental set-up for the determination of Hall
Co-efficient and Hall voltage. (AU - May 2004)
10. Explain the variation of Fermi level wit (AU - June 2006)
11. Explain the variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity concentration
in N-type semiconductor.
12. What is Hall effect? Describe an experiment for the measurement of Hall
coefficient, and write its applications. (AU - May 2007)
13. Derive an expression for density of holes in the valance band and also explain
how does the Fermi level vary with concentration of impurities in P-type
semiconductor. (AU - June 2006)
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. Find the resistance of an intrinsic germanium rod 1 cm long, 1mm wide and 1mm thick
at 300 K. the intrinsic carrier density is 2.5 × 1019 / m–3 at 300 K and the mobility of
electron and hole are 0.39 and 0.19 m2 V–1 S–1. (Ans: 4.31 × 103 )
2. Calculate the position of Fermi level EF and the conductivity at 300 K for germanium
crystal containing 5 × 1022 arsenic atoms / m3. Also calculate the conductivity if the
mobility of the electron is 0.39 m2 V–1 S–1.
(Ans : EF is 0.16 eV below Ec = 3210  –1 m–1)
3. In a Hall experiment a current of 25 A is passed through a long foil of silver which is
0.1mm thick and 3cm wide. If the magnetic field of flux density 0.14 Wb/m2 is
applied perpendicular to the foil, calculate the Hall voltage development and estimate
the mobility of electrons in silver. The conductivity the Hall coefficient is
(–8.4 × 10–11)m3 / coulomb. (Ans : 29.4 V and 57.7 × 10–4 m2 V–1)
4. The intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in Ge is 2.37 × 1019 m3. If the electron
and hole motilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m2 V1 S1 respectively, calculate the resistivity.
(Ans : 0471 m)
5. For silicon semiconductor with band gap1.12 eV, determine the position of the
* *
Fermi level at 300 K, if m e  0.12m 0 and m h  0.28m 0 (Ans : 0.576 eV)
6. For an intrinsic semiconductor with gap width Eg = 0.7 eV, calculate the concentration
* *
of intrinsic charge carriers at 300 K assuming that m e  m h  m 0 .
(Ans : 33.49 × 1018 / m3)
7. A silicon plate of thickness 1mm, breadth 10mm, and length 100mm is placed magnetic
field of 0.5 wb/m2 acting perpendicular to its thickness. If A 10–2 current flows along
its length, calculate the Hall voltage developed if the Hall coefficient is
3.66 × 10–4 m3 / coulomb. (Ans : 3.7 × 106 C–1 m3)
8. A N-type semiconductor has Hall coefficient = 4.16 × 10–4 C–1 m3. The conductivity
is 108 ohm–1 m–1. Calculate its charge carrier density and electron mobility at room
temperature. (Ans : 0.038 m2 V–1 S–1)
3
Magnetic and
Superconducting Materials
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The materials which can be made to behave like a magnet and which are easily
magnetic field called as a magnetic materials.
3.1.1 Basic Definitions

1. Magnetic Dipole Moment (M)
The dipole moment is defined as the product of magnetic pole strength and
length of the magnet. It is given by M = ml. Amp m2.
2. Magnetic Field
The space around which the magnetic lines of forces exist is called as magnetic
field. Magnetic field is produced by permanent magnets such as a horse shoe magnet
and temporarily by elelctromagnets (or) superconducting magnets.
3. Magnetic Lines of Force
The continuous curve in a magnetic field that exists from north pole to south
pole is called as magnetic lines of force.
Fig. 3.1 Magnetic lines of force
4. Magnetic Induction (B) (or) Magnetic Flux Density

It is the number of magnetic lines of force passing through unit area of cross
section.

B = Wb m2 (or) Tesla
A
Normal to Area

Magnetic flux lines
Fig. 3.2 Magnetic induction
5. Magnetic Field Strength (or) Magnetizing Field (H)

It is the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at a given point in a
magnetic field. The magnetic induction B due to the magnetic field of intensity H applied
in vacuum is related by B = 0H Amp m–1.
6. Magnetic Flux ()
The total number of magnetic lines of force passing through a surface.
Unit : Weber.
7. Intensity of Magnetization (I)
Magnetization is the process of converting a non-magnetic material in to a
magnetic material.
It is also defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume. I = m / V web m–2.
8. Magnetic Permeability ()
It is ratio of the magnetic induction (B) to the applied magnetic field intensity (H).
 =B/H
Unit: Henry m–1
It is the measure of ability of the material to permit magnetic lines of force.
MAGNETIC AND SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS 3.3
9. Relative Permeability ( r)
It is defined as the ratio of permeability of the medium to the permeability of the
free space (r) . r =  / 0.
10. Magnetic Susceptibility (  )
It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization (I) and intensity of magnetic
field (H).  = I / H.
The sign and magnitude of  are used to determine the nature of the magnetic materials.
11. Bohr Magnetron ( B)
The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an
atom can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment called as Bohr
magnetron.
e
1 Bohr magneton =  B  9.27  1024 Am 2
2m
12. Relation between susceptibility () and Relative permeability (  r )
We know that when a current is supplied through a coil, magnetic field is
developed. When a magnetic material is placed inside a external magnetic field, the
magnetic flux density (B) arises due to applied magnetic field (H) and also due to the
induced magnetization (I).
i.e., the total flux density,
B = 0 (I + H) ... (1)
But we know that  = B/ H ... (2)
From equations (1) and (2) we get,
H = 0 (I + H)
 (I  H)
=
o H
I
r = 1 
H
r = 1 
This is the required relation.
13. Retentivity or Remanence

When an external field is applied to the specimen it is magnetized and when the
field is removed it is demagnetized. But some materials do not completely demagnetize
when field is removed. There is some magnetism left out in the specimen. “This residual
magnetism which is left out even after the removal of the external magnetic field” is
called as the Retentivity or Remanence.
14. Coercivity
The residual magnetism can be removed completely from the material by applying
a reverse magnetic field. “The reverse magnetic field which is used to completely
remove the residual magnetism” is called as the coercivity.
3.2 ORIGIN OF MAGNETIC MOMENTS

The macroscopic magnetic properties of a substance are a consequence of
magnetic moments associated with individual electrons. Each electron in an atom has
magnetic moments that originate from the following two sources
1. Orbital magnetic moment of electrons
2. Spin magnetic moment of electrons.
Magnetic moments associated with an orbiting electron and a spinning electron
is shown in Fig.3.3 (a and b).
Magnetic moment Magnetic moment
Atomic Direction
Electron Electron of spin
nucleus
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.3 Magnetic moments
We know that the electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in different
orbits. Basically, there are three contributions for the magnetic dipole moment of an
atom.
The orbital motion of electrons (the motion of electrons in the closed orbits
around the nucleus). It is called as orbital magnetic moment. Its magnitude is always
small. Spin motion of the electrons (i.e. due to electron spin angular momentum) and
it is called as spin magnetic moment.
The contribution from the nuclear spin (i.e., due to nuclear spin angular
momentum). Since this is nearly 103 times smaller than that of electron spin, it is not
taken into consideration.
For all practical purposes, we assume that the magnetic moment arises due to
the electron spin ignoring the orbital magnetic moments and the nuclear magnetic
moments as their magnitudes are small.
We may note that permanent magnetic moments can also arise from spin magnetic
moments of the nucleus. Of all the three, the spin dipole moments of electrons are
important in most magnetic materials.
1. Orbital angular momentum
This corresponds to permanent magnetic dipole moments. Let us consider an
electron describing a circular orbit of radius ‘r’ with a stationary nucleus at the centre
as shown in Fig 3.3.(a). Let the electron rotate with a constant angular velocity of ‘w’
radians per second.
Electron revolving in any orbit may be considered as current carrying circular
coil producing magnetic field perpendicular to its plane. Thus the electronic orbits are
associated with a magnetic moment. The orbital magnetic moment of an electron in an
atom can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr
Magnetron, defined as
electron charge × Planck's Constant

1 Bohr Magnetron B =
2 × Electron mass
e h
B =  
2m e 2
2. Electron spin magnetic moment

The concept of the electron having an angular momentum has been introduced
in order to explain the details of atomic spectra. This angular momentum of the electron
is referred to as the spin of the electron. Since the e- has a charge, its spin produces a
magnetic dipole moment.
According to quantum theory, the spin angular momentum along a given direction is
+h -h
or
4π 4π
Hence the spin dipole moment components along an external field are
eh
= 1 Bohr magnetron (or)
4m π
eh
– = –1 Bohr magnetron.
4m π
In a many electron atom, the individual spin magnetic moments are added in
accordance with certain rules. Completely filled shells contribute nothing to the resultant
spin moment.
3. Nuclear magnetic moment
The angular momentum associated with the nuclear spin is also measured in
units of h/2π . The mass of the nucleus is larger than that of an e- by the order of 103.
Hence nuclear spin magnetic moment is of the order of 10–3 Bohr magnetrons.
3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

The magnetic materials are classified into two categories:
1. The materials without permanent magnetic moment
Example: 1. Diamagnetic materials.
2. The materials with permanent magnetic moment.
Example: 1. Paramagnetic materials
2. Ferromagnetic materials
3. Anti-Ferromagnetic materials
4. Ferrimagnetic materials.
3.3.1 Diamagnetic materials

Definition
In a diamagnetic material the electron orbits are randomly oriented and

the orbital magnetic moments get cancelled. Similarly, all the spin
moments are paired i.e., having even number of electrons. Therefore,
the electrons are spinning in two opposite directions and hence the net
magnetic moment is zero.
Effect of magnetic field

When an external magnetic field is applied, the electrons re-orient and align
perpendicular to the applied field, i.e., their magnetic moment opposes the external
magnetic field.
Diamagnetic
N material S
(a) Normal State
Diamagnetic
N material S
(b) Diamagnetic state
Fig. 3.4 Effect of magnetic field in Diamagnetic material
In the above diagram, there is no penetration of magnetic lines through the

diamagnetic material.
Properties
1. They repel the magnetic lines of force, if placed in a magnetic field as shown
in figure (3.4).
2. The susceptibility is negative and it is independent to temperature and applied
field strength. (X = –ve)
3. The permeability is less than one (  1)
4. There is no permanent dipole moment.
5. When the temperature is greater than the critical temperature diamagnetic

becomes normal material.
6. It has superconducting property.
Examples : Gold, germanium, silicon, antimony, bismuth, silver, lead, copper,
hydrogen, Water and alcohol.
3.3.2 Paramagnetic Materials

Definition
Para magnetism is due to the presence of few unpaired electrons which

gives rise to the spin magnetic moment. In the absence of external
magnetic field, the magnetic moments (dipoles) are randomly oriented
and possess very less magnetization in it.
Fig.3.5 Paramagnetic Material

When an external magnetic field is applied to paramagnetic material, the magnetic
moments align themselves along the field direction and the material is said to be
magnetized. This effect is known as paramagnetism.
Fig. 3.6 Effect of magnetic field in paramagnetic material
Thermal agitation disturbs the alignment of the magnetic moments with an increase
in temperature, the increase in thermal agitation tends to randomize the dipole direction
thus leading to decrease in magnetization.
This implies that the paramagnetic susceptibility decreases with increase in

temperature. It is observed that the paramagnetic susceptibility varies inversely with
temperature.
1 C
  =
T T
This is known as the curie law of paramagnetism.
Properties
1. The magnetic lines of force pass through the materials.
2. The susceptibility is positive and is given by   C / (T  ) (Curie-Weiss law)
3. The permeability is greater than one (  1) .
4. There is a permanent magnetic moment.
5. When the temperature is less than the Curie temperature, paramagnetic
materials become diamagnetic materials.
6. It spin alignment is random in nature.
Examples : Platinum, CuSO 4 , MnSO 4 , Aluminum, etc
3.3.3 Ferromagnetic materials

Definition
Ferromagnetism is due to the presence of more unpaired electrons. Even
in the absence of external field, the magnetic moments align parallel to
each other. So that it has large magnetism. This is called spontaneous
magnetization.
Fig. 3.7 Ferromagnetic materials

If a small external magnetic field is applied the magnetic moments align in the
field direction and become very strong magnets.
N
Ferro S
Fig.3.8 Effect of magnetic field in ferromagnetic material
Properties of ferromagnetic materials

1. All the magnetic lines of force pass through the material.
C
2. Its susceptibility is high positive and it is given by X 
T
3. The permeability is very much greater than one.
4. They have enormous permanent dipole moment.
5. When the temperature is greater than the Curie temperature, the Ferromagnetic
material becomes paramagnetic material.
6. The ferromagnetic material has equal magnitude dipole lying parallel to each
other.
Examples: Nickel, iron, Cobalt, Steel, etc.
(Curie temperature - The temperature below which a material can acts as
ferromagnetic material and above which it can acts as paramagnetic material is
called Curie temperature.)
3.3.4 Dia, Para and Ferro magnetic materials – Comparison
S. N Properties Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

1 Definition It is a material in It has permanent It has enormous (more)
which there is no magnetic moment. permanent magnetic
permanent magnetic moment.
moment.
2 Spin or magnetic No spin alignment. Random alignment Parallel and orderly

moment or dipole alignment.
alignment.
3 Behavior Repulsion of Attraction of Heavy attraction of

magnetic lines of magnetic lines lines of force towards
force from the centre towards the centre. the centre.
of the material.
4 Magnetized Opposite to the Same direction as the Same direction as the

direction External magnetic External magnetic External magnetic
field. field. field.
5 Permeability It is very less It is high It is very high
6 Relativity r  1 r  1  r  1
permeability
7 Susceptibility Negative Low positive High positive

8 Magnetic phase At 0 K, diamagnetic When temperature is When temperature of
transition material is less than the curie the material is greater
Superconductor. temp, it is converted than it Curie
When we increase in to Diamagnetic. temperature it is
its temperature it converted into
becomes a normal Paramagnet.
conductor.
3.4 DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

This theory was proposed by Weiss in 1907. It explains the hysteresis and the
properties of ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetic Domains
A ferromagnetic material is divided into a large number of small region is called
domains. (0.1 to 1 of area), each direction is spontaneously magnetized. The direction
of magnetization varies from domain to domain and the net magnetization is zero, in
the absence external magnetic field. The boundary line which separates two domains
is called domain wall or Block wall. When the magnetic field is applied to the
Ferromagnetic material, the magnetization is produced by two ways.
1. By the motion of domain walls.
2. By the rotation of domains.
Process of Domain magnetization
There are two ways to align a random domain structure by applying an external
magnetic field.
1. By the motion of Domain walls
When a small amount of magnetic field is applied, the domains having dipoles
parallel to the applied magnetic field increases in area by the motion of domain walls.
(Fig. 3.9 (2)).
2. By the rotation of Domains
If the applied magnetic field is further increased, the domains are rotated parallel
to the field direction by the rotation of domains. (fig. 3.9 (3)).
Fig. 3.9 Domin theory of ferromagnetism
3.4.1 Energies involved in the domain growth (or) Origin

of Domain theory of Ferromagnetism
We can understand the origin of domains from the thermodynamic principle i.e.,
in equilibrium, the total energy of the system is minimum.
The total internal energy of the domain structure in a ferromagnetic material is
made up from the following contributions.
1. Exchange energy (or) Magnetic field energy.
2. Crystalline energy (or) Anisotropy energy.
3. Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy.
4. Magnetostriction energy
1. Exchange energy (or) Magnetic Field energy
“The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles align themselves” is
the called exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy.
The interaction energy makes the adjacent dipoles align themselves. It arises
from interaction of electron spins. It depends upon the inter atomic distance. This
exchange energy also called magnetic field energy is the energy required in assembling
the atomic magnets into a single domain and this work done is stored as potential
energy. The size of the domains for a particular domain structure may be obtained
from the principle of minimum energy. The volume of the domain may very between
say, say, 10–2 to 10–6 cm3.
Single Domain Multi Domain

Fig. 3.10 Exchange energy in ferromagnetism
2. Anisotropy energy
The excess energy required to magnetize a specimen in particular direction over
that required to magnetize it along the easy direction is called the crystalline anisotropy
energy.
In ferromagnetic materials there are two types of directions of magnetization
namely,
a) Easy direction and
b) hard directions.
In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard direction
of magnetization, strong field should be applied.
Crystalline anisotropy energy is energy of magnetization which is the function
of crystal orientation. As shown in figure magnetization curves for iron with the applied
field along different crystallographic direction crystallographic directions have been
drawn. For example, in BCC iron the easy direction is [100], the medium direction is
[110], and the hard direction [111]. The energy difference between hard and easy
direction to magnetize the material is about. This energy is very important in determining
the characteristic domain boundaries.
Fig. 3.11 Anisotropy energy in ferromagnetism
3. Domain wall energy or Bloch wall energy

A thin boundary or region that separates adjacent domains magnetized in different
directions is called domain wall or Bloch wall.
Fig. 3.12 The change of electron spin in the transition region of Bloch wall
The size of the Bloch walls is about 200 to 300 lattice constant thickness. In
going from one domain to another domain, the electron spin changes gradually as
shown in figure. The energy of domain wall is due to both exchange energy and
anisotropic energy.
Based on the spin alignments, two types of Bloch walls may arise, namely
a) Thick wall: When the spins at the boundary are misaligned and if the direction
of the spin changes gradually as shown figure, it leads to a thick Bloch
wall. Here the misalignments of spins are associated with exchange energy.
Wide wall
Fig. 3.13 The change of electron spin in the transition region of thick wall
b) Thin wall: When the spins at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the
anisotropic energy becomes very less. Since the anisotropic energy is directly
proportional to the thickness of the wall, this leads to a thin Bloch wall.
Fig.3.14 The change of electron spin in the transition region of thin wall
4. Magnetostriction energy
When a material is magnetized, it is found that it suffers a change in dimensions.
This phenomenon is known as Magnetostriction. This deformation is different along
different crystal directions. So if the domains are magnetized in different directions,
they will either expand or shrink. This means that work must be done against the
elastic restoring forces. The work done by the magnetic field against these elastic
restoring forces is called magneto-elastic energy or Magnetostrictive energy.
3.5 ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Definition
In this material, the spins are aligned in anti-parallel manner due to

unfavorable exchange interaction among them, resulting in zero
magnetic moment. Even when the magnetic field is increased, it has
almost zero induced magnetic moment.
Fig. 3.15 Spin alignment of antiferromagnetic materials
Properties
1. It susceptibility is very small and it is positive.
C
2. The susceptibility is given by   T   for T  TN [where TN –Neel temp]
N
3. Initially, when the temperature increases, susceptibility [  ] value of the anti Ferro
magnetic material also increases and reaches a maximum at a particular
temperature this temperature called as Neel temperature, susceptibility decreases
with increase in temperature and the material changes into paramagnetic
material. (Neel temperature - The temperature at which susceptibility is
maximum is called Neel temperature).
Examples : Ferrous oxide, Fe Cl4 , Mn O4 , MnS and some ionic compounds
etc.
3.6 FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Definition
Ferrimagnetic materials or Ferrites are much similar to Ferromagnetic

materials. The magnetic dipoles are aligned anti-parallel with unequal
magnitudes. If small value of magnetic field is applied, it will produce
the large value of magnetization.
Ferrimagnetic materials are widely used in high frequency applications
and computer memories.
Fig. 3.16 Spin alignment of Ferrimagnetic materials
Properties
C
1. The susceptibility is very large and positive and it is given by,  
T
when T  TN
2. Beyond the Neel temperature susceptibility (  ) decreases.
3. These materials have low eddy current loss and low hysteresis losses.
Examples: Ferrous Ferrites and Nickel Ferrites
3.7 HYSTERESIS
Hysteresis means “Lagging” i.e., The Lagging of intensity of magnetization (I)
behind the intensity of magnetic field (H).
Experimental Determination
A graph is drawn between the intensity of magnetization [I] and the intensity
of magnetic field [H], for a cycle of magnetization. The experimental setup consists
of solenoid coil through which current is passed and the material is magnetized. By
varying the value of current we can get different values of Intensity of magnetization [I]
due to the magnetic field (H) in the solenoid.
Here H  i, H = n i l
Where n – no of turns in the coil
l – length of the coil and
i – Current through the circuit.
In graph, OB = Br = Retentivity
OC = HC = Coercivity
 When the intensity of magnetic field ‘H’ is increased from O to F, the value
of Intensity of magnetization T if also increases from O to A, at ‘A’ the
material reaches the saturation value of Intensity of magnetization.
Then the value of I is constant.
2. When intensity of magnetic field ‘H’ is decreased from G to O, the value of
Intensity of magnetization ‘I’ also decreases from A to B, but not to zero (0).
Now the material retains [stores] some amount of magnetism known as
Retentivity, even though the intensity of magnetic field ‘H’ is zero. It is
represented as ‘OB’ in the graph.
3. When intensity of magnetic field ‘H’ is increased in reverse direction from
O to C, the value of Intensity of magnetization ‘I’ decreases from B to C.
i.e., the value of ‘I’ reaches zero.
A
B
Residual Emax
polarization C O
–H H
F
E
D
–P
Coercive field
Fig.3.17 Hysteresis curve
4. The amount of intensity of magnetic field ‘H’ applied in the reverse direction
to remove the retentivity is known as Coercivity or Coercive force. It is
represented as ‘OC’ in the graph.
5. Further repeating the process the remaining portion [CDEFA] in the graph is
obtained. The closed loop [OABCDEFA] is called Hysteresis loop (or)
(I – H) curve. For one cycle of magnetization.
6. Now the material is taken out. After a cycle of magnetization, there is some
expenditure (loss) of energy.
7. This loss of energy is radiated in the form of heat energy in the material.
8. This loss of energy is directly proportional to the area of the loop.
9. From the Hysteresis graph, we can select soft and hard magnetic
materials depending upon the purpose.
Energy product
It is the product of residual magnetism Br and coercivity which H C gives the
maximum amount of energy stored in the specimen.
Energy product = Br × HC
Hysteresis loss
When the specimen is taken through a cycle of magnetization. There is a loss of
energy in the form of heat. This loss of energy is known as Hysteresis loss.
3.7.1 Explanation of hysteresis on the basis of Domains
B S
A
O G
F HS
Fig.3.18 Hysteresis curve on the basis domain theory
OA - Due to smaller reversible domains wall movement.

AB - Due to larger irreversible domain wall movement.
BS - Due to smaller irreversible domain rotation.
S - Point of saturation.
1. When a field is applied, for small H, the domain walls are displaced and
gives rise to small value of magnetization. [OA in the graph]. Now, the field is
removed, the domains return to its original state known as reversible domains.
 When the field is increases, a large number of domains contribute to the
magnetization and I increases rapidly with H.
 Now, when the field is removed the domain boundaries do not come back to
the original position due to the domain wall movement to a very large distance
(AB in the graph). These domains are called irreversible domains.
4. Now if the field is further increased, domains start rotating along the field direction
and anisotropic energy is stored and it is represented as BC in the graph.
 Thus the specimen is said to attain maximum magnetization at this position
even after the removal of the field. The material is having magnetism called
Retentivity. This Retentivity can be destroyed by applying a high reverse
magnetic field called coercivity.
6. Thus the reversible and irreversible domain wall movements give rise to
hysteresis in the Ferromagnetic materials.
3.8 HARD AND SOFT MAGENTIC MATERIAL

In Hysteresis, after a cycle of magnetization, there is some expenditure (loss) of
energy. This loss of energy is radiated in the form of heat energy in the material and it
is directly proportional to the area of the loop. From the Hysteresis graph, we can
select the soft and hard magnetic materials.
3.8.1 Hard Magnetic Materials

The materials which are very difficult to magnetize and demagnetize are
called hard magnetic materials. These materials can be made by heating the
magnetic materials and then cooling it suddenly. It can also be prepared by adding
impurities.
I
A
Fig.3.19 Hysteresis loop of a hard magnetic material
The above hysteresis loop is very hard and has a large loop area for a hard
magnetic material, therefore the loss is also large. Domain wall does not move easily
and require large value of H for magnetization. Its coercivity and retentivity values are
large. Its eddy current loss is also high due to its low resistivity, the magnetostatic
energy is large. It has low susceptibility and permeability. The hard magnetic materials
have large amount of impurities and lattice defects.
Examples : Tungsten steel, Carbon steel, Chromium steel, Alnico etc.,
Properties
1) It is easilly magnetised and demagnetised.
2) They hysteresis area is very small and hence, the hysteresis loss is also small,
as shown in figure.
3) The coercivity and rentenivity are very small.
4) These materials have large values of susceptibility and permeabilty.
5) Their magnetostatic energy is very small.
6) The eddy current loss is very small.
Applications
1) Iron-Silicon alloys are used in electrical equipment and magnetic cores of
transformes.
2) Cast iron is used in the structure of electical machinery and the frame work
of D.C machine.
3) Nickel alloys are used to manufacture inductors, relays and small motors.
4) It is also used for computer and data storage devices.
3.8.2 Soft Magnetic Materials

The materials which are easily magnetized and demagnetized are called
soft magnetic materials. These materials can be made by heating the magnetic
materials and then cooling it slowly to attain an ordered structure of atoms.
H
F
Fig.3.20 Hysteresis loop of a soft magnetic material
The above hysteresis loop is very small and has a less loop area for a soft
magnetic materials. Therefore the loss is also small. Domain wall move easily and
require small value of H for magnetization. Its coercivity and retentivity values are
small, its eddy current loss is small due to its high resistivity. The magnetostatic energy
is less, it has high value of susceptibility and permeability. The soft magnetic materials
do not have impurities and lattice defects.
Examples: Iron-Silicon alloys, Nickel-Iron alloys and Iron-cobalt alloys.
Properties
1) It is very hard to magnetize and also demagnetize.
2) The hysteresis cure is very broad and has a large as shown in figure.
3) The coercivity and retentivity values are large.
4) These materials have low value of susceptibility and permeability.
5) The magnetostatic energy is large.
6) The eddy current loss is very high.
Applications
1) Magnets made by carbon steel are used for manufacturing the toys and
compass needle.
2) Tungsten steel is used in making permanent magnets for D.C motors.
3) It is also used for making a small size of magnets.
3.8.3 Difference between Hard and Soft magnetic materials

S. No Hard Magnetic Materials Soft Magnetic Materials
1. Cannot be easily magnetized Can be easily magnetized.
2. It can be produced by heating and It can be produced by heating and
sudden cooling slow cooling.
3. Domain wall does not move Domain wall move easily and
easily and require large value of requires small value of H for
H for magnetization. magnetization.
4. Hysteresis loop area is large Hysteresis loop area is small
Susceptibility and Permeability Susceptibility and Permeability
values are small. values are high.
5. Retentivity and Coercivity are Retentivity and Coercivity are
large small.
6. High eddy current loss Low eddy current loss
7. Impurities and defects will be No impurities and defects
more
8. Examples: Alnico, Chromium Examples: Iron-silicon alloy,
steel, tungsten steel, carbon steel. Ferrous nickel alloy, Ferrites
Garnets.
9. Uses: Permanent magnets, DC Uses: Electro magnets, computer
magnets. data storage. Transformer core.
3.9 FERRITES
Definition
Ferrites or Ferrimagnetic materials are the modified structure of iron

without carbon. In Ferities the spins of adjacent ion is the presence of
a magnetic field are in opposite directions with different magnitudes.
3.9.1 Properties
1. These are made from ceramic ferromagnetic compounds.
2. It has low tensile strength and it is brittle and soft.
3. In these materials all valence electrons are tied up by ionic bonding.
4. These are bad conductors with high resistivity of the order of 1011 m
5. Ferrites have low eddy current loss and low hysteresis loss.
6. The general formula for Ferrites is X²+ (Fe2)3+ O4 where X-may is a metal
(divalent metal) such as Mg, Ni, Mn, Zn, etc.
7. Ferrites are manufactured by powder metallurgical process by mixing,
compacting and then sintering at high temperatures followed by age hardening
in magnetic fields.
3.9.2 Structures of Ferrites

Ferrites are the magnetic compounds consisting to two or more different kinds
of atoms. Generally ferrites are expressed as X²+ (Fe2)3+ O4 where X²+ stands for
suitable divalent metals ions such etc Mg2+, Zn2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Ni2+ etc.
Normally, there are two types of structures present in the ferrites
1. Regular spinel 2. Inverse spinel
3.9.3 Regular spinal

In the regular spinal type, each metal atom (divalent) is surrounded by fourions
in a tetragonal fashion.
For example in Mg2+, Fe23+, O42+, the structure of Mg2+is given in the Fig. 3.21
and it is called “A’ site. Totally in a unit cell, there will be 8 tetrahedral (8A) sites.
2 2
Mg A site 2
A site B site
3
3
(2) 3
Fe B site 2
2 2
(a) (b)
2 Divalent metal ion
3 Trivalent metal ion
Oxygen ion
Fig 3.21 Structure of ferrites (Regular Spinal)
Each Fe3+ (trivalent) is surrounded by ‘6’ O2  ions and forms an octahedral

fashion as show in Fig.3.20. Totally there will be 16 such octahedral sites in the unit
cell. This in indicated by ‘B’ site.
Thus in a regular spinal, each divalent metal ion (mg2+) exists in a tetrahedral
form (A site) and each trivalent metal ion (Fe2+) exists in an octahedral form (B site).
Hence, the sites A and B combine together to form a regular spinal ferrite structure as
shown in Fig.3.21.
3.9.4 Inverse spinal

In this type, we consider the arrangement of dipoles of a single ferrous ferrite
molecule Fe3+ [Fe2+ Fe3+] O42– Fe3+ , ions (trivalent) occupies all A sites (tetrahedral)
and half of the B sites (octahedral) also.
Thus the left out B sites will be occupied by the divalent (Fe2+). The inverse
spinal structure is shown in the Fig. 3.22.
3 3
3
A - Site B - Site
3
3 3
3
Fig.3.22 Structure of ferrites (inverse Spinal)
3.9.5 Types of interaction present in the ferrites

The spin arrangement between the A site B site is in an ant parallel manner and it was
explained by Neel. According to him, in ferrites, the spin arrangement is ant parallel and
there exists some interaction between the A and B sites which is represented as AB interaction.
Apart from this, there are two more interactions (i.e.,) AA and BB interaction
which is negative and considerable weaker than AB interaction.
The tendency of AB interaction is to align all A spins parallel to each other and
anti parallel to all B spins, but the tendency of AA and BB interaction is to spoil the
parallel arrangement of AB spins respectively.
Since AB is very strong as compared with AA and BB, the effect of AB interaction
dominates and gives rise to anti parallel spin arrangement.
3.9.6 Properties of ferromagnetic materials

1. Ferromagnetic materials posses’ net magnetic moment.
2. Above Curie temperature, it becomes paramagnetic while it behaves as
ferromagnetic material below Curie temperature.
3. The susceptibility of Ferrimagnetic material is very large and positive. It is
temperature dependent and is given by
C
 for T > TN
T
4. Beyond Neel temperature,decreases.
5. Spin alignment is anti parallel of different magnitudes.
6. Mechanically, it has pure ion character.
7. They have high permeability and high resistivity.
8. They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis.
3.9.7 Application of Ferrites

1. Ferrites are used to produce ultrasonic wave by Magnetostriction principle.
2. Ferrites are used in audio and video transformers.
3. Ferrites rods are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity.
4. Ferrites are widely used in non-reciprocal microwave devices such as gyrator,
circulator and Isolator.
Gyrator : It transmits the power freely in both directions with a phase
shift of radians.
Circulator : It provides sequential transmission of power between the ports.
Isolator : It is used to display differential attenuation.
5. They are also used for power limiting and harmonic generation.
6. Ferrites are used in parametric amplifiers so that the input can be amplified
with low noise.
7. They are used in computers and data processing circuits.
8. Bi-stable elements, Ferro cube (Ferrite with square hysteresis loop), magnetic
shift register, and magnetic bubbles are also examples for Ferrites.
3.10 MAGNETIC RECORDING AND READOUT MEMORY

Nowadays, large number of information are stored in (or) retrieved from the
storage devices, by using devices is magnetic recording heads and they function
according to the principle of magnetic induction.
Generally Ferro or Ferrimagnetic materials are used in the storage devices
because in this type of materials only the magnetic interaction between only two dipoles
align themselves parallel to each other.
Due to this parallel alignment even if we apply small amount of magnetic field, a
large value of magnetization is produced. By using this property information are stored
in storage devices.
In the storage devices, the recording of digital data (0’s and 1’s) depends upon
the direction of magnetization in the medium.
3.10.1 Magnetic parameters for Recording

1. When current is passed through a coil, a magnetic field is induced. This
principle called “Electromagnetic Induction” is used in storage devices.
2. The case with which the material can be magnetized is another parameter.
3. We know the soft magnetic materials are the materials which can easily be
magnetized and demagnetized. Hence a data can be stored and erased easily.
Such magnetic materials are used in temporary storage devices.
4. Similarly, we know hard magnetic materials cannot be easily magnetized and
demagnetized. So such magnetic materials are used in permanent storage devices.
5. In soft magnetic materials, the electrical resistance varies with respect to the
magnetization and this effect is called magneto-resistance. This parameter is
used in specific thin film systems.
The magnetic medium is made of magnetic materials (Ferro or Ferric oxide)

deposited on this plastic.
The magnetic medium move across the read / write heads and either logic 1’s
and logic 0’s are written on the medium. The magnetized spots on the medium generate
small electrical signals and this different direction signals represents logic is and 0’s on
the medium.
3.10.2 Storage of Magnetic Data

Memory units are the devices used to store the information (Input and Output)
in the form of bits [8bits = 1 Byte].
The memory units are classified into two categories.
1. Main memory (Primary) or Internal Memory.
2. Auxiliary Memory (Secondary) or External Memory.
1. Main Memory
The memory unit of the central processing unit (CPU) is called as main memory.
Compare a black beard main memory. We can write many data on memories and
finally erase it if we want.
Example : RAM, ROM, EPROM etc.
2. Auxiliary Memory
Since storage capacity of primary memory is not sufficient secondary memory
units are developed to store the large volume of data. Separately and hence called as
extra (or) additional (or) external memory.
This type of memory is also referred to as back up storages because, it is used
to store large volume of data on a permanent basis.
Example: 1. Magnetic tapes
2. Magnetic disk (Floppy and Hard disc)
3. Ferrite core memories
4. Magnetic bubble memories.
3.10.3 Magnetic Tape

It is one of the most popular storage medium for data. The tape is a plastic
ribbon with metal oxide material coated on one side which can be magnetized. In this,
information can be written and also can be read by read / write heads.
Information recorded in the tape is in the form of tiny magnetized and non
magnetized spots on the metal oxide coating.
The magnetized spot represents ‘I’ and un magnetized spot represent ‘0’ in
binary code. The information can be accessed, processed, erased and can be again
stored in the same area.
Advantages
1. Its storage capacity is large
2. It is easy to handle and is portable
3. Its cost is less than other storage devices.
4. It can be erased and reused may times.
Disadvantage
1. It consumes lot of time.
3.10.4 Magnetic Disc Drivers

These disks are direct access storage devices. These disks are magnetically
coated. There are two types of disks.
1. Hard disc
2. Floppy disc
1. Hard disc
The hard disc is made of hard aluminum platters. The platter surface is carefully
machined until it is flat (or) plane. The platter surface is coated with magnetic material
(magnetic oxides). The platter is built into a box.
Similar such disks are mounted on a vertical shaft, forming a disk pack and it is
shown in fig.
Vertical shaft
Platters
Sensing Read/Write
arms heads
Spindle
Fig.3.23 Hard disc
The disc pack is placed is a drive mechanism called hard disk drive. The drive
mechanism driver the disc pack with the spindle. The data is written (or) ready by R/
W beads in the horizontal sensing arms by moving in an out between the platters with
the precaution that the R/W head doesn’t touch the surface instead, it fly over the disk
surface by a fraction of an mm.
Advantages
1. It has very large storage capacity.
2. Thousands of files can be permanently stored
3. Very high speed is reading and writing the information.
4. This is prevented from dust particles, since they are seated in special chamber.
Disadvantages
1. It is very costly.
2. It data is once corrupted, there is a heavy loss of data.
3.10.5 Floppy Disk

The hard disc is suitable only for large and medium sized computers and often
are too expensive for small computers systems. Floppy disc are the latest development
in secondary storage devices.
It is made up of a flexible plastic material and hence called as floppy disc. It is
also called as diskette. It acts both as an input and output device.
Manufacturers label
User label for identification
Write protect Notch

5.25”
Drive spindle hole in dish

Drive access opening / hole
Index hole
Floppy disk
Read/Write aperture / slot
5.25”
Fig.3.24 floppy disc
The disk is provided with a central hole. This hole is used for mounting the disc
in the floppy derive unit. The envelope prevents the disk from dust and moisture.
There is a small index hole in the cover and there will be a hole in the drive disk.
When these two holes match then only the storage operation can be started. Write
protect notch is used to prevent writing on the disc by other users. This can be done
by covering the notch with a sticker. A 5.25° floppy is shown in fig.
Writing operation
When the floppy disk moves over the gap the CPU flow through the write will
of the head and magnetizes the iron oxide coating in the disk to the proper pattern.
Reading Operation
When the data are to be read, the magnetized patterns induces pulses of current
in the read coil and is amplified then fed to the CPU. Thus data can be stored and
accessed from the floppy disc on both sides (or) single side. Reading / writing data on
the magnetic medium using frequently modulated wave.
Special features
1. The cost is very low
2. It can be easily handled
3. It can be taken to any place
4. It has high storage capacity
5. Many types of floppies are available, depending on their storage capacities.
Disadvantage
Here the magnetic disk is moved (rotated) mechanically.
3.10.6 Magnetic bubble Materials

Magnetic bubble is direct access storage medium, magnetic bubbles are soft
magnetic materials with magnetic domains of a few micrometers in diameter. These
bubbles are the electrical analogue of the magnetic disk memories used in computers.
The magnetic disk in the hard disk memory is moved mechanically where as the
bubbles in a bubble memory device are moved electronically at very high speeds, so
the read out time or storing time is greatly reduced in bubble memory device. The
bubble units are made with solid state electronic chips.
A magnetic bubble can be thought of as a positively charged and in a negatively
charged magnetic film.The presence of a bubble is on ‘ON’ condition and the absence
of a bubble is an ‘off’ condition. ie., [1 or 0].
Write station read station erase station
Major loop
157 156 155 ...................... 3 2 1

Fig. 3.25 Magnetic bubble memory
Figure shows the schematic diagram of a magnetic bubble memory. It consists

of one major loop and 157 minor loops. Each minor loop has 641 bubble sites.
Writing operation
When a data is to be stored, the bubbles from the minor loops are transferred to
the major loop, and it goes to the write station. In write station the data is entered and
the bubble again comes to minor loop.
Reading operation
To read the data from the storage, the bubble from minor loops are transferred
to the major loop and it goes to the read station, then it comes to the minor loop. The
data can be altered by the erase station, if we need to erase it.
Advantage
1. It is non-volatile.
2. It has high storage capacity than the magnetic hard disk.
3. It has high across speed.
Construction
A Bubble memory consist of materials such as magnetic garnets and store the
data as microscopic magnets. A thin film of these garnets is deposited on a non-
magnetic substrate of Gadolinium Gallium Garnet in Integrated Circuit [IC] form.
SUPER CONDUCTORS
3.11 INTRODUCTION TO SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

It was thought that the electrical resistance of a conductor becomes zero only at
absolute zero temperature. But in 1911, H. Kammerlingh Onnes studied the properties
of mercury at very low temperature using liquid helium and is found that the resistivity
of mercury drops to zero at 4.2 K and changes into a superconducting material.
Mathiessen’s rule: It states that “the electrical resistivity [] of the material is
the sum of the residual resistivity due to scattering by impurities [0] and the ideal
resistivity due to scattering by phonons [T].
ie.,  = 0 + T
Definition
The ability of certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero electrical
resistivity when they are cooled to low temperature is known as
superconducting. (ie., maximum conductivity with zero resistance at zero
Kelvin)
Each of these parameters is very dependent on the other two properties present.
Critical temperature ( TC ) (or) Transition Temperaturee
The temperature at which a normal conductor loses its resistivity and becomes
a superconductor is known as critical temperature (or) Transition temperature. Every
superconductor has its own critical temperature at which it passes over into
superconducting state. Depending on the transition temperature, superconductors are
classified into two groups are
i) Low temperature superconductors (LTS):The superconductors which have
low transition temperature (below 30K) are known as low temperature
superconductors.
Example: Tin (3.2 K), Mercury (4.15 K).
ii) High temperature superconductors (HTS): The superconductors which
have high transition temperature (above 30K) is known as high temperature
superconductors.
Example: Barium - Lanthanum - Copper - Oxide (BLCO) - 35 K
Yttrium - Barium - Copper - Oxide - (Y Ba2 Cu3 O4) - 92 K
()
resistivity
Normal conductor
Super conductor
TC Temperature
Fig. 3.26 Variation of electrical resistivity with temperature
3.12 PROPERTIES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

At Critical temperature, the following properties are observed.
1. The electrical resistivity drops to zero.
2. The magnetic flux lines are excluded (ejected out) from the superconductors.
3. There is discontinuous change in the specific heat.
4. There are small changes in the thermal conductivity and volume of the
materials.
3.12.1 Critical magnetic field (Magnetic Property)

A very strong magnetic field applied to superconducting material it disappears
super conducting property this is called as critical magnetic field.
  T 2 
HC  H 0 1     H 0 Where = Critical field at 0 K
  TC  
 
HO
normal conducting state

Superconducting
state
HC
T TC
Fig.3.27 Critical magnetic field
It is noted that when the temperature of a material increases, the value of critical
magnetic field decreases. Therefore the value of critical magnetic fields are different
for different materials.
3.12.2 Diamagnetic property (Meissener effect)

If a normal conducting material is placed in a magnetic field of flux density B,
the magnetic lines penetrate through the material.
Now the material is cooled below its transition temperature when T TC then
the magnetic lines of forces are eapelled out from the material as shown in figure.
We know that, a diamagnetic material have the tendency to expel the magnetic
lines of force. Since the superconductor also expels tha magnetic lines of force and it
behaves as a perfect diamagnet. This behaviour was first observed by meissener and
hence called as meissener effect.
i) Meissener effect.
When the superconducting material is subjected to a uniform magnetic

field, under the condition T  TC and H  HC, the magnetic flux lines
are excluded from the material. Thus the material exhibits perefect
diamagnetism. This phenomenon is called as meissner effect.
B0 B=0
T>TC T< TC
H >H C H <H C
(a) Normal state (b) Super conducting state
Fig. 3.28 Meissner effect
3.12.3 SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device)

(We know that a small charge in magnetic field produces variation in the
flux quantum.)
It consists of a superconducting ring which can have the magnetic field of quantum
values (1,2,3,....) of flux placed in between two Josephson junctions as shown in figure.
Superconducting ring
Junction - 1 Junction - 2
Fig. 3.29 SQUID
When the magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the plane of the ring, the
current is induced at the two Josephon junctions.
The induced current current produces the intereference pattern and if flows
around the ring so that the magnetic flux in the ring can have the quantum value of
magnetic field applied.
Applications
i) SQUID can be used to defect the variation of very minute magnetic signals in
terms of quantum flux.
ii) It is used as a storage device for magnetic flux.
iii) It is used to study earth qurkes and to remove paramagnetic impurities.
Application of Meissner effect
1. It is a standard test to prove whether the material is a perfect superconductor
or not.
2. This effect is used for magnetic levitated train.
3.12.4 Effect of heavy Current

The superconducting property disappears when a heavy current flows, since
current flow will set up a magnetic field.
According to Silsbee’s rule, for a superconducting wire, the induced current to
destroy the superconducting property is given by,
IC  2r H C
Where r is the radius of the superconductor.
HC is the critical magnetic field.
3.12.5 Persistence of Current

Persistence current is one of the most important properties of a superconductor.
When a current of large magnitude is induced in a superconducting ring, the current
persisted in the ring even after the removal of the field at the temperature below the
critical temperature below the critical temperature, such a current flows without reducing
its strength is known is persistent current.
Magnetic Flux lines

Super Conducting Ring
Fig. 3.30 Persistent Current
The superconducting coil with persistent current acts as a magnet. It does not
require power supply to maintain its magnetic field.
3.12.6 Effect of pressure

If pressure increases, the critical temperature also increases. Therefore certain
materials are brought into the superconducting state by increasing the pressure.
Research is going on to get the superconducting state at room temperature by applying
heavy pressure.
3.12. 7 Isotope effect

The presence of isotopes in superconductor change the transition temperature
of the superconductor. The transition temperature is found to be inversely proportional
to the square root of the atomic weight of the isotope (M).
1
TC 
M
cons tan t
TC =
M
M × TC = Constant
The transition temperature of the heavier isotope is less than that of the lighter
isotope.
3.12.8 General properties

1. There is no change in elastic properties, photo electric properties and crystal
structure.
2. The transition temperature is unchanged with the frequency variation.
3.13 TYPES OF SUPER CONDUCTORS

Superconductors are classified as follows
Based on the value of H C we have,
1. Type I (or) Soft superconductors
2. Type II (or) Hard superconductors
Based on the value of TC we have,
1. High temperature superconductors
2. Low temperature superconductors
Type I Superconductor
In type I superconductor, the magnetic field is completely excluded from the
material below the critical magnetic field and the material loses its superconducting
property abruptly at.
Hb
M
SCS
NCS
Ha
HC
H
Fig.3.31 Type I Superconductor
Characteristics
1. They exhibit complete Meissner Effect.
2. They have only one critical magnetic field value.
3. Below the material behaves as superconductor and above the material behaves
as normal conductor.
4. These are called as Soft superconductors.
Type II Superconductor
In type II superconductor, the magnetic field is excluded from the material and
the material loses its superconducting property gradually rather than abruptly.
Hb
NCS
SCS
mixed state
HC1 HC Hc2
H
Fig. 3.32 Type II Superconductor
Characteristics
1. They do not exhibit a complete Meissner Effect.
2. They have two critical magnetic field values. Lower critical magnetic filed
[HCl] and Higher critical magnetic field [HC2].
3. Below HC1 the material behaves as superconductor and above the material
behaves as normal conductor. The region in between [HCl] and [HC2] is called
mixed state or vortex region.
4. These are called as Hard superconductors.
Low TC Superconductors
1. The superconductors having the critical temperature less than 20 K are known
as low TC Superconductors or elemental superconductors.
2. The Superconductors by BCS theory.
3. It is explained by BCS theory.
4. It is not so useful due to its low temperature maintenance.
5. It is called as N-type superconductor.
High TC Superconductors
1. The superconductors having the critical temperature greater than 100 K are
known as high TC Superconductors or ceramic or oxide superconductors.
2. The Superconductors is due to hole states.
3. It is explained by RVB theory proposed by Anderson.
4. It is very useful for commercial and engineering purposes.
5. It is called as P-type superconductor.
3.13.1 Difference between Type I and II superconductors.
S.N Type I (or) Soft superconductors Type II (or) Hard superconductors
1. It exhibits complete Meissner It does not exhibit a complete Meissner

Effect. Effect.
2. They are completely diamagnetic. They are not completely diamagnetic.
3. Ex : Tin, Lead, Mercury, etc., Ex : Nb-Zr, Nb- Ti, Nb-Sn, Va- Ga,
etc.,
4.
5. The value of H C is always too low. The values of HC is high and it is about
It is about 0.1 tesla. 30 tesla.
6. They have only one critical They have two critical magnetic field
magnetic field value. values. Lower critical magnetic field
[ H C1 ] and Higher critical magnetic field
[ H C2 ].
7. No mixed state exists. Mixed state is present.
8. These are called Soft These are called Hard superconductors.

superconductors.
9. It requires low magnetic field to It requires large magnetic field to

destroy the superconductivity. destroy the superconductivity.
10. It loses its magnetization abruptly. It loses its magnetization gradually.
3.13.2 Difference between High TC and Low TC superconductors
S. No High TC Superconductors Low T C Superconductors
1. It has high TC (>100 K). It has low TC (<20 K)

2. Super conduction is due to Super conduction is due to
hole states. cooper pairs.
3. Explained by RVB theory. Explained by BCS theory.
4. Very useful for commercial It is not so useful due to its
and engineering purposes. low maintenance temperature.
5. It is called as P-type It is called as N-type
superconductor. superconductor.
3.14 HIGH TEMPERATURE (HIGH-TC) SUPERCONDUCTORS

Superconductors with high values of critical temperature are called high
temperature superconductors (HTSC). The discovery of copper oxide based ceramic
materials by Bednorz and Muller in 1986 having critical temperature greater than
30 K made a new era in the field of superconductivity.
The superconductors have the critical temperature greater than 100 K are known
as high Superconductors or ceramic or oxide superconductors.
The Superconductors is due to hole states and it is explained by RVB theory
proposed by Anderson. It is very useful for commercial and engineering applications
and it is called as P-type superconductors.
Characteristics
1. High TC Superconductors have high temperatures.
2. They have a modified perovskite crystal structure.
3. Superconducting state is direction dependent.
4. These are oxides of copper with other elements.
5. These are reactive, brittle, and cannot be easily modified or joined.
6. For high TC superconductors, liquid Nitrogen is used instead of liquid helium.
3.15 BCS THEORY OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

The properties of Type I superconductors were modeled successfully by the
efforts of John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer in what is commonly
called the BCS theory. A key conceptual element in this theory is the pairing of electron
close to the Fermi level into Cooper pairs through interaction with the crystal lattice.
This pairing results form a slight attraction between the electrons related to lattice
vibrations, the coupling to the lattice is called a phonon interaction.
Pairs of electrons can behave very differently from single electrons which are
fermions and must obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle. The pairs of electrons act more
like bosons which can condense into the same energy level.
The electron pairs have a slightly lower energy and leave an energy gap above
them on the order of 0.001 eV which inhibits the kind of collision interactions which
lead to ordinary resistivity. For temperatures such that the thermal energy is less than
the band gap, the material exhibits zero resistivity.
Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer received the Nobel Prize in 1972 for
the development of the theory of superconductivity.
Cooper Pairs
The transition of a metal from the normal to the superconducting state has the
nature of a condensation of the electrons into a state which leaves a band gap above
them, this kind of condensation is seen with superfluid helium, but helium is made up
of bosons-multiple electrons can’t collect into a single state because of the Pauli
Exclusion Principle.
Froehlich was first to suggest that the electrons act as pairs coupled by lattice
vibrations in the material. This coupling is viewed as an exchange of phonons, phonons
being the quanta of lattice vibration energy. Experimental corroboration of an interaction
with the lattice was provided by the isotopic effect on the superconducting transition
temperature.
The boson-like of such electron pairs was further investigated by Cooper and
they are called “Cooper pairs”. The condensation of Cooper pairs is the foundation
of the BCS theory of superconductivity.
A model of Cooper pair attraction
e e
A passing electron attracts the lattice, causing a slight ripple toward its path
Lattice of superconducting material
Fig.3.33 Cooper pair attraction
e e
Another electron passing in the opposite direction is attracted to that displacement.
Fig .3.34 Cooper pair repulsion
A A
A A
Fig. 3.35 Model of pair attraction
Ideas Leading to the BCS Theory

The BCS theory of superconductivity has successfully described the measured
properties of Type I superconductors. It envisions resistance-free conduction of
coupled pairs of electrons called Cooper pairs. This theory is remarkable enough that
it is interesting to look at the chain of ideas which led to it.
Fig. 3.36 Cooper pair (interaction)
1. One of the first steps toward a theory of superconductivity was the realization
that there must be a band gap separating the charge carriers from the state of
normal conduction.
a) A band gap was implied by the very fact that the resistance is precisely
zero. If charge carriers can move through a crystal lattice without
interacting at all, it must be because their energies are quantized such that
they do not have any available energy levels within reach of the energies
of interaction with the lattice.
b) A band gap is suggested by specific heats of materials like vanadium. The
fact that there is an exponentially increasing specific hear as the temperature
approaches the critical temperature from below implies that thermal energy
is being used to bridge some kind of gap in energy. As the temperature
increases, there is an exponential increase in the number of particles which
would have enough energy to cross the gap.
2. The critical temperature for superconductivity must be a measure of the band
gap, since the material could lose superconductivity if thermal energy could
get charge carriers across the gap.
3. The critical temperature was found to depend up on isotopic mass. It certainly

would not if the conduction was by free electrons alone. The made it evident
that the superconducting transition involved some kind of interaction with the
crystal lattice.
Mercury
zero
R ()
resistance
TC = 4.2 K
4.1 4.2 4.3

Temperature (K)
Fig. 3.37
4. Single electrons could be eliminated as the charge carriers in superconductivity

since with a system of fermions you don’t get energy gaps. All available
levels up to the Fermi energy fill up.
5. The needed boson behavior was consistent with having coupled pairs of
electrons with opposite spins. The isotope effect described above suggested
that the coupling mechanism involved the crystal lattice, so this gave rise to
the phonon model of coupling envisioned with Cooper pairs.
3.16 APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

General Applications
1. Electric generators can be made by using superconductors with smaller size,
less weight and low energy consumption.
2. Superconductors can be used for the transmission of power over very long
distances.
3. Superconductors can be used in switching Devices.
4. The superconductors can be used in sensitive electrical instruments.
5. It can be used as a memory or storage element in computers.
6. These are used to design Cryotron, Maglev, Josephson Devices and SQUID.
7. DC superconducting motors are used in ship propulsion and in large mills.
8. Superconducting magnetic field may be used to launch satellite into orbit
directly from the earth without use of rockets.
9. Ore separation can be done by using machines made of superconducting
magnets.
10.These are used in NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) imaging equipments
which is used for scanning purposes.
11.Superconductors are used for the detection of brain tumor, defective cells,
etc.,
12.Superconducting solenoids are used in magneto hydrodynamic power
generation to maintain the plasma in the body.
3.17 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
3.17.1 Cryotron
It is a magnetically operated current switch. The superconducting
property disappear when the magnetic field is greater than critical field ().
It consists of a superconducting material [A] and it is surrounded by a super
conducting coil of wire [B].
Fig. 3.38 Cryotron
When the critical magnetic field of wire B exceeds or less than that of a
Superconducting material A, the current in A can be controlled by the current in the
material B, it can act as relay or switching elements and it can be used as memory or
storage element in computers.
3.17.2 MAGLEV (MAGnetic LEVitation)

Maglev is a magnetic levitated train, its works under the principal of
Electromagnetic induction. This train cannot move over the rail. Instead it floats above
the rails, so that it moves faster with speed of 500 Km/hr without any frictional loss. It
has two superconducting magnet on each side of the train and there is guiding system
consisting of ‘S” shaped coils on each side. Due to actions of these magnets the train
moves faster by levitation principle.
Working
This train consists of superconducting magnets placed on each side of the train.
The train can run in a guiding system, which consists of serial ‘S’ shaped coil as shown
in figure.
Fig. 3.39 MGLEV
Initially when the train starts, they slide on the rails. Now, when the train moves
faster, the superconducting magnets on each side of the train will induce a current in
the ‘S’ shaped coils kept in the guiding system.
This induced current generates a magnetic force in the coils in such a way that
the lower half of ‘S’ shaped coil has the same magnetic pole as that of the
superconducting magnet in the train, while the upper half has the opposite magnetic
pole. Therefore, the total upward magnetic force acts on the train and the train is
levitated or raised above the rails and floats in the air.
Now, by alternatively changing the poles of the superconducting magnet in the
train, alternating currents can be induced in ‘S’ shaped coils.
Thus, alternating series of north and south magnetic poles are produced in the
coils, which pulls and pushes the superconducting magnets in the train and hence the
train is further moved. This can travel a speed of 500 km per hour.
3.17.3 Josephson Devices

Presistence of current in an insulator which is separated by an insulator, even in
the absence of an applied voltage pairs of electrons moving through the potential
barrier induce the superconducting current. This effect is known as Josephson effect.
SC - 1 Insulator SC - 2
+ –
Battery
Fig. 3.40 Josephson effect
A thin layer of insulating material (10-50A°) is placed in between two

superconducting materials as shown in figure. When the voltage is applied across the
superconductors, current start flowing between the superconductors.
The flowing current has both a.c and d.c components. The a.c current exists
only up to which the external voltage is applied whereas the d.c current exist even
after the removal of applied voltage. This effect is called Josephson effect.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A paramagnetic material has a magnetic field intensity of 104 Am–1 . If the
susceptibility of the material at room temperature is 3.7 × 10–5 . Calculate
the magnetization and flux density in the material.
(AU - APRIL 2002, JUNE 2010, 2012)
Solution:
Given data:
Magnetic field indensity H = 104 Am–1
Susceptibility  = 3.7 × 10–4
M
1. Susceptibility  =
H
 Magnetization M = H
= 3.7 × 10–3 × 104
= 3.7 × 10
Magnetization M = 37A m–1
2. Flux density B = m0 (M + H)
= 4 × 10–7 × (37 + 104)
= 126179.4 × 10–7
= 0.0126 Wb m–2
Magnetization M = 37A m–1
Flux density B = 0.0126 Wb m–2.
2. A magnetic material has a magnetization of 2300 A m–1 and produces a flux
density of 0.00314 Wb m–2. Calculate the magnetizing force and the relative
permeability of the material.
Solution :
Given data:
Magnetization M = 2300 A m–1
Flux density B = 0.00314 Web m–2.
i) The magnetic flux density
B = 0  M  H 
B 
The magnetic force H =    M 
 0 
0.00314
=  2300
4  107
H = 198.7326 A m–1
M
ii) Susceptibility  =  ( r  1)
H
M
 Relative permeability r = 1
H
2300
= +1
198.7326
r = 12.573
Magnetic force H = 198.7326 A m–1
Relative permeability r = 12.573
3. A paramagnetic material has FCC structure with a cubic edge of 2.5 A°. If
the saturation value of magnetization is 1.8 × 106 A m–1 , Calculate the
magnetization contributed per atom in Bohr magnetrons.
Solution:
Given data:
The interatomic spacing a = 2.5 × 10–10 m
The magnetization M = 1.8 × 106 A m–1
The number of atoms present per unit volume
Number of atomas present in an unit cell

N =
Volume of the unit cell
2
=
 2.5 × 1010 
N = 1.28 × 1029 m3
Total magnetization M = 1.8 × 106 A m–1
The magnetization produced per atom
M
=
N
1.8 × 106
=
1.28 × 1029
= 1.4062 × 10–23 A m–2
eh
Bohr magneton B =
4m
1.6 × 1019  6.625 × 1034

=
4  3.14  9.1  1031
B = 9.27 × 10–24 A m–2

 Magnetization produced per atom
1.40625 × 1023
M=
9.27  1024
M = 1.519 Bohr magnetons

The average magentization per atom=1.517 Bohr magnetons
4. The saturation magnetic induction of Nickel is 0.65 Wb m–2 . If the density

of Nickel is 8906 kg m–3 and its atomic weight is 58.7, calculate the
magnetic moment of the Nickel atom in Bohr magnetron. (AU - DEC 2001)
Solution:
Given data:
Saturation magnetic induction of Nickel
Ba = 0.65 Wb m–2
The density of Nickel  = 8906 Kg m–3
Atomic weight of Nickel W = 58.7
The number of Nickel atoms /m3
  Avogadro number
N =
Atomic weight
8906  6.025 × 1026

=
58.7
N = 9.14 × 1028 m–3

Saturation magnetization Ba = N 0 m
Ba
 Magnetic moment m =
N 0
0.65
=
9.14 × 1028  4 × 3.14 × 107
= 5.66 × 10–24 A m2
5.66 × 1024
= Bohr magneton
9.29 × 1024
m = 0.61 B
Magnetic moment of Nickel m = 0.61 B
5. In a magnetic material the field strength is found to be 106 A m–1 . If the

magnetic susceptibility of the material is 0.5 × 10–5 , calculate the intensity
of magnetization and flux density in the material.
Solution:
Given data:
Magnetic field strenght H = 106 A m–1
Susceptibility  = 0.5 × 10–5
i) Magnetization M = H
= 106 × 0.5 × 10–5
M = 5 A m–1
ii) Flux density B = 0 (M + H)
= 4 × 3.14 × 10–7 (5 + 106)
B = 1.257 Wb m–2
Magnetization M = 5 A m–1
Fluxdensity B = 1.257 Wb m–2
6. A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic
field and a critical field of 0.0306 Tesla at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.
(AU - NOV 2002)
Solution:
Given data:
Critical temperature TC = 3.7 K
Critical field HC = 0.0306 Tesla
Temperature T = 2K
The critical magnetic field
  T2  
HC = H0 1   2  
  Tc  
  2 2 
= 0.0306 1      0.0216 Tesla
  3.7  
The critical magnetic field HC = 0.0216 Tesla.
7. Calculate the critical current and current density for a wire of a lead having
a diameter of 1 mm at 4.2 K. The critical temperature for lead is 7.18 K
and H0 = 6.5 × 104 A m–1 . (AU - MAY 2003, JUNE 2006)
Solution:
Given data:
Critical temperature TC = 7.18 K 7.18 K
Critical field H0 = 6.5 × 104 A m–1
Temperature T = 4.2 K
Radius of the wire r = 0.5 × 10–3 m
  T2  
The critical magnetic field HC = H0 1   2  
  Tc  
  4.2  2 
4
= 6.5 × 10 1    
  7.18  
= 4.276 × 104 A m–1

i) Critical current IC = 2r HC
= 2 × 3.14 × 0.5 × 10–3 × 4.276 × 104
= 134.39 A
IC
ii) Critical density JC =
r 2
134.39
=
3.15 × (0.5 × 103 )2
= 1.71 × 108 A m–2

Critical current IC = 134. 39 A
Critical density JC = 1.71 × 108 A m–2
8. Prove that susceptibility of superconductor is -1 and relative permeability

is zero.
Solution:
Given data:
We know, the induced magnetic field B = 0 (M  H) ... (1)
In superconductor, B = 0
Therefore, 0 = 0 (M  H)
Since 0 # 0, M = –H
M
=   1 ... (2)
H
Also,  = r  1
–1 + 1 =  r  0
Therefore the susceptibility x = –1
and Relative permeability r = 0
9. Find the critical current which can pass through a long thin superconducting
wire of aluminum of diameter 2 mm, the critical magnetic field for aluminum
is 7.9 × 103 A m–1 .
Solution:
Given data:
The critical magnetic field HC = 7.9 × 103 A m–1
Diameter
Radius r =
2
2
=  1 × 103
2
Critical current IC = 2r HC
= 2 × 3.14 × 1 × 10–3 × 7.9 × 103 A m–1
IC = 49.65 A
Critical current IC = 49.65 A
10. The superconducting transistion temperature of Lead is 7.26 K. The initial

field at 0 K is 64 × 103 Amp m–1 . Calculate the critical field at 5 K.
(AU - JUNE 2012)
Solution:
Given data:
Critical Field H0 = 64 × 103 Amp m–1
Temperature = 5 K
  T 2 
The Critical Field HC = Ho 1    
  TC  
 
  5 2 
3
= 64  10 1    
  7.20  
= 64 × 103 × 0.5257
HC = 33.644 × 103 Amp m–1
11. A magnetic field of 2000 Amp m–1 is applied to a material which has a
susceptibility of 1000. Calculate the (i) Intensity and (ii) Flux density.
(AU - JUNE 2009)
Solution:
Given data:
Magnetic Field H = 2000 Amp m–1
Susceptibility  = 1000
i) Magnetisation M= H
= 2000 × 1000
= 2 × 106 Amp m–1
ii) Flux density B = o (M  H)
= 4 × 3.14 × 10–7 (2 × 106 + 2000)
B = 2.514 wbm–2
12. The superconducting transition temperature of lead of 7.26 K. The initial

field at 0 K is 64 × 103 Amp m–1 . Calculate the critical field at 5 K.
(AU - JULY 2010)
Solution:
Given data:
Critical field H0 = 64 × 103 Amp m–1
Temperature T = 5K
The critical field HC = H0 [1 – (T/ TC )2]
= 64 × 103 [1– (5/7.26)2]
= 64 ×103 × 0.5257
HC = 33.644 × 103 Amp m–1
13. The magnetic field strength of Silicon is 1500 Amp m–1 . If the magnetic
susceptibility is (–0.3 × 10–5), calculate the magnetization and flux density
in Silicon. (AU - JUNE 2011, 2013)
Solution:
Given data:
Magnetic susceptibility  = –0.3 × 10–5
Magnetic field strength H = 1500 Amp m–1
I
Magnetic susceptibility  =
H
I = H
= – 0.3 × 10–5 × 1500

= – 4.5 × 10–3 Amp m–1
We know µ = H
= 1 – 4.5 × 10–3
µ = 0.999
Flux density B = µH
= 0.999 × 1500
B = 1498.5 web m–2
14. Calculate the critical current which can flow through a long thin super
conducting wire of diameter 1 mm. The critical magnetic field is
7.9 × 103 Amp m–1. (AU - MAY 2011)
Soution:
Given data:
Diameter of the wire d = 1 mm = 1 × 10–3m
d 1  103
radius of the wire r = = m
2 2
The critical magnetic field Hc = 7.9 × 103 Amp m–1

Critical current flowing through the wire
Ic = 2rHc
 1  103 
= 2 × 3.14   (7.9 × 103)
 2 
Ic = 24.81 Amp

1. Define Magnetic Flux ().
The total number of number magnetic lines of force passing through a surface is
known as magnetic flux.
Unit: Weber.
2. Define magnetic induction (B) or magnetic flux density.
It is the number of magnetic lines of force passing through unit area of cross section.

B= Wb m 2 (or) Tesla
A
3. Define Magnetic field strength or Magnetizing field.
It is the force experienced by a unit North Pole placed at a given point in a magnetic
field. The magnetic induction B due to the magnetic field of intensity H applied in
vacuum is related by B = o H Amp m 1 .
4. Define intensity of magnetization (I)
Magnetization is the process of converting a non-magnetic material in to a magnetic
material. It is also defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.
I = m / V.
Unit : Web / m2.
5. Define Magnetic permeability ().
It is the ratio of the magnetic induction (B) to the applied magnetic field intensity
(H).  = B / H
Unit : Henry m–1.
6. Define relative permeability ( r).
It is defined as the ratio of permeability of the medium to the permeability of the
free space ( r ).  r   /  0 .
7. Define magnetic susceptibility (  ).
It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization (I) and intensity of magnetic
field (H).  = I / H. The sign and magnitude of  are used to determine the nature
of the magnetic materials.
8. Define Bohr magnetron ( B ). (AU - June 2010, Nov 2010)

The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an
atom can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr
magneton.
e
1 Bohr magneton =  B  9.27  1024 Am 2
2m
9. How the magnetic materials are classified? (AU - July 2009)
The magnetic materials are classified into two categories.
The materials without permanent magnetic moment
Example: 1. Diamagnetic materials.
The materials with permanent magnetic moment.
Example: 1. Paramagnetic materials
2. Ferromagnetic materials
3. Anti-Ferromagnetic materials
4. Ferrimagnetic materials.
10. Define Diamagnetic Materials.
In a diamagnetic material the electron orbits are randomly oriented and the orbital
magnetic moments get cancelled. Similarly, all the spin moments are paired i.e.,
having even number of electrons. Therefore, the electrons are spinning in two
opposite directions and hence the net magnetic moment is zero. These materials
are called as diamagnetic materials.
Example: Gold, germanium, silicon, antimony, bismuth, silver, lead, copper,
hydrogen, Water and alcohol.
11. Define Paramagnetic Materials.
Para magnetism is due to the presence of few unpaired electrons which gives rise
to the spin magnetic moment. In the absence of external magnetic field, the
magnetic moments (dipoles) are randomly oriented and possess very less
magnetization in it. When an external magnetic field is applied to paramagnetic
material, the magnetic moments align themselves along the field direction and the
material is said to be magnetized.
Example: Platinum, CuSO 4 , MnSO 4 Palladium, Chromium, Aluminum, etc
12. Define Ferromagnetic Materials. (AU - June 2010, Dec 2009)

Ferromagnetism is due to the presence of more unpaired electrons. Even in the
absence of external field, the magnetic moments align parallel to each other. So
that it has large magnetism. This is called spontaneous magnetization.
Example: Nickel, iron, Cobalt, Steel, etc.
13. What is the Effect of magnetic field on Ferromagnetic materials?
(AU - June 2012)
If a small external magnetic field is applied the magnetic moments align in the field
direction and become very strong magnets.
N
Ferro S
14. What are the properties of Ferromagnetic Materials?

1. All the magnetic lines of force pass through the material.
C
2. Its susceptibility is high positive and it is given by X 
T
3. The permeability is very much greater than one.
4. They have enormous permanent dipole moment.
5. When the temperature is greater than the Curie temperature, the Ferromagnetic
material becomes paramagnetic material.
6. The ferromagnetic material has equal magnitude dipole lying parallel to each
other.
Examples: Nickel, iron, Cobalt, Steel, etc.
15. What are magnetic domains?
A ferromagnetic material is divided into a large number of small regions called
domains. (0.1 to 1 mm2 of area). Each direction is spontaneously magnetized.
The direction of magnetization varies from domain to domain and the net
magnetization is zero in the absence external magnetic field. The boundary line
which separates two domains is called domain wall or Block wall.
16. Define Exchange Energy.

The energy which makes the adjacent dipoles to align themselves is known as
exchange energy. It is also called as magnetic field energy or magneto static
energy. It arises from interaction of electron spins and it depends upon the inter
atomic distance.
17. What is Anisotropy energy?
Crystals are anisotropic, the energy arises from the difference of energy required
for magnetization along any two different directions in a single crystal. These are
two directions of magnetization.
1. Easy direction. 2. Hard direction.
In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard direction
of magnetization, strong field should be applied.
The excess energy required to magnetize a specimen in particular direction over
that required to magnetize it along the easy direction is called the crystalline
anisotropy energy.
18. What is Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy?
It is the sum of the exchange and anisotropy
o
energy in the domain wall. Thickness
of the wall is approximately 1000 A .
19. What is Magnetostriction energy?
When the domain is magnetized in different directions, they will either expand or
shrink. i.e., Change in dimension when it is magnetized. The energy produced in
this effect is called Magnetostriction energy. It is the energy due to the mechanical
stresses generated by domain rotations.
20. Give the experimental evidence for Domain Structure?
An experimental evidence for domain structure was given by BITTER and is
called Bitter powder pattern. In this method, a drop of colloidal suspension of
finely divided ferromagnetic powder is allowed to spread over the surface of the
ferromagnetic material. It is found that through the microscope, the colloidal
particles are collected along the domain boundaries which shows the existence of
domain structure.
21. Define Hysteresis.
Hysteresis means “Lagging” i.e., The Lagging of intensity of magnetization (I)
behind the intensity of magnetic field (H) which is applied is called Hysteresis.
22. What is meant by Hysteresis Loss?

When the specimen is taken through a cycle of magnetization, there is loss of
energy in the form of heat. This is known as Hysteresis Loss.
23. Define Retentivity and Coercivity. (AU - Dec 2010)
During the process of demagnetization, the material retains some amount of
magnetism, even though when intensity of magnetic field is zero. It is known as
Retentivity or residual magnetism.
The amount of intensity of magnetic field applied in the reverse direction to remove
the retentivity is known as coercivity or coercive force.
24. What are reversible and irreversible domains?
When a magnetic field is applied, the domain walls are displaced and gives rise to
small value of magnetization. Now if the field is removed, the domains return to
its original state and are known as reversible domains.
When the field is removed certain domain boundaries do not come back to the
original position due to the domain wall movement to a very large distance. These
domains are called irreversible domains.
25. What are soft magnetic materials? Give its properties? (AU - June 2009)
Soft Magnetic materials: Materials which are easy to magnetize and demagnetize
are called soft magnetic materials.
These materials do not retain the alignment of magnetic domains after the removal
of external magnetic field.
Properties
1. They have high Permeability
2. The storing of magnetic energy is less
3. Retentivity and Coercivity values are small
4. They have low hysteresis loss
26. What are hard magnetic materials? Give its properties?
Hard Magnetic materials: Materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult
to demagnetize are called hard magnetic materials.
These materials retain permanently the alignment of magnetic domains even after
the removal of external magnetic field.
Properties
1. They have low Permeability
2. The storing of magnetic energy is more
3. Retentivity and Coercivity values are high
4. They have high hysteresis loss
27. Define Energy product. (AU - Dec 2009)
The product of residual magnetic induction (Br) and coercivity (HC) is called energy
product (Br × HC). The value of energy product is very high for permanent magnets.
Importance:
1) It is used to design powerful permanent magnets
2) It is used to maximum amount of energy stored in the specimen
28. Distinguish between Soft and Hard magnetic material. (AU - June 2009)
S. No Hard Magnetic Materials Soft Magnetic Materials

1. Cannot be easily magnetized Can be easily magnetized.
2. It can be produced by heating and It can be produced by heating and
sudden cooling slow cooling.
3. Domain wall does not move Domain wall move easily and
easily and require large value of requires small value of H for
H for magnetization. magnetization.
4. Hysteresis loop area is large Hysteresis loop area is small
Susceptibility and Permeability Susceptibility and Permeability
values are small. values are high.
5. Retentivity and Coercivity are Retentivity and Coercivity are
large small.
6. High eddy current loss Low eddy current loss
7. Impurities and defects will be No impurities and defects
more
8. Examples: Alnico, Chromium Examples: Iron-silicon alloy,
steel, tungsten steel, carbon steel. Ferrous nickel alloy, Ferrites
Garnets.
9. Uses: Permanent magnets, DC Uses: Electro magnets, computer
magnets. data storage. Transformer core.
29. Define Anti ferromagnetic materials. (AU - June 2010)

Magnetic materials in which, the spins are aligned in anti-parallel manner due to
un favorable exchange interaction among them resulting in zero magnetic moment
are called as Anti ferromagnetic materials.
30. What are Ferrimagnetic materials or Ferrites?
Ferromagnetic materials are much similar to ferromagnetic materials in which the
magnetic dipoles are aligned anti-parallel with unequal magnitudes. If small value
of magnetic field is applied, it will produce the large value of magnetization.
31. What are the Applications of Ferrites? (AU - May 2004, 2011)
1. Ferrites are used to produce ultrasonic wave by Magnetostriction principle.
2. Ferrites are used in audio and video transformers.
3. Ferrites rods are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity.
4. Ferrites are widely used in non-reciprocal microwave devices such as gyrator,
circulator and Isolator.
5. They are also used for power limiting and harmonic generation.
6. Ferrites are used in parametric amplifiers so that the input can be amplified
with low noise.
7. They are used in computers and data processing circuits.
32. What Magnetic Bubbles? (AU - May 2005, April 2002)
Magnetic bubble is direct access storage medium. Magnetic bubbles are soft
magnetic materials with magnetic domains of a few micrometers in diameter. These
bubbles are the electrical analogue of the magnetic disk memories used in
computers. The magnetic disk in the hard disk memory is moved mechanically
where as the bubbles in a bubble memory device are moved electronically at very
high speeds.
33. What is Superconductivity? (AU -Nov 2003, April 2002, Dec 2009)
The ability of certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero electrical resistivity
when they are cooled to low temperature is known as superconductivity.
(ie., maximum conductivity with zero resistance at zero Kelvin)
34. Define Critical Temperature. (AU - June 2009)

Critical temperature (or) Temperature ( TC ) is defined as the temperature at which
the resistivity falls to zero is called transition as temperature or Critical temperature.
The temperature at which the normal conductor becomes a superconductor is
know as critical temperature ( TC ) Below TC , the material (Tin) is in the
superconducting state and above TC , it is in the normal state.
35. State BCS Theory?
(Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer theory). It states that an electron pair called
cooper pair is formed at low temperature by overcoming the repulsive force. The
cooper pair moves without scattering (without any resistance) in the lattice
structure. Now the material becomes a super conductor.
This is also called as electron-phonon- electron interaction. these two electrons
have equal and opposite momentum and spins.
This BCS theory is suitable only for low temperature superconductors.
36. Define Cooper pair. (AU - June 2012)
The electron pairs called cooper pairs are formed at low temperature by
overcoming the repulsive forces. The cooper pairs moves without scattering
(without any resistance) in the lattice structure. Now the material becomes super
conductor. This is also called as electron-phonon- electron interaction these two
electrons have equal and opposite momentum and spins.
37. What is coherence length?
It is defined as the distance up to which two electrons combine to form a Cooper pair.
38. What are the important properties of superconductors?
1. Zero Electrical Resistance : The electrical resistivity drops to zero at the
transition temperature.( TC ) Dr. Collins
observed that the current in a superconducting
ring is unchanged for 2½ years.
2. Effect of magnetic field : Below TC , the superconducting property
disappears when strong magnetic field is
applied. i.e., it returns to normal state.
3. Diamagnetic property : The superconductor is a perfect diamagnetic.
4. Effect of heavy Current : The superconducting property disappears

when a heavy current flows, since current
flow will set up a magnetic field.
5. Isotope effect : The pr esence o f isot o pes in
superconductors changes the transition
temperature of the superconductors.
6. Thermal properties : Entropy and specific heat decreases at
transition temperature and the thermoelectric
effect disappear in the superconducting state.
7. Effect of Impurities : The impurities change the magnetic
properties of the superconductors.
39. Define Critical magnetic field.
A very strong magnetic field applied to superconducting material it disappears
superconducting property this is called as critical magnetic field.
 T2 
H C  H 0 1   H 0 Where = Critical field at 0 K
 Tc2 
When the temperature of the material increases, the value of critical magnetic
field decreases.
40. What is Meissner effect? (or) Define Diamagnetic property.
(AU., May 2008, June 2006, 2010, Nov 2010)
When the superconducting material is subjected to a uniform magnetic field, under
the condition T  TC and H  HC, the magnetic flux lines are excluded from the
material. Thus the material exhibits perefect diamagnetism. This phenomenon is
called as meissner effect.
B0 B=0
T>TC T< TC
H >H C H <H C
(a) Normal state (b) Super conducting state
41. What happens in a superconductor when a heavy Current flows?

The superconducting property disappears when a heavy current flows, since this
current flow will set up a heavy magnetic field. According the Silsbee’s rule, for a
superconducting wire IC  2r H C .
42. What is Isotope effect? (AU - June 2006 , Dec 2010)
The presence of isotopes in superconductors change the transition temperature of
the superconductor. The transition temperature is found to be inversely
proportional to the square root of the atomic weight of the isotope.
1
TC 
M
cons tan t
TC =
M
M × TC = Constant
The transition temperature of the heavier isotope is less than the that of the lighter
isotopes.
43. How the superconductors are classified? or what are the types of superconductors.
Based on the value of HC we have,
1) Type I (or) Soft superconductors 2) Type II (or) Hard superconductors
Based on the value of T C we have,
1) High temperature superconductors 2) Low temperature superconductors
44. What it Type I superconductors? Give its characteristics.
In type I superconductor, the magnetic field is completely excluded from the
material below the critical magnetic field H C and the material loses its
superconducting property abruptly at H C .
Characteristics
1. They exhibit complete Meissner Effect.
2. They have only one critical magnetic field value.
3. Below the material behaves as superconductor and above the material behaves
as normal conductor.
4. These are called as Soft superconductors.
45. Distinguish between Type I and Type II Superconductors

(AU - Dec 2005, April 2003)
S.N Type I (or) Soft superconductors Type II (or) Hard superconductors
1. It exhibits complete Meissner It does not exhibit a complete Meissner

Effect. Effect.
2. They are completely diamagnetic. They are not completely diamagnetic.
3. Ex : Tin, Lead, Mercury, etc., Ex : Nb-Zr, Nb- Ti, Nb-Sn, Va- Ga,
etc.,
4.
5. The value of H C is always too low. The values of HC is high and it is about
It is about 0.1 tesla. 30 tesla.
6. They have only one critical They have two critical magnetic field
magnetic field value. values. Lower critical magnetic field
[ H C1 ] and Higher critical magnetic field
[ H C2 ].
7. No mixed state exists. Mixed state is present.
8. These are called Soft These are called Hard superconductors.

superconductors.
9. It requires low magnetic field to It requires large magnetic field to

destroy the superconductivity. destroy the superconductivity.
10. It loses its magnetization abruptly. It loses its magnetization gradually.
46. What it Type II superconductors? Give its characteristics.

In type II superconductor, the magnetic field is excluded from the material and the
material loses its superconducting property gradually rather than abruptly.
Characteristics
1. They do not exhibit a complete Meissner Effect.
2. They have two critical magnetic field values. Lower critical magnetic filed
[HC1] and Higher critical magnetic field [HC2].
3. Below HC1 the material behaves as superconductor and above the material
behaves as normal conductor. The region in between [HC1] and [HC2] is called
mixed state or vortex region.
4. These are called as Hard superconductors.
47. What are Low TC and High TC superconductors?
Low TC Superconductors
1. The superconductors having the critical temperature less than 20 K are known
as low TC Superconductors or elemental superconductors.
2. The Superconductors by BCS theory.
3. It is explained by BCS theory.
4. It is not so useful due to its low temperature maintenance.
5. It is called as N-type superconductor.
High TC Superconductors
1. The superconductors having the critical temperature greater than 100 K are
known as high TC Superconductors or ceramic or oxide superconductors.
2. The Superconductors is due to hole states.
3. It is explained by RVB theory proposed by Anderson.
4. It is very useful for commercial and engineering purposes.
5. It is called as P-type superconductor.
48. What are the characteristics of high temperature [high TC] superconductors?
1. High Superconductors have high temperatures.
2. They have a modified perovskite crystal structure.
3. Superconducting state is direction dependent.
4. These are oxides of copper with other elements.
5. These are reactive, brittle, and cannot be easily modified or joined.
6. For high superconductors, liquid Nitrogen is used instead of liquid helium.
49. What are the Applications of Superconductors?

1. Electric generators can be made by using superconductors with smaller size,
less weight and low energy consumption.
2. Superconductors can be used for the transmission of power over very long
distances.
3. Superconductors transformers are available.
4. Superconductors can be used in switching Devices.
5. The superconductors can be used in sensitive electrical instruments.
6. It can be used as a memory or storage element in computers.
7. These are used to design Cryotron, Maglev, Josephson Devices and SQUID.
8. DC superconducting motors are used in ship propulsion and in large mills.
9. Superconducting magnetic field may be used to launch satellite into orbit
directly from the earth without use of rockets.
10. Ore separation can be done by using machines made of superconducting
magnets.
11. These are used in NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance ) imaging equipments
which is used for scanning purposes.
12. Superconductors are used for the detection of brain tumor, defective cells,
etc.,
13. Superconducting solenoids are used in magneto hydrodynamic power
generation to maintain the plasma in the body.
50. What is Cryotron?
1. It is a magnetically operated current switch.
2. The superconducting property disappear when the magnetic field is greater
than critical field (HC).
3. It consists of a superconducting material [A] and it is surrounded by an
another super conducting coil of wire [B]. When the critical magnetic field of
wire B exceed or less than that of superconducting material A, the current in
A can be controlled by the current in the material B.
51. Define Magnetic levitation? (AU - May 2008)
When a magnet is placed over a superconductor, the magnet floats, this
phenomenon is known as magnetic levitation. This is based on diamagnetic property
of a superconductor. A diamagnetic material rejects the magnetic flux lines.
52. What is Maglev?

It is a magnetic levitated train. Electromagnetic induction principle is used here,
this train cannot move over the rail. Instead it floats above the rails, so that it
move faster with speed of 500 Km/hr without any frictional loss. It has two
superconducting magnet on each side of the train and there is guiding system
consisting of ‘S” shaped coils on each side. Due to actions of these magnets the
train moves faster thro’ levitation.
53. What is SQUID? (AU - June 2006)
SQUID stands for Superconductors Quantum Interference Device. It is a double
junction quantum interferometer formed from two Josephson junctions mounted
on a superconducting ring. SQUID is based on the flux quantization in a
superconducting ring. The total magnetic flux passing through the ring is quantized.
It is using to detect very minute magnetic field of the order of 10 14 tesla.
PART B – QUESTIONS
1. Write a note on magnetic storage. (AU - April 2002)
2. Explain in detail about the magnetic memories. (AU - April 2002)
3. i) What is ferromagnetism?
ii) Explain the reason for the formation of domain structure in ferromagnetic
material and how the hysteresis curve is explained on the basis of domain
theory? (AU - April 2002, June 2005)
4. i) Classify the magnetic materials on the basis of their spin?
ii) What are ferromagnetic domains? Explain. (AU -Nov. 2002, May 2003)
5. Explain the domain theory of ferromagnetism. Using that how will you explain the
properties of ferromagnetic materials?
6. i) What are ferromagnetic domains?
ii) Draw a B-H curve for a ferromagnetic material and identify retentive and
coercive fields on the curve.
iii) What is energy loss per cycle?
iv) What are ferrites? (AU - Dec 2003)
7. What are hard and soft magnetic materials? Compare their properties. Give some
examples.
8. Distinguish between dia, para, ferro and ferromagnetic material. Mention their
properties and applications.
9. Explain the different structure of ferrites with suitable diagrams.

10. Write a short note on the following
i) Anisotropy energy ii) Magnetostrictive energy
iii) Domain wall energy iv) Exchange energy.
11. i) Explain ferromagnetism based on domain theory.
ii) What are the four types energy involved in domain growth? Explain.
12. Discuss the domain structure in ferromagnetic materials. (AU - Nov. 2003)
13. Discuss the properties and applications of superconductors? (AU - June 2006)
14. i) Distinguish between Type –I and Type – II Superconductors.
ii) Describe high temperature superconductors. (AU - June 2006)
15. i) What is super conductivity?
ii) Mention any four properties of superconductors.
iii) Explain the effect of isotopes in superconductors.
iv) Explain type-I and type –II superconductors.
v) Mention tow applications. (AU - May 2003)
16. i) Explain Meissner effect and magnetic levitation.
ii) Discuss the applications of superconductors.
17. Mention the applications of superconductors. (AU - April 2002, Nov.2007)
18. Discuss type-I and type-II superconductors. (AU - April 2002)
19. Explain superconducting phenomena. What are its properties? What are its
Applications? (AU - May 2003)
20. Distinguish type-I and type-II superconductors Write a note on high temperature
superconductors.
21. Write an essay on superconducting materials and its applications. What are the
new developments?
22. Explain the characteristics of superconducting materials. (AU - Nov. 2007)
23. Write a short note on
i) Meissner effect ii) Josephson effect
iii) Magnetic levitation iv) SQUID
24. Based on tunneling explain the A.C. and D.C. Josephson effects and its applications
in the superconductors.
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. The saturation value of magnetization of iron is 1.76 × 106 A m–1. Iron had body
centered cubic structure with an elementary edge of 2.86 Å.Calculate the average
number of Bohr magnetrons contributed to the magnetization per atom.
(Ans: 2.2 Bohr magnetron per atom)
2. The magnetic field intensity of a ferric oxide piece is 106 A m–1. If the susceptibility
of the material at room temperature is 10.5 × 10–3, calculate the flux density and
magnetization of the material.
(Ans: B = 1.259 T and M = 1500 A m–1 )
3. A magnetic material has a magnetization of 3000 A m–1 and flux density of
0.044 Wb m–2. Calculate the magnetic force and the relative permeability of the
material. (Ans: M = 203 and  r = 17.26)
4. Calculate the magnetic filed in the lead at 5 K, if it’s critical magnetic field at 0 K
H0 = 8 × 105 A m–1, and transition temperature TC = 7.26 K
(Ans: 4.2 × 105 A m–1)
5. The critical temperature TC for mercury with isotopic mass 199.5 is 4.185 K.
Calculate its critical Temperature, when it’s isotopic masses changes to 203.4.
(Ans: 4.139 K)
6. Calculate the critical current which can flow though a long thin superconducting
wire of aluminum of diameter 1 mm. The critical magnetic field for aluminum is
7.9 × 103 A m–1.
4
Dielectric Materials
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Dielectrics are the insulating materials having electric dipole moment permanently
or temporarily by applying the electric field. These are mainly used to store electrical
energy and used as electrical insulators. All dielectrics are electrical insulators, but all
electrical insulators need not to be dielectrics.
Dielectrics are non - metallic materials of high specific resistance and have
negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
4.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS
4.2.1 Electric flux density (D)

The number of electric lines passing through the unit area of cross section.
D   / A  Unit: Coulomb m–2
4.2.2 Permittivity []
It is the ratio of electric displacement in a dielectric medium to the applied electric

D
field strength.   for a dielectric medium  r  1
E
4.2.3 Dipole moment ()

Dipole moment is defined as the product of charge and distance between two changes.
µ = q×d +q –q
d
Unit : Coulomb meter.
4.2.4 Polarization
The separation of negative and positive charges is called polarization. i.e., the
i.e., process of producing electric dipoles by an electric field is called polarization
µ = αE
where α - is called Polaris ability.
4.2.5 Polarization vector

If “  ” is the average dipole moment per molecule and “N” is the number of
molecules per unit volume then the polarization of the solid is given by the polarization
vector P and it can be written as
N
P =  N [for unit volume V=1]
V
The polarization vector is the dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material.
4.2.6 Polar and Non-polar Molecules

Polar Molecules
Polar Molecules which are having permanent dipole moment even in the absence
of an applied field are called polar molecules.
Example: H 2 O, HCl, CO.
Non-polar Molecules
Molecules which do not have permanent dipole moment, but they have induced
dipole moment in the presence of applied electric field are called non - polar molecules.
Example: O2, H2, N2
DIELECTRIC MATERIALS 4.3
4.2.7 Dielectric Constance (Or) Relative Permittivity (r)

The dielectric characteristics of a material are determined by the dielectric
constant (or) relative permittivity of the material
It is defined as the ratio of the permittivity of the medium to the
permittivity of the free space.
Permitivity of the medium

r =
Permitivity of free space

r = where  0 = 8.854 × 10–12 F/m.
0
4.2.8 Electric Susceptibility (  e )

The polarization vector P is proportional to the total applied electric field intensity
E and is in the same direction of E. Therefore, the polarization vector can be written
as
P =  0 e E
Where e is electric susceptibility
Relation between Electric Susceptibility (  ) and relative permittivity ( r )
We know that P E
P =  0 e E
P
e =
 0E
But r = 1 e
e =  r  1
 We can write P = 0 E   r  1
It is a measure of characteristic of every dielectric.
4.2.9 Different between Polar and Non - Polar molecules

S.No Polar molecules Non - Polar molecules
1. These molecules have permanent These molecules do not have

dipole moment even in the absence permanent dipole moment
of on applied field.
2. The polarization of polar molecules is The polarization in these type
highly temperature dependent. of molecules is independent of
temperature.
3. There is absorption or emission in the There is no absorption of
infrared range for these molecules emission in infrared range for
these molecules
Example: H 2 O, HC1, CO Example: O2, H2, N2
4.3 POLARIZATION MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN A

DIELECTRIC MATERIAL
There are four different types of polarization.
1. Electronic (or) induced polarization
2. Ionic (or) atomic polarization
3. Orientation (or) dipolar polarization
4. Space - Charge (or) interfacial polarization
4.3.1 Electronic Polarization

Electronic Polarization occurs due to the displacement of positively
charged nucleus and negatively charged electron in opposite directions
by an external electric field. It creates a dipole moment in the dielectric.
This is called electronic polarization.
The induced dipole moment, e  e E ... (1)
where e - Electronic polarisability.
E - Electric field Strength.

It is proportional to volume of the atoms and is independent of temperature.
4.3.2 Calculation of electronic polarization e

Consider an atom of a dielectric material of nuclear charge (Ze). The electrons
of charge (–Ze) are distributed uniformly throughout the atom (Sphere) of radius R as
shown in figure.
With out field
-
+Ze
R
Nucleus (+Ze)
(a) Without Field
Fig.4.1 Electronic polarization
Charge
Ch arg density of the charged  Total charge of sphere with radius R
 =
sphere (electrons)of radius R  Volume
 Ze
=
4 3
R
3
3Ze
= ... (1)
4R 3
With field
When the atom of the dielectric is placed in an electric field (E), two types of
forces are arise.
1) Lorentz force: Force which separates electrons and positive nucleus due
to applied field.
2) Coulomb force: An attractive force which is produced after separation.
d
+
(b) With Field

Fig.4.2 Electronic polarization
At equilibrium
Lorentz force = Coulomb force
Lorentz force = (charge of the electron) × (intensity of applied Field)
= (–Ze) (E) ... (2)
ChCharge
arg e of the   Total negative charges 
 positive nucleus  ×  enclosed in the sphere 
Coulomb force =     .. (3)
2
40d
The total number of 

 Charge
ch arg e denstity   volume of the 
negative charges enclosed  = 
of electrons  sphere 
   
in the sphere of radius 'd' 
 3Ze   4d3 
=   
 4R 3   3 
 Zed3
= ... (4)
R3
Substitute equation (4) in equation (3),
  Zed3 
Ze × 
3 
Coulomb force =  R 
40d 2
 Z 2 e 2d
=
4 0 R 3
 Z2e 2d
Coulomb force = ... (5)
4 0 R 3
At equilibrium, coulomb force and Lorentz force must be equal and opposite.
Lorentz force (eqn (2)) = Coulomb force (eqn (5))
 Z2e 2d
(  Ze) (E) =
4 0 R 3
Zed
E =
4  0 R 3
4 0 R 3E
d = ... (6)
Ze
The displacement (d) of electron cloud is proportional to applied field (E).
Now the two electric charges +Ze and –Ze are displaced by a distance d under
the influence of the field and form an induced dipole moment which is given by
Induced dipole moment ( e ) = Charge of the electron × displacement
 e = Ze d
Substituting the value of ‘d’ from eqn (5)
Ze4 0 R 3 E
e =
Ze
e = 40 R 3E
e  E
e = e E
Where  e  4 0 R 3 is called electronic polarization which is proportional to

volume of the atom.
Conclusion:
i) Electronic polarization is independent of temperature.
ii) Electronic polarization occurs in all dielectric materials.
iii) It is proportional to the volume of atoms in the material.
4.3.3 Electronic polarization in terms of ε 0 and εr

Pe is the total number of dipoles per unit volume [V=1]
N e
Pe = = Ne
V
Where N is the number of atoms per m3
But e = e E
Pe = Ne E
We know that, Pe =  0 E ( r  1)
Ne E =  0 E ( r  1)
 0 ( r  1)
e =
N
This is called electronic Polarisability
4.3.4 Ionic Polarization

Ionic Polarization which arises due to the displacement of cations (+ve)
and anions (-ve) in opposite directions and occurs in ionic solids in the
presence of electric field, is called ionic polarization.
Example : NaCl, KCl crystal.
Cl - Na+ Na+ Cl -
- + + -
X1 X2
With out field With field
E=0 E0
Fig. 4.3 Ionic polarization
Let us assume that there is one cation and one anion present in each unit cell of
the ionic crystal (Nacl). When an electric field is applied let X1 and X 2 be the distance
to which positive and negative ions move from their equilibrium positions.
The Resultant dipole moment per unit volume due to ionic displacement is given
by,
Dipole moment i = Charge × Displacement
i = e  x1  x 2  ... (1)
When the field is applied, the restoring force produced is proportional to the
displacement.
For +ve ion Restoring force F  x1
F = 1 x 1 ... (2)
For –ve ion Restoring force F  x2
F = 2 x 2 ... (3)
Here 1 and 2 are restoring force constants, which depends on the mass of the
ions and angular frequency of the molecule in which ions and present.
If m is mass of positive, ion, M is mass of negative ion, and 0 is angular
frequency we can write,
1 = m 20 ... (4)
 2 = M 02 ... (5)
Equation (2) and (3) can be written as,
F = m 02 x1 ... (6)
F = M 02 x 2 ... (7)
We know, F = eE ... (8)

Equation equations (6), (7) with (8)
m 02 x1 = eE
eE
x1 = ... (9)
m 02
M 02 x 2 = eE
eE
x2 = ... (10)
M 02
eE  1 1 
x1  x 2 =    ... (11)
02  m M 
Substitute equation (11) in equation (1)
e 2E  1 1 
i =    ... (12)
02  m M 
We know that i =  i E
where i is ionic polarisability
e2  1 1 
i    
02  m M 
Conclusion:
i) Ionic polarisability (i) is inversely proportional to the square of angular
frequency of the ionic molecule.
ii) It is independent of temperature.
1 1
iii) It is directly proportional to its reduced mass given by   
m M
4.3.5 Orientation Polarization

The orientation polarization is due to the existence of a permanent dipole moment
(polar molecule) in the dielectric medium. Polar molecules have permanent dipole
even in the absence of an electric field.
– +
– + +
+ –
+ + +
+ + + +
+ – –
– + + – + +
+
(a) Without field (b) With field

Fig.4.4 Orientation polarization
When an electric field is applied on the dielectric medium with polar

molecules, the electric field tries to align these dipoles along its field
direction as shown in figure. Due to this there is a resultant dipole
moment in that material and this process is called orientation polarization.
This polarization depends on temperature. When the temperature is increased,
the dipoles are aligned in random directions.
N 2 E
Orientation polarization Po =
3KT
Where N - Number of atoms.
Orientation polarization Po = No E
Po
o =
NE
1
Here  o  i.e., o is inversely proportional to temperature of the material.
T
4.3.6 Space Charge Polarization

The space charge polarization occurs due to the diffusion of ions along
the field direction giving rise to redistribution of charges in the dielectric.
Normally this type of polarization occurs in ferrites and semiconductors and it is very
small when compared to other types of polarization.
(a) Without field (b) With field

Fig.4.5 Space Charge polarization
4.3.7 Total Polarization

The total polarization is the sum of the electronic, ionic orientational and space
charge polarization.
Orientation polarization Po = No E
Total polarization Ptotal = Pe  Pi  Po  Ps
The total polarisability  = e  i   o  s
Here s is very small and it can be neglected.
 =  e  i   o
2
3 e 1 1  3
 = 4o R  2    
0  m M  3KT
P = NE
 2 3
3 e 1 1   
P = N E  4  o R   
 m M  3KT 
 02 
This equation is known as Langevin - Debye equation.
4.4 FREQUENCY AND TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF

POLARIZATION MECHANISM
4.4.1 Frequency dependence

On application of an alternating field across the material, the polarization occurs
as function of time
i.e., P(t) = Pm 1  exp   t / t r 
Where Pm is the maximum polarization attained due to applied field and t is the
relaxation time. Which is the time taken for a polarization process to reach 0.63 of the
maximum value. The relaxation times are different for different kinds of polarization
mechanisms.
1. Electronic polarization is very fast and is completed at any instant of time

even when the frequency of the voltage is very high in the optical range
(1015 Hz). Thus it occurs at all frequencies.
2. Ionic Polarization is slower and the ions do not respond when the voltage
corresponds to visible optical frequencies, i.e., the electric field changes in
polarity at very fast, so that the ions are not able to reorient themselves due
up to the field. So the ionic polarization does not occur at visible optical
frequencies. It occurs only at frequencies less than 1013 Hz.
3. Orientation Polarization is even slower than ionic polarization and occurs

only at electrical frequencies (audio and radio frequencies 106 Hz).
4. Space-charge polarization is the slowest process because the ions have

to diffuse (jump) over several inter atomic distances. This occurs at very low
frequencies of 50 - 60 Hz (power frequencies).
Thus at low frequencies all the four polarizations will occur and the total
polarization is very high, but at high frequencies, the value of the total
polarization is very small. The following graphs show the frequency
dependence of polarization mechanism and the corresponding power losses
at those frequencies.
PS
P0
P P1
Pe
2 6 13 15
10 10 10 10
Frequency
Power loss
Electrical frequencies optical frequencies
Fig.4.6 Polarization Mechanisms
4.4.2 Temperature dependence

Electronic and ionic polarizations are independent of temperature and
the orientation and space charge polarizations are dependent of
temperature. Orientation polarization is inversely proportional to the
temperature.
Orientation polarization decreases when temperature increases. Because the

random nature decreases the tendency of permanent dipoles to align along the field
direction. Thus the dielectric constant increases.
Space charge polarization is directly proportional to the temperature. The space
charge polarization increases with increase the temperature. It is because of the fact
that the thermal energy helps to overcome the activation barrier and the ions diffuse
easily, this results in decrease of dielectric constant.
4.5 COMPARISION OF TYPES OF POLARISATION
S. N Factor Pe Pi Po Ps
1 Definition Electron clouds Cations and anions Regular Ion
are shifted from are shifted alignment diffusion
nucleus of random takes place.
molecules
takes place.
2 Examples Inert gases Ionic crystals Alcohol, Semi
methane, conductors,
CH 3Cl Ferrites.
3 Temperature Independent Independent Dependent Dependent
dependence
4 Relaxation time Very fast Slow Slower Slowest
5 Power loss Low High Higher Highest
6 Frequency range 1015 Hz 1013 Hz 106 Hz 105 Hz

7 Polarisability 0 (r  1) e2  1 1  2  s is
e  i  2    o 
N 0  m M  3KT negligible
4.6 INTERNAL FIELD (OR) LOCAL FIELD

When a dielectric material is placed in an external electric field, it exerts a dipole
moment in it. Therefore two fields are exerted.
1. Due to external field.
2. Due to dipole moment
This long range of coulomb forces which is created due to the dipoles is called
as Internal field (or) local field. This field is responsible for polarizing the individual
atoms (or) molecules.
Lorentz method to find the internal field
The dielectric material which is placed in between two plates of a parallel plate
capacitor is uniformly polarized as shown in Figure.
+ -
- PN +
+ + - - -
+
+ r P -P
+ y -
A 
B
+ 0 -
+ -
+ -
+ +- -
- +
+ -
Spherical cavity dielectric medium
+ -
Field direction E
Fig.4.7 Calculation of local field for a cubic structure
Assume an imaginary small spherical cavity around an atom for which the internal
field must be calculated at its centre.
The internal field Eint at the atom site (0) can be considered to consist of
components namely E1, E2, E3 and E4.
i.e., Eint = E1 + E2 + E3+E4 ... (1)
E1 – Electric field due to charges on this plates of the capacitor.
E2 – Electric field due to the polarised charges (induced charges) on the
plane surface of the dielectric.
E3 – Electric field due to polarised charges induced on the surface of the
imaginary spherical cavity.
E4 – Electric field due to permanent dipoles of the atoms inside the
spherical cavity considered.
Macroscopically, we can take E = E1 + E2 i.e., the field externally applied (E1)
and the field induced on the plane surface of the dielectric (E2) can be considered as
a single field (E).
If we consider the dielectric which is highly symmetric, then the field due to the
dipoles present inside the imaginary cavity will cancel each other. Therefore, the electric
field due to permanent dipoles E4=0.
The equation (1) can be written as

Eint = E + E3 ... (2)
Determination of E3
Let us consider a small area ds on the surface of the spherical cavity. This small
area makes an angle dθ at the center at an angle θ with the direction of the field E.
The polarization P will be parallel to EPN is the component of polarization
perpendicular to the area ds, and q is the charge on the area ds.
Polarization is also defined as the surface charges per unit area.
q
Hence PN = P cos θ =
ds
Charge on ds, q = P cos θ ds ... (3)
Electric field intensity at ‘C’ due to charge q (Coulomb’s law)
q
E = ... (4)
4лє 0 r 2
Substitute the equation (3) in (4) we get
P cos θ ds
E = ... (5)
4лє 0 r 2
Fig. 4.8
This field intensity is along the radius ‘r’ and it can be resolved into two
components as shown in Figure.
The component of intensity parallel to the field direction

Ex = E cos θ ... (6)
Substitute the equation (5) in (6) we get
P cos θ ds cos θ
Ex =
4лє 0 r 2
P cos 2θ ds
i.e., Ex = ... (7)
4лє 0 r 2
The component of intensity perpendicular to the field direction

Ey = E sin θ ... (8)
P cosθ sinθ ds
 Ey =
4 є0 r 2
Since the perpendicular components are in opposite direction figure, they cancel
out each other. So the parallel components alone are taken into consideration.
Consider a ring area ds which is obtained by revolving ds about AB figure
Ring area  ds = Circumference x thickness
y
= 2лy × rdθ  sin =
r
= 2л r sinθ × rdθ y = r sin
i.e., ds = 2л r 2 sinθ dθ ... (9)

Electric field intensity due to the elemental ring dA
P cos 2θds
= ... (10)
4лє 0 r 2
Substituting equation (9) in (7) we get
P cos 2θ
= × 2лr 2sinθ dθ
2
4л є 0r
P cos2θ sinθ dθ
= ... (11)
2є0
Fig.4.9
Electric field intensity due to charge present in the whole sphere is obtained by
integrating equation (11) within the limits 0 to л . This field is taken as E3.
π Pcos 2θ sinθ dθ
E3 = 
0 2ε 0
π π
E3 =
P 2
 cos θ sinθ dθ   cos 2θ sinθ dθ = 2
2ε 0 0 0 3
P 2
E3 = x
2ε 0 3
P
E3 = ... (12)
3ε 0
Substituting equation (12) in (2), we get
P
Eint = E+ ... (13)
3ε 0
Where Eint is called internal field or Lorentz field.

This equation (13) shows that Eint is different from E. The local intensity Eint is
larger than the macroscopic intensity E. So the molecules are more effectively polarsied.
4.6.1 Clausius Mosotti Equations

If N be the number of molecules per unit volume and á the molecular polarizability
then total polarization P = N  Eint
P
Eint = ... (14)
N
Further, we know that
D = E =  0 E  P
(   0 )E = P
P
E = (   ) ... (15)
0
Lorentz field is given by

P
Eint = E  ... (16)
3 0
Substituting the eqn (14) & eqn (15) in eqn. (16) we get
P P
Eint = +
ε – ε 0 3ε 0
 3ε + ε – ε 
0 0
=  3ε ε – ε 
P
 0  0 

P  ε + 2ε 0 
Eint =   ... (17)
3ε 0  ε – ε0 
Comparing equation (14) and (17), we get
P P  ε + 2ε 0 
= 3ε  ε – ε 
Nα 0  0 
Nα ε – ε0
=
3ε 0 ε + 2ε 0
 /  0  1
=
 /  0   2
Nα εr – 1   
=   r   ... (14)
3ε 0 εr + 2  0 
The above equation is Clausius – Mosotti relation, which relates the dielectric
constant of the material and polarisability. Thus, it relates macroscopic quantity dielectric
constant with microscopic quantity polarisability.
4.7 DIELECTRIC LOSS

When a dielectric material is subjected to an alternating electric field,
some amount of energy is absorbed by the material and is dissipated in
the form heat. This loss of energy is called Dielectric loss.
The dielectric loss depends on the type of dielectric medium and the following
factors.
i) Temperature ii) Humidity
iii) Applied voltage iv) Frequency
Theory
In an ideal dielectric material, the current leads the voltage by 90°. (i.e. no loss
of energy) i.e.  = 90°
But in a commercial dielectric material, the current leads the voltage by less than
90°. (i.e., there is loss of energy), i.e., the angle  = 90° -  is known as the dielectric loss
angle.
Fig. 4.10 Dielectric Loss
Consider a dielectric having a capacitance of C and having a voltage V applied

to it at a frequency f.
The power loss in the dielectric material is given by P = V I cos 
V
We know that V = IR I 
R
1
Frequency f =
2RC
If the capacitance reactance is X C , then we can write
V
I = X
C
1
Frequency f = 2X C
c
1
Where, Xc =
2fC
V2
P = cos (90° -  )
2fC
But, [  =90-  ] P = V 2 2fC cos(90  )
P = V 2 2fC sin 
In most of the dielectrics, the angle  is very small  sin  = tan 
P = V 2 2fC tan 
Where tan is called the power factor of the dielectric.
It is noted that the power loss will depended on tan as long as other factors
like voltage, frequency.
Conclusions
1. The dielectric loss increases with increase of frequency, applied voltage,
temperature, and humidity.
2. The dielectric loss is maximum, when the relaxation time of a polarization
process matches the period of the applied AC voltage.
3. The dielectric loss at radio frequency is high due to diffusion of ions.
4. The dielectric losses in the optical region, associated with the electrons are
referred to as optical absorption. This absorption leads to color of materials.
5. The dielectric losses in the infrared region associated with the ionic vibrations
are referred to as Infrared absorption.
4.8 DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN

Definition
When a dielectric material loses its property and permits the flow of a
large current, it is said to be dielectric breakdown.
4.8.1 Types of dielectric breakdown

1. Intrinsic breakdown
2. Thermal breakdown.
3. Electrochemical breakdown.
4. Defect breakdown.
5. Discharge breakdown.
1. Intrinsic Breakdown
When a dielectric material is subjected to large electric field, a large number of
electrons are transferred from the valence band to the conduction band. Thus the
dielectric material loses its insulating property and becomes a conductor. This is known
as intrinsic breakdown.
Further the conducting electrons may collide with the atoms and release some
of the valence electrons. These electrons may collide with some more atoms and may
release more electrons. This becomes a chain process resulting in a large current. It is
known as avalanche breakdown.
Characteristics
i) This type of breakdown occurs at room temperature and low temperatures.
ii) This requires relatively large electric fields
iii) This kind of breakdown occurs in the materials.
2. Thermal breakdown
Thermal breakdown occurs in dielectric when the rate of heat generation is
greater than the rate of heat dissipation.
When a dielectric is subjected to an electric field, heat is generation. The
generation heat is dissipated by the dielectric material. When the amount of heat
generation is higher than the amount of heat dissipation, the temperature inside like
dielectric increases and this causes the breakdown called thermal breakdown.
Characteristics:
i) This can occur only at high temperatures.
ii) The Thermal breakdown time is of the order of few milliseconds.
iii) This requires moderate electric fields.
iv) It depends on size and shape of dielectric material.
v) Since the dielectric loss its directly proportional to frequency, the electric
field strength to create this dielectic breakdown will be smaller for a.c fields
and higher d.c fields.
3. Discharge breakdown
This type of breakdown occurs when the insulator contains occluded gas bubbles.
When the dielectic is subjected to an electric field, the gas present in the material will
be easily ionized than the solids.
Dielectric
Occluded material
gas bubbles
Fig. 4.11 Discharge breakdown
The ionized gas particles bombarded with the solid dielectric and produce large
ionization current called discharge breakdown.
Characteristics
i) This is possible at low voltages where, there are large number of occluded
gas bubbles is present in the material.
ii) The life time of the material depends upon the number of discharge taking
place inside the material.
iii) This occurs due to presence of gas bubbles.
4. Electrochemical breakdown
When temperature increases, mobility of ions increases and hence leakage curent
also increases. This decreases the insulation resistance and finally creates a dielectric
breakdown. Hence this type of breakdown is called electrochemical breakdown.
Characteristics
i) This is used to determine the leakage current, density of ions and dipoles
inside the material.
ii) They are accelerated by high temperatures
iii) This occurs only at low temperature
iv) This type of breakdown occurs even in absence of elcetric field also.
5. Defect breakdown
Defects
Dielectric
material
Cracks
Fig. 4.12 Defect breakdown
If the surface of the dielectric material has defects such as cracks, pores, etc.
Moisture and other impurities can fill at these places leading to breakdown, this type
of breakdown called Defect breakdown.
Remedies to Avoid Breakdown Mechanisms
To avoid breakdown, the dielectric material should have the following properties
1. It should have high resistivity.
2. It must have low dielectric loss and less density.
3. If should have sufficient mechanical strength.
4. Thermal expansion should be small.
5. It should be fire proof.
6. It must in pure form and not have any defects.
4.9 FERRO – ELECTRICITY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Ferro electricity refers to the creation of large induced dipole moment in a weak
electric field as well as the existence of electric polarization even in the absence of an
applied electric field.
Crystalline dielectric materials which posses a permanent electric polarization
are called ferroelectric materials have electric dipole moment even in the absence of
any field. Normally they are anisotropic crystals which exhibit spontaneous polarization.
Examples:
1. Barium Titanate (BaTiO3)
2. Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (KDP)
3. Ammonium Dihydrogen Phosphate (NH4H2PO4)
4. Lithium Niobate (LiN6O3)
4.9.1 Properties of Ferroelectric Materials

1. Ferroelectric materials exhibits spontaneous polarization i.e., they are
polarized even in the absence of electric field.
2. They exhibit dielectric hysteresis. The lagging of polarization behind the applied
electric field is called dielectric hysteresis.
3. Above ferroelectric Curic temperature, ferroelectric material becomes

paraelectric material.
4. They posses Ferro – electric domain structure.
5. They can be polarized even by very weak electric field
6. Ferroelectric materials exhibit piezoelectricity and Pyro electricity.
Piezoelectricity means the creation of electric polarization by mechanical
stress. Pyro electricity means the creation of electric polarization by thermal
stress.
4.9.2 Hysteresis of Ferroelectric Materials

The ferro electrics are known as non –linear dielectrics. Such materials exhibit
hysteresis curve similar to that of ferro magnetic materials.
The lagging of polarization ‘P’ behind the applied electric field E is called dielectric
hysteresis.
P
A
B
Residual Emax
polarization C O
F
E
D
–P
Coercive field
Fig 4.13 Dielectric Hysteresis in ferroelectric materials
When a ferro – electric material is subjected to external electric field (E) the
polarization (P) increases with respect to the field applied and it reaches the maximum
value ‘OA’.
If now the applied electric field is reduced, the polarization also decreases from
a, and when E becomes zero a small amount of polarization exists in the material is
called spontaneous (or) residual polarization.
In order to reduce the value of polarization to zero, a reversing electric field oc

should be applied. This field is known as coercive field.
Thus the variation of P with respect to E traced along the closed path abcdefa in
one full cycle of polarization and depolarization is called hysteresis or the hysteresis
curve.
4.9.3 Application of Ferroelectric Materials

1. Ferroelectric materials are used to make pressure transducers, ultrasonic
transducers, microphones and gas filters.
2. They are used as memory cores in computers.
3. They are used to measure and control temperature.
4. Ferroelectric ceramics are used as capacitors to store electrical energy
5. They are used to make very good infrared detectors.
6. Rochelle salt is used in devices like microphones, strain gauges, phonograph
pickups and SONAR devices.
7. In optical communication, the ferroelectric crystals are used for optical
modulation.
8. Ferro electric materials are used to produce ultrasonics
9. Electrets are also used to bond the fractured bones in human body.
10.They are used as frequency stabilizers and crystal controlled oscillators.
4.10 APPLICATIONS OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

The dielectric materials have three major applications.
1. It is used as a dielectric medium in capacitors.
2. It is used as insulating materials in transformers.
3. It is used in industries and dielectric heating.
4.10.1 Dielectrics in Capacitors

If dielectrics, to be used in capacitors, it should posse the following properties.
Properties
1. It must have high dielectric constant
2. It should posses high dielectric strength
3. It should also have low dielectric loss.
Applications
1. Thin sheets of papers filled with synthetic oils are used as dielectrics in the
capacitors.
2. Tissue papers and poly propylene films filled with dielectrol are used in power
capacitors.
3. Mica is used as dielectrics in discrete capacitors.
4. An electrolytic solution of sodium phosphare is used in wet type electrolytic
capacitors.
4.10.2 Insulating materials in transformers

If dielectrics to act as insulating materials, it should possess the following
properties.
Properties
1. It should have low dielectric constant
2. It should possess low dielectric loss
3. It must have high resistance
4. It must possess high dielectric strength
5. It should have adequate chemical stability
6. It must have high moisture resistance
Applications
1. PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride) is used to manufacture pipes, batteries, cables
etc.
2. Liquid dielectrics such as petroleum oils, silicone oils are widely used in
transformers, circuit breakers etc.
3. Synthetic oils such as askarels, sovol, etc., are used as a coolant and insulant
in high voltage transformers.
4. Gases such as nitrogen, sulphur hexa fluoride are used in x-ray tubes, switches,
high voltage gas filled pressure cables, coolants respectively.
5. Industrial application
a. Dielectrics possessing piezoelectric effect is used in gas lighters,
microphones, phonographs.
b. Dielectrics possessing inverse Piezo electric effect is used in quartz
watchers, ultrasonic dryers, cleaning the semiconducting wafers, ultrasonic
transducer etc.
6. Dielectric Heating
Dielectric heating is the process of heating the insulating materials at a
very high voltage under suitable frequency at which dielectric loss becomes
maximum, so that the dielectric loss will come out in the form of heat. Hence
adequate heating was done at high voltages.
a. Dielectric heating is the principle used in microwave oven.
b. Dielectric heating is also used in the dehydration of food, tobacco etc.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Find the capacitance of a layer of Al2O3 that is 0.5 m thick and 2000 mm2
of square area ( r = 8.854 × 10–12 Fm–1 )
Solution:
Given data:
Permitivity of free space 0 = 8.854 × 10–12
Area of the capacitance A = 2000 mm2 (or) 2000 × 10–6 m2
Thickness d = 0.5 m (or) 0.5 × 10–6 m
 r o A
C =
d
8.854 × 1012  2000  106

=
0.5  106
C = 3.5416 × 10–8 F
2. A layer of porcelain is 80 mm long, 20 mm wide and 0.7 µm thick. Calculate

its capacitance with  r = 6
Solution:
Given data:
Permitivity of free space 0 = 8.854 × 10–12 F m–1
Thickness d = 0.7 m (or) 0.7 × 10–6 m
Area = l × b × h
 r o A
C =
d
8.854 × 1012  6  80 × 20  106

=
0.7 106
C = 1.21 × 10–7 F
3. If an ionic crystal is subjected to an electric field of 1000 Vm–1 and the resulting
polarization 4.3 × 10–8 cm2. Calculate the relative permittivity of NaCl.
Solution:
Given data:
Elctric field E = 1000 Vm 1 0  8.85  10 12 Fm 1
P = 4.3  108 cm 2
P = 0 ( r  1)E
P
r = 1   E
0
4.3  108
r = 1 
(8.85  1012  100)
 r  5.86
4. Calculate the electronic Polarization of argon atom. Given at r = 1.0024

at NTP and N = 2.7 × 1025 atom m–3 .
Solution :
Relative permitivity r = 1.0024 at NTP
Permitivity of free space 0 = 8.854 × 10–12 Fm–1
Number of atoms N = 2.7 × 1025 atom / m3
e = ?
P = Ne E
P
e =
NE
P = 0 ( r  1)E
0 ( r  1)E 0 (r  1)
e = 
NE N
8.85  1012  (1.0024  1)
e =
2.7  1025
e  7.9  10 –40 Fm2
5. A solid contains 5 × 1028 atoms/m3 each with a polarisability of 2×10–40 F m2.

Assuming that the internal field is given by Lorentz formula. Calculate the
ratio of internal field to the external field. 0 = 8.854 × 10–12 Fm–1 .
(AU - MAY 2011)
Solution:
Given data:
Polarizability  = 2 x 1040Fm 2
Number of atoms N = 5 x 1028atoms / m 3

We know Lorentz field, in the internal field
P
Ei = E 
3o
Also we know P = N  Ei
N  Ei
Therefore Ei = E 
3o
 N 
Ei 1   = E
 3o 
Ei 1
=
E  N 
1  
 3o 
 
Ei  1 
=  
E  28
1  5 x10  2 × 10
40
3 × 8.85 × 1012  
Ei
 1.604
E
6. Calculate the polarization produced in dielectric medium of dielectric

constant 6 when it is subjected to an electric field of 100 Vm –1 .
(  = 8.854 × 10–12 Fm–1 ) (AU - JUN 2009, 2012)
Soution:
Given data:
Dielectic constant r = 6
Permitivity of free space  = 8.854 × 10–12 Fm–1
Electric field E = 100 Vm–1
Polarization P =  r – 1) E
= 8.854 × 10–12 (6–1) 100
P = 4.425 × 10–9 Vm–2 F
7. Calculate the electronic polarizability of neon. The radius of neon atom is

0.158 nm. (  = 8.854 × 10–12 Fm–1 ) (AU - DEC 2010)
Solution:
Given data:
Radius of neon atom R = 0.158 nm (or)
= 0.158 × 10–9 m
Electronic polarizability  e = 4  R 3
 e = 4(3.14) (8.854 ×10–12) (0.158 ×10–9)3
= 4.386 × 10–40 Fm2
Electronic polarizability  e = 4.386 × 10–40 Fm2
8. The dielectric constant of a helium gas at NTP is 1.0000684. Calculate the

electron polarizability of helium atoms if the gas contains 2.7 × 1026 atoms/m3
and hence calculate the radius of helium atom (  = 8.854 × 10–12 Fm–1 )
Solution:
Given data:
Relative permitivity  r = 1.0000684
No. of atoms in the gas N = 2.7 × 1026 atoms/m3
i) We know polarization
P =  r – 1) E
and P = Ne E
From the above two equations, we can write
Ne =  r – 1)
0   r  1
e =
N
8.854  1012 1.0000684  1

=
2.7  1026
 e = 2.242 × 10–42 Fm2

ii) Electronic polarizability
 e = 4  R 3
e
R = 4
0
2.242  1042
=
4  3.14  8.854  1012
Radius of helium atom R = 0.0201 × 10–30 m

1. What is a dielectric material? State their property.
Dielectrics are the insulating materials having electric dipole moment permanently
or temporarily by applying the electric field. These are mainly used to store
electrical energy and used as electrical insulators. All dielectrics are electrical
insulators. But all electrical insulators need not to be dielectrics. Dielectrics are
non-metallic materials of high specific resistance and have negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
2. Define electric flux density (D) or Electric Displacement Vector.
The number of electric lines passing through the unit area of cross section.
D = [  /A]
Unit: Coulomb / m²
3. Define Permittivity
It is the ratio of electric displacement vector in a dielectric medium to the applied
electric field strength.  = D / E
4. Define Dielectric constant or Relative Permittivity ( r )
(AU - Nov 2010, June 2010)
It is the ratio of permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of the free space.
12
 r  [ / o ] where o = 8.854 x 10 F/m.
5. Define Dipole moment (  )
Dipole moment is defined as the product of charge and distance.
ie.,  = q x d +q –q
d
Unit : Coulomb meter.
6. Define Polarization, Polarization vector and Polarisability
Polarization
The separation of negative and positive charges is called polarization. i.e., the
process of producing electric dipoles by an electric field is called polarization.
  E
where  = constant of proportionality called polarisability..
Polarization vector
If is the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the number of molecules
per unit volume then the polarization of the solid is given by the polarization vector
P and it can be written as
N
P = N [for unit volume V=1]
V
The polarization vector is the dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric
material.
Polarisability
The polarization depends on electric field. P  E, P =  E,  = P / E the
proportionality constant is called as polarisability.
7. Define Electronic Polarization. (AU - April 2003, Nov 2003)
Electronic polarization occurs due to the displacement of positively charged nucleus
and negatively charged electron in opposite directions by an external electric field.
It creates a dipole moment in the dielectric. This is called electronic polarization.
 e  4o R 3
8. What is ionic polarization.(AU - May 2004, Nov 2010, June 2010, Dec 2009)
The displacement of cations (+ve) and anions (-ve) in opposite directions is called
ionic polarization. It occurs in ionic solids in the presence of electric field
e2  1 1 
i    
2o  m M 
9. Define orientation polarization. (AU - May 2005, Dec 2009)

When an electric field is applied on the dielectric medium with polar molecules,
the electric field tries to align these dipoles along its field direction, due to that
there is a resultant dipole moment in that material and this process is called
orientation polarization.
2
o 
3KT
10. What is Space charge polarization? (AU - May 2002)

The space charge polarization occurs due to the diffusion of ions along the field
direction giving rise to redistribution of charge in the dielectrics. Normally this
type of polarization occurs in ferrites and semiconductors and it is very small
when compared to other types of polarization.
11. What are polar and non-polar molecules?
Molecules which are having permanent dipole moment even in the absence of an
applied field are called polar molecules. Example: H 2 O, HC, CO.
Molecules which do not have permanent dipole moment, but they have induced
dipole moment in the presence of applied electric field are called non - polar
molecules.
Example: O2 , H 2 , N 2
12. Define Local or internal or Lorentz field. (AU - Nov 2003, Dec 2003)
In a dielectric material, the field acting at the location of an atom is called local
field or internal field [ Ei ]
The internal field E must be equal to the sum of applied field and the field due to
location of the atom by the dipoles of all other atoms
ie, Ei = E + The field due to all other dipoles.
13. Define Dielectric Loss and Dielectric breakdown.
(AU - Nov 2010, May 2011, June 2013)
When a dielectric material is subjected to an alternating electric field, some amount
of energy is absorbed by the material and is dissipated in the form heat. This loss
of energy is called Dielectric loss.
When a dielectric material loses its property and permids the flow of a large
current, it is said to be dielectric breakdown.
14. What is optical absorption and infrared absorption in a dielectric?
The dielectric losses in the optical region, associated with the electrons are referred
to as optical absorption. This absorption leads to color of materials. The dielectric
losses in the infra-red region, associated with the ionic vibrations are referred to
as Infrared absorption.
15. Define Dielectric breakdown and what are its types?

(AU - April 2005, June 2009, Dec 2012)
When a dielectric material loses its property and permits the flow of a large current,
it is known a dielectric breakdown.
Types
1) Intrinsic breakdown.
2) Thermal breakdown.
3) Electrochemical breakdown.
4) Defect breakdown.
5) Discharge breakdown.
16. What are Ferro electric materials? (AU - June 2009, 2012)
Materials which exhibit electric polarization even in the absence of electric field
are known as Ferro electric materials.
Crystalline dielectric materials which posses a permanent electric polarization are
called ferroelectric materials have electric dipole moment even in the absence of
any field. Normally they are anisotropic crystals which exhibit spontaneous polarization.
Examples : Parium Titanate [Ba TiO3 ], Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate
[K H 2 P O4 ], Lithium Niobate [LiNb O3 ] and Rochelle salt.
17. What are the differences between polar and non - polar molecules?
(AU - Nov 2003)
S.No Polar molecules Non - Polar molecules
1. These molecules have permanent These molecules do not have

dipole moment even in the absence permanent dipole moment
of on applied field.
2. The polarization of polar molecules is The polarization in these type
highly temperature dependent. of molecules is independent of
temperature.
3. There is absorption or emission in the There is no absorption of
infrared range for these molecules emission in infrared range for
these molecules
Example: H 2 O, HC1, CO Example: O2, H2, N2
18. Compare active and passion dielectrics.

(AU - April 2003, May 2007, June 2009)
S. No. Active dielectrics Passive dielectrics
1. Dielectrics which can easily adapt Dielectrics which resulting the flow
to store the electrical energy in it is of electrical energy in it are called
called active dielectrics. passive dielectrics.
2. They are used in the production They are used in production
of ultrasonics. of sheets.
3. Example : Piezo electrics, Example : Glass, mica and Plastic
Ferro electrics
19. What are the applications of ferroelectric materials? (AU - Dec 2009)
1. Ferroelectric materials are used to make pressure transducers, ultrasonic
transducers, microphones and gas filters.
2. They are used as memory cores in computers.
3. They are used to measure and control temperature.
4. Ferroelectric ceramics are used as capacitors to store electrical energy
5. They are used to make very good infrared detectors.
6. Rochelle salt is used in devices like microphones, strain gauges, phonograph
pickups and SONAR devices.
7. In optical communication, the ferroelectric crystals are used for optical
modulation.
8. Ferro electric materials are used to produce ultrasonics
9. Electrets are also used to bond the fractured bones in human body.
10.They are used as frequency stabilizers and crystal controlled oscillators.
PART - B QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by polarization in dielectrics? Derive the relation between the
dielectric constant and atomic polarisability.
2. Explain the different types of polarization mechanisms in a dielectric.
3. Explain the frequency and temperature dependence of various polarizations.
4. What is meant by local field? Derive an expression for Lorentz field in a dielectric
material and hence deduct Clausius - Mosotti relation.
5. What is dielectric loss. Derive an expression for power loss in a dielectric.
6. Discuss in detail the various dielectric breakdown mechanisms.
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. The electronic polarisability is 0.18x 1040fm2 . Find the relative dielectric constant
at 0C and 1 atmospheric pressure. (Ans: 1.000055)
2. A capacitor has capacitance of 0.019 F when uses wax paper  r  1.85  between
the electrodes of Aluminum foil. The wax paper is to be replaced by plastic
film  r  2.15  of same dimensions. Taking other factors being equal, obtain the
change (increase/decrease) in capacitance.
(Ans: Increase of 0.0117 F)
3. A capacitor uses Aluminum oxide as the dielectric with relative permeability = 8.
An effective surface area of 360 cm2 gives a capacitance of 6F . Calculate the
field strength and the total dipole moment induced in oxide layer if a potential
difference of 15 volts exist across the capacitor.
(Ans: (i) 3.535 × 107 V/m (ii) 33.4 x 10 C – m)
4. The radium of the Helium atom is about 0..55 AU. Calculate the polarisability of
Helium and its relative permeability. The number of Helium atoms in a volume of
1 m is 2.7 × 1025 atoms. (Ans: (i) 0.185 × 10–40 Farad – m² (ii) 1.000057)
5
Modern Engineering Materials
5.1 INTRODUCTION
There have been a number of science fields which have helps to producing new
engineering materials. Some of the fields are the nano engineering and the forensic
engineering. Hundreds and hundreds of scientists and inventors are working and
experimenting continuously to make this world a better place to live.
These new inventions have gradually changed the course of living of people,
these New engineering materials are not a result of single engineering technology but
these are obtained or produced from a blend of different technologies.
Some of the Modern Engineering Materials like Metallic glasses, Shape memory
alloys, Nano materials are discussed here.
5.2 METALLIC GLASSES

Metallic glasses are the amorphous metallic solids which have high strength,
good metallic properties and between corrosion resistance and will possess both the
properties of metals and glasses.
Example: Alloys of Fe, Ni, Al, Mn, Cu.
5.2.1 Glass transition temperature

It is an important parameter for the preparation of metallic glasses. It is defined as
a temperature at which the liquid like atomic structure is obtained into a solid.
The value of glass transition temperature for metallic alloys is about 20OC to 30OC.
5.2.2 Methods of production of Metallic Glasses

Metallic glasses are manufactured by the following methods. They are,
1. Twin roller technique
2. Melt extraction technique
3. Melt spinning technique
1. Twin roller system
In this technique, the molten alloy is passed through two rollers rotating in
opposite directions.
2. Melt extraction technique
In this technique, the fast moving roller sweeps off molten droplet into a strip
from a solid rod.
3. Melt spinning technique
Principle
Quenching is a technique used to from metallic glasses. Quenching means Rapid
Cooling. Due to rapid cooling, atoms are arranged irregularly and from metallic glasses.
Construction
It consists of a refractory tube with fine nozzle at the bottom. The refractory
tube is placed over the rotating roller. The roller is rotated at a higher speed to
generate a velocity of more than 50 m s 1 . An induction heater is wounded over the
refractory tube to heat the alloy to very high temperature.
Helium gas pressure
Induction
heater
Molten alloy
Glassy alloy Crucible
ribbon
Potating roller
Fig. 5.1 Melt spinning technique
MODERN ENGINEERING MATERIALS 5.3
Working
The alloy is put into the refractory tube and induction heater is switched on.
This heats the alloy to very high temperature, hence the super heated molten alloy
ejected through the nozzle on the rotating roller and is suddenly made to cool. The
ejection rate may be increased by increasing the inert helium gas pressure inside the
refractory tube. Thus due to rapid quenching a glassy alloy ribbon called metallic
glass is formed over the rotating roller.
5.2.3 Types of Metallic Glasses

The metallic glasses are classified into two types.
1. Metal – Metalloid Glasses
Example: Fe, Co, Ni – Ge, Si, B, C.
2. Metal – Metal Glasses
Example: Ni, Mg, Cu – Zn, Zr.
The first class of metallic glasses is from transition metals (Fe, Co, Ni) Metalloid
(B, Si, C & P) so they are called metal – metalloid glasses.
1. Nickel – Niobium (Ni – Nb)
2. Magnesium – Zinc (Mg – Zn)
3. Copper – Zirconium (Cu – Zr)
4. Hafnium – Vanadium (Hf – V) alloys
5.2.4 Properties of Metallic glasses

1. Metallic glasses have very high strength and are stronger than metals because
the absence of grain boundaries and dislocations.
2. The structure of metallic glass is Tetrahedral Close Packing (TCP).
3. These are having very high corrosion resistance.
4. They have high workability and ductility.
5. The electrical resistivity is found to be high (greater than 100)/ due to this
eddy current loss is very small.
6. Metallic glasses have both soft and hard magnetic properties.
7. These are highly reactive and stable.
8. It can also act as a catalyst.
Structural Properties
1. They do not have any crystal defects such as grain boundaries and dislocations.
2. They have tetrahedral packed structure. These materials do not passes long
range anisotropy
Mechanical Properties
1. Metallic glasses are stronger than metals and alloyes because they are free
from defects and dislocations.
2. They have high corrosion resistance due to random ordering.
3. They have high elasticity and ductility.
Electrical Properties
1. Electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary with
temperature.
2. Eddy current loss is very small due to high resistivity.
3. The Hall co-efficient of metallic glasses is found to have both positive and
negtive signs.
Magnetic Properties
1. It obeys both soft and hard magnetic properties.
2. The core losses of metallic glasses are very small.
Chemical Properties
1. They have high corrosion reistance.
2. They have catalytic properties.
3. They are highly reactive and stable.
5.2.5 Applications of Metallic glasses

1. Metallic glasses are used as reinforcing elements in concrete, plastic and
rubber.
2. Metallic glasses are used to make pressure vessels and to construct larger
fly wheels for energy storage.
3. They are used to make accurate standard resistors, Magnetic resistance
sensors and computer memories.
4. These are used in tape recorder heads, cores of high power transformers
and magnetic shields.
5. Metallic glasses are used as core in motors.
6. These are used to make razor blades and different kinds of springs.
7. Metallic glasses can be used as superconductor for producing high magnetic
fields and magnetic levitation effect.
8. Metallic glasses are used to make containers for nuclear waste disposal and
magnets for fusion reactors.
9. Metallic glasses are used in marine cables, chemical filters, inner surfaces of
reactor vessels, etc.,
10.Metallic glasses are very useful to make surgical instruments.
11.Superconducting mettalic glasses are used to produce high magnetic fields
and magnetic levitation effect.
Appendix
The reasons for choosing metallic glasses are transformer core
Metallic glasses are available in thin sheets therefore the size and weight of the
transformer is reduced. Hysteresis loss is directly proportional to the area of the
hysteresis loop. The loop area of the metallic glasses is very small and also has high
initial permeability. So, the hysteresis loss is almost zero… The eddy current in the
core is inversely proportional to the resistivity of the core material and directly
proportional to the thickness of the lamination of the core.
Since the resistivity of the metallic glasses is high and the thickness of the core
laminated core material due to small thickness, smaller area, less weight, high resistivity,
soft magnet with low hysteresis and eddy current losses.
5.3 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

Share memory alloys (SMA’s) are metals, which exhibit two very unique
properties, pseudo-elasticity and the shape memory effect. Arne Olander first observed
these unusual properties in 1938 (Oksuta and Wayman 1998), but not until the 1960’s
were any serious research advances made in the field of shape memory alloys. The
most effective and widely used alloys include NiTi (Nickel – Titanium), CuZnA1 and
CuA1Ni.
5.3.1 Definition
The ability of the metallic alloys to retain to their original shape when
heating or cooling is called as Shape Memory Alloys (SMA).
These metallic alloys exhibit plastic nature when they are cooled to very low
temperature and they return to their original nature when they are heated. This effect is
known as Shape Memory Effect.
It is also called as smart materials or intelligent materials or Active materials.
There are two types of shape memory alloys,
1. One way shape memory – It returns to its memory only when heating
2. Two way shape memory – It returns to its memory on both heating and
Cooling.
Classification
1. Piezo electric SMA materials.
2. Electrostrictive SMA materials.
3. Magnetostrictive SMA materials.
4. Thermo elastic SMA materials.
Examples : Ni-Ti (Nickel – Titanium), Cu Zn A1, Cu A1 Ni, Au – Cd, Ni-Mn-
Ga and Fe based alloys.
5.3.2 Working Principle of SMA

The shape memory effect occurs in alloys due to change in the crystalline structure
of the materials with the change in temperature and stress.
The shape memory effect occurs between two temperature states known as
Martensite and Austenite. The Martensite structure is a low temperature phase and is
relatively soft, It has platelet structure the Austenite is a high temperature phase and is
hard it has needle like structure.
Martensite is the relatively soft and easily deformed phase of shape memory
alloys which exists at lower temperatures. It has two molecular structures namely,
twinned Martensite and deformed Martensite. Austenite is the stronger phase of shape
memory alloys which occurs at higher temperatures, the shape of the Austenite structure
is cubic.
When we apply a constant load on a shape memory alloy and cool it, its shape
changes due to produced strain. During the deformation, the resistivity, thermal
conductivity, Young’s modulus and yield strength are decreased by more than 40%.
Twinned Martensite state alloy becomes deformed Martensite when it is loaded.
The deformed Martensite becomes Austenite when it is heated, the Austenite
transformed to original twinned Martensite state when it is cooled.
Fig.5.2 Material crystalline arrangement during shape memory effect
5.3.3 Characteristics of SMA

1. Hysteresis
Hysteresis of a SMA is defined as the difference between the temperatures at
which the material is 50% transformed to austenite when heating and 50% transformed
to martensite when cooling.
When the temperature is decreased in a metallic material, the phase transformation
takes place from austenite to martensite. This transformation takes place not only at a
single temperature, but over a range of temperatures.
The hysteresis curve for a shape memory alloy is shown below.
Fig.5.3 Hysteresis curve for SMA’s
2. Pseudo elasticity
When a metallic material is cooled from a temperature T to a lower temperature
TC it deforms and changes its shape. On reheating the material to Temperature (T) the
shape change is received so that the material returns to its original state. This effect is
known as pseudo elasticity or thermo elastic property.
3. Super elasticity
Super elasticity is a property of SMA. When a material is deformed at a
temperature slightly greater than its transformation temperature super elasticity property
appears (Rubber like property).
5.3.4 Properties of Ni – Ti alloy

Ni – Ti is a compound of Nickel and Titanium and it finds many applications in
the field of engineering due to the following properties.
1. It has greater shape memory strain.
2. It has more thermal stability and excellent corrosion resistance.
3. It has higher ductility and more stable transformation temperatures.
4. It has better bio-compatibility and it can be electrically heated.
5.3.5 Advantages of SMA’s

1. They ahve good bio-Compatibility.
2. They have simplicity, Compactness and high safety mechanism.
3. They have good mechanical properties and strong corrosion-resistance.
4. They have high power and weigh ratio.
5.3.6 Disadvantages of SMA’s

1. They have poor fatigue properties.
2. They are expensive and difficult to preparing in a machine.
3. They have low energy efficiency.
4. They have limited band with due to heating (or) cooling.
5.3.7 Applications of SMA’s

1. Eye glass frames : We know that the recently manufactured eye glass frames
can be bent back and forth and can retain its original shape within fraction of
time.
2. Toys : We might have seen toys such as butterflies, snakes etc., which are
movable and flexible.
3. Helicopter blades: The life time of helicopter blades depends on vibrations
and their return to its original shape. Hence shape memory alloys are used in
helicopter blades.
4. Coffee Valves : Used to release the hot milk and the ingredients at a certain
temperature
5. Medical Applications of SMA’s
1. It is used as Micro – Surgical instruments.
2. It is used as dental arch wires.
3. It is used as flow control devices.
4. It is used as ortho – dentil implants.
5. It is used for repairing of bones.
6. They are used to correct the irregularities in teeth.
6. Engineering Applications of SMA’s
1. It is used as a thermostat valve in cooling system.
2. It is used as a sealing plug for high pressure.
3. It is used as a fire safety valve.
4. It is used for cryofit hydraulic pipe couplings.
5. It is used for eye glass frame, toys, liquid safety valve.
6. It is used to make microsurgical instruments, orthopedic implants.
7. It is used as blood clot filter and for fracture pulling.
8. It is used to make antenna wires in cell phones.
9. It can be used as circuit edge connector.
5.4 NANO MATERIALS
5.4.1 Introduction
Nanomaterials (nanocrystalline materials) are materials possessing grain sizes
of the order of a billionth of a meter. They manifest extremely fascinating and useful
properties, which can be exploited for a variety of structural and non structural
applications.
All materials are composed of grains, which in turn comprise many atoms. These
grains are usually invisible to the naked eye, depending on their size. Conventional
materials have grains varying in size anywhere from 100’s of microns ( m ) to
millimeters (mm). A micron ( m ) is a micrometer or a millionth (10–6) of a meter. An
average human hair is about 100 m in diameter. A nanometer (nm) is even smaller a
dimension than a m and is a billionth (10–9) of a meter. A nanocrystalline material has
grains on the order of 1-100 nm. The average size of an atom is on the order of 1 to
2 angstroms ( A o ) in radius.
1 nanometer comprises 10 A o , and hence in one nm, there may be 3-5 atoms,
depending on the atomic radii. Nanocrystalline materials are exceptionally strong, hard,
and ductile at high temperatures, wear-resistant, corrosion-resistant, and chemically
very active. Nanocrystalline materials, or Nanomaterials, are also much more formable
than their conventional, commercially available counterparts.
5.4.2 Definitions
1. Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is a field of applied science and technology which deals

with the matter on the atomic and molecular scale, normally 1 to 100
nanometers, and the fabrication of devices with critical dimensions that
lie within that size range.
2. Nanomaterials
Nano materials are the materials with grain sizes of the order of nano meter
( 109 m) i.e., (1-100 nm). It may be a metal, alloy, inter metallic (or) ceramic.
Nanomaterials are the materials with atoms arranged in nano sized

clusters which become the building block of the material. Any Material
with a size between 1 and 100 nm [ 109 m to 107 m] is also called
Nanomaterials.
5.4.3 Synthesis of Nanomaterials

The Nano mateirals can be synthesized by two processes, they are
1. Top – down approach
2. Bottom – up approach
1. Top – down approach

The removal or division of bulk material or the miniaturization of bulk fabrication
processes to produce the desired nanostructure is known as top-down approach. It is
the process of breaking down bulk material to Nano size.
Fig.5.4 Synthesis of Nanomaterials for Top – down approach

Types of Top – down Methods
a. Milling
b. Lithographic
c. Machining
2. Bottom – up approach
Molecules and even nano particles can be used as the building block for producing
complex nanostructures. This is known as Bottom – up approach. The Nano particles
are made by building atom by atom.
Fig.5.5 Synthesis of Nanomaterials for Bottom – up approach
Types of Bottom up Methods

a) Vapour phase deposition Method
b) Molecular beam epitaxy Method
c) Plasma assisted deposition Method
d) Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy [MOVPE]
e) Liquid phase process [Colloidal method and Sol – Gel method]
5.4.4 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)

It is method in which the reaction or thermal decomposition of gas phase species
at higher temperatures [500 – 1000OC] and then deposition on a substrate takes
place, in CVD method carbon nanotubes are grown from the decomposition of
hydrocarbons at temperature range of 500 to 1200OC. In this process, the substrate
is placed inside a reactor to which a number of gases are supplied. The fundamental
principle of the process is that a chemical reaction takes place between the source
gases. The produce of that reaction is a solid material with condenses on all surfaces
inside the reactor.
Fig.5.6 CVD method
Example of CVD technique

An aerosol spray pyrolysis (Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of organic
materials by heating in the absence of oxygen or any other reagents) is the example of
CVD technique, in which high aqueous metal salts are sprayed in the form of fine mist
and then passed into a hot flow tube. In the hot flow tube pyrolysis converts the salts
into the final products on the substrate, in this method the materials are mixed in a
solution, homogeneous mixing is obtained to the atomic level. They pyrolysis at low
temperature gives the particles in the size range 5 – 500 nm, in this CVD method
catalysts are used for better chemical reactions, when the catalyst is in nanosize,
dispersion of particles is happened due to templating effect. In the Production of carbon
nanotubes using the decomposition of ethane with hydrogen, Fe, Co or Ni based
catalysts are used. The size and distribution of the catalyst particles determine the
internal diameter of the nanotubes.
5.5 PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES

A Bulk materials is reduced to a nano size, the following changes are occurred
1. Large fraction of surface atoms
2. High surface energy
3. Spatial confinement
4. Reduced imperfections
The surface area effects, quantum effects can begin to dominate the properties
of matter as size is reduced to the nano scale. These can affect the optical, electrical
and magnetic behavior of materials.
Due to their small dimensions, nano materials have extremely large surface area
to volume ratio, which makes a large fraction of atoms of the materials to be the
surface or interfacial atoms, resulting in more “surface” dependent material properties.
When the size of their structural components decreases, there is much greater
interface area within the material this can greatly affect both mechanical and electrical
properties, ie., the interface area within the material greatly increases, which increases
its strength. Reduced imperfections are also an important factor in determination of
the properties of the nano materials
1. Electrical Properties of Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials can store more electrical energy than the bulk material, because
of their large grain boundary (surface) area.
The energy band structure and charge carried density in the nano materials can
be modified quite differently form their bulk size in turn will modify the electronic
properties of the materials.
In nano size an optical absorption band can be introduced, or an existing band
can be altered by the passage of current or by the application of an electric field.
2. Optical Properties of Nanomaterials
The quantum confinement of electrical carriers within nanoparticles makes efficient
energy and charge transfer over nanoscale distances in nano devices.
The linear and nonlinear optical properties of nanomaterials can be finely modified
by controlling the crystal dimensions
The color of nanomaterials is changed when the surface plasmon size is reduced.
A surface plasmon is a natural oscillation of the electron gas inside a given nano sphere.
3. Chemical Properties of Nanomaterials
The increased surface area of nano particle increases the chemical activity of
the material. Metallic nanoparticles can be used as very active catalysts. Chemical
sensors from nanoparticles and nano wires enhanced the sensitivity and sensor
selectivity
4. Mechanical Properties of Nanomaterials
The mechanical properties such as hardness and elastic modulus, fracture
toughness, scratch resistance, fatigue strength, tensile strength, strain-to-failure, Young’s
modulus, impact strength and increased at the nanometer scale
Energy dissipation, mechanical coupling and mechanical nonlinearities are also
influenced at the nanometer scale.
The strength of the material at nanosize approaching the theoretical limit due to the
absence of internal Structural imperfections such as dislocations, micro twins, and impurities.
5. Magnetic Properties of Nanomaterials
The strength of a magnet is measured in terms of coercivity and saturation

magnetization values. These values increase with a decrease in the grain size and an
increase in the specific surface area (surface area per unit volume) of the grains.
6. Thermal Properties of Nanomaterials
Photon transport within the materials will be changed significantly due the photon
confinement and quantization of photon transport, resulting in modified thermal
properties. For example, nano wires from silicon have a much smaller thermal
conductivities compared to bulk silicon.
The nanomaterials structures with high interfaces densities would reduce the
thermal conductivity of the materials. There are several effects being considered for
the reduction of thermal conductivities: interfacial roughness, phonon band gaps,
dispersion mismatch, doping, structural defects, processing conditions, etc.
5.6 APPLICATIONS OF NANOPARTICLES

Though nano – particles are very small, they are the important materials to built
future world. They have applications almost in all engineering fields as follows
1. Mechanical Engineering
a) Since they are stronger, lighter etc., they are used to make hard metals.
b) Smart magnetic fluids are used in vacuum seals, magnetic separators etc.
c) They are also used in Giant Magneto Resistant (GMR) spin valves.
d) Nano- MEMS (Micro-Electro Mechanical Systems) are used in ICs, optical
switches, pressure sensors, mass sensors etc.
2. Electrical, Electronics and Communication Engineering
a) Orderly assembled nanomaterials are used as quantum electronic devices
and photonic crystals.
b) Some of the nanomaterials are used as sensing elements. Especially the
molecular nanomaterials are used to design the robots, assemblers etc.
c) They are used in energy storage devices such as hydrogen storage devices,
magnetic refrigeration and in ionic batteries.
d) Dispersed nanomaterials are used in magnetic recording devices, rocket
propellant, solar cells, fuel cells, etc.
e) Recently nano-robots were designed, which are used to remove the damaged
cancer cells and also to modify the neutron network in human body.
3. Computer Science Engineering and IT
a) Nano-materials are used to make CD’s and semiconductor laser.
b) These materials are used to store the information in smaller chips.
c) They are used in mobiles, lap – tops etc
d) Further they are used in chemical / Optical computers.
e) Nano – dimensional photonic crystals and quantum electronic devices plays
a vital role in the recently developed computers.
4. Bio–Medical and Chemical Engineering
a) Consolidated state nanoparticles are used as catalyst, electrodes in solar
and fuel cells.
b) Bio-sensitive nanoparticles are used in the production of DNA –chips, bio-
sensors etc.
c) Nano-structed ceramic materials are used in synthetic bones.
d) Few nanomaterials are also used in adsorbents, self –cleaning glass, fuel
additives, drugs, ferrofluids, paints etc.
e) Nano –metallic colloids are used as film precursors.
5.7 NON LINEAR MATERIALS (NLO MATERIALS)

The change in optical properties due to electrical and magnetic field associated
with light is called non linear effects and those materials which possess these effects
are those materials possess these effects are called non-linear materials.
Example:
i) Lithium tantalate
ii) Lithium iodate (LiO3)
iii) Barium Sodum niobate
iv) Ammonium-dihydrophosphate (ADO)
v) Potassium-dyhydrophosphate (KDP)
5.7.1 Higher Harmonic Generation

Higher (second) Harmonic generation represents the generation of new
frequencies with the help of the crystals such as quartz, LiO3, etc.
Explanation
In a linear medium, Polarization (P) is proportional to the electric field E that
induces it
P = 
 - is the electric susceptibility

- permitivity of the medium

When light of higher intensity is passed through dielectric medium, the electric
field has larges amplitude and the oscillation of dipoles are distorted. Therefore, some
nonlinearity is observed beteen P and E and hence the higher fields are written as
P =       ) ... (1)
where  - is the linear susceptibility
  - is the higher order nonlinear susceptibility
with increase of higher order terms come into play. Let us assume that the field is
strong enough to give rise to .
P =     ) ... (1)

The electric field passing through the medium can be represented by
E = Eo cos t ... (3)
Substituting equ (3) in equ (1), we get
P =    cos t  cos t + ...) ... (4)
We know
1  cos 2  t cos 3  t  3 cos  t

cos2 wt = , cos3 t =
2 4
 The equ (4) can be written as
2 1  cos 2  t 3
3 cos  t  3 cos  t
P =  0  1 Eo cos  t +  0  2 Eo +  0  3 Eo
2 4
2 2
 0  2 Eo  0  2 Eo cos2 wt
P =  0  1 Eo cos wt + +
2 2
3 3
 0  3 Eo  cos3 wt 3  0  3 Eo cos wt
+ + + ...
4 4
 
1 2  3 2
P =  0  1 Eo +  0 Eo cos wt   1  Eo 
2  4 
 V
1 2 3 3
+  0  2 Eo cos2 wt +  0  3 Eo cos3 wt ... (5)
2 4
This non linear polarization shows that it contains the second harmonic of
 (III term) as well as an average term (I term) called optical rectification. It can be
shown that only in the crystals lacking inversion symmetry, second harmonic generation
(SHG) is possible.
5.7.2 Experimental Proof

When the fundamental radiation from a laser is sent through SHG crystal, due to
SHG, conversion to double the frequency ie. half the wave length takes place. For
example 1.064 m radiation from Nd-YAG laser gets converted to 0.532 m on
passing through crystals like KDP, ADP, etc.
Screen
Lens
Quartz Prism 3A
6 94
Ruby
laser
347
1–
5A
Fig. 5.7 Experiment arrangement for SHG
If the incident radiation from the laser is intense enough such that the polarization
needs to be represented by three terms.
P =  0  1 E   2 E 2   3 E 3  ... (6)
Substituting the value of E from equ (3)
 2 2 3 3
=  0  1 Eo cos wt   2 Eo cos wt   3 Eo cos wt 
1 2  3 3
P =  0  2 Eo +   0 1 Eo   0  3 Eo  cos wt
2  4 
1 2 1 3
+  0  2 Eo cos2 wt +  0  3 Eo cos3 wt
2 4
The last term in the above equation represents third harmonic generation at
frequency 3. Likewise one can account for higher harmonic generation.
5.7.3 Optical mixing

We are familiar with ariving at a new colour by mixing of two colours in paints
using non linear phenomena, called optical mixing, generation new frequencies are
possible. Suppose two coherent waves of unequal frequencies 1 and 2 are traversing
the material, then
E = E1 cos 1 t + cos 2 t
Hence
P = 0 1  E1 cos 1 t  E 2 cos 2 t  + 0  2  E1 cos 2 t  E 2 cos 2 t  2

2 2 2 2
=  0  1  E1 cos w1 t  E2 cos w2 t  +  0  2 E1 cos w1 t  E2 cos w2 t 
+ 2  0  2 E1 E2 cos w1 t cos w2 t
The Second term gives rise to 21 and 22. The last term can be expressed as
2  0  2 E1 E2 cos w1 t cos w2 t =  0  2 E1 E2
 cos  w1  w2  t  cos  w1  w2  t 
This waves of frequencies 1, 21, 22, (1 + 2) and (1 – 2) are generated.
Using proper optical arrangement it is possible to get sufficiently intense output at any
one of these frequencies. Generation of (1 + 2) is called frequency up conversion
while generation of (1 – 2) is called frequency down conversion.
5.8 BIOMATERIALS
Biomaterials are used to make devices to replace a part or a function of the
body in safe, reliably economically, and physiologically acceptable manner. A variety
of devices and materials are used in the treatment of disease or injury. Commonplace
examples include suture needles, plates, teeth fillings, etc. (or)
A biomaterial is a synthetic material used to replace part of a living system or
to function in intimate contact with living tissue of a human body. Alone or as part of a
complex system, is used to direct, by control of interactions with components of living
systems, the course of any therapeutic or diagnostic procedure.
5.8.1 Biomaterials Classifications

When a synthetic material is placed within the human body, tissue reacts towards
the implant in a variety of ways depending on the material type. The mechanism of
tissue interaction depends on the tissue response to the implant surface. In general,
there are three terms in which a biomaterial may be described in or classified into
representing the tissues responses. These are bioinert, bioresorbable, and bioactive.
1. Bioinert Biomaterials
The term bioinert refers to any material that once placed in the human body
has minimal interaction with its surrounding tissue. Examples of these are stainless
steel, titanium, alumina, partially stabilised zirconia, and ultra high molecular weight
polyethylene. Generally a fibrous capsule might form around bioinert implants hence
its bio functionality relies on tissue integration through the implant.
2. Bioactive Biomaterials
Bioactive refers to a material, which upon being placed within the human body
interacts with the surrounding bone and in some cases, even soft tissue. This occurs
through a time - dependent kinetic modification of the surface, triggered by their
implantation within the living bone. An ion - exchange reaction between the bioactive
implant and surrounding body fluids - results in the formation of a biologically active
carbonate apatite (CHAp) layer on the implant that is chemically and crystallographically
equivalent to the mineral phase in bone. Prime examples of these materials are synthetic
hydroxyapatite [Ca10 (PO4)6(OH)2], glass ceramic A-W and bioglass.
3. Bioresorbable Biomaterials
Bioresorbable refers to a material that upon placement within the human body
starts to dissolve (resorbed) and slowly replaced by advancing tissue (such as bone).
Common examples of bioresorbable materials are tricalcium phosphate [Ca3 (PO4)2]
and polylactic-polyglycolic acid copolymers. Calcium oxide, calcium carbonate and
gypsum are other common materials that have been utilised during the last three decades.
5.8.2 Conventional implant devices

1. Ceramics
Inorganic compounds that contain metallic and non-metallic elements, for which inter-
atomic bonding is ionic or covalent, and which are generally formed at high temperatures.
Example: aluminum oxide, zirconia, calcium phosphates.
Uses of Ceramics
Structural components
a. Joint replacements, hip and knee
b. Spinal fusion devices
c. Dental crowns, bridges, implants, ect
Other applications
a. Inner ear and cochlear implants
b. Tissue engineering
c. Coatings for heart valves
2. Metals
Materials containing only metallic atoms either as single elements or in
combination in a closely packed crystal structure.
Example: stainless steel, cobalt alloys, titanium alloys.
Uses of Metals
Structural components
a) Joint replacements
b) Bone fracture pins, plates
c) Dental implants
Other applications
a) Leads, wires, tubing
b) Cardiac devices
3. Polymers
From Greek - 'poly' meaning many and 'mer' meaning unit or part Low density
structures of non-metallic elements Often in the form of macromolecules - chains,
branched chains or cross linked networks Poor thermal and electrical conductors
due to the affinity of the elements to attract or share valence electrons
Example: Silicones, poly (ethylene), poly (vinyl chloride), polyurethanes,
polylactides
Uses of Polymers
Many applications
a. Valves, ducts, catheters
b. Joint replacement
c. Coatings, encapsulates
d. Tissue engineering scaffolds
5.8.3 Biomaterials Properties

1. Mechanical properties of the various tissues in the human body are well
established, and it is important that the in-vivo environment of an implant be
considered during implant design. Mechanical performance of an implanted
device is influenced by the inherent properties of the chosen biomaterial
grades and by the processing method used to convert them into their finished
forms.
2. Degradation properties of chosen biomaterials can play a pivotal role in
determining tissue healing dynamics and thus clinical outcome. Timescales
involved in the tissue regeneration process are increasingly well understood.
Through transferring functional requirement back to the native tissue during
its regeneration, clinically superior results may be achieved. Furthermore,
resorption of the implant can reduce both lifetime procedural cost and
incidence of post-operative complications.
3. Surface properties of a biomaterial, determined by both its chemical
composition and conversion processes, affect the local tissue response at
the biomaterial-tissue interface on a cellular level. Consideration is therefore
given to the desired cellular response to a biomaterial surface, during medical
implant design.
5.8.4 Biomaterials Applications

1. Drug delivery
a) Cancer detection, therapy and prevention.
b) Biomaterial-cell interactions in applications such as tissue engineering,
advanced stem-cell culture, biosensors, and targeted drug delivery via the
blood.
c) Advanced drug delivery, ranging from polymeric aerosols that carry life-
saving drugs to cationic polymer/DNA self-assembled nanocomplexes that
deliver DNA to specific tissues for in vivo gene therapy.
d) Genetically-engineered polymers for tissue engineering and drug delivery
applications.
e) Cellular biopolymers and their role in cell migration and cancer metastasis.
2. Other important applications
a) Heart- pacemaker, artificial valve, artificial heart
b) Eye -contact lens, intraocular lens
c) Ear -artificial stapes, cochlea implant
d) Bone -bone plate, intramedullary rod, joint prosthesis, bone cement, bone
defect repair
e) Kidney- dialysis machine
f) Bladder- catheter and stent
g) Muscle sutures- muscle stimulator
h) Circulation- artificial blood vessels
i) Skin burn- dressings, artificial skin
j) Endocrine -encapsulated pancreatic islet cells.

1. What are metallic glasses? (AU - June 2005, 2006, 2012)
Metallic glasses are amorphous metals (Glass metals). It is a non-crystalline alloy
with molten liquid state it has the short range of atomic order. Metallic glasses
share the properties of both glasses and metals, these are strong, ductile, malleable,
opaque and brittle.
2. Define Glass transition temperature
It is the temperature at which liquid like structure is frozen into the solid. The glass
transition temperature for metallic alloys in about 20OC to 30OC
3. How the metallic glasses are prepared? Mention the different methods.
Metallic glasses are usually prepared by rapid quenching, ie., cooling a metallic
liquid so rapidly such that there is no enough time for ordered crystalline structure
to develop. By this way we retained the liquid like structure into the solid. The
cooling rate is in the order of 2 x 10 Kelvin per second
Methods of preparation
1. Twin roller system
2. Melt spinning system
3. Melt Extraction system
Melt spinning system is the most commonly used method.
4. What are the types of metallic glasses? (AU - June 2012)
Metallic glasses are classified into two types
1. Metal – Metal metallic glasses
These are combination of metals and metals
Example: Ni-Nb, Mg-Zn, Cu-Zr, and Hf-V
2. Metal – Metalloid metallic glasses
These are combinations of metals and metalloids
Example: Fe, Co, Ni and B, Si, C, P
5. What are the advantages of the metallic glasses used as core material?
(AU - Dec 2005, June 2006, May 2011)
1. Transformer core is used to get maximum magnetic flux (energy). Transformer
core should have low hysteresis loss and low eddy current loss.
2. Metallic glasses are available in thin sheets therefore the size and weight of the
transformer is reduced.
3. Hysteresis loss is directly proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop. The
loop area of the metallic glasses is very small and also has high initial
permeability. So the hysteresis loss is almost zero.
4. The eddy current in the core inversely proportional to the resistivity of the core
material and directly proportional to the thickness of the lamination of the core.
Since the resistivity of the metallic glasses is high and the thickness of the core
laminated core is less. Therefore the eddy current loss is very less.
5. Thus metallic glasses used as core material due to small thickness, smaller
area, less weight high resistivity soft magnetic with low hysteresis and eddy
current losses.
6. What are the applications of metallic glasses? (AU - June 2005)
Metallic glasses are used in
1. Reinforcing elements in concrete, plastic, rubber
2. Reinforcing filament in pressure vessels
3. Construction of flywheels for energy storage
4. Razor blades and different kinds of springs
5. Tape recorder heads, etc,
7. What are SMAs (or) Shape Memory Alloys? What are its types?
(AU. May 2003, June 2006, 2009, 2010, Dec 2009, 2012,Nov 2010)
The ability of some metallic alloys to retain their original shape when heating or
cooling is called as Shape Memory Alloys (SMA). It is also called as smart materials
(or) intelligent materials or Active materials. There are two types of shape memory
alloys.
1. One way shape memory : It returns to its memory only when heating
2. Two way shape memory: It returns to its memory on both heating and Cooling.
8. How the SMAs are classified? Give Examples of SMAs.

1. Piezo electric SMA materials.
2. Electrostrictive SMA materials.
3. Magnetostrictive SMA materials.
4. Thermo elastic SMA materials.
Examples: Ni-Ti alloy, Cu-Zn –A1 alloy, Cu – A1 – Ni alloy, etc.,
9. Give the principle of Shape memory Alloys
The shape memory effect occurs between two temperatures states, ie., Martensite
and Austenite. The SMA in the Marteniste is attained the temporary deformed
shape when cooling. But when heating the martensite state is changed into Austenite
state. During deformation the resistivity, thermal conductivity, Young modulus and
yield strength are decreased by more than 40%.
10. What are the martensite and austenite phases?
Martensite is the relatively soft and easily deformed phase of shape memory alloys,
which exists at lower temperatures. It has two molecular structures 1. Twinned
martensite and 2. Deformed martensite.
Austenite is the stronger phase of shape memory alloys, occurs at higher
temperatures. The shape of the Austenite structure is cubic.
11. Define Shape Memory Effect?
Some metallic alloys exhibit plastic nature when they are cooled to very low
temperature and they return to their original nature when it is heated, this effect is
known as Shape Memory Effect.
12. Name the materials exhibit Shape memory effect?
Most effective and widely used alloys are
1. Ni Ti (Nickel – Titanium)
2. Cu Zn A1,
3. Cu A1 Ni,
4. Au – Cd,
5. Ni-Mn-Ga and,
6. Fe based alloys.
13. What is pseudo elasticity?

When a metallic material is cooled from a temperature T2 to a lower temperature T1 ,
it deforms and changes its shape. On reheating the material to Temperature T2 ,
the shape change is recovered so that the material returns to its original state. This
effect is known as pseudo elasticity or thermo elastic property.
14. Define Hysteresis of a SMA?
Hysteresis of a SMA is defined as the difference between the temperatures at
which the material is 50% transformed to austenite when heating and 50%
transformed to martensite when cooling.
15. What is Super elasticity?
Super elasticity is a property of SMA. When a material is deformed at a temperature
slightly greater than its transformation temperature super elasticity property appears.
(Rubber like property)
16. What are the advantages and disadvantages of SMA?
Advantages
1. SMAs are Simple, compactness and safety
2. SMAs have Good biocompatibility
3. SMAs are Strong and have high corrosion resistance
4. They have High power to weight ratio.
Disadvantages
1. SMAs have Poor fatigue
2. They are Expensive
3. SMAs have Low energy efficiency
4. SMAs have Complex control
5. They Limited bandwidth.
17. What are the applications of Shape memory alloys?

1. It is used as a thermostat valve in cooling system.
2. It is used as a fire safety valve.
3. It is used for cryofit hydraulic couplings.
4. It is used for eye glass frame, toys.
5. It is used to make microsurgical instruments, orthopedic implants.
6. It is used as blood clot filter and for fracture pulling.
7. It is used as antenna wires in cell phones.
18. What is Nano Technology or Nano Science?
Nanotechnology is a field of applied science and technology which deals with the
matter on the atomic and molecular scale, normally 1 to 100 nm, and the fabrication
of devices with critical dimensions that lie within that size range.
19. What are Nanomaterials? (AU., June 2007)
Nanomaterials are the materials with atoms arranged in nano sized clusters which
become the building block of the material. Any Material with a size between
1 and 100 nm[ 10–9 m to 10–7m] is called nanomaterials.
20. What is Top – down approach? Give its methods.
Top – down approach
The removal or division of bulk material or the miniaturization of bulk fabrication
processes to produce the desired nanostructure is known as top-down approach.
It is the process of breaking down bulk material to Nanosize
Methods : Top – down Methods, Milling, Light graphics and Machining
21. What is Bottom-up approach? Give its Methods
Bottom-up approach : Molecules and even nano particles can be used as the
building block for producing complex nanostructures. This is known as Bottom-
up approach. The Nano particles are made by building atom by tom.
Bottom up Methods: Vapour phase deposition, Molecular Beam epitaxy, Plasma
assisted deposition, Metal Organic vapour phase epitaxy (MOVPE) Liquid phase
process [Colloidal method and Sol-Gel method]
PART B - QUESTIONS
1. Give a detailed account of metallic glasses, their method of production, types,
properties and applications. (AU- June 2006, Nov 2007)
2. What are shape memory alloys? Write their characteristics. List out the applications
of shape memory alloys. What are its advantages and disadvantages?
(AU -Nov 2002, May 2008)
3. Describe with neat sketch the plasma arcing processes to produce nano materials
system.
4. Explain about chemical vapour deposition technique for the fabrication of
Nanoparticles.
5. Explain in detail the Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy [MOVPE] technique
for the fabrication of nanoparticles
6. Describe liquid phase chemical synthesis to produce nano particles
7. Describe the colloidal and sol-gel methods for producing nano crystals
8. Describe electro deposition process to produce nanoparticles. (AU - Dec 2001)
9. Describe a ball milling technique with neat diagram to produce nanomaterials.
10. Explain the various properties of nanomaterials.
11. Describe the application of nanomaterials.
12. What are carbon nanotubes? Explain the types, fabrication, properties and
applications of carbon nanotubes.
Index I.1
Index
A D
Acceptor Impurities 2.21 Density of Holes in Valence band 2.10
Advantages of SMA's 5.9 Density of States 1.16
Antiferromagnetic Materials 3.16 Diamagnetic materials 3.7
Application of Ferrites 3.26 Diamagnetic property 3.36
Application of Hall Effect 2.37 Dielectric Breakdown 4.23
Applications of Dielectric Materials 4.28 Dielectric Loss 4.21
Applications of Metallic glasses 5.5 Dielectrics in Capacitors 4.29
Applications of Nanoparticles 5.15 Disadvantages of SMA's 5.9
Applications of SMA's 5.9 Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism 3.12
Applications of Superconductors 3.47 Donor impurity 2.20
Average energy of an electron at 0K 1.20
F
B Effect of heavy Current 3.38
Band theory 1.2 Effect of pressure 3.38
Basic Definitions 3.1,4.1 Electric flux density (D) 4.1
BCS Theory of Superconductivity 3.44 Electronic Polarization 4.4
Biomaterials Classifications 5.21 Engineering Applications 3.48
Biomaterials Properties 5.23 Experimental Proof 5.19
Biomaterials 5.20 Expression for electrical conductivity 1.5
Extrinsic Semiconductor 2.19
C Fermi - Dirac Distribution Function 1.14
Carrier concentration in metals 1.19 Ferrimagnetic Materials 3.17
Characteristics of SMA 5.8 Ferrites 3.23
Charge Densities in a Semiconductor 2.22 Ferro - Electricity 4.26
Chemical Vapour Deposition 5.13 Ferromagnetic materials 3.9
Classical free electron theory 1.1 Floppy Disk 3.31
Classification of Magnetic Materials 3.6 Frequency dependence 4.13
Classification of Semiconductors 2.2
Clausius Mosotti Equations 4.20
G
Comparision of Types of Polarisation 4.15 General properties 3.39
Compound Semiconductors 2.3 Glass transition temperature 5.1
Conductors 2.4
H
Conventional implant devices 5.21
Critical magnetic field 3.35 Hall Effect in n -type Semiconductor2.32
Cryotron 3.48 Hall Effect in p-type Semiconductor 2.34
CVD 5.13 Hall Effect 2.31, 2.32
I.2 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II
Hard and Soft Magentic Material 3.20 Polar and Non-polar Molecules 4.2
Hard Magnetic Materials 3.20 Polarization vector 4.2
Higher Harmonic Generation 5.17 Polarization 4.2
Hysteresis 3.17 Properties of Metallic glasses 5.3
Properties of Nanoparticles 5.14
I
Properties of Ni - Ti alloy 5.9
Insulators 2.5 Properties of semiconductor 2.2
Internal Field 4.15 Properties of Superconductors 3.35
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration 2.13
Intrinsic semiconductors 2.3 Q
Inverse spinal 3.25 Quantum free electron theory 1.1
Ionic Polarization 4.8 Quantum Free Electron Theory 1.12
Isotope effect 3.39 Quantum theory 1.11
J R
Josephson Devices 3.50 Regular spinal 3.24
M S
MAGLEV 3.49 Semiconductors 2.6
Magnetic bubble Materials 3.32 Shape Memory Alloys 5.6
Magnetic Disc Drivers 3.29 Soft Magnetic Materials 3.22
Magnetic parameters for Recording 3.27 Space Charge Polarization 4.11
Magnetic Property 3.35 SQUID 3.37
Magnetic Tape 3.29 Storage of Magnetic Data 3.28
Meissener effect 3.36 Structures of Ferrites 3.24
Metallic Glasses 5.1 Superconductivity 3.34
Synthesis of Nanomaterials 5.11
N
Nano Materials 5.10 T
NLO materials 5.17 Temperature dependence 4.14
Non linear materials 5.17 Thermal conductivity (K) 1.7
N-type Semiconductor 2.20 Total Polarization 4.12
Types of Metallic Glasses 5.3
O
Types of Super Conductors 3.39
Optical mixing 5.20
Orientation Polarization 4.10 W
Origin of Magnetic Moments 3.4 Wiedemann-franz Law 1.10
Work Function 1.21
P
Working Principle of SMA 5.7
P - type Semiconductor 2.21
Paramagnetic Materials 3.8 Z
Persistence of Current 3.38 Zone theory 1.2

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Contents

Unit - 1: Conducting Materials 1.1 - 1.42

1.1 Introduction 1.1

2.1 Introduction 2.1

Unit - 3: Magnetic and Superconducting Materials 3.1 - 3.76

3.1 Introduction 3.1

Unit - 4: Dielectric Materials 4.1 - 4.41

4.1 Introduction 4.1

Unit - 5 : Modern Engineering Materials 5.1 - 5.30

5.1 Introduction 5.1

Index I.1 - I.2

1.1.1 Classical free electron theory

1.1.2 Quantum free electron theory

1.1.3 Zone theory (or) Band theory

1.2 ASSUMPTIONS (POSTULATES) OF CLASSICAL FREE

Fig1.1 Absence of electric field (E= 0) Presence of electric field ( E  0 )

1.3 BASIC TERMS INVOLVED IN THE FREE ELECTRON

7. Current density (J)

1.4 SUCCESS OR USES OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON

1.5 DRAWBACKS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1.6 EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (  )

1.6.1 Expression for electrical conductivity

Fig 1.2 Moment of Electron

Drift Velocity (Vd )

1.6.2 Correct expression for electrical conductivity of

1.7 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (K)

1.7.1 Expression for thermal conductivity (K) of an electron

Fig.1.3 Thermal Conductivity

Fig.1.4 moment of electron field

No. of electrons crossing per unit area in unit time at C

(Average energy transfer from A to B)

Comparing equations (5) and (6),

1.8 WIEDEMANN-FRANZ LAW

1.8.2 By Quantum theory

According to Quantum theory, the expression for thermal conductivity is modified

(3.14) 2 (1.38  1023 ) 2

1.9 QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1.9.1 Assumptions (Postulates) of Quantum free electron

1.9.2 Advantages of Quantum free electron theory

1.9.3 Drawbacks of Quantum free electron theory

1.10 FERMI – DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

Where, EF - Fermi energy (highest energy level of an electron)

1.10.1 Effect of Temperature on Fermi Function

(a)At T=0K (b) at T>0K

1.10.2 Fermi level, Fermi Energy and their importance

1.11 DENSITY OF STATES

Number of energy states between E and E + dE

Let us constant a sphere of radius “n” in space with quantum numbers n n , n y

Therefore, the number of energy states within a sphere of radius

We know that the allowed energy values is

For unit volume of a metal,

1.11.1 Carrier concentration in metals

1.11.2 Average energy of an electron at 0 K

Total energy of the electrons at 0 K (E T )

Total energy of   Number of energy   Energy of 

Substitute equation (12) and (9) in equation (11)

1.12 WORK FUNCTION

3. This difference in energy EW = EB – EF is called Work function of a

Fig. 1.7 Work function

Work functions for Some Metals

Metal Work function (eV)

6.023  1023  8.92  103

5.78  10 –9  9.11  10 –31

 = 7.2525 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1