A trophic flow model of the Segara Anakan lagoon,

Cilacap, Indonesia

Erwin Riyanto Ardli

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the degree of Doctor in Natural Sciences (Dr. rer. nat.)

Faculty of Biology and Chemistry (FB 2)

UNIVERSITY OF BREMEN
Bremen, May 2008
ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Referees: Prof. Dr. Matthias Wolff

(University of Bremen, Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, Germany)
Dr. habil. Thomas Brey
(Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany)

Examiners: Prof. Dr. Ulrich Saint-Paul

(University of Bremen, Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, Germany)
Dr. Inga Nordhaus
(University of Bremen, Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, Germany)

Members: Regine Herrmannn (Doctorate student University of Bremen, Germany)

Nur Fadli (Master student University of Bremen, Germany)
dedicated to

 

 





 




 
 
 

ii
 CONTENT

CONTENT ............................................................................................................... i
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................. iii
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG ......................................................................................... vi
RINGKASAN .......................................................................................................... ix
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1
2. Research Objectives ............................................................................................ 4
3. Study area ........................................................................................................... 5
4. Publications ........................................................................................................ 11
4.1. List and Overview of publications ................................................................ 11
4.2. Publication I
Ardli, E.R. and M. Wolff (2005) Spatial and temporal dynamics of
mangrove conversion at Segara Anakan Cilacap, Indonesia. Proceeding
of the 10th ISSM International Conference, 30th September – 1st October
2005. Paris, France. ISSN: 0855-8692. ........................................................ 12
4.3. Publication II
Ardli, E.R. and M. Wolff (in press) Quantifying habitat and resource use
changes in the Segara Anakan lagoon (Cilacap, Indonesia) over the past
25 years (1978 – 2004). Asian Journal of Water, Environment and
Pollution (accepted) ..................................................................................... 25
4.4. Publication III
Ardli, E.R. and M. Wolff (2008) Land use and land cover change affecting
habitat distribution at Segara Anakan lagoon, Cilacap, Indonesia.
Regional Environmental Change Journal (submitted) .................................. 45
4.5. Publication IV
Ardli, E.R. and M. Wolff (2008) Assessment of changes in trophic flow
structure of the Segara Anakan lagoon ecosystem between 1980’s and
2000’s. Wetlands Ecology and Management Journal (submitted) ............... 61

i
 4.6. Publication V
Edy Yuwono, T.C. Jennerjahn, I. Nordhaus, Erwin Riyanto Ardli,
M. H. Sastranegara, Rudhi Pribadi (2007) Ecological status of Segara
Anakan, Java, Indonesia, a mangrove-fringed lagoon affected by human
activities. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, vol. 4, no.
1, pp. 61-70. ................................................................................................. 90
5. Conclusion and Recommendations ..................................................................... 101
6. References .......................................................................................................... 103
7. Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ 107

ii
 SUMMARY

Segara Anakan is a large lagoon located along the southern coast of Java, Cilacap
district, Indonesia, fringed by the only large estuarine-mangrove forest left in Java. The
lagoon is of high ecological and economic value because of its richness and diversity in
living natural resources, comprising commercially important fish, crabs and mangrove
species. During the last decades, the coastal habitats have changed in this region as a
result from increased urbanization and expansion of agriculture and aquaculture
activities, leading to problems such as rural encroachment on agricultural land, land
reclamation from swamps, silt deposition in the lagoon, and a decrease in fishery
catches.

This thesis evaluates the changes in the Segara Anakan lagoon (SAL) ecosystem
by using a trophic modelling approach based on data derived from the identification and
evaluation of habitat and resource abundance changes in the SAL over the last 25 years.
Complementary datasets i.e. satellite images, field data and secondary data were used to
determine these changes.

The thesis is structured into 5 parts: an introduction, objectives, study area, five
publications, conclusion and recommendations. The first publication assesses the
mangrove conversion of the SAL ecosystem by using Landsat TM and SPOT
multispectral (XS) satellite images and ground truth data. In 1978 the mangrove forest
covered 17090 ha and decreased to only 43.8% (9597 ha) in 2003. During this period,
the mangroves were converted into rice fields (8644.4 ha), rural settlements (225 ha),
dry land agriculture (1108.8 ha), industry area (79.7 ha), aquaculture (515.1 ha) and
other land-cover (353.7 ha). These changes resulted from both human activities and
sedimentation in parts of the lagoon.

The second publication assesses the changes in habitat and resource use of the
SAL ecosystem in relation to coastal development over a period of 25 years. For this
purpose, the SAL ecosystem was mapped from 1978 through 2004 using satellite
images and a GIS package to determine coastal habitat changes. The main changes
involved the conversion of a large part of the estuary to new land (2966.8 ha) and
mangrove area (3497.2 ha), and the subsequent conversion of these areas, and of older
sections of the mangrove forest, to rice agriculture, semi-intensive fishponds, new

iii
settlements and other land uses (11315.6 ha). This research provides an account of the
coastal habitat and resource use changes in Segara Anakan, and their implications for
coastal resource management.

The third publication quantifies and spatially characterizes land use and land
cover changes in the SAL, and assesses the consequences of these changes as related to
the land use and coastal development over a period of 20 years (1987 – 2006).
Classification of four satellite (SPOT) images from the years 1987, 1995, 2004 and
2006 and field ground truth data of the years 2004-2005 were used for map generation.
The results show that major changes have occurred in the western area of the SAL
(Ujung Alang, Ujung Gagak, Klaces and Penikel), both in extent and spatial distribution
of some vegetation classes, with large area increases in rice fields, dry land agriculture,
aquaculture and settlement area, and decreases in mangrove cover, mud flat and lagoon
area. In the eastern area (Kembang Kuning, Sapuregel and Donan), changes are less
extensive, but some of the trends verified in the western area can also be identified such
as decreases in mangrove area and increases in aquaculture, settlement and industrial
areas.

In the fourth publication, trophic flow models of the SAL system were developed
in order to evaluate the changes in the ecosystem between the decades of 1980 and
2000. The models were structured by defining 21 functional trophically linked groups of
the ecosystem including commercially important fish groups, shrimps and bivalves. The
mass-balanced models for the two periods show how the different groups of the system
were affected by the habitat transformations. Estimates of biomass per trophic level,
mixed groups impact, ecotrophic efficiency, ascendancy and several other ecosystem
attributes derived from the trophic modeling analysis show that trophic functioning as
well as average catches of the SAL ecosystem differed between the two periods. Model
biomass and mean annual production of commercially important fish and shrimp groups
were smaller in the 2000s as were the total catches. Primary production required to
sustain catches in SAL ecosystem was 250.19 t km-2 y-1 in the 1980s and 391.74 t km-2
y-1 in the 2000s.

The fifth publication shows preliminary results of recent investigations in

conjunction with available information from the past decades indicating an increasing
deterioration of environmental conditions, particularly through high riverine sediment

iv
inputs in the western part of the lagoon, oil pollution in the eastern part particularly and
inputs of effluents from agriculture in the western part of the lagoon. The destruction of
mangroves mainly through illegal logging leads to habitat changes, which affect the
ecology of organisms, particularly of economically important species. There is a very
high diversity of benthic organisms. Abundances are extremely high in the central
lagoon, but lower by two orders of magnitude in the eastern part, which is affected by
the effluents of an oil refinery.

Developing a trophic flow model for the sustainable management of the SAL
lagoon’s living resources requires an integrated understanding of ecosystem functions
and their changes related to human activities and environmental change. These results
indicate (i) high temporal and spatial changes of coastal habitat and its resources and (ii)
changes in trophic functioning as well as average catches in the SAL ecosystem. The
observed changes are both due to human activities (such as mangrove conversion,
resources exploitation, and pollution) and environmental impact in the study area
(mainly through the filling of the lagoon with riverine sediments derived from the
hinterland). Management measures of the lagoon’s resources applied for many years
suffer from the lack of an integrated ecosystem understanding, and hence, had little
success. The results of this study are expected to contribute to a more sustainable
management and conservation of the SAL ecosystem.

v
 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Segara Anakan ist eine große Lagune an der Südküste von Java, im Bezirk
Cilacap, Indonesien. Hier befindet sich der einzige große ästuarine Mangrovenwald von
Java, der durch seinen Reichtum und seine Diversität an lebenden natürlichen
Ressourcen einen hohen ökologischen und ökonomischen Wert besitzt. Seit einigen
Jahrzehnten kommt es durch zunehmende Urbanisierung und Entwicklung von
Landwirtschaft und Aquakultur zu einer Veränderung der Küstenhabitate, was zu
verschiedenen Problemen führt. Diese umfassen das Vordringen von Dörfern in
Landwirtschaftsflächen, Landgewinnung aus Sumpfflächen, Schlickablagerung in der
Lagune und eine Abnahme der Fischereierträge.

Diese Doktorarbeit bewertet die Veränderungen im Ökosystem der Segara

Anakan Lagune (SAL) durch den Einsatz trophischer Modellierung und bestimmt und
beurteilt die zeitliche und räumliche Veränderung der Habitate und ihrer Ressourcen in
der SAL. Die Arbeit besteht aus Einleitung, Zielsetzungen, Untersuchungsgebiet, fünf
Publikationen, Fazit und Empfehlungen. In der ersten Publikation wird die
Konvertierung von Mangrovenflächen im SAL Ökosystem abgeschätzt. Die zeitliche
und räumliche Konvertierung der Mangroven wurde beobachtet und berechnet. Der
Mangrovenwald bedeckte 17090 ha im Jahr 1978 und ging auf 43.8% (9597 ha) im Jahr
2003 zurück. Während dieser Periode wurden die Mangroven in Reisfelder (8644.4 ha),
Ansiedlungen (225 ha), Landwirtschaftsflächen für Trockenanbau (1108.8 ha),
Industrieflächen (79.9 ha), Aquakultur (515.1 ha) und in andere Landflächen (353.7 ha)
umgewandelt.

In der zweiten Publikation wird die Veränderung der Habitat- und

Ressourcennutzung des SAL Ökosystems in Bezug auf die Küstenentwicklung über
eine Periode von 25 Jahren beurteilt. Das SAL Ökosystem wurde zwischen 1978 und
2004 unter Nutzung von Satellitenbildern und einem GIS Paket digitalisiert, um die
Veränderung von Küstenhabitaten zu bestimmen. Die Hauptveränderungen umfassen
die Umwandlung eines großen Teils des Ästuars in neue Landflächen (2966.8 ha) und
Mangrovenflächen (3497.2 ha) und die nachfolgende Konvertierung dieser Habitate in
Reisanbauflächen, semi-intensiv Fischteiche, neue Ansiedlungen und andere

vi
Landflächen (11315.6 ha). Das Lagunenökosystem, seine aquatischen Ressourcen und
seine Biodiversität wurden signifikant reduziert und beeinträchtigt.

In der dritten Publikation wir die Quantifizierung und räumliche

Charakterisierung der Änderungen in Landnutzung und Landbedeckung der SAL sowie
die Beurteilung der Konsequenzen dieser Veränderungen für die Landnutzung und die
Küstenentwicklung über einen Zeitraum von 20 Jahren (1987 – 2006). Die
Klassifizierung von vier Satellitenbildern (SPOT) aus den Jahren 1987, 1995, 2004 und
2006 und Felddaten der Jahre 2004 – 2005 wurden für die Erzeugung einer Karte
genutzt. The Ergebnisse zeigen, dass bedeutende Änderungen im westlichen Teil der
SAL (Ujung Alang, Ujung Gagak, Klaces und Penikel) stattgefunden haben. Im
östlichen Teil (Kembang Kuning, Sapuregel und Donan) wurden eine geringe Abnahme
der Mangrovenfläche und ein Anstieg von Auqakultur-, Ansiedlungs- und
Industrieflächen beobachtet.

In der vierten Publikation wurde ein trophisches Flußmodell des SAL Systems
entwickelt, um die Änderungen im Ökosystem zwischen den 1980er und 2000er Jahren
zu beurteilen. Die Strukturierung der Modelle erfolgte durch die Definierung von 21
funktional und trophisch verbundenen Gruppen des Ökosystems. Die Modelle für die
beiden Zeiträume zeigen wie die verschiedenen Gruppen von den Habitatveränderungen
beeinträchtigt wurden. Die aus der trophischen Modellanalyse abgeleiteten
Ökosystemmerkmale zeigen, dass trophische functionfähig sowie die durchschnittlichen
Fischereierträge im SAL Ökosystem in den beiden Zeiträumen unterschiedlich waren.
Die im Modell bestimmte Biomasse und die durchschnittliche Jahresproduktion der
kommerziell wichtigen Fisch- und Shrimparten sowie der Gesamtfang waren in den
2000er Jahren geringer.

In der fünften Publikation wird die zunehmende Verschlechterung der

Umweltbedingungen aufgezeigt, die besonders auf hohe Sedimenteinträge der Flüsse im
Westteil der Lagune, Ölverschmutzung im östlichen Teil und Abwässer der
Landwirtschaft vor allem im Westteil der Lagune zurückzuführen sind. Die Zerstörung
der Lagune führt zu einer Habiatveränderung die sich auf die Ökologie der Organismen,
besonders auf die der ökonomisch wichtigen Arten auswirkt. Die Diversität der
Benthosorganismen ist hoch. Ihre Abundanzen sind in der zentralen Lagune sehr hoch,

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jedoch um zwei Zehnerpotenzen kleiner im östlichen Teil, der von den Abwässern der
Ölraffinerie betroffen ist.

Die Entwicklung eines trophischen Flußmodells für das nachhaltige Management

der lebenden Ressourcen der SAL erfordert ein ganzheitliches Verständnis der
Ökosystemfunktionen und ihrer Änderungen in Bezug auf menschliche Aktivitäten und
Umweltveränderungen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen (i) eine hohe zeitliche und räumliche
Veränderung der Küstenhabitate und ihrer Ressourcen und (ii) Veränderungen im
trophische functionfähig sowie durchschnittlichen Fischereierträgen im SAL
Ökosystem. Die beobachteten Veränderungen erfolgten auf Grund von menschlichen
Aktivitäten (wie die Konvertierung von Mangroven, Ausbeutung der Ressourcen und
Verschmutzung) und Umwelteinflüssen im Untersuchungsgebiet (v.a. durch den
Flusseintrag von Sediment aus dem Hinterland in die Lagune). Die über viele Jahre
angewandten Managementmaßnahmen und Beobachtungen der Ressourcen der Lagune
zeugen von dem Fehlen eines ganzheitlichen Verständnisses and hatten daher wenig
Erfolg. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie werden voraussichtlich zu einem nachhaltigeren
Management und zum Erhalt des SAL Ökosystems beitragen.

viii
 RINGKASAN

Segara Anakan merupakan laguna yang terletak di pantai selatan Jawa, yang
masuk dalam wilayah Kabupaten Cilacap, Indonesia, di mana terdapat mangrove-
estuarin terbesar di Pulau Jawa. Ekosistem laguna tersebut sangat penting baik secara
ekologis maupun ekonomis, dikarenakan tingginya biodiversitas dan kekayaan alamnya.
Habitat pantai di lokasi ini telah banyak mengalami perubahan sejak beberapa dekade
lalu dikarenakan tingginya laju pertambahan penduduk dan juga alih guna lahan yang
berdampak pada kerusakan habitat mangrove, sedimentasi di laguna serta penurunan
sumberdaya khususnya perikanan dari ekosistem tersebut.

Objektif dari disertasi ini adalah untuk mengevaluasi perubahan yang terjadi di
ekosistem laguna Segara Anakan (SAL) dengan pendekatan trophic modelling; serta
untuk mengidentifikasi dan mengevaluasi perubahan habitat dan sumberdaya alam yang
ada secara temporal maupun spasial. Desertasi ini terdiri atas 5 bagian yaitu
pendahuluan, objektif atau tujuan, publikasi, kesimpulan dan rekomendasi. Publikasi
pertama mengkaji dan menganalisis konversi mangrove yang terjadi di ekosistem SAL
baik temporal maupun spasial. Pada tahun 1978 luas hutan mangrove sebesar 17090
ha dan mengalami penurunan hingga tersisa 43.8% (9597 ha) pada tahun 2003. Selama
periode tersebut mangrove telah dikonversi menjadi sawah (8644.4 ha), pemukiman
(225 ha), pertanian lahan kering/tegalan (1108.8 ha), area industri (79.7 ha), tambak
(515.1 ha) serta menjadi peruntukan lainnya (353.7 ha).

Publikasi kedua bertujuan mengkaji dan menganalisis perubahan habitat pantai

dan sumberdaya yang ada kaitannya dengan pembangunan di wilayah pesisir dalam
kurun waktu 25 tahun. Pemetaan ekosistem SAL dilakukan dengan menggunakan citra
satelit dari tahun 1978 hingga 2004 dan perangkat GIS untuk menganalisa perubahan
habitat. Perubahan paling besar terjadi di lingkungan estuarin menjadi daratan baru
(2966.8 ha) dan mangrove (3497.2 ha), dan area yang mengalami perubahan tersebut
telah berubah menjadi sawah, tambak semi-intensif, pemukiman dan peruntukan lain
(11315.6 ha). Perubahan habitat tersebut berdampak pada penurunan sumberdaya
akuatik dan biodiversitas yang ada.

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 Publikasi ketiga bertujuan untuk kuantifikasi dan karakterisasi spasial pada
tutupan dan tata guna lahan di ekosistem SAL dalam kaitannya dengan pembangunan
wilayah pesisir dan perkembangan tata guna lahan selama kurun waktu 20 tahun (1987-
2006). Pemetaan tutupan dan tata guna lahan dilakukan dengan klasifikasi dan analisis
dari citra satelit akuisisi tahun 1987, 1995, 2004 dan 2006 dan data lapangan tahun
2004-2005. Dari hasil pemetaan menunjukkan perjadi perubahan yang sangat besar
pada tutupan dan tata guna lahan di SAL bagian barat (Ujung Alang, Ujung Gagak,
Klaces dan Penikel). Di ekosistem SAL bagian timur walaupun relative kecil terlihat
adanya penurunan luasan mangrove dan terdapat alih guna lahan menjadi areal
perikanan, pemukiman maupun industri.

Publikasi keempat membahas perubahan ekosistem di SAL pada tahun 1980-an

dan tahun 2000-an dengan menggunakan model trophic flow. Model tersebut meliputi
21 fungsional group yang ada dalam ekosistem. Kedua model tersebut dipengaruhi oleh
adanya perubahan dan transformasi habitat pada ekosistem SAL. Dari parameter
ekosistem yang terdapat dalam model menunjukkan bahwa struktur tropik termasuk
rata-rata penangkapan di ekosistem tersebut berbeda untuk masing-masing periode.
Total biomassa dan produksi tahunan perikanan dengan nilai ekonomi tinggi mengalami
penurunan pada tahun 2000.

Pada publikasi kelima terlihat adanya perubahan ekosistem yang terpisah-pisah,

misalnya terjadinya sedimentasi di SAL bagian barat, serta terjadinya polusi oleh
industri di bagian timur SAL dan oleh limbah pertanian di bagian barat SAL. Perusakan
mangrove sangat berdampak terhadap ekologi biota yang ada termasuk yang
mempunyai nilai ekonomi penting. Organisme benthik sangat beragam dengan
keragaman tertinggi di SAL bagian tengah, sedangkan keragaman rendah di SAL bagian
timur yang dikarenakan adanya buangan dari industri.

Pendekatan dengan menggunakan model trophic flow untuk manajemen

sumberdaya alam secara terpadu dan berkelanjutan sangat besar peranannya terutama
dalam mengetahui keterkaitan antar fungsional group dalam ekosistem termasuk
perubahannya. Secara garis besar pada ekosistem SAL terlihat (i) terjadinya perubahan
yang besar pada habitat SAL dan sumberdaya yang ada baik secara temporal maupun
spasial dan (ii) terjadi perubahan dalam fungsi ekosistem termasuk perubahan hasil
perikanan di SAL. Perubahan tersebut dikarenakan oleh aktivitas manusia (konversi

x
mangrove, eksploitasi sumber alam yang ada, dan polusi) dan juga faktor alam
(khususnya sedimentasi yang berasal dari erosi di daerah aliran sungai bagian atas).
Pelaksanaan pengawasan dan manajemen untuk SAL telah dilakukan beberapa kurun
waktu yang lalu, akan tetapi kurang terintegrasi dan terpadu dengan hasil yang minimal.
Data hasil penelitian ini diharapkan mampu memberikan gambaran kondisi terkini dan
perubahan ekosistem SAL untuk keperluan konservasi dan manajemen secara
berkelanjutan.

xi
 1. INTRODUCTION

The coastal and marine biodiversity of Indonesia is one of the highest in the
world. With a coastline of 95181 km (WRI, 2003), it is among the regions with
maximum water and sediment inputs, high diversity of coral reefs, seagrass meadows
and mangroves and maximum human modifications of the coastal zone worldwide
(Elvidge et al., 1997). Along its coastal zones there are 3.06 million ha of mangrove
area, a 19% of the total mangrove area of the world (FAO, 2007). About half of the
population of Indonesia (235 million) live on the island of Java and depend on its
natural resources to a large extent (Yuwono et al., 2007). Coastal settlements are
generally densely populated with widespread poverty, especially among fishing
communities. Fishing is the major livelihood of the people in the Segara Anakan
lagoon (SAL) area. Other livelihood activities include farming and mangrove harvests
(Olive, 1997). An ncrease in the number of fisherman as a result of population growth
and migration to coastal fishing communities is seen as a contributing factor in the
overexploitation of local fisheries resources and the deterioration of the coastal
environment (Tietze et al., 2000).

The SAL ecosystem, located on the south coast of Central Java, is a lagoon area
that is rich in natural resources (Pollnac & Pomeroy, 2005), which has been rapidly
altered by human activities (White et al., 1989). The area is the only major estuarine-
mangrove zone in Java serves as a protective habitat for spawning, and represents
nursery and feeding grounds for several aquatic organisms such as fish, crustacean and
shellfish, including many commercial species (Adel & Pomeroy, 2002; Pribadi, 2003)
and marine fish and shrimp (Paw & Chua, 1991; Primavera, 1998). An abundance of
larvae of commercially important marine fish and shrimp in the lagoon (Staples, 1989)
demonstrates the strong ecological links between offshore and lagoon waters,
confirming the high value of tropical coastal estuaries for offshore fishery stocks
(Naamin, 1982; Dudley, 2000).

Since the last century, SAL has changed dramatically (White et al., 1989;
Tedjakusuma, 2006). The land use and land cover changes in the SAL ecosystem up to
1995 have been observed (Olive, 1997). There are high sedimentation rates in the

1
lagoon, derived primarilly from the Citanduy River basin (70%) and the Cimeneng
River basin (30%) (Purba, 1991; Sutarno, 2004). These changes are mainly caused by
resource overexploitation (Dudley, 2000; Sastranegara et al., 2007), degradation and
pollution due to unsustainable land use practices in the hinterland and pollution from
industry and households in the SAL ecosystem (Ecology Team, 1984).

The SAL ecosystem has been relatively well studied during the past three
decades, i.e. ecology, natural resources, population, socioeconomic and land use
(Ecology Team, 1984), ecological status, management and conservation (White et al.,
1989; BPKSA 2003; Yuwono et al., 2007), fisheries (Amin & Hariati, 1991; Dudley,
2000), impact of sedimentation (Purba, 1991), mangrove production (Pribadi, 2003),
mangrove conversion (Ardli & Wolff, 2005), and benthic fauna (Widianingsih et al.,
2003; Suryono et al., 2003), but detailed information on spatial and temporal are
lacking. An other interesting not as well explored, is the aspect change in different
trophic levels due to changes in the SAL coastal habitat.

Coastal habitat change can be observed by using periodic mapping (Stevens &
Connolly, 2004; Mumby et al. 1999; Cicin-Sain & Knecht, 1998). Due to the spatial
nature of habitats and associated temporal changes, the assimilation of data using
traditional analytical methods is often difficult (Treitz & Rogan, 2004; Carreno et al.,
2008). Mapping using remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) has
proven to be effective to address problems inherent in the analysis of spatial data
(Stanbury & Starr, 1999; ESRI, 1990). It may also be used to combine scientific and
cultural data to assess coastal habitat resource changes (Cicin-Sain & Knecht, 1998).
Coastal habitat area may be used for calculating habitat area fraction in the trophic flow
model. This is the fraction of the total area in which the groups of species occur
(Christensen et al., 2005).

Habitat destruction and overexploitation of species may cause mortality within

several trophic levels (Karlsson et al., 2007; Prakash & de Roos, 2002), and is a major
cause of species extinction (Tilman et al., 2002), and extinction to the predator and
prey in the food chain (Bascompte & Sole, 1998; Pauly et al., 2000). Changes in habitat
and resource abundance of the SAL and in the functional groups within the ecosystem
may be summarized and viewed as part of a whole using a trophic modelling approach.
Direct and indirect effects of species on others within an ecosystem can be explored, as

2
well as the overall functioning of the ecosystem. Ecopath is a software tool that
facilitates the construction of mass-balance and trophic models of aquatic ecosystems,
and allows analysis of different aspects of the resulting food web network. Species or
groups of species are modelled as individual boxes, for which input data is required,
including estimates of biomass, production, consumption, diet and harvests
(Christensen & Pauly, 1992).

3
 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The main objectives of this research are:

1) to identify, assess and evaluate the coastal habitat of SAL ecosystem and its
resource changes temporally and spatially,
2) to compare trophic flow models of different time periods (1980’s and 2000’s) in
order to evaluate the changes in the SAL system by using a Ecopath with Ecosim
(EwE 6),
3) to investigate temporal and spatial variability of environmental conditions and
distribution patterns of the living resources.

4
 3. STUDY AREA

Segara Anakan is a large lagoon located in the south-western part of Central Java
(108 46’–109005’E; 7034’–7048’S), west of Cilacap city (Fig. 1, 2, 3 and 4), fringed by
0

the only large estuarine-mangrove forest left in Central Java (Tomascik et al., 1997;
White et al., 1989; Sukardjo & Yamada, 1992; Whitten et al., 1996). The lagoon is
connected to the Indian Ocean by the western outlet (Plawangan Barat) and a tidal
channel towards Cilacap as an Eastern outlet, and is protected from the open ocean by
the rocky mountainous island Nusakambangan. The western part of the lagoon
receives a high input of freshwater from Citanduy River, Cibereum River and Cikonde
River, while the eastern part of the lagoon receives a low input of fresh water from
short and small fresh water rivers, i.e. Sapuregel River and Donan River.

Fig. 1. Segara Anakan lagoon, Cilacap District, Central Java, Indonesia

5
Figure 2. Landsat MSS image of Segara Anakan, Cilacap Indonesia, acquisition date 25-04-
1978, path/row (129/065).

Figure 3. Landsat TM image of Segara Anakan, Cilacap Indonesia, acquisition date 22-06-
2001, path/row (121/065).

6
Figure 4. Land cover and land use map (year 2006) of Segara Anakan lagoon, Cilacap,
Indonesia.

The mangrove forest of Segara Anakan is the largest mangrove area left in Java.
The Segara Anakan mangrove forest area was about 21750 ha in 1983, (White et al.
1989) reduced to 13577 ha in the 1990s (Tomascik et al. 1997), and has been severely
degraded and reduced by a rate of 192.96 ha per year since then (Ardli & Widyastuti,
2001). In 1980 the lagoon extended over an area of 3636 ha but has constantly
decreased to only 600 ha in 2002 (White et al. 1989; BPKSA, 2003). There are only a
few undisturbed mangrove areas, estimating between 4000 ha (Ardli & Widyastuti,
2001; Dudley, 2000) and 5000 ha (Sastranegara, 2004). The most recent undisturbed
mangrove forest left is in the eastern part of the lagoon, and only 202 ha of mangrove
forest are left in the western part of the lagoon, which is strongly affected by illegal
logging, land use conversion and sedimentation.

The mangrove forest of Segara Anakan contains 26 mangrove species belonging

to 15 mangrove families. The total mangrove litter-fall in the SAL ecosystem is about
22.88 t ha-1y-1. The leaf-litter decomposition in Segara Anakan varies among species,
ranging between 25% – 75% (Pribadi, 2007).

Various species of fish, shrimps, crabs, molluscs, birds and mammals are found
either in the lagoon, on the mud flats or in the mangrove areas. White et al. (1989)

7
reported more than 45 species of fish, of which 17 are demersal, 12 residential and 16
occasional visitors. More than 85% of these species are of high economic value as
fisheries commodities. The lagoon is a feeding, spawning and nursery ground for many
commercially important fishes and crustaceans (Tomlison, 1994; Primavera, 1998;
Adeel & Pomeroy, 2002). The commercially important crustaceans found in the area
are Scylla spp., Portunus pelagicus, Tellina spp., Penaeus merguensis, P. chinensis, P.
monodon, Metapenaeus ensis, M. elegan and M. dopsoni. The catch composition of
mangrove crabs is 46% S. olivacea, 36% S. serrata, 11% S. tranquebarica and 7% S.
paramamosain (Dudley, 2000).

In the year 2000, the lagoon’s fisheries production was about 488 tons
comprising of 41% shrimp, 39% fish, 13% crabs and 7% others. The most dominant
fishing gear used (46%) is the “apong” (tidal filter net), followed by jaring krisil
(10%), jala (9%), jarring ciker (9%), gillnet (8%), wadong and pintur (8%), jaring
sirang (7%), and waring surungan (3%). Species composition of shrimp in the SAL
ecosystem is comprised by weight of 51% Metapenaeus elegans, 25% Penaeus
merguiensis, 8% P. indicus, 3% P. monodon, 3% M. dobsoni, 3% M. ensis and 9%
other species. Species composition of fin-fish catch is 40% Mugilidae, 11% Ariidae,
9% Scatophagidae, 5% Leiognathidae, 4% Sciaenidae, 4% Anguillidae, 2%
Cynoglossidae and 25% other fish family (Dudley, 2000).

Ecology Team (2000) reported 16 genera of common macrobenthic invertebrates.

Thiara is a gastropod genus which was dominant and tolerant within low salinity. The
larval form of the crustacean Gammarus was also common. Cerithidea cingulata is a
dominant mollusk found at the mouth of Citanduy River. Several mud skippers and
Grapsid crabs, as well as several gastropods, were recorded. This area had the lowest
diversity index (0.87) with a density of 35ind/m² compared to south of Karang Anyar
site, where the diversity index was higher (1.5) with a density of 28 ind./m² (White et
al. 1989).

Diversity and abundance of the macrobenthic fauna are different between the
western part of SAL (Klaces) and the eastern part of SAL (Sapuregel) (Table 1).

8
Table 1. Macrobenthic fauna in the Klaces and Sapuregel (Widianingsih et al., 2003a;
Widianingsih et al., 2003b; Suryono et al., 2003)
Klaces Sapuregel
Polychaeta
- number of family 5 17
- biomass (g/ind) 0.026 0.012
Crustacea
- number of family 9 9
- number of species 44 45
- density (ind m-2) 3.74 4.83
- diversity indices 1.93 1.97
Gastropods
- number of family 8 9
- number of species 24 19
- density (ind m-2) 26.5 5.3

A few recent studies dealt with the ecology of macrobenthos with special
emphasis on the ecology of the Asiatic clam Polymesoda erosa (Pribadi, 2003; Suryono
et al., 2003; Widianingsih et al., 2003a; Widianingsih et al., 2003b). In total 62 taxa of
epibenthic crustaceans belonging to 11 families were recorded with Perisesarma sp.
(Grapsidae), Macrophthalmus sp. and Uca coarctata (Ocypodidae) being the most
abundant species in the central lagoon and Metaplax sp. and Perisesarma spp.
(Grapsidae) in the eastern part of the lagoon (Pribadi, 2003; Widianingsih et al.,
2003a). Cerithidea obtusa and Neritina violacea were the most abundant gastropods in
the central lagoon and Nerita lineata in the eastern lagoon (Suryono et al., 2003). In
terms of biomass, Telescopium telescopium was the dominant species in both areas.

The climate of Segara Anakan is tropical and humid, with a southeast monsoon
dry season (July to September) and a northwest monsoon rainy season (November to
April). Rainfall during the rainy season exceeds 300 mm/month and decreases to 100
mm/month or less in the dry season. The total rainfall during 2002-2005 is about 2151
up to 5466 mm/year. The averages of minimum and maximum temperatures are 23.70
and 31.40C (Tomascik et al. 1997, BPS Jawa Tengah, 2006). The average monthly
humidity ranges from 81 to 86% (Ecology Team, 2000). Tides are diurnal with
amplitudes of 0.2 - 2.6 m (average 1.48 m) within the lagoon (White at al., 1989).

The central and western parts of the lagoon are extremely shallow with water
depths often <2 m. Only in the westernmost part from the Citanduy River mouth to the

9
Indian Ocean are water depths greater with a maximum depth of >10 m in the
Plawangan channel. In the eastern lagoon, water depths of 5-10 m are recorded in the
Sapuregel and Donan branches because of little freshwater and sediment input. Near
Cilacap port facilities and in the channel connecting the lagoon to the Indian Ocean,
water depth is around 10 m also because of dredging of the navigation channel
(Jennerjahn et al., 2007).

This lagoon receives high amounts of fresh water and discharges including
suspended sediments from Citanduy River, Cikujang River, Cikonde River and
Cibereum River (Ardli & Widyastuti, 2001; White et al., 1989; Purba, 1991). The
average discharge of the Citanduy River is 140 m3s-1 (range 80-300 m3s-1) with an
average outflow to the Indian Ocean through the Plawangan channel of 555 m3s-1
(range 0-1200 m3s-1) (Jennerjahn et al., 2007). The Citanduy River is the main river in
the Citanduy watershed. This watershed is critical in terms of hydrology and erosion.
Agricultural activity is the most important activity in this watershed, for which
conservation areas and forested lands are being converted into horticulture or land for
growing other food crops (Dwiprabowo & Wulan, 2003). The lagoon is rapidly filling
up with sediments because of high rates of upland soil erosion. Fishery yields have also
been affected due to the environmental changes and the loss of lagoon area (Dudley
2000).

Human populations are concentrated in the four villages “Kampung Laut” i.e.
Ujungalang (4024 people), Ujunggagak (3887 people), Klaces (1030 people) and
Penikel (4706 people) (BPS Cilacap, 2006). The most important human activities are
fishing, agriculture and semi-intensive aquaculture (tambak) (BPKSA, 2003; BPS
Cilacap, 2006).

10
 4. PUBLICATIONS
4.1. List and overview of publications
Objectives Publication Title
I 1. Spatial and temporal dynamics of
mangrove conversion at the Segara
Anakan Cilacap, Indonesia.
2. Quantifying habitat and resource use
changes in the Segara Anakan lagoon
(Cilacap, Indonesia) over the past 25
years (1978 – 2004)
3. Land use and land cover change
affecting habitat distribution at Segara
Anakan lagoon, Cilacap, Indonesia
II 4. Assessment of changes in trophic flow
structure of the Segara Anakan
Lagoon ecosystem between 1980’s
and 2000’s
III 5. Ecological status of Segara Anakan,
Java, Indonesia, a mangrove-fringed
lagoon affected by human activities
11
Topics addressed
- Spatial and temporal variation of
mangrove conversion in the SAL
- human activities impacting
mangrove conversion
- change in the coastal habitat and
its resources of the SAL
- economic impact in term of
coastal habitat resources changes
- land cover and land use change
in the SAL
- habitat distribution in the SAL
- trophic structure of the SAL in
the 1980s and 2000s
- change in the trophic flow,
catches and other ecosystem
attributes
- ecosystem maturity status of
SAL
- ecological status of the SAL
- present condition of biotic
(mangrove forest, aquatic fauna)
and abiotic components (water,
sediment, biogeochemistry)
4.2. Publication I

Ardli, E.R. and M. Wolff (2005) Spatial and temporal dynamics of mangrove
conversion at the Segara Anakan Cilacap, Indonesia. Proceeding of the 10th ISSM
International Conference, 30th September – 1st October 2005. Paris, France. ISSN:
0855-8692.

12
 Spatial and temporal dynamics of mangrove conversion
at the Segara Anakan, Cilacap, Indonesia
Erwin Riyanto Ardli1,2), Matthias Wolff1)

1)
Zentrum für Marine Tropenökologie (ZMT), Fahrenheitstr. 6 28359 Bremen, Germany
2)
Fakultas Biologi Universitas Jenderal Soedirman, Jl. Dr. Suparno 63 Purwokerto, Indonesia
telp. +62 281 638794, Fax. + 62 281 637100, email: eriantoo@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

Segara Anakan is a large lagoon located along the southern coast of Java, comprised by the
only large estuarine-mangrove forest left in Central Java. The mangrove within this area
(13577 ha in 1991 [6]) contains 26 primary mangrove species, Rhizophora apiculata, R.
mucronata and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza being the most abundant and commercially important
[1]. Since 1978, land use and land cover change has been increasing in this coastal region,
resulting from increased urbanization, and expansion of agriculture and aquaculture, leading to
several problems. These include rural encroachment on agricultural land, land reclamation from
swamps, silt deposition in the lagoon, and a decrease in fishery catches.
The objectives of this work are to map and analyse mangrove conversion of the Segara Anakan
and to monitor and assess their temporal (1978 – 2003) and spatial changes by satellite analysis
and ground truth data. Landsat TM and SPOT multispectral (XS) images are the data sets used
in this study. ER Mapper 5.5 and Arcview 3.2 were used for image interpretation and GIS
analysis. In 1978 the Segara Anakan mangrove forest covered 17090 ha and decreased to only
43.8% (9597 ha) in 2003. During this period, the mangroves were converted into rice fields
(8644.4 ha), rural settlements (225 ha), dry land agriculture (1108.8 ha), industry area (79.7
ha), aquaculture (515.1 ha) and other land-cover (353.7 ha). These changes resulted from both
human activities and environmental impact.
Keywords : mangrove conversion, Segara Anakan, Landsat TM, SPOT.

1. Introduction

The term `mangrove’ is used to designate a group of floristically diverse

tropical trees and shrubs belonging to unrelated families that share physiological
characteristics and special adaptations, which allow them to persist on waterlogged,
saline, oxygen depleted silty and unconsolidated substrates. Mangrove forests or
ecosystems are referred to as tidal forests, mangrove forests, mangrove swamps or
mangal [10]. Mangroves are found along sheltered coastlines in the tropics and
subtropics, where they fulfill important ecological and economical functions in
conserving biological diversity and providing wood and non-wood forest products [18].
They protect coastline from erosion, storm damage and wave action by acting as
buffers and catching alluvial materials. They protect reefs and sea grass beds from
siltation and pollution [28]. They provide a protective habitat for spawning, and

13
represent nursery and feeding grounds for a variety of fish, crustacean and shellfish,
including many commercial species [7],[13]. Mangroves are critical for sustaining the
production of coastal fisheries [7],[23],[24], and are important indicators of coastal
changes [4].

Indonesia has one of the world’s largest mangrove areas, estimated of 2.93
million ha (20% of the total mangrove area of the world) [18]. However, they
continuously declined at an assumed rate of about 1.7% per year during 1990-2000.
The Segara Anakan mangrove forest covered about 13577 ha in 1997 [6], degraded and
reduced by 192.96 ha per year [11]. Segara Anakan is subjected to multiple resource
use conflicts, overexploitation of coastal resources and environmental degradation.
The coastal communities traditionally exploit mangroves. Key management issues are
the decreasing size of the lagoon due to heavy riverine sediment input from upland
activities, water quality problems, particularly pesticides runoff from upland agriculture
and poor economic conditions of the coastal inhabitants [9]; [17]; [20].

There were two large-scale Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) projects in

Segara Anakan. The first was the Coastal Resources Management Project (1984 –
1992) implemented by the Directorate General of Fisheries and supported by USAID.
The objectives of this project were to establish a land-use zoning scheme that satisfied
the different resources users, to preserve ecological important areas of coastal forest,
estuarine and marine ecosystems; and to solve land-use conflicts. The second project
was the Segara Anakan Conservation and Development Project (SACDP) (1996 –
2004) implemented by the Directorate General of Regional Development and supported
by an ADB loan. Primary objectives were water resource management and
sedimentation control, rehabilitation and management of mangroves through
community participation, capacity building and education [27].

Remote sensing technologies provide useful information about coastal features

including mangrove ecosystems [15]. Many environmental and ecological properties
can be measured using remote sensing [21]. Landsat thematic mapper (TM) and SPOT
(Le Systeme Pour l’Observation de la Terre) images are adequate for mapping marine
and intertidal habitats [8],[14], as well as for mapping mangrove cover changes [5],
[11], [16], [22]. Landsat TM and SPOT multispectral (XS) are the data sets used in this

14
study to determine mangrove habitat changes, based on the available data, and the
provided spectral and spatial resolution [8], [22].

Mangrove conversion in Segara Anakan has been reported in many studies [2],
[3], [6], [9], [17], [20], [27] but there is limited information on the trends of mangrove
conversion temporally and spatially in this area. The main purposes of this study are to
map and analyse mangrove converted of the Segara Anakan and to monitor and assess
their temporal (1978 – 2003) and spatial changes by analyzing the satellite and ground
truth data.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Study area

The Segara Anakan coastal ecosystem is located in the south-western part of

Central Java (108o46’–109o03’E; 7o34’–7o47’S), west of Cilacap city. This ecosystem
is protected from the open ocean by a barrier island Nusakambangan.

Indonesia
Cibereum River

Cikonde River Java

Citanduy River
Segara Anakan Lagoon

Klaces

Plawangan Barat

Motean
Cilacap
Nusa Kambangan Island

Indian Ocean

Figure 1. Map of the Segara Anakan ecosystems, Cilacap District, Central Java.

The climate at Segara Anakan is tropical and humid, with the southeast
monsoon dry season during the months (April - October) and the northwest monsoon

15
rainy season (November - March). Rainfall during the rainy season exceeds
300mm/month and decreases to 100mm/month or less in the dry season [6]. Tides are
diurnal with amplitude of 0.2 - 2.6 m (average 1.48 m) within the lagoon [1]. The area
of the present study included the Segara Anakan lagoon, the rivers Citanduy, Cibereum
and Cikonde in the western and northern part of lagoon, Motean in the Eastern and
Klaces in the Southern part of the lagoon (Figure 1.).

2.2. Datasets:
Satellite images were used in this study is listed in Table 1.

Table 1. List of satellite images in this study.

Spectral Number of Path/Row Acquisition
Sensor Platform Spatial resolution
coverage channels (m) (scene) date
(µm)
MSS Landsat 5 0.50–12.6 4 (G,R, 2 x NIR) 79 (MS) 240 (TIR) 129/065 25 April 1978
HRV 2 SPOT 1 0.50–0.89 3 10 (PAN) 20 (MS) 289-365/0 10 Nov 1987
HRV 2 SPOT 3 0.50–0.89 3 10 (PAN) 20 (MS) 289-365/0 11 July 1995
TM Landsat 5 0.45–2.35 7 (B, G, R, NIR, 2 x 30 (MS) 120 (TIR) 121/065 19 Jan 2003
MIR, thermal IR)

2.3. Data processing:

Cloudfree Landsat MSS and TM images processed to Level 9 (map oriented,
precision corrected and resampled with a cubic convolution to 25 m pixels with the
RMS error of < 1) were used in the ERMapper image processing system. SPOT images
processed to Level 2A (map oriented, precision corrected and resampled with a cubic
convolution to 20 m pixels with the RMS error of < 1). Supervised classification with a
maximum likelihood algorithm (available in ERMapper 5.5) was used in this study,
because this classification algorithm produces consistently good results for most habitat
types [14]. The training polygons were digitized on-screen based on terrain knowledge
acquired during fieldwork and was distributed throughout the study areas. The pixels in
the polygons that were selected as representatives of each class were plotted in spectral
space and a visual check was made that all classes could be separated in at least one
combination of bands, for ellipses containing 95% of the class pixels.

Accuracy assessment for the coastal habitat maps from the Segara Anakan
ecosystem was based on 37-ground truthing points recorded during the field survey
(May 2004-February 2005). Using ecological information in a Geographic Information
System (GIS), one can formulate and apply location and topological (the relation

16
between area-based objects) rules to the classified satellite data to improve the mapping
accuracy [5].

After accuracy assessment, the classified images were exported to the GIS
facilities to generate the mangrove thematic map. Analysis and quantification of
mangrove conversion between the different dates was included in the GIS database.
Once both maps had exactly the same number of feature pixels they were subject to a
cross-tabular comparison. This indicates the differences in extent of each class and the
transitions that had taken place between the two dates. The characterization of land
cover change is done using aggregated measurements of area by cover type at both
dates and quantifying transitions. The change analysis is limited to these measurements
due to the different generalization levels and minimum size of mapped units for the
data sources available for the study (1978 - 2003).

3. Result and discussion

Since 1978, the Segara Anakan region has changed enormously. A large part
(42.1%) of the mangrove changed into rice fields, and minor parts into other land use
area such as aquaculture (2.5%), dry land agriculture (5.4%), rural settlement (1.1%),
industry (0.4%) and other land cover types (1.7%) (see Table 2). This mainly caused
by the high sedimentation in mangrove and water area/lagoon. The sedimentation rate
in the areas of mangrove and water area/lagoon estimated at 1-3 million ton.year-1 [2].
Sedimentation has been one of the main management concerns in the river basin,
particularly regarding the impacts on the low land activities, including the Segara
Anakan. Sedimentation has been attributed to deforestation and poor agricultural
management practices in the upland areas of the Citanduy river basin, as well as the
1982 volcanic eruption of Mount Galunggung, which is located in the river basin. In
the western region (Karanganyar, Klaces, Penikel and Motean) mangrove change were
higher due to stronger logging and sedimentation compared to the eastern area. These
changes were mainly caused by extent of rural settlements, rice fields and industry area.
The largest patch of the mangrove area was converted into the rice fields that are
mostly located in the northern, northwestern and northeastern part of the lagoon (Figure
2.). This is where most of the low lying area with a great abundance of fresh water

17
resources of the former mangrove area occurred compared to the other parts of the
mangrove.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 2. Temporary and spatial conversion of mangrove forest of Segara Anakan since 1978
(a); 1987 (b); 1995 (c) and 2003 (d).
Legend:

The largest proportion (42.1%) of the mangrove area of the year 1978 has
changed into rice fields and the smallest proportion (0.4%) into industrial area (about
79.7 ha). There are also important additions of the new mangroves (3433.7 ha) derived
from other land cover areas such as mud flats and the open lagoon. The reduction in
the addition of the new mangroves (from 193.5 to 97.1 ha per year) may also be the
result of the progressive decrease of its original area and of the dragging activities since
1996.

18
Table 2. Temporal land-cover area (in ha) in Segara Anakan.
Annual Annual Annual
Land-cover 1978 1987 change 1995 change 2003 change
1978-1987 1987-1995 1995-2003
(%) (%) (%)
Mangrove 17090.0 15827.6 -0.8 10974.6 -3.4 9597.0 -1.4
Rice fields 0 1708.1 - 6940.8 34.0 8644.4 2.7
Aquaculture 0 127.8 - 278.3 13.1 515.1 9.5
Industry 0 46.7 - 46.8 0.0 79.7 7.8
Rural settlement 0 156.1 - 179.8 1.7 225.0 2.8
Dry land agriculture 0 678.8 - 986.6 5.0 1108.8 1.4
Others 0 286.1 - 340.3 2.1 353.7 0.4
Total area 17090.0 18831.2 19747.2 20523.7

Table 3. Temporal trajectory of mangrove conversion in Segara Anakan.

Annual Annual Annual
1987 change 1995 change 2003 change
Land-cover
(ha) 1978-1987 (ha) 1987-1995 (ha) 1995-2003
(ha) (ha) (ha)
Mangrove (no changed) 14086.5 - 10058.6 - 8820.5 -
New mangrove areas 1741.1 193.5 916.0 114.5 776.5 97.1
Mangrove, converted 3003.6 333.7 5769.0 721.1 2154.1 269.3
Rice fields 1708.1 189.8 5232.7 654.1 1703.6 213.0
Aquaculture 127.8 14.2 150.5 18.8 236.8 29.6
Industry 46.7 5.2 0.1 0.0 32.9 4.1
Rural settlement 156.1 17.3 23.7 3.0 45.2 5.7
Dry land agriculture 678.8 75.4 307.8 38.5 122.2 15.3
Others 286.1 31.8 54.2 6.8 13.4 1.7

Figure 3. Extent of change from 1978 to 2003 by land use types.

Figure 3 shows a decrease of the total mangrove area where goes opposite to the
increase of the agricultural area. While mangroves covered about 17090 ha in 1978
and rice fields was not existent at that time, both mangroves and rice fields covered

19
about the same area in 2003 (ca 9000 ha). The increase of other land uses such as
aquaculture, industry, rural settlement, dry land agriculture and others did not
significantly change the extent of the converted mangroves area, because of new
mangrove area were building up. During the period of 1995 to 2003 (for example) the
mangrove area converted into land use excluding rice fields was 450.5 ha, while at the
same time new mangrove area of about 776.5 ha.

The transformation of land use activities has been accelerated by the

immigration of farmers, which has significantly increased the population of the area.
The rate of the population growth at the Segara Anakan is about 2.4% per year. In
general, the rate of mangrove conversion declined from the period 1987-1995 to 1995-
2003, from a rate of -3.4% per year to only -1.4% per year. It can be assumed that this
decline resulted (at least in part) from the projects CRMP and SACDP conducted in
Segara Anakan, as mentioned above.

The land cover and land use changes described, particularly the great reduction
of the original mangrove forest have changed the ecosystems of and around the Segara
Anakan lagoon significantly. It should be asked if these changes considered to the
ecosystem and to the local resource users and other stakeholders of if these changes
may also provide new opportunity and benefits. The result of these changes has been an
increase in the diversity and complexity of the social, economic, and environment. The
local economy of the four fishing communities located in the surrounding lagoon has
been highly dependent on the lagoon fisheries. Others land use activities around the
farmers’ homes are generally more diverse than in the fishing communities, including
home gardens and fishponds. Home garden crops, or palawija, are mainly located on
built up areas. Small non-intensive fishponds have been constructed around some of
the houses especially located at Penikel and Klaces. The big intensive fish/shrimp
ponds have also been build up in the Klaces area, but there were not productive
anymore due to several problems such as security, social conflict and land ownership.
While producing economic benefits, aquaculture development has also been associated
with environmental degradation on Segara Anakan, including the conversion of
mangroves and pollution of the surrounding waters.

Economic opportunities arose from rice fields development, mainly nom the
greater number of income generating activities, including farm labor, harvester, garden

20
and dryland agriculture, and fishponds. While rice has been the dominant agricultural
activity in Segara Anakan, the cultivation of other agriculture products, generally cash
crops, occurs on a much smaller scale. These crops include soybean, fruit & and
vegetables, and are often sold to supplement the household income.

Mangrove conversion may lead to several problems such as reduced catch

yields of commercially important species; reduced biodiversity; loss of habitats and
nursery areas; coastal erosion; loss in productivity; acidification; pollution; and
alteration of water drainage patterns. High population pressure in the coastal areas near
Segara Anakan and elsewhere in Java has led to the conversion of many mangrove
areas to other uses, including infrastructure, aquaculture and rice growing etc. The
loss of biodiversity in mangrove-converted area in Segara Anakan has been reported
since 1980s [19]. Monthly fluctuation of intertidal crab diversity was more constant in
the undisturbed area with high mangrove coverage (90%) compared to the crab
hunting, the logging and the prawn pond area with mangrove coverage of 89%, 33%
and 0%. Sjöling et al. (2005) reported that the nutrient and bacteria diversity are
significantly different (lower) in the deforested mangrove areas.

The sustainability management of the mangrove in Segara Anakan has been

conducted since the first project (CRMP). Issues of sustainable development of the
land use and land cover changes were addressed in terms of economic viability, social
equity and ecological integrity. Overall, the current changes have produced both
constraints and opportunities for sustainable development. This paper provide
information about land use and land cover change for resources sustainable
development, that would be related with the further papers about the assessment of the
Segara Anakan natural resources stocks and uses by using model Ecopath and Ecosim.

4. Conclusions

The results of this study show that there have been important mangrove
conversions in Segara Anakan during 1978 to 2003 with the largest portion of
mangroves converted into the rice fields area (8644.4 ha or 42.1%) followed by 5.4%
dry land agriculture (about 1108.8 ha), 2.5% aquaculture (about 515.1 ha), 1.7% other
land uses (about 353.7 ha), 1.1% rural settlement (about 225 ha) and 0.4% industry area
(about 79.9 ha). The mangrove area has continuously decreased by 1.4% per year since

21
the last decade. This process may lead to several negative impacts such as reduced
fishery catches, reduced biodiversity, loss of productivity and habitat as a spawning,
nursery and feeding ground. Rapid human population growth and sedimentation are
the most important causes of the mangrove conversions in the study area.

Acknowledgements

The author want to thank the SPICE project, German Federal Ministry for Education and
Science (bmbf), Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT) Bremen, Deutscher Akademischer
Austauschdienst (DAAD) and Jenderal Soedirman University, Purwokerto, for their support
during this study; Biotrop Training and Information Center (BTIC) Bogor for images support.

References

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Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management.
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24
4.3. Publication II

Ardli, E.R. and M. Wolff (in press) Quantifying habitat and resource use changes
in the Segara Anakan lagoon (Cilacap, Indonesia) over the past 25 years (1978 –
2004). Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution (accepted)

25
Quantifying habitat and resource use changes in the Segara Anakan lagoon
(Cilacap, Indonesia) over the past 25 years (1978 – 2004)

Erwin Riyanto Ardli1, 2,*, Matthias Wolff1

1)
Zentrum für Marine Tropenökologie (ZMT), Fahrenheitstr. 6 28359 Bremen,
Germany
2)
Fakultas Biologi Universitas Jenderal Soedirman, Jl. Dr. Suparno 63 Purwokerto,
Indonesia
*Corresponding author: phone +49-421-2380075, fax +49-421-2380030, e-mail:
eriantoo@yahoo.com

Abstract

This study assesses the changes in habitat and resource use of the Segara Anakan
lagoon (SAL) located in Cilacap, Indonesia in relation to coastal development over a
period of 25 years. The SAL was chosen for this study, due to its social importance and
its ecological significance, as it is one of the few mangrove areas left in Java, and as the
lagoon area is rapidly decreasing. The SAL ecosystem was mapped from 1978 through
2004 using satellite images and a GIS package to determine coastal habitat area
changes. The main changes in land cover and land use involved the conversion of a
large part of the estuary to new land (2966.8 ha) and mangrove area (3497.2 ha), and
the subsequent conversion of these areas, and of older sections of the mangrove forest,
to rice agriculture, semi-intensive fishponds, new settlements and other land uses
(11315.6 ha). Over the whole period the largest portion of mangroves was converted
into rice fields (8886 ha or 43.2% from the total mangrove area). The mangrove
decrease amounted to 1.4% per year since the last decade. Land use resulted from
increased urbanization, and the expansion of agriculture and aquaculture, which lead to
problems of settlement encroachment on agricultural land, land reclamation from
swamps, silt deposition in the lagoon, and a decrease in fishery catches. This research
provides an account of the coastal habitat and resource use changes in Segara Anakan,
and their implications for coastal resource management and provides the ground work

26
for a forthcoming ecosystem-based assessment of the Segara Anakan natural resources
via the application of a trophic modeling approach.
Keywords: coastal habitat, coastal resources, Segara Anakan, Indonesia, satellite
images, GIS.

1. Introduction :

Segara Anakan is a large lagoon at the southern coast of Java, comprised by the only
large estuarine-mangrove forest left in Central Java. The lagoon is connected to the
Indian Ocean by the Western outlet (Plawangan Barat) and a tidal channel towards
Cilacap as an Eastern outlet (Fig. 1). The lagoon receives high amounts of fresh water
and discharges including suspended sediments from Citanduy River, Cikujang River,
Cikonde River and Cibereum River (Ardli & Widyastuti, 2001).

Various species of mangrove, fish, shrimps, crabs, mollusks, birds and mammals are
found either in the lagoon, on the mud flats or in the mangrove areas. The mangrove
forest of Segara Anakan (21750 ha in 1983) contains 26 primarily mangrove species, of
which the most abundant and commercially important ones are Rhizophora apiculata,
R. mucronata and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (White et al. 1989). Primery production in
the lagoon is reported to range between 0.639 – 1.343 mgC.m-3.s-1 (Tomascik et al.,
1997). The net primary production of mangrove litter of Segara Anakan was estimated
as 134.3 g DW.m-2.day-1 (Tomascik et al., 1997).

White et al. (1989) reported more than 45 species of fishes of which 17 are demersal,
12 residential and 16 occasional visitors. More than 85% of these species are of high
economic value as fisheries commodities. The lagoon is a feeding, spawning and
nursery ground for many commercially important fishes and crustaceans. The
commercially important crustaceans found in the area are Scylla spp., Portunus
pelagicus, Tellina spp., Penaeus merguensis, P. chinensis, P. monodon, Metapenaeus
ensis, M. elegan and M. dopsoni (Dudley, 2000).

In the year 2000, the lagoon’s fisheries production was about 488 tons comprising of
41% shrimp, 39% fish, 13% crabs and 7% others. The most dominant fishing gear used
(46%) is the “apong” (tidal filter net) (Dudley, 2000).

27
Human populations are concentrated in the three villages “Kampung Laut” i.e.
Ujungalang (4959 people), Ujunggagak (3861 people) and Penikel (4490 people)
(Yulastoro, 2003). The most important human activities are fishing, agriculture and
aquaculture. Coastal settlements are generally densely populated with widespread
poverty, especially among fishing communities.

Since 1978, land use and land cover change increased in this coastal region, as a result
from increased urbanization and immigration leading to several problems. These
include settlement encroachment on agricultural land, land reclamation from swamps,
silt deposition in the lagoon, and a decrease in fishery catches.

Segara Anakan is subjected to a multiple resource use conflict, overexploitation of

coastal resources and environmental degradation. The coastal communities traditionally
exploit mangroves. Key management issues are the decreasing size of the lagoon due to
heavy riverine sediment input from upland activities, water quality problems,
particularly pesticides runoff from upland agriculture and poor economic conditions of
the coastal inhabitants (Dudley, 2000; Yulastoro, 2003; BPKSA, 2003).

In 1997 the Segara Anakan mangrove forest area was about 13577 ha (Tomascik et al.
1997), and has been severely degraded and reduced by a rate of 192.96 ha per year
since then (Ardli & Widyastuti, 2001). In 1980 the lagoon extended over an area of
3636 ha but constantly decreased to only 600 ha in 2002 (White et al. 1989; BPKSA,
2003). The lagoon is rapidly filling up with sediments because of high rates of upland
soil erosion. Fishery yields have also been affected due to the environmental changes
and the loss of lagoon area (Dudley 2000).

The importance of integrated coastal conservation and management plan for the SAL
was established in 1992 by the Indonesian government and the ASEAN-USAID CRMP
(Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1998). Coastal habitat maps are regarded to be fundamental
for the purpose of coastal management planning (Stevens & Connolly, 2004; Mumby et
al. 1999; Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1998). For this reason periodic mapping of coastal
habitat, land resources were performed to observe trends and changes (Cicin-Sain and
Knecht, 1998).

Due to the spatial nature of habitats and associated temporal changes, the assimilation
of data using traditional analytical methods is often difficult. Mapping using remote

28
sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) has proven to be effective to
address problems inherent in the analysis of spatial data. GIS can be used to effectively
collect, archive, display, analyze, and model spatial and temporal data (Stanbury &
Starr, 1999). It may also be used to combine scientific and cultural data to assess and
manage marine and coastal habitats (Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1998). GIS is an
“organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data, and designed
to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of
geographically referenced information” (ESRI, 1990).

Satellite data are now available that can be used to map and monitor changes from
continental to local scales and over temporal scales (Treitz, 2004). Landsat thematic
mapper (TM) and (Le Systeme Pour l’Observation de la Terre) SPOT images are
adequate for mapping marine and intertidal habitats (Donoghue & Mironnet, 2002;
Mumby et al., 1999), as well as mapping land and mangrove cover changes
(Vasconcelos et al., 2002; Weiers et al. 2004; Ardli & Widyastuti, 2001; Long &
Skewes, 1996). Many environmental and ecological properties can be measured using
remote sensing (Mumby et al. 2004). Accurate maps of their distribution and
abundance are essential for monitoring changes over time, for assessing habitat
condition, and for investigating their links with other ecological system components
that rely directly or indirectly on them (Long & Skewes, 1996). To monitor changes
efficiently over large areas, accurate, objective and inexpensive mapping techniques are
required. Image processing of high-resolution Landsat TM and SPOT satellite data has
many of these advantages over traditional photo-interpretation mapping (Long &
Skewes, 1996; Mas, 2004; Mumby et al., 1999).

The objectives of the present work were 1) to map and analyse dominant habitats of the
Segara Anakan ecosystem (lagoon/estuarine, mangrove, mud flat, open water area,
river, aquaculture and agriculture) and to monitor and assess their temporal (1980’s –
present time) and spatial changes by the analysis of the satellite data and by the use of
field data for ground truthing, and 2) to assess the socio-economic consequences of
habitat use changes.

29
2. Methods

2.1. Study area

The SAL ecosystem is located in the south-western part of Central Java (108o46’–
109o03’E; 7o34’–7o47’S), west of Cilacap city (Fig. 1). The lagoon is protected from
the open ocean by a barrier island, called Nusakambangan.

The climate at Segara Anakan is tropical and humid, with a southeast monsoon dry
season and a northwest monsoon rainy season. Rainfall during the rainy season exceeds
300 mm/month and decreases to 100 mm/month or less in the dry season (Tomascik et
al. 1997). Tides are diurnal with amplitudes of 0.2 - 2.6 m (average 1.48 m) within the
lagoon (White at al., 1989).

The study area includes the Segara Anakan lagoon, the rivers Citanduy, Cibereum and
Cikonde in the Northern part of lagoon, Motean in the Eastern and Klaces in the
Southern part of the lagoon. The topography, the elevation/contour, the soil types, and
the distance from the line of maximum tide inundation determine the spatial
distribution of the coastal habitats. To discriminate between the different coastal
habitats information on their spatial domain is required. Since coastal habitats require
to be influenced by tidal waters (Walsh, 1974 in Long & Skewes, 1996), the coastal
habitat area was defined by using spatial feature influenced by the tides such as
mangroves, lagoon waters and rivers of Segara Anakan from Landsat image of the
baseline year 1978 (Fig. 2.).

2.2. Data material

Satellite images acquired in this study are listed in Table 1.

Landsat TM and SPOT multispectral (XS) images were used to determine coastal
habitat changes in this study. The analysis was based on the available data, cost-
effectiveness, and the available spectral and spatial resolution (Mumby et.al., 1999;
Weiers et.al., 2004)
Landsat MSS and TM images were registered and resampled to a Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) coordinate system for zone SUTM 49 on the WGS 1984 projected
output image composed of 30 m x 30 m pixels with an RMS error of less than 1.0 pixel.
SPOT images were also registered and resampled to a UTM (SUTM 49) projected

30
output image composed of 20 m x 20 m pixels with an RMS error of less than 1.0 pixel
that was obtained from the Biotrop Training and Information Centre (BTIC).

Resampling was done by the nearest neighbour method, which sets the radiometric
value of the output pixel equal to the nearest input pixel in the original geometry, in
order to preserve the original values of the image. A digital elevation model along with
soil, land use/cover, stream and road network digital maps (scale of 1:50,000), was
obtained from the Segara Anakan Management Agency (BPKSA).

2.3. Mapping approach

2.3.1. Image processing

In the pre-processing phase, the images were cut to include only the areas of interest.
They were then rectified by using ground control points (with the geometric corrected
image as a base) with a linear polynomial transformation and nearest neighbor
resampling with a root mean square error of less than one pixel.

2.3.2. Classification (supervised image classification)

Supervised classification with a maximum likelihood algorithm (available in

ERMapper 5.5) was used in this study, because this classification algorithm produces
consistently good results for most habitat types (Donoghue & Mironnet, 2002). The
training polygons were digitized on-screen based on terrain knowledge acquired during
fieldwork and was distributed throughout the study areas. The pixels in the polygons
that were selected as representative of each class were plotted in spectral space and a
visual check was made that all classes could be separated in at least one combination of
bands, for ellipses containing 95% of the class pixels.

To increase the size of the sample to be used in classification accuracy assessment, the
layer with the field-checked sites was overlaid on the corrected satellite images, and
homogeneous polygons with similar spectral reflectance, when viewed in several band
combinations, were drawn around those sites. The layer of polygons created using this
process was later used for checking the accuracy of the classified map.

2.3.3. Accuracy assessment

Accuracy assessment for the coastal habitat maps from the Segara Anakan ecosystem
was based on 37-ground truthing points recorded during field survey (May 2004-

31
February 2005). Using ecological information in a Geographic Information System
(GIS), one can formulate and apply location and topological (the relation between area-
based objects) rules to the classified satellite data to improve the mapping accuracy
(Long & Skewes, 1996). A standard error matrix was determined to assess the
classification accuracy, using data from the output map as the row, and the reference
data (ground truth points) as the column in the matrix (Congalton, 1999 in Alonso-
Perez et al., 2003).

2.3.4. Post-classification analysis and change detection

After accuracy assessment, the classified images were exported to the GIS facilities to
generate the coastal habitat map. Analysis and quantification of coastal habitat
differences between the different dates was included in the GIS database. Once both
maps had exactly the same number of feature pixels they were subject to a cross-tabular
comparison. This indicates the differences in extent of each class and the transitions
that had taken place between the two dates. The characterization of land cover change
is done using aggregated measurements of area by cover type at both dates and
quantifying transitions. The change analysis is limited to these measurements due to the
different generalization levels and minimum size of mapped units for the data sources
available for the study (1978 – 2004).

3. Results

Since 1978, the Segara Anakan region has changed enormously. From 1978 to 2004,
the main changes in land cover and land use involved the conversion of large part of
the estuary which is lagoon and river into new land (2966.8 ha) and mangroves (3497.2
ha), and the subsequent conversion of these areas and older sections of the mangrove
forest to rice agriculture, semi-intensive fishponds, new settlements and others land use
(11315.6 ha) (see Table 2 and 3). A large part (43.2 %) of the total mangrove area
changed into rice fields, and minor parts into other land use area such as aquaculture
(2.7 %), dry land agriculture (5.8 %), rural settlement (0.9 %), industry (0.4 %) and
other landcover types (2.1 %).

In the first 17 years period (1978 – 1995), new land areas rapidly increased in the
western part of the SAL. The older part of this new land was then converted into new

32
mangrove forest (Fig. 3b, c). These changes were mainly caused by the high
sedimentation rate of the SAL system, estimated at 1 – 3 million ton/year (Purba,
1991). In the western region (Karanganyar, Klaces and Motean) mangrove change was
more pronounced due to stronger logging and sedimentation compared to the eastern
area. During this period, these changes favored the development of rural settlements
(258.8 ha), the implementation of rice fields (7786.9 ha) and of industrial areas (99.3
ha) (see Table 2).

The largest patch of the new mangrove area (43.2%) was converted into the rice fields
that are mostly located in the northern, northwestern and northeastern part of the
lagoon, where parts of it belong to the Ujung Alang and Penikel villages (Fig. 3). This
is a low lying area with a great abundance of fresh water inflow, and therefore suitable
for rice culture. Only a very small part (0.4%) of the mangrove area of the year 1978
was converted into industrial area (about 74.2 ha). There are also important additions of
the new mangroves (3497.2 ha) derived from former mud flats and the open lagoon
(from 193.5 to 84 ha per year) (Table 3).

Since 1978, the size of the mangrove forest has been fluctuating as a result of both
deforestation and mangrove encroachment. From 1978 to 1987 approximately 3003.6
hectares of forest were cut down, while 1741.1 hectares of new mangrove forest were
established on new grounds in the estuary during this period.

While mangroves covered about 17090 ha in 1978 and rice fields were not existent at
that time, both mangroves and rice fields covered about the same area in 2004 (ca 9000
ha) (see Fig. 4). More than 50% of the mangrove areas in 2004 were disturbed
especially in the western part of Segara Anakan (BPKSA, 2003). The increase of other
land uses such as aquaculture, industry, rural settlement, dry land agriculture and others
did not significantly change the extent of the converted mangroves area, because of
new mangroves that were building up. From 1995 to 2004 only 597.8 ha of mangroves
were converted into land use (exclude rice fields) (see Table 3 and 4.), while at the
same time about 840.1 ha of new mangroves were created.

The general decline of the rate of mangrove conversion from the period 1987 – 1995 to
1995 – 2004 (from -3.4% to only -1.4% per year) (see Table 5), may be (at least in part)

33
due to the projects CRMP and SACDP conducted in Segara Anakan, as mentioned
above.

Table 6 shows that all aquatic resources greatly decreased over the study period and
that this decrease was paralleled by economic losses, except for the shrimps, which
yielded higher benefits in the year 2000 despite their substantial catch reductions due to
a threefold increase of the unit prize. On the other hand, rice production, which was
non-existent in 1978, contributed almost 30% to the total resource value of the year
2000 and helped to increase the overall resource value from 15363.2 to 19916.8
(29.6%).

4. Discussion

Sedimentation has been one of the main management concerns in the river basin,
particularly regarding the impacts on the low land activities, including the Segara
Anakan. It has been attributed to deforestation and poor agricultural management
practices in the upland areas of the Citanduy river basin, as well as to the volcanic
eruption of Mount Galunggung in 1982, which is located in the river basin. The
transformation of land use activities has been accelerated by the immigration of
farmers, who have almost doubled the population since the year 1978 (Table 7).

New economic opportunities arose from the rice fields development, generating many
income activities from farm labor, harvesting, gardening and dryland cropping, and
fishponds were created. While rice has been the dominant agricultural activity over the
past decade in Segara Anakan, the cultivation of other agriculture products, generally
cash crops, occurs on a much smaller scale. These crops include soybean, palm sugar
production, fruit & and vegetables, and are often sold to supplement the household
income. Rice fields are managed through various labor arrangements, notably, farmers
working the land themselves, hiring labor, and/or receiving help from family members.
Mangrove conversion has lead to several problems besides reducing fishery yields. It
has lead to a reduction of biodiversity, loss of habitats and nursery areas, increase in
coastal erosion, loss in productivity, soil acidification, pollution, and alteration of water
drainage patterns. While producing economic benefits, aquaculture development has
also been associated with environmental gradation of the SAL, since it is also based on
the conversion of mangroves and causes pollution of the surrounding waters.

34
Decreasing lagoon size and with it decreasing fishing ground, are considered the cause
for the declining fish production in the SAL as well as offshore Cilacap (Table 6). The
loss of biodiversity in mangrove-converted areas of the SAL has been reported since
1980s (Sastranegara et al., 2003). Intertidal crab diversity was higher and more
constant in the undisturbed area with high mangrove coverage (90%) compared to areas
of crab hunting, logging and prawn ponds with mangrove coverage’s of 89%, 33% and
0% respectively. Alongi et al. (2005) reported human induced disturbance creates a
sharp zonation of dry, hypersaline soil overlying less saline, wetter soil, suppressing
surface microbial and root growth.

Overall, it appears that the current changes have produced an overall economic benefit
to the greatly increased human population, but the lagoon ecosystem, its aquatic
resources and its biodiversity have significantly been affected. The question to be asked
is, if the SAL is going to further develop into an agricultural area, which would mean
that the lagoon and its aquatic resources would finally disappear, or if it is desirable
(and ecologically feasible) to maintain the SAL system as such, even at a much smaller
as original size. Since Java is already almost depleted from swamp and lagoon areas, a
loss of the SAL would mean a great loss of a unique ecosystem, and of the diversity of
habitats and species, which will be unrecoverable.

Economists may argue that the total conversion of the lagoon into agriculture land may
be beneficial to the region in the long run, but it should be emphasized, that despite the
great changes already done to the SAL, the contribution of the aquatic resources to the
overall resource value of the region still amounts to about 70% (of a total of nearly 20
million US $) and it is difficult to imagine how a loss of about 14 million US $ could
be compensated.

A next paper shall focus on a holistic functional and economical ecosystem assessment
of the Segara Anakan by using a trophic modeling (EwE) approach.

Acknowledgement

The authors want to thank the SPICE project, Center for Tropical Marine Ecology
(ZMT) Bremen, Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) and Jenderal
Soedirman University, Purwokerto, for their support during this study; Biotrop
Training and Information Center (BTIC) Bogor for images support.

35
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Jacob, Land cover changes and impact of shrimp aquaculture on the landscape in the
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(2003), 583-600.

K.B. Stanbury and R.M. Starr, Applications of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
to habitat assessment and marine resource Management. Oceanologica Acta 22 (6)
(1999), 699-703.

M.H. Sastranegara, H. Fermon & M. Mühlenberg, Diversity and Abundance of

Intertidal Crabs at the East Swamp Managed Area in Segara Anakan Cilacap, Central
Java, Indonesia, Deutscher Tropentag, Göttingen, 2003.

36
M.J.P. Vasconcelos, J.C. Mussa´Biai, A. Arau´jo and M.A. Diniz, Land cover change
in two protected areas of Guinea-Bissau (1956–1998), Applied Geography 22 (2002),
139–156.

M. Purba, Impact of high sedimentation rates on the coastal resources of Segara

Anakan, Indonesia, p. 143-152. In L.M. Chou, T.-E. Chua, H.W. Khoo, P.E. Lim, J.N.
Paw, G.T. Silvestre, M.J. Valencia, A.T. White and P.K. Wong (Eds.) Towards an
Integrated management of tropical coastal resources, ICLARM Conference
Proceedings 22 (1991), 455p. National University of Singapore, Singapore; and
International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Philippines.

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remote sensing for tropical coastal resources assessment and management, Journal of
Environmental Management 55 (1999), 157-166.

P.J. Mumby, W. Skirving, A.E. Strong, J.T. Hardy, E.F. LeDrew, E.J. Hochberg, R.P.
Stumpf and L.T. David, Remote sensing of coral reefs and their physical environment.
Marine Pollution Bulletin 48 (2004), 219–228.

P. Treitz, Remote sensing for mapping and monitoring land-cover and land-use change,
Progress in Planning 61 (2004), 267.

P. Yulastoro, Usaha dan Kendala Penyelamatan Degradasi Lingkungan Segara Anakan,

Lokakarya Status, Problem dan Potensi Sumberdaya Perairan dengan Acuan Segara
Anakan dan DAS Serayu. Purwokerto, 2003.

R.G. Dudley, Segara Anakan Fisheries Management Plan. Segara Anakan Conservation
and Development Project, Component B&C, Consultant’s Report, 2000.

S. Weiers, M. Block, M. Wissen and G. Rossner, Mapping and indicator approaches

for the assessment of habitats at different scales using remote sensing and GIS
methods, Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004), 43-65.

T. Stevens and R.M. Connolly, Testing the utility of abiotic surrogates for marine
habitat mapping at scales relevant to management, Biological Conservation, Volume
119, Issue 3 (2004), 351-362.

T. Tomascik, A.J. Mah, A. Nontji and M.K. Moosa, The ecology of the Indonesian
seas, Part II chapter 13-23 (1997), Periplus Editions, Singapore.

37
Tables

Table 1. List of satellite images used in this study

Spectral
Number of Spatial resolution Path/Row Acquisition
Sensor Platform coverage
channel (m) (scene) date
(µm)
MSS Landsat 5 0.50–12.6 4 (G,R, 2 x NIR) 79 (MS) 240 (TIR) 129/065 25-04-1978
HRV 2 SPOT 1 0.50–0.89 3 10 (PAN) 20 (MS) 289-365/0 10-10-1987
TM Landsat 5 0.45–2.35 7 (B, G, R, NIR, 2 x 30 (MS) 120 (TIR) 121/065 05-07-1991
MIR, thermal IR)
HRV 2 SPOT 3 0.50–0.89 3 10 (PAN) 20 (MS) 289-365/0 11-07-1995
HRV 2 SPOT 1 0.50–0.89 3 10 (PAN) 20 (MS) 289-365/0 19-03-1998
TM Landsat 5 0.45–2.35 7 (B, G, R, NIR, 2 x 30 (MS) 120 (TIR) 121/065 22-06-2001
MIR, thermal IR)
TM Landsat 5 0.45–2.35 7 (B, G, R, NIR, 2 x 30 (MS) 120 (TIR) 121/065 19-01-2003
MIR, thermal IR)
HRG 1 SPOT 5 0.50–0.89 3 5 (PAN) 10 (MS) 289-365/0 07-06-2004
HRV 1 SPOT 2 0.50–0.89 3 10 (PAN) 20 (MS) 289-365/0 30-12-2004

Table 2. Segara Anakan coastal habitat changes (in ha)

Habitat 1978 1987 1991 1995 1998 2001 2003 2004

Mangrove 17090.1 15827.6 12592.3 10974.6 10938.3 9881.6 9597.0 9271.6

Lagoon 3491.0 2224.8 1187.4 1173.1 1173.2 1004.1 991.6 931.8
River 2731.2 2203.8 2281.4 2286.4 2286 2270.9 2336.6 2323.6
Mud flat 462.5 655.4 859.8 381.6 317.6 144.6 29.6 27.4
Rural settlement 61.7 247.8 260.8 258.8 263.8 292.0 309.0 312.1
Rice field 0 1725.7 5783.5 7786.9 7778.3 8875.2 9203.8 9442.6
Dry land agriculture 0 717.5 596.5 593.7 625.0 632.0 696.4 755.3
Aquaculture & rural 0 136.0 175.5 282.1 355.0 603.9 540.3 568.3
settlement
Industry area 0 97.9 99.3 99.3 99.3 132.2 132.2 203.8
23836.5 23836.5 23836.5 23836.5 23836.5 23836.5 23836.5 23836.5

38
Table 3. Temporal trajectory of mangrove conversion in Segara Anakan.

Annual Annual Annual

Total
1978- change 1987- change 1995- change
(1978-
Land-cover 1987 1978- 1995 1987- 2004 1995-
2004)
(ha) 1987 (ha) 1995 (ha) 2004
(ha)
(ha) (ha) (ha)
Mangrove (no
changed) 14086.5 - 10058.6 - 8431.5 - -
New mangrove areas 1741.1 193.5 916.0 114.5 840.1 84.0 3497.2
Mangrove, converted 3003.6 333.7 5769.0 721.1 2543.0 254.3 11315.6
Rice fields 1708.1 189.8 5232.7 654.1 1945.2 194.5 8886.0
Dry land agriculture 678.8 75.4 307.8 38.5 202.8 20.3 1189.4
Aquaculture 127.8 14.2 150.5 18.8 271.0 27.1 549.3
Rural settlement 156.1 17.3 23.7 3.0 4.4 0.4 184.2
Industry 46.7 5.2 0.1 0.0 27.4 2.7 74.2
Others 286.1 31.8 54.2 6.8 92.2 9.2 432.5
Mangrove (incl. no
changed, converted
and new) - - - - - - 20587.3
Remarks:
• Mangrove (no changed) refers to the area that remained covered by mangroves over
the reference time
• New mangrove areas refers to mainly former lagoon area of mud flats that due to
siltation got habitable for mangroves
• Mangrove converted represents former mangrove areas, which were converted into
different land use types.

39
Table 4. Matrix of the coastal habitat changes mapping of 1978 and 2004 (in ha).

Year 2004
Rural Dry land
River Rice field Mangrove Lagoon Mud flat Industry area Aquaculture
Habitat settlement agriculture
Extension 312.1 2323.6 9442.6 9271.6 931.8 27.4 755.3 203.8 568.3
Mangrove 17090.1 198.6 189.7 8483.1 6795.4 44.6 - 726.8 120.0 531.9
Lagoon 3491.0 15.4 182.4 787.8 1570.8 887.1 27.4 - - 20.1

1978
River 2731.2 29.3 1934.7 171.7 548.9 - - 21.7 9.6 15.3
Mud flat 462.5 7.1 16.8 - 356.5 - - 6.8 74.2 1.1
Rural
settlement 61.7 61.7 - - - - - - - -

Table 5. Habitat changes in percent

Habitat 1978-1987 1987-1991 1991-1995 1995-1998 1998-2001 2001-2004

Mangrove -7.4 -20.4 -12.8 -0.3 -9.7 -6.2
Lagoon -36.3 -46.6 -1.2 0.0 -14.4 -7.2
River -19.3 3.5 0.2 0.0 -0.7 2.3
Mud flat 41.7 31.2 -55.6 -16.8 -54.5 -81.1
Rural settlement 301.6 5.2 -0.8 1.9 10.7 6.9
Rice field 1725.7 235.1 34.6 -0.1 14.1 6.4
Dry land agriculture 717.5 -16.9 -0.5 5.3 1.1 19.5
Aquaculture 136.0 29.0 60.7 25.8 70.1 -5.9
Industry area 97.9 1.4 0.0 0.0 33.1 54.2

40
Table 6. The SAL resources changes during 1978 – 2000s.

Resources Amount (ton) Unit value/kg ($) Total value (000 $)

1978 2000s 1978 2000s 1978 2000s
SA
- Fish 516.3 190.3 0.55 0.45 284.0(1.85%) 85.6(0.4%)
- Crabs 250.0 150.0 1.5 1.15 375.0(2.44%) 172.5(0.87%)
- Shrimp 404.0 200.0 1.11 3.41 448.4(2.92%) 682. 0 (3.2%)
- Rice 0 48062.0 0 0.12 0 5767. 4 (28.9%)
- Other crop 0 4615.3 0 0.1 0 461. 5 (2.3%)

Offshore
- Fish 15 412.9 13 153.0 0.55 0.45 8477.1(55.2%) 5918.85(30.0%)
- Shrimp 5 206.0 2 000.0 1.11 3.41 5778.7(37.6%) 6829.0 (34.3%)
total 21 789.2 68370.6 15363.2 19916.85

Table 7. The human population in the SAL: 1978 and 2001

Location (village) 1978 2001 % per year

Ujungalang 3507 4959 1.80
Ujunggagak 3069 3861 1.12
Penikel 1589 4490 7.94
total 8165 13310 2.74
Source : Yulastoro, 2003.

Figure captions
Fig. 1. Segara Anakan lagoon, Cilacap District, Central Java.

Fig. 2. Segara Anakan study area of the year 1978.

Fig. 3. Coastal habitat of SAL was changed temporally and spatially since 1978 (a-f).

Fig. 4. Extent of change from 1978 to 2004 by land use types.

41
Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

42
 a. 1978 b. 1987 c. 1995

d. 2001 e. 2003 f. 2004

Fig. 3.

43
Fig. 4.

44
4.4. Publication III

Ardli, E.R. and M. Wolff (2008) Land use and land cover change affecting habitat
distribution at Segara Anakan lagoon, Cilacap, Indonesia. Regional Environmental
Change Journal (accepted)

45
Land use and land cover change affecting habitat
distribution in the Segara Anakan lagoon
Erwin Riyanto Ardli1, 2,*, Matthias Wolff1
1)
Zentrum für Marine Tropenökologie (ZMT), Fahrenheitstrasse 6 28359 Bremen,
Germany
2)
Fakultas Biologi Universitas Jenderal Soedirman, Jl. Dr. Suparno 63 Purwokerto,
Indonesia 53122
*Corresponding author: e-mail: eriantoo@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study quantifies and spatially characterizes land use and land cover changes in the Segara Anakan
lagoon (SAL), Java, Indonesia, from 1987 – 2006. Classification of four satellite (SPOT) images from the
years 1987, 1995, 2004 and 2006 and field ground truth data of the years 2004-2005 were used for map
generation. The results show major changes in the western area of the SAL, with large area increases in rice
fields, dry land agriculture, aquaculture and settlement areas, and decreases in mangrove cover, mud flat and
lagoon area. In the eastern area, minor decreases in mangrove area and increase in aquaculture, settlement
and industrial areas were also observed. Changes are due to the filling of the lagoon with riverine sediments
derived from the hinterland and to mangrove conversion, resources exploitation, and pollution. These
findings are expected to contribute to a more sustainable management and conservation of the SAL.
Keywords: Land use/cover change; Conservation; Segara Anakan; Remote sensing;
SPOT.

Introduction
The importance of the SAL ecosystem for nature conservation was established in 1984 by
the Indonesian government and the ASEAN-USAID Coastal Resources Management
Project (Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1998; White et al., 2005). One of the specific objectives
of this project was to protect and conserve the lagoon and the adjacent mangrove forest as
a critical habitat for sustaining the productivity of the lagoon and offshore fisheries.

Segara Anakan is subjected to a multiple resource use conflict, overexploitation of coastal

resources and environmental degradation. The coastal communities traditionally exploit
mangroves. Key management issues are the decreasing size of the lagoon due to heavy
riverine sediment input from upland activities, water quality problems, particularly
pesticides runoff from upland agriculture and poor economic conditions of the coastal
inhabitants (Dudley, 2000; Yulastoro, 2003; BPKSA, 2003).

Since the last centuries, land use and land cover change increased in this coastal region, as
a result from increased urbanization and immigration leading to several problems. These
include settlement encroachment on agricultural land, land reclamation from swamps, silt
deposition in the lagoon, and a decrease in fishery catches (White at al., 1989; Jennerjahn
et al., 2007; Ardli and Wolff, 2007; Ardli and Wolff, 2008). While land cover refers to the

46
type of feature (vegetated or unvegetated) present on the surface of the earth, the term land
use relates to the human activity or economic function associated with a specific piece of
land (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1994). Land use changes, especially those associated with the
intensification of shifting agriculture in subsistence economies, are known to induce
changes in vegetation cover types and spatial structure (Vasconcelos et al., 2002).

Land use and land cover changes in the SAL have been reported i.e. land use change up to
1995 and sustainable development (Olive, 1997), mangrove conversion up to 2003 (Ardli
and Wolff, 2007), coastal habitat and resource use changes up to 2004 (Ardli and Wolff,
2008). These changes are mainly caused by resource overexploitation, degradation and
pollution through unsustainable land use practices in the hinterland, and pollution from
industry and households in the SAL ecosystem. Because of its dynamic changes, this
paper provides the most updated information of land use/cover changes in the area.

Land use and land cover maps are regarded to be fundamental for the purpose of coastal
management planning (Stevens & Connolly, 2004; Mumby et al. 1999; Cicin-Sain &
Knecht, 1998). For this reason periodic mapping of land use, land cover, coastal habitat,
and land resources were performed to observe trends and changes (Cicin-Sain & Knecht,
1998; Treitz & Rogan, 2004).

Due to the spatial nature of habitats and associated temporal changes, the assimilation of
data using traditional analytical methods is often difficult. Mapping using remote sensing
and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) has proven to be effective to address problems
inherent in the analysis of spatial data. GIS can be used to effectively collect, archive,
display, analyze, and model spatial and temporal data (Stanbury & Starr, 1999). It may
also be used to combine scientific and cultural data to assess and manage marine and
coastal habitats (Cicin-Sain & Knecht, 1998). GIS is an “organized collection of computer
hardware, software, geographic data, and designed to efficiently capture, store, update,
manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of geographically referenced information”
(ESRI, 1990).

Satellite data are now available that can be used to map and monitor changes from
continental to local scales and over temporal scales (Treitz, 2004). SPOT images are
adequate for mapping marine and intertidal habitats (Donoghue & Mironnet, 2002;
Mumby et al., 1999), as well as mapping land and mangrove cover changes (Vasconcelos
et al., 2002; Weiers et al. 2004; Ardli & Widyastuti, 2001; Long & Skewes, 1996). Many

47
environmental and ecological properties can be measured using remote sensing (Mumby
et al. 2004). Accurate maps of their distribution and abundance are essential for
monitoring changes over time, for assessing habitat condition, and for investigating their
links with other ecological system components that rely directly or indirectly on them
(Long & Skewes, 1996). To monitor changes efficiently over large areas, accurate,
objective and inexpensive mapping techniques are required. Image processing of high-
resolution SPOT satellite data has many of these advantages over traditional photo-
interpretation mapping (Long & Skewes, 1996; Mas, 2004; Mumby et al., 1999).

The objectives of the present work were 1) to map and analyze land use and land cover in
the Segara Anakan ecosystem and to monitor and assess their temporal (1987 – 2006) and
spatial changes by analyzing the satellite and field data, and 2) to assess the SAL habitat
distribution consequences (in terms of socio-economic conditions of villagers and
ecosystem functioning) of land use and land cover changes.

Study area
Segara Anakan is a large lagoon located at the south-western part of Central Java
(108046’–109005’E; 7034’–7048’S), west of Cilacap city (Fig. 1), comprised by the only
large estuarine-mangrove forest left in Central Java. The lagoon is connected to the Indian
Ocean by the Western outlet (Plawangan Barat) and a tidal channel towards Cilacap as an
Eastern outlet and there is protected from the open ocean by a barrier island, called
Nusakambangan.

The climate of Segara Anakan is tropical and humid, with a southeast monsoon dry season
and a northwest monsoon rainy season. Rainfall during the rainy season exceeds 300
mm/month and decreases to 100 mm/month or less in the dry season. The total rainfall
during 2002-2005 is about 2151 up to 5466 mm/year. The averages of minimum and
maximum temperatures are 23.7 and 31.4 0C (Tomascik et al. 1997, BPS Jawa Tengah,
2006). Tides are diurnal with amplitudes of 0.2 - 2.6 m (average 1.48 m) within the lagoon
(White at al., 1989).

48
Fig. 1. Segara Anakan lagoon, Cilacap District, Central Java.

The central and western parts of the lagoon are extremely shallow with water depths often
<2 m. Only in the westernmost part from the Citanduy River mouth to the Indian Ocean
are water depths greater with a maximum depth of >10 m in the Plawangan channel. In
the eastern lagoon, water depths of 5-10 m are recorded in the Sapuregel and Donan
branches because of little freshwater and sediment input. Near Cilacap port facilities and
in the channel connecting the lagoon to the Indian Ocean, water depth is around 10 m also
because of dredging of the navigation channel (Jennerjahn et al., 2007)

This lagoon receives high amounts of fresh water and discharges including suspended
sediments from Citanduy River, Cikujang River, Cikonde River and Cibereum River
(Ardli & Widyastuti, 2001). The average discharge of the Citanduy River is 140 m3s-1
(range 80-300 m3s-1) with an average outflow to the Indian Ocean through the Plawangan
channel of 555 m3s-1 (range 0-1200 m3s-1) (Jennerjahn et al., 2007). The Citanduy River is
the main river in the Citanduy watershed. This watershed is critical in terms of hydrology
and erosion. Agricultural activity is the most important activity in this watershed, for
which conservation areas and forested lands are being converted into horticulture or land
for growing other food crops (Dwiprabowo & Wulan, 2003). The lagoon is rapidly filling

49
up with sediments because of high rates of upland soil erosion. Fishery yields have also
been affected due to the environmental changes and the loss of lagoon area (Dudley 2000).

In 1997, the Segara Anakan mangrove forest area was about 13577 ha (Tomascik et al.
1997), and has been severely degraded and reduced by a rate of 192.96 ha per year since
then (Ardli & Widyastuti, 2001). In 1980 the lagoon extended over an area of 3636 ha but
has constantly decreased to only 600 ha in 2002 (White et al. 1989; BPKSA, 2003).

Various species of mangrove, fish, shrimps, crabs, molluscs, birds and mammals are found
either in the lagoon, on the mud flats or in the mangrove areas. The mangrove forest of
Segara Anakan (21750 ha in 1983) contains 26 mangrove species, of which the most
abundant and commercially important ones are Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata and
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (White et al. 1989). White et al. (1989) reported more than 45
species of fish, of which 17 are demersal, 12 residential and 16 occasional visitors. More
than 85% of these species are of high economic value as fisheries commodities. The
lagoon is a feeding, spawning and nursery ground for many commercially important fishes
and crustaceans. The commercially important crustaceans found in the area are Scylla
spp., Portunus pelagicus, Tellina spp., Penaeus merguensis, P. chinensis, P. monodon,
Metapenaeus ensis, M. elegan and M. dopsoni (Dudley, 2000).

Human populations are concentrated in the four villages “Kampung Laut” i.e. Ujungalang
(4024 people), Ujunggagak (3887 people), Klaces (1030 people) and Penikel (4706
people) (BPS Cilacap, 2006). The most important human activities are fishing, agriculture
and semi-intensive aquaculture (tambak). Coastal settlements are generally densely
populated with widespread poverty, especially among fishing communities. Increase in
the number of fisherman as a result of population growth and migration to coastal fishing
communities is seen as a contributing factor in the overexploitation of local fisheries
resources and the deterioration of the coastal environment (Tietze et al., 2000).

Materials and methods

Satellite images acquired in this study are listed in Table 1. SPOT multispectral (XS)
images were used to determine land cover and land use changes in this study. The
analysis was based on the available data, cost-effectiveness, and the available spectral and
spatial resolution (Mumby et.al., 1999; Weiers et.al., 2004). SPOT images were
registered and resampled to a UTM (SUTM 49) projected output image composed of 20 m

50
x 20 m and 10 m x10 m pixels with an RMS error of less than 1.0 pixel that was obtained
from the Biotrop Training and Information Centre (BTIC).

Table 1. List of satellite images used in this study

Spectral
Number of Spatial Path/Row Acquisition
Sensor Platform coverage
channel resolution (m) (scene) date
µm)
(µ
HRV 2 SPOT 1 0.50–0.89 3 10 (PAN) 20 (MS) 289-365/0 10-10-1987
HRV 2 SPOT 1 0.50–0.89 3 10 (PAN) 20 (MS) 289-365/0 11-07-1995
HRG 1 SPOT 5 0.50–0.89 3 5 (PAN) 10 (MS) 289-365/0 07-06-2004
HRG 1 SPOT 5 0.50–0.89 3 5 (PAN) 10 (MS) 289-365/0 22-01-2006

Resampling was done by the nearest neighbour method, which sets the radiometric value
of the output pixel equal to the nearest input pixel in the original geometry, in order to
preserve the original values of the image. A digital elevation model along with soil, land
use/cover, stream and road network digital maps (scale of 1:50,000), was obtained from
the Segara Anakan Management Agency (BPKSA) Cilacap.

Mapping approach:

Image processing
In the pre-processing phase, the dataset were cut to include only the areas of interest (70
34’ 9” - 70 48’ 50”S, 1080 46’ 8” - 1090 5’ 21”E). They were then rectified by using
ground control points (with the geometric corrected image as a base) with a linear
polynomial transformation and nearest neighbour resampling with a root mean square
error of less than one pixel.

Classification (supervised image classification)

Supervised classification with a maximum likelihood algorithm (available in ERMapper
5.5) was used in this study, because this classification algorithm produces consistently
good results for most habitat types (Donoghue & Mironnet, 2002). The training polygons
were digitized on-screen based on terrain knowledge acquired during fieldwork and was
distributed throughout the study areas. The pixels in the polygons that were selected as
representative of each class were plotted in spectral space and a visual check was made
that all classes could be separated in at least one combination of bands, for ellipses
containing 95% of the class pixels.
To increase the size of the sample to be used in classification accuracy assessment, the
layer with the field-checked sites was overlaid on the corrected satellite images, and
homogeneous polygons with similar spectral reflectance, when viewed in several band

51
combinations, were drawn around those sites. The layer of polygons created using this
process was later used for checking the accuracy of the classified map.

Accuracy assessment
Accuracy assessment for the land use and land cover maps from the Segara Anakan
ecosystem was based on 37-ground truthing points recorded during field survey (May
2004-February 2005). Using ecological information in a GIS package, one can formulate
and apply location and topological (the relation between area-based objects) rules to the
classified satellite data to improve the mapping accuracy (Long & Skewes, 1996). A
standard error matrix was determined to assess the classification accuracy, using data from
the output map as the row, and the reference data (ground truth points) as the column in
the matrix (Congalton, 1999 in Alonso-Perez et al., 2003).

Post-classification analysis and change detection

After accuracy assessment, the classified images were exported to the GIS facilities to
generate the land cover and land use map. Analysis and quantification of land use/cover
differences between the different dates was included in the GIS database. Once both maps
had exactly the same number of feature pixels they were subjected to a cross-tabular
comparison. This indicates the differences in extent of each class and the transitions that
had taken place between the two dates. The characterization of land cover change is done
using aggregated measurements of area by cover type at both dates and quantifying
transitions. The change analysis is limited to these measurements due to the different
generalization levels and minimum size of mapped units for the data sources available for
the study (1987 – 2006).

Results
The land use and land cover changes in SAL are shown in Table 2 and Figure 2. Since
1900’s, the extent of the SAL has changed enormously (Olive, 1997, Tejakusuma, 2006).
Up to the year 2006, the estuarine area comprised by the lagoon, mangroves and mud flats
were significantly decreased, while rice fields and aquaculture areas increased. For the
other land use/cover types such as plantation, production forest, rain forest and the sea
changes were not that significant. From 1987 to 2006, a large part of the estuary was
replaced by mangroves (1159 ha), which were subsequently converted to rice agriculture,

52
semi-intensive fishponds (tambak), new rural settlements and others land use/cover type
(8907.8 ha). A large part (44 %) of the total mangrove area in 1987 was converted into
rice fields, and only minor parts (< 5 %) into other land use/cover areas (see Table 3).

Table 2. Segara Anakan land use/cover changes (in ha)

1987 1995 2004 2006

Land use/cover type
% change % change % change

Lagoon 2224.8 1173.1 -47.3 931.8 -20.6 1001.9 7.5

Mangrove 15827.6 10974.6 -30.7 9271.6 -15.5 9237.8 -0.4
Mud flat 655.4 381.6 -41.8 179.1 -53.1 173.3 -3.2
River 2215.3 2206.2 -0.4 2126.5 -3.6 2107.1 -0.9
Aquaculture 0.0 24.7 - 131.7 433.2 134.8 2.3
Aquaculture & ricefield 138.5 306.6 121.4 472.9 54.2 471.7 -0.2
Rice field 11912.2 17624.4 47.9 19262.3 9.3 19273.6 0.05
Rural settlement 4901.1 5092.3 3.9 5245.7 3.0 5247.8 0.04
Dry land agriculture 3982.6 4016.5 0.8 4142.5 3.1 4157.9 0.4
Sand flat 0.0 44.8 - 56.6 26.3 60.6 7.1
Industry area 484.3 520.9 7.5 520.9 0 523.7 0.5
Plantation 1314.0 1314.0 0 1345.3 2.4 1359.0 1.0
Production forest 10119.8 10109.8 -0.1 10107.8 -0.02 10082.4 -0.2
Rain forest 10602.9 10583.4 -0.2 10578.6 -0.04 10582.6 0.04
Airport 102.7 108.1 5.2 113.1 4.6 113.1 0
Sea 26011.8 26012.0 0 26006.6 -0.02 25965.7 -0.2
Total 90493.0 90493.0 90493.0 90493.0

During the period 1987 - 1995, several changes favored the development of
aquaculture_rice field (121.4 %), rice field (47.9 %), industrial areas (7.5 %), and rural
settlement (3.9 %). The lagoon area continuously decreased up to 2004, but there was an
observed increase about 1001.9 ha in 2006, which resulted in a total lagoon area of 1004.1
ha, almost identical to that of the year 2001. This increase of the lagoon area was caused
by dragging activities carried out by BPKSA during 2003-2005 (see Table 2). Table 3
show a quantification of transitions between land use/cover types.

53
Fig. 2. Extent of change from 1978 to 2004 by land use types.

54
Table 3. Cross-tabulation of the two land use/cover maps of SAL (1987 and 2006).
Year 2006

Aquaculture &
Aquaculture

agriculture
settlement
Mangrove

Rice field

sand flat
rice field

dry land
Mud flat
Lagoon

Rural
River
extension 1001.9 9237.8 173.3 2107.1 - - - - - -
1987

993.7 769.5 19.7 148.4 6.1 0.6 281.5 5.3

lagoon 2224.8 - -
(45) (35) (1) (7) (<1) (<1) (13) (<1)
0.8 8078.8 15.1 172.8 482.6 6957.5 43.7 76.3
mangrove 15827.6 - -
(<1) (51) (<1) (1) (3) (44) (<1) (<1)
7.4 338.9 4.8 4.8 299.5
mud flat 655.4 - - - - -
(1) (52) (1) (1) (46)
river 2215.3 50.6 153.6 1938.8 11 0.7 60.6
- - - -
(2) (7) (88) (<1) (<1) (3)

Note: The table shows the area (in hectares) and percentages change (in parentheses) that changed from each 1987 land
use/cover types to other types in 2006.

The final raster maps resulting from the present study are shown in Fig 3. In the first
decade (1987 – 1995), the new land areas rapidly increased in the western part of the SAL.
The older part of this new land was then converted into new mangrove forest (Fig. 3 a,b).
These changes were mainly caused by the high sedimentation rate of the SAL system,
estimated as 1 – 3 million ton/year (Purba, 1991). In the western region (Ujunggagak,
Klaces, Penikel and Ujungalang) mangrove change was more pronounced due to stronger
logging and sedimentation compared to the eastern area. Mangrove trees were logged
approximately 14.23 m3 per day (Sastranegara et al., 2007).

The largest patch of the new mangrove area (41.6 %) was converted into the rice fields
that are mostly located in the northern, northwestern and northeastern part of the lagoon,
where parts of it belong to the Ujungalang and Penikel villages (Fig. 3). This is a low
lying area with a great abundance of fresh water inflow, and therefore suitable for rice
culture. Only a very small part of the mangrove area was converted into industrial area
(8.1 %). There are also important additions of the new mangroves (1159 ha) derived from
former mud flats, lagoon and river (Table 3).

55
 a. 1987 b. 1995

c. 2004 d. 2006

Fig. 3. Land use/cover of SAL was changed temporally and spatially since 1987 (a – d).

The extent of the mangrove forest has been fluctuating as a result of both deforestation
and mangrove encroachment. From 1987 to 2006 approximately 7748.8 hectares of forest
were cut down, while 1159 hectares of new mangrove forest were established on new
grounds in the estuary during this period. The decreasing trend of mangroves was
paralled by an increasing trend of rice fields, so that mangroves and rice fields replace
each other during this period (see Fig. 2). The increase of other land uses such as
aquaculture, industry, rural settlement, dry land agriculture and others did not significantly
change the extent of the converted mangroves area, because of new mangroves that were
building up. From 1995 to 2004 only 597.8 ha of mangroves were converted into land use
(exclude rice fields) (see Table 2 and 3.), while at the same time about 840.1 ha of new
mangroves were created.

56
The general decline of the rate of mangrove conversion from the period 1987 – 1995 to
1995 – 2004 (from -3.8% to only -1.7% per year) (see Table 2), may be (at least in part)
due to the projects CRMP and SACDP conducted in Segara Anakan, as mentioned above.

Discussion
Changes in the lagoon area are almost exclusively caused by high sedimentation rates. In
1903 the lagoon was reported to cover an area of more than 6000 ha (Olive, 1997;
Tejakusuma, 2006). Sedimentation has been one of the main management concerns in the
river basin, particularly regarding the impacts on the low land activities, including the
Segara Anakan. It has been attributed to deforestation and poor agricultural management
practices in the upland areas of the Citanduy river basin, as well as to the volcanic
eruption of Mount Galunggung in 1982, which is located in the river basin. Changes in
land use other than forest/crop ratios may change runoff coefficients and catchments size
should control hydrological behaviour (Lavigne & Gunnell, 2004). The transformation of
land use activities has been accelerated by the immigration of farmers, who have almost
doubled the population since the year 1978 (Table 4). The reformation in 1998 has been
advertised by the media as the main scapegoat for current environmental problems.
However, in many upland areas, deforestation is not a new phenomenon. It is rather the
acceleration of a process that has lasted for decades (Dwiprabowo & Wulan, 2003).

New economic opportunities arose from the rice fields development, generating many
income activities from farm labor, harvesting, gardening and dry land cropping, and
fishponds were created. While rice has been the dominant agricultural activity over the
past decade in Segara Anakan, the cultivation of other agriculture products, generally cash
crops, occurs on a much smaller scale. These crops include soybean, palm sugar
production, fruit & and vegetables, and are often sold to supplement the household
income. Rice fields are managed through various labor arrangements, notably, farmers
working the land themselves, hiring labor, and/or receiving help from family members.

More than 50% of the mangrove areas in 2004 were disturbed especially in the western
part of Segara Anakan (BPKSA, 2003). Mangrove conversion has lead to several
problems besides reducing fishery yields. It has lead to a reduction of biodiversity, loss of
habitats and nursery areas, increase in coastal erosion, loss in productivity, soil
acidification, pollution, and alteration of water drainage patterns. While producing

57
economic benefits, aquaculture development has also been associated with environmental
gradation of the SAL, since it is also based on the conversion of mangroves and causes
pollution of the surrounding waters. Decreasing lagoon size and with it decreasing fishing
ground, are considered the cause for the declining fish production in the SAL as well as
offshore Cilacap (Table 6). The loss of biodiversity in mangrove-converted areas of the
SAL has been reported since 1980s (Sastranegara et al., 2003). Intertidal crab diversity
was higher and more constant in the undisturbed area with high mangrove coverage (90%)
compared to areas of crab hunting, logging and prawn ponds with mangrove coverage’s of
89%, 33% and 0% respectively. Blaha et al. (2007) reported a much lower nutrient and
bacteria diversity in the deforested mangrove areas.

Overall, it thus appears that the current changes have produced an overall economic
benefit to the greatly increased human population, but the lagoon ecosystem, its aquatic
resources and its biodiversity have significantly been affected. The question to be asked is,
if the SAL is going to further develop into an agricultural area, which would mean that the
lagoon and its aquatic resources would finally disappear, or if it is desirable (and
ecologically feasible) to maintain the SAL system as such, even at a much smaller as
original size. Since Java is already almost depleted from swamp and lagoon areas, a loss
of the SAL would mean a great loss of a unique ecosystem, and of the diversity of habitats
and species, which will be unrecoverable.

Acknowledgement

The authors want to thank the SPICE project (Grant No. 03F0391A), Center for Tropical Marine Ecology
(ZMT) Bremen, Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) and Jenderal Soedirman University,
Purwokerto, for their support during this study; Biotrop Training and Information Center (BTIC) Bogor for
images support.

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4.5. Publication IV

Ardli, E.R. and M. Wolff (2008) Assessment of changes in trophic flow structure of
the Segara Anakan Lagoon ecosystem between 1980’s and 2000’s. Wetland Ecology
and Management Journal (submitted)

61
Assessment of changes in trophic flow structure of the
Segara Anakan Lagoon ecosystem, Indonesia
between 1980’s and 2000’s.

Erwin Riyanto Ardli1, 2,*, Matthias Wolff1

1)
Zentrum für Marine Tropenökologie (ZMT), Fahrenheitstrasse 6 28359 Bremen, Germany
2)
Fakultas Biologi Universitas Jenderal Soedirman, Jl. Dr. Suparno 63 Purwokerto, Indonesia 53122
*Corresponding author: e-mail: eriantoo@yahoo.com

Abstract

The Segara Anakan lagoon (SAL) ecosystem has experienced large changes over the last several
decades, with mangroves, mud flats and lagoon habitats to be converted to habitats for land use,
such as rice fields, aquaculture ponds and rural settlements. The objective of this study was to
develop a SAL ecosystem model and to evaluate the changes in the ecosystem between the
decades of 1980 and 2000. Comparative analysis of trophic status and energy flow structure were
carried out between these periods to assess the impact of environmental and man-made changes on
the SAL ecosystem functioning in Cilacap, Indonesia. The models were structured by defining 21
functional trophically linked groups of the ecosystem including commercially important fish
groups, shrimps and bivalves. The mass-balanced models for the two periods show how the
different groups of the system were affected by the habitat transformations. Estimates of biomass
per trophic level, mixed groups impact, ecotrophic efficiency, ascendancy and several other
ecosystem attributes derived from the trophic modeling analysis show that trophic functioning as
well as average catches of the SAL ecosystem differed between the two periods Model biomass
and mean annual production of commercially important fish and shrimp groups were smaller in the
2000s as were the total catches. Primary production required to sustain catches in SAL ecosystem
was 250.19 t km-2 y-1 in the 1980s and 391.74 t km-2 y-1 in the 2000s.

1. Introduction

Segara Anakan lagoon (SAL) is a large shallow lagoon at the southern coast of Java,
comprised by the only large estuarine-mangrove forest left in Central Java. The lagoon is
mangrove-fringed and connected to the Indian Ocean by the Western outlet (Plawangan
Barat) and a tidal channel towards Cilacap as an Eastern outlet (Fig. 1; Ardli & Wolff,
2005). It receives high amounts of fresh water and discharges suspended sediments from
Citanduy River, Cikujang River, Cikonde River and Cibereum River (Ardli & Widyastuti,
2001).

The SAL ecosystem has changed dramatically over the last century. In some
instances these changes represented natural ecosystem variability, but fishing practices in
the SAL ecosystem have also changed, as has the extension of coastal habitats, the fishing
policy and the socio economic and political conditions in the country. Like other estuaries,

62
the SAL ecosystem is very productive and its living estuarine and marine resources have
been exploited for nearly a century. Historically, the system has been very important as a
nursery, feeding and fishing ground in the southern Java region.

At present, the lagoon is subjected to a multiple resource use conflict,

overexploitation of coastal resources and environmental degradation. The coastal human
communities traditionally also exploit mangroves for charcoal and house construction
purposes. Key management issues are (1) the decreasing size of the lagoon due to heavy
riverine sediment input, which results from upland activities, (2) water quality problems,
particularly pesticides runoff from upland agriculture and (3) poor economic conditions of
the coastal inhabitants (Dudley, 2000; Yulastoro, 2003; BPKSA, 2003).

The SAL ecosystem has been relatively well studied during the past three decades
i.e. ecology, natural resources, population, socioeconomic and land use (Ecology Team,
1984), ecological status, management and conservation (White et al., 1989; BPKSA 2003;
Yuwono et al. (2007), fisheries (Amin & Hariati, 1991, Dudley, 2000), impact of
sedimentation (Purba, 1991), mangrove production (Pribadi, 2003), mangrove conversion
(Ardli & Wolff, 2005), benthic fauna (Widianingsih et al., 2003; Suryono et al., 2003;
Abdulah, 2003; Gunawan, 2003; Sugiarto, 2003).

Since 1978, the SAL has changed dramatically. Land use and land cover changed as
a result from increased urbanization and immigration leading to several problems. These
include rural encroachment on agricultural land, land reclamation from swamps, silt
deposition in the lagoon, and a decrease in fishery catches. Main changes in land cover
and land use involved the stepwise conversion of large part of the estuary into new land
(2894 ha) and mangrove stands (2754.2 ha), and the subsequent conversion of these areas
and older sections of the mangrove forest to rice agriculture, semi-intensive fishponds,
new settlements and other land uses (10820ha). A large part (42.1%) of the mangrove
stands changed to rice fields and minor parts into other land use areas such as aquaculture
(2.5%), dry land agriculture (5.4%), rural settlement (1.1%), industry (0.4%) and other
landcover types (1.7%) (Ardli & Wolff, 2008).

Various species of mangrove, fish, shrimps, crabs, mollusks, birds and mammals are
found either in the lagoon, on the mud flats or in the mangrove areas. The mangrove
forest (21185 ha in 1983) contains 26 primarily mangrove species, of which the most
abundant and commercially important ones are Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata and

63
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Ecology Team, 1984; White et al. 1989; Soemodihardjo et al.,
1991). White et al. (1989) reported more than 45 species of fish, of which 17 are demersal,
12 residential and 16 occasional visitors. More than 85% of these species are of high
economic value as fisheries commodities. The lagoon is a feeding, spawning and nursery
ground for many commercially important fishes and crustaceans. Commercially important
crustaceans are Scylla spp., Portunus pelagicus, Tellina spp., Penaeus merguensis, P.
chinensis, P. monodon, Metapenaeus ensis, M. elegan and M. dopsoni. In the year 2000,
the lagoon’s fisheries production of 488 tons was composed of 41% shrimp, 39% fish,
13% crabs and 7% others. The most dominant fishing gear used (46%) is the “apong”
(tidal filter net) (Dudley, 2000).

Using ecosystem compartment models, changes in the functional groups within an

ecosystem can be summarized and viewed as part of a whole, and both direct and indirect
effects of species on others within an ecosystem can be explored as well as the overall
functioning of the ecosystem.

Ecopath is a software tool that facilitates the construction of mass-balance, trophic

models of aquatic ecosystems, and allows analysis of different aspects of the resulting
food web network. Species or groups of species are modeled as individual boxes, for
which input data is required, including estimates of biomass, production, consumption,
diet and harvests. For each box, production balances consumption, respiration and
unassimilated food, so that input balances output for a steady-state over a given period.
Interactions between boxes are described by sets of simultaneous linear equations
(Christensen & Pauly, 1992).

The mass-balance approach incorporated in the Ecopath software has been widely
used for constructing trophic flow models of marine, coastal, mangrove and other tropical
aquatic ecosystems (Pauly et al., 2000; Wolff et al., 2000; Wolff et al., 1998; McFarlane
et al., 2001; Froese et al., 2001; Arreguin-Sanchez, 2000; Lin et al., 2006; Rybarczyk and
Elkaı‘m, 2003; Phanikkar and Khan, 2008) and is being applied for the present study on
the ecosystem change of the SAL over the past 3 decades.

This paper aims to compare models of different time periods (1980’s and 2000’s) in
order to evaluate the changes in the SAL system from the 1980’s to the 2000’s.
Specifically we asked the following questions: (1) How is the biomass distribution and
biomass flow structure of SAL ecosystem in the 1980s and 2000s?; (2) How changes in

64
biomass distribution, biomass flow structure and catches on the SAL ecosystem from the
1980s to 2000s?; (3) How is the fishing pressure in the SAL ecosystem during the 1980s
and 2000s?; (4) How is the impact of variations of the biomass of some important groups
in the SAL ecosystem for both of time periods?

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Study area

The SAL ecosystem is located in the south-western part of Central Java (108046’ –
109003’E; 7034’ – 7047’S), west of Cilacap city (Fig. 1). The lagoon is protected from the
open ocean by a barrier island, called Nusakambangan. The climate of Segara Anakan is
tropical and humid, with a southeast monsoon dry season and a northwest monsoon rainy
season. Rainfall during the rainy season exceeds 300 mm/month and decreases to 100
mm/month or less in the dry season. The total rainfall during 2002 - 2005 was about 2151
to 5466 mm/year. The averages of minimum and maximum temperatures are 23.7 and
31.4 0C (Tomascik et al. 1997, BPS Jawa Tengah, 2005). Tides are diurnal with
amplitudes of 0.2 - 2.6 m (average 1.48 m) within the lagoon (White at al., 1989).

The central and western parts of the lagoon are extremely shallow with water depths
often <2 m. Only in the westernmost part from the Citanduy River mouth to the Indian
Ocean are water depths greater reaching >10 m in the Plawangan channel. In the eastern
lagoon, water depths of 5-10 m are recorded in the Sapuregel and Donan branches because
of little freshwater and sediment input. Near Cilacap port facilities and in the channel
connecting the lagoon to the Indian Ocean, water depth is around 10 m also because of
dredging of the navigation channel (Jennerjahn et al., 2007).

The study area includes the Segara Anakan lagoon and mangrove area in the western
part, Kembang Kuning River, Sapuregel River, Donan River and the mangrove area in the
eastern part.

65
 (a)

(b)
Fig. 1. Map of the coastal habitat as a study area at the SAL, Cilacap, Central Java in the 1980s
(a) and 2000s (b)

2.2. Model approach

Trophic flow models of the SAL ecosystem were constructed and analyzed using
Ecopath with Ecosim Version 6. Detailed descriptions of the model compartments and
data sources are summarised in Appendix 1 and the final balanced versions of the models
are presented in Table 3. Data availability differed for the two time periods, with data in
the 1980s being the most prevalent. Data on various commercially important species were
available from the SPICE project for the most recent time period, BPKSA Cilacap or the
earlier time periods. Data were not always available for all two periods, and had to be
inferred from other ecosystems or from other periods.

66
 In the ECOPATH model, biomass production of a compartment is balanced by
predation, non predation losses, and export. Important input parameters are (for each
compartment): biomass (B), production per unit of biomass (P/B), consumption per unit of
biomass (Q/B) and export (EX). Ecotrophic efficiency (EE) - the fraction of the
production used within the system (i.e. entering the other compartments) - respiration per
unit of biomass (R/B) and gross efficiency (GE) are output parameters that are crucial for
examining the modelling results. The modeller defines the model structure by a prey-
predator matrix indicating for each compartment the fractions of the total consumption
contributed by each prey source.

The master equations of the model were originally proposed by Polovina (1984).
Basically, the approach is to model an ecosystem using a set of simultaneous linear
equations (one for each group i in the system), i.e., Production by (i) - all predation on (i) -
non predation losses of (i) - export of (i) = 0, for all i. It can be written as:
Pi = Yi + Bi M 2i + Ei + BAi + Pi (1 − EEi )

where i is the organism group, Pi the total production, Yi the total fishery landing, M2i the
total predation rate, Bi the biomass, i the net migration rate (emigration − immigration),
BAi the biomass accumulation rate, and EEi, the ecotrophic efficiency of i group, indicates
the fraction of production that is consumed or caught within the system. M0i = Pi(1−EEi) is
defined as the “other mortality” rate for group i, which is the natural mortality resulting
from natural causes other than predation. Because we have
n § Qj ·
Bi M 2i = ¦ ¨ B j Dc ji ¸
¨
j =1 © Bj ¸
¹

the mass-balance equation also can be rewritten as:

Pi § Qj ·
Bi EEi − ¦ ¨ B j Dc ji ¸ − Yi − E i − BAi = 0
Bi ¨ B ¸
© j ¹

where Qj is the consumption of group j, and Dcji is the fraction that prey group i
contributes to the overall stomach content of predator group j (Christensen et al., 2005).
The energy balance equation can be written as:

Consumption (Qi) = production (Pi) + respiration (Ri) +unassimilated food (Ui)

67
 This equation implicitly assumes that energy input and output of all living groups
must be balanced in an ecosystem (Christensen et al., 2005). The components in the
system are linked by flows between them from prey to predators. Consumption by
predators can be described by: consumption = production + non-assimilated food +
respiration (Winberg, 1956). Consumption includes consumption within the system and
from outside the system, termed import. The model is mass-balanced, i.e. mass is
“conserved.”

2.3. Model compartments

As a first step in defining the model compartments, available information on

biomass, catches, turnover (P/B) rates, consumption rates (Q/B), as well as growth and
mortality rates for the species/groups of the system was assembled from the SPICE-
database. Additional information was taken from the literature on the SAL system and
other mangrove systems. Species of similar sizes, diets, consumption rates, and mortality
and production rates were grouped within a compartment. Appendix 1 shows the main
elements of each of the 21 compartments and gives the values that were taken as initial
input into the model. Information to set the diet matrix was taken from our own
observations, literature sources and unpublished university reports. In our model, detritus
includes associated bacteria. Detritivores are thus considered to mainly feed on bacteria.
As the model uses detritus as a non-living group (without production and consumption),
bacterial production is not considered in our model. We opted for not using an extra
bacteria compartment because bacteria would overshadow other trophic flows of the
system tremendously (Christensen & Pauly, 1993). In addition, quantitative data or
reasonable estimates on production and biomass of bacteria were not available.

All parameters used to construct the model 2000s were assembled as much as
possible from SPICE research data (appendix 1). The research data were collected at low
and high tides, respectively, on each of the sampling stations during the rainy and dry
seasons in 2004 and 2005. They were collected at SAL to take account of spatial
variations of the study area (Fig. 1). Catch values of shrimps, crabs, molluscs, fish larvae,
and fish were obtained directly from the local fishery bureau. Estimates of natural
mortality for fish were computed using an empirical relationship developed by Pauly
(1980) for the dominant species of each group. Q/B ratios for small invertebrates in the
lagoon were obtained by searching the same groups in the literature from tropical coastal

68
waters (Riddle et al., 1990; Opitz, 1996; Panikkar & Khan, 2008). Estimates of Q/B for
shrimps and crabs were derived from the food consumption model of Pauly, (1986).
Estimates of Q/B for fish were computed using an empirical model developed by
Palomares and Pauly (1989) for the dominant species of each group.

Diet compositions of crabs and fish were obtained from stomach content analyses of
the dominant species, and were recorded in percent of volume of major prey groups (Table
2). This is roughly equivalent to relative weight and thus approximates the relative amount
of energy extracted by consumers from various prey groups. The diet of other
compartments was obtained by searching directly in the literature.

The habitat fractions of the aquatic organisms in the SAL models of the 1980s and
2000s were estimated by water area of the lagoon plus half of the mangrove area,
assuming a 50% inundation of the mangrove area at mean tide level. Therefore the habitat
fraction of aquatic organisms in the model 1980s is 62% and about 62.8% for the model
2000s (see Figure 1a and b, Table 1 and 3).
Table 1. Habitat area (km2) in the SAL ecosystem during the 1980s and 2000s (Ardli & Wolff,
2005)
1980s 2000s
Habitat 2 2
(km ) % (km ) %
Mangrove 170.90 71.9 92.72 73.9
Water (lagoon & river) 62.22 26.2 32.55 25.9
Mud flat 4.63 1.9 0.27 0.2
Total 237.75 100 125.54 100

2.4. Model balancing

The first step in verifying the realism of the model was to check whether the EE was less
than 1.0 for all groups, since it was assumed for any group not to be consumed in excess
of its production. The second step was to check if the GE (the gross food conversion
efficiency, i.e., the ratio between production and consumption) was in the range of 0.1–
0.3, as the consumption of most groups is about 3–10 times higher than their production.
In addition, the GE cannot be higher than the net efficiency (the ratio between production
and assimilated food). Because Ecopath uses linkages of production of one group with
consumption of other groups to calculate one missing parameter for each group, the most
questionable parameter of each group can be treated as an unknown and calculated by
Ecopath.

69
Table 2. Balanced model diet composition of groups in the SAL ecosystem during the 1980s and 2000s.

Prey \ predator 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0.89 0.03 0.20 0 0.25 0.75 0.53 0 0 0 0.21 0 0 0 0.05 0.10 0 0
1 Phytoplankton
0.26 0.03
0 0.02 0.03 0 0 0 0 0 0.20 0.18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.25 0.02
2 Mangrove 0.15
0 0 0 0 0.05 0.10 0 0 0.03 0.02 0.7 0.05 0.08 0 0.30 0.30 0 0
3 Zooplankton 0.40 0.28
4 Polychaeta 0 0 0 0 0.05 0 0 0.09 0 0 0 0.10 0.11 0 0 0.10 0 0.07
0 0 0 0 0.02 0 0 0.10 0 0 0.02 0.05 0.05 0 0 0 0 0.08
5 benthic (gastropods+bivalvia) 0.04
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0 0 0.04 0.08 0 0 0.03 0 0
6 Sipunculida 0.05
0 0 0 0.02 0 0.05 0 0.07 0.01 0.02 0 0.08 0.10 0 0 0.07 0 0.05
7 benthic crustcaea 0.05
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.12 0 0 0.05 0.21 0 0.04 0 0.10 0 0
8 Fish Larvae 0 0.22 0.03
9 Polymesoda erosa (totok) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.02 0 0 0 0 0.07 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.12 0 0 0.19 0
10 Portunidae 0.18
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.05 0 0 0 0.05 0.10 0.04 0 0 0.14 0.20
11 Ucipodidae 0.06
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.06 0 0 0 0.03 0.11 0.05 0 0 0.12 0.17
12 Grapsidae 0.07 0.15
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0 0 0 0.06 0 0.21 0 0 0.07 0.06
13 Planktivorous 0 0.04
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0.21 0 0 0.11 0.10
14 Microcarnivorous 0.12 0.12
15 Mudskipper 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.02 0 0 0 0 0 0.03 0 0 0.02 0.05
16 Macrocarnivorous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.02 0.10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.06 0 0 0 0 0 0.10 0 0 0.07 0.07
17 Detritivorous 0.11 0.08
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.08 0 0 0 0.17 0.02 0.20 0 0 0.01 0.02
18 Shrimp 0.07
19 Mammals 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 Bird 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.11 0.95 0.77 0.98 0.63 0.10 0.47 0.27 0.76 0.78 0.02 0.16 0.28 0 0.65 0.30 0 0.01
21 Detritus 0.95 0 0.19 0.57 0.31
Bold values indicate dietary contributions altered in the balancing of the model. Where diet is not to differ between decades, diet value of model 2000s is tabulated below the 1980s.

70
3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Model validation

The estimated EE values (Table 3) for all consumers were less than 1.0 and were
consistent with values suggested by Christensen and Pauly (1992). The EE of detritus is
defined as the ratio between what flows out and into the detritus. The estimated EE value
of detritus was much less than 1, which indicates that more was entering the detritus group
than was leaving. The difference most likely ended up as accumulated detritus, being
buried as sediment, decomposed by microheterotrophs (Nixon et al., 1986), or exported to
other systems. GE values were physiologically realistic as suggested by Christensen et al.
(2005), and were in the range of 0.1–0.3 for most consumers and generally higher for small
organisms (i.e. polychaeta, benthic crustacea and fish larvae). They were lower than the net
efficiency.

The comparison of the Ecopath models of the SAL ecosystem of the time periods of
the 1980s and 2000s (Table 3) explains some of the trends observed as outlined under 3.2.

3.2. Biomass and production

The biomass (t km-2) of the fish groups (planktivorous, microcarnivorous, and

macrocarnivorous) had decreased in the 2000s, while the detritivorous fish and shrimp
group had increased from 3.29 to 3.64 for detritivorous fish and 2.39 to 2.89 in the 2000s
for the shrimp. The inputs and the resulting estimates of EEs, food consumption,
production and trophic levels (TLs) for each group are presented in Table 2 and 3. The
ecotrophic efficiencies of most fish groups were very high in the 1980s period compared to
the 2000s. The EE of shrimp was also low compared to the 1980s. The EE of grapsidae,
ucipodidae, Polymesoda erosa and mangrove are low for all of time periods. The EE of
zooplankton and benthic organisms was almost 1 in the 2000s which means that they are
heavily consumed. The biomass of benthic organism was lower in the 2000s and possibly
a limiting factor for the benthic feeders. The EE value of fish larvae was similar between
both of time period, while the biomass was reduced from 2.02 t km-2 y-1 in the 1980s to
1.26 t km-2 y-1 in the 2000s. This drop is possibly due to the decrease in the lagoon size and
mangrove forest in the SAL ecosystem. Mangrove supply an enormous amount of food
appropriate for juvenile fish and the structural complexity of the mangroves provides
excellent shelter and protection for the juveniles (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001).

71
Table 3. Key features of the Segara Anakan Ecosystem models of the 1980’s and 2000’s.
Habitat Biomass
Trophic Biomass
Group name area in area -2 P/B Q/B EE
level (t km )
(fraction) (t km-2)
1980s
Phytoplankton 1.00 0.62 6.70 4.15 160.00 0.49
Mangrove 1.00 0.72 18,750.00 13,481.25 0.23 0.12
Zooplankton 2.00 0.62 1.35 0.84 105.00 250.00 0.77
Polychaeta 2.00 0.99 4.62 4.61 6.54 26.50 0.73
Benthic 2.00 0.99 9.13 9.10 3.80 15.00 0.42
(Gastropoda+bivalvia)
Sipunculida 2.02 0.74 4.80 3.54 6.00 24.00 0.46
Benthic crustacea 2.12 0.99 2.20 2.19 12.50 45.00 0.79
Fish Larvae 2.16 0.62 3.26 2.02 16.00 35.00 0.60
Polymesoda erosa 2.00 0.74 5.32 3.93 2.24 10.60 0.40
(totok)
Portunidae 2.95 0.99 4.50 4.49 2.12 11.50 0.34
Ucipodidae 2.04 0.74 6.50 4.80 5.50 95.00 0.38
Grapsidae 2.08 0.74 11.20 8.27 4.30 20.00 0.26
Planktivorous fish 2.78 0.62 5.93 3.68 1.90 5.74 0.98
Microcarnivorous fish 3.04 0.62 8.71 5.40 1.60 4.99 0.99
Mudskipper 2.76 0.15 8.65 1.30 2.10 3.37 0.97
Macrocarnivorous fish 3.69 0.62 4.17 2.59 1.18 4.50 0.97
Detrivorous fish 2.30 0.62 5.30 3.29 2.30 4.00 0.99
Shrimp 2.63 0.62 3.85 2.39 6.10 25.00 0.98
Mammals 3.19 1.00 0.04 0.04 0.35 50.00 0.07
Bird 3.39 1.00 0.30 0.30 5.00 80.00 0.00
Detritus 1.00 1.00 0.27

Habitat Biomass
Trophic Biomass
Group name area in area -2 P/B Q/B EE
level -2 (t km )
(fraction) (t km )
2000s
Phytoplankton 1.00 0.63 6.00 3.77 160.00 0.40
Mangrove 1.00 0.74 17,900.00 13,228.10 0.23 0.13
Zooplankton 2.00 0.63 1.42 0.89 105.00 175.00 0.54
Polychaeta 2.00 0.99 3.49 3.48 6.54 26.50 0.67
Benthic
(gastropods+bivalvia) 2.00 0.99 3.76 3.75 3.80 15.00 0.37
Sipunculida 2.06 0.74 4.85 3.59 6.00 24.00 0.97
Benthic crustcaea 2.12 0.99 1.78 1.78 12.50 45.00 0.85
Fish Larvae 2.16 0.63 2.00 1.26 16.00 35.00 0.66
Polymesoda erosa
(totok) 2.00 0.74 6.35 4.71 2.24 10.60 0.33
Portunidae 2.89 0.99 3.10 3.09 2.30 9.00 0.38
Ucipodidae 2.05 0.74 5.12 3.79 5.50 95.00 0.17
Grapsidae 2.04 0.74 9.55 7.08 4.30 20.00 0.11
Planktivorous fish 2.75 0.63 3.80 2.39 1.90 5.74 0.40
Microcarnivorous fish 2.97 0.63 4.00 2.51 1.60 4.98 0.88
Mudskipper 2.76 0.13 4.75 0.62 2.10 3.37 0.71
Macrocarnivorous fish 3.67 0.63 2.10 1.32 1.18 4.50 0.87
Detritivorous fish 2.40 0.63 5.80 3.64 2.30 6.50 0.42
Shrimp 2.62 0.63 4.60 2.89 6.10 24.60 0.45
Mammals 3.52 1.00 0.04 0.04 0.35 50.00 0.14
Bird 3.41 1.00 0.03 0.03 5.00 80.00 0.00
Detritus 1.00 1.00 0.23

72
3.3. The impact of variations of the biomass of some important groups

The results from the use of the mixed trophic impact routine of the SAL ecosystem
are presented in Fig 2(a) and (b). Direct and indirect interactions among compartments
and impacts of fishery activities in the SAL ecosystem can be expressed by the trophic
impact analysis. This routine indicates the effect that a change in the biomass of one group
will have on the biomass of other groups in a system and can thus be regarded as a form of
sensitivity analysis. In these tables, the direct and indirect short-term effect of an increase
in biomass of the impacting group (left) could have on the impacted groups (top) are
shown in (+) symbol (positive impact) and (-) symbol (negative impact). The impacts are
relative but comparable between groups. Some groups exhibited a minor decrease from the
1980s to the 2000s model probably due to absence of competing groups in the system for
both food and habitat. The analysis of the mixed impact factors in the 1980s and 2000s
show the positive impact phytoplankton and detritus have on its major consumers, the
zooplankton, fish larvae, planktivorous fish and shrimp. It should also be noticed that an
increase in biomass of phytoplankton would have a positive impact on several groups at
higher trophic levels but a negative impact on the polychaeta. The macrocarnivor had a
negative impact on their preferred prey (microcarnivor, detritivor, planktivorous fish and
portunidae) in both time periods. An increase in the biomass of macrocarnivors would lead
to a decrease in the biomass of several fish species, the impact would be positive on the
fish larvae and Polymesoda erosa.

Using the mixed trophic impact routine in EwE6 (Fig. 2), direct and indirect
interactions among compartments and impacts of fishery activities in the SAL ecosystem
can be assessed (Ulanowicz and Puccia, 1990). An increase in phytoplankton biomass, for
example, has a great positive effect on zooplankton, fish larvae, planktivorous fish and
shrimp, which feed largely on phytoplankton. Consequently, the predation of fish larvae
would increase. The increase in phytoplankton biomass has no effect on detritus due to the
large organic nutrient loading from the hinterland (Citanduy watershed). An increase in
detritus would also have a large positive effect on many biomasses and fishery catches
with an exception of fish larvae. However, an increase in phytoplankton biomass would
have only a slight effect on herbivorous fish, suggesting the minor importance for the food
source in the system.

73
 (a)1980s

(b) 2000s
Figure 2. mixed trophic impact in the SAL ecosystem in the 1980s (a) and 2000s (b)

All the functional groups except detritus have a negative impact on themselves and
this may show within group competition for resources (Christensen et al., 2005). Detritus
has neither positive nor negative impact on itself in SAL ecosystem as reported in many

74
freshwater ecosystems including Caeté mangrove estuary (Wolff et al., 2000); Laguna
Alvarado (Cruz-Escalona et al., 2007); Celestum lagoon (Vega-Cendejas & Arreguin-
Sanchez, 2001); Chiku lagoon (Lin et al., 1999). This might be because it is not a living
organism (Fetahi, 2005). Detritus were found to be almost 50% of the total system
throughput in both the phases and hence has an important role in the system. We found that
the contribution of detritus to the SAL ecosystem is in the range of what is observed in
other tropical coastal systems (Christensen and Pauly, 1993; Moreau et al., 2001).

3.4. Trophic structure

Trophic levels estimated by Ecopath from the weighted average of prey trophic levels
varied from 1.0 for primary producers and detritus to 3.0 for carnivorous fishes,
mudskipper, bird and mammals (Table 3). The SAL model showed that the structure of
food web comprised three integers trophic levels. Mangrove was the largest compartment
in the model. The numbered value of the trophic level is fractional because it depends on
the diet composition of this group and on the trophic levels of its preys (Christensen and
Pauly, 1992). The results of the trophic aggregation of the flows as obtained with Ecopath
and the transfer efficiencies of each level are shown in Fig. 3 and Table 4, respectively. It
appears that most of the biomasses and flows are concentrated on TLs 1 (primary
producers) and 2 (primary consumers) as summarized in Table 4.

Fig. 3. Trophic pyramid representing the energy flow in SAL ecosystem in the 1980s and 2000s.
The volume of each trophic level is proportional to the total throughput at that level. The flow
pyramid shows flows by (TL) II (first order consumers, at bottom), to TL V (mammals). The top
angle is inversely proportional to the TE of the system.
The trophic pyramid (Fig. 3) gives the detritus and phytoplankton at the producers
level. Flows at the TL II largely involve the zooplankton, benthic organisms and fish
larvae. TL III involves the flows from planktivorous fish, microcarnivorous fish and

75
detritivorous fish. Carnivorous fishes dominate the flows at TL IV. The mean transfer
efficiency (TE) values (Table 5) for the 1980s and 2000s were 15.2 and 13.7 %
respectively. TE between trophic level at each trophic level are almost similar in both
periods, except in the TL III which higher in the 1980s than in the 2000s. TE is the fraction
of production either exported from the system e.g. as catches, or transferred to higher
trophic level by means of predation.

Table 4. Biomass (t km-2), catch (t km-2) and transfer efficiency (%) at each discrete trophic level
in model of the SAL ecosystem in the 1980s and 2000s

Trophic level Biomass Catch Transfer efficiency

1980s 2000s 1980s 2000s 1980s 2000s
I 13485.40 13231.87 248.20 280.00
II 44.180 34.75 4.93 5.03 13.4 12.7
III 14.90 10.26 4.22 3.57 18.1 13.4
IV 3.37 1.70 0.75 0.75 15.3 14.8
V 0.29 0.13 0.06 0.06 8.3 9.9
VI 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 4.8 7.6
VII 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.6 4.8
VIII 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.1

Fig. 4. The total catches of each commercially important fishery in the SAL ecosystem in the 1980s
and 2000s.

Catches in the SAL lagoon excluding mangrove harvest were mainly taken from TL II, III
and IV (Table 4), corresponding to large transfer efficiencies at these trophic levels. The
biomass of total catches of shrimp, detritivorous, microcarnivorous and planktivorous fish
was reduced in the 2000s (Fig. 4). In the 1980s the total catch was much higher and
amounted to about 404 tons for shrimps and 516.3 tons for fish respectively (Naamin,
1982; Amin & Hariati, 1991; Ardli & Wolff, 2008). This drop is possibly due to the

76
decrease in the lagoon size and fishing ground, which is also considered the cause for the
declining fish production offshore Cilacap (Ardli & Wolff, 2008; Dudley, 2000).

A high amount of total primary production is required (PPR) to support catches of

macrocarnivorous fish, portunidae, shrimp and microcarnivorous fish (Fig. 5a.). Catches in
the SAL ecosystem were mainly taken from TL II, III and IV (Fig. 5b.), which are also
corresponding to the larger transfer efficiencies at these trophic levels (Table 4). Total PPR
to sustain catches is higher in the 2000s with 391.74 t km-2 y-1 compared 250.19 t km-2 y-1
in the 1980s. Despite total PPR in the 2000s to be 36.1 % higher than in the 1980s, the
proportion of catches taken from discrete levels in the SAL ecosystem in the 2000s was
smaller than in the 1980s.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5. (a) Tabulation of primary production required (t km-2 y-1) to sustain catches,
(b) proportion of catches taken from discrete trophic levels in SAL ecosystem during the 1980s and
2000s.

PPR for all fisheries is 3.5% of the total primary production in the 1980s and 5.8% in
the 2000s. Primary production equivalents are used to compare effect fishing at different
trophic levels. Harvesting of fish at low trophic level is ecologically less expensive than
fishing at a higher trophic level, given the inefficiency transfer of energy up to the food
web (Pauly & Christensen, 1995). Primary production equivalents required to sustain
catches in the SAL are low. Low PPR would probably be related with a high risk of
ecosystem overfishing. Tudela et al. (2005) in Cruz-escalona et al. (2007) over fished
ecosystems have a wider TL range of 2.2-3.9 and % PPR of 2.8-89.5.

The mean trophic level of the fishery was similar between the 1980s and the 2000s,
despite the total catch was reduced, the catch composition was similar between those time

77
periods except the shrimp catch, which is higher in the 2000s. Shrimp comprised 41% of
the total catches in the 2000s compared to only 25% in the 1990s (Dudley, 2000; Ardli &
Wolff, 2008). Reducing in the catch of shrimp due to reduced predation of shrimp from in
the 1980s to 2000s (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Relative mortality by fishing, predation and other causes in the SAL ecosystem in the 1980s
and 2000s.

Fig. 6 shown the relative mortalities attributed to fisheries, predation and other causes
in the SAL ecosystem. In the 1980s mortality is largest in the shrimp and detritivorous,
particularly caused by heavy predation, while portunidae, Polymesoda erosa caused by
other mortality. Other mortality consists of organisms dying due to diseases, starvation,
etc., and the animals or plants concerned end up as part of the detritus (Christensen and
Walters, 2004, Christensen et al., 2005). In the 2000s mortality of shrimp and
detritivorous is switched by other mortality, it was also observed in the planktivorous fish.
Those are related to the reducing of EEs values of several commercially fish groups in the
2000s and the transfer efficiency of TL III 29.5% lower than in the 1980s. Fishing

78
mortaliy of shrimp, detritivorous and microcarnivorous fish reduced over the tree decades,
where as macrocarnivorous fish and portunidae was increased in the 2000s.

From more than 50 models of aquatic ecosystems it can be inferred that catches are
much smaller than the production consumed by predators, even in heavily exploited
systems (Jarre et al., 1991; Christensen & Pauly, 1995). For most species in the SAL
ecosystem, fishing mortality was smaller than predation mortality as well as other
mortality. In the 2000s fishing mortality rate of macrocarnivorous fish (0.55) was similar
with the predation mortality (0.47) plus other mortality (0.16). This mean the
macrocarnivorous fish was much exploited in the 2000s.

3.5. Summary statistics and flows

Total biomass and many total flows through the SAL ecosystem were smaller in the
2000s model than the 1980s model (Table 5). Total catches of the crabs, fish, shrimp and
Polymesoda erosa were reduced by 5.4% from the 1980s to the 2000s. Lower net primary
production in the 2000s than in the 1980s is due to reduce in biomass of mangrove and also
due to in part to the 6.7% increase in biomass of zooplankton, which have high respiration
rate.

The present contribution shows that the use of Ecopath has made it possible to
balance the biomass and annual production of the key interacting groups for the period
1980s and 2000s in the SAL ecosystem. The increase in ecotrophic efficiency of several
benthic organisms during the 2000s can be attributed to increased predation pressure on
these groups especially by the microcarnivor and macrocarnivor fishes. The comparatively
less abundant benthic resources during the 2000s period would have led to a more efficient
utilization of the available biomass and higher competition by the consumers. The EE of
some fishes were lower in the 2000s period, which means that these groups are lowly
predated. The EE values of mudskipper were low in the 1980s period. This means that the
less abundant resources led to a more efficient utilization of the available biomass and
higher competition by the consumers resulting in decreased flows to the detritus.

79
Table 5. Comparison of summary statistic from models of SAL ecosystem for the 1980s and 2000s
and its change.
1980s 2000s % change
-2 -1
Sum of all consumption (t km y ) 1599.46 1227.41 -23.3
-2 -1
Sum of all exports (t km y ) 2801.71 2686.65 -4.1
-2 -1
Sum of all respiratory flows (t km y ) 936.65 932.24 -0.5
-2 -1
Sum of all flows into detritus (t km y ) 3473.00 3113.97 -10.3
-2 -1
Total system throughput (T) (t km y ) 8810.82 7960.27 -9.7
Sum of all production (t km-2y-1) 4305.58 4055.44 -5.8
Fisheries mean trophic level 2.56 (2.76) 2.57 (2.76)
-2 -1
Total net primary production (PP) (t km y ) 3738.37 3618.89 -3.2
Total PP/total respiration (R) 3.67 3.88 5.7
Total PP/total biomass 0.276 0.273 -1.1
Total biomass/total throughput 1.538 1.668 8.5
Total biomass (excl. detritus) (t km-2y-1) 13548.15 13278.72 -2.0
-2 -1
Mangrove harvest (t km y ) 248.2 280.0 12.8
-2 -1
Crab, shrimp and fish catches (t km y ) 9.951 9.412 -5.4
Flowbits (%)
1980s 2000s 1980s 2000s
Ascendancy 10659.5 10106.2 32.6 37.2 14.1
Overhead 20740.3 15732.3 63.5 57.9 -8.8
Capacity 32678.0 27190.7 100.0 100.0 -16.8
-2 -1
Throughput cycled (incl. detritus) (t km y ) 303.45 72.54 -76.1
Finn’s cycling index (%) 3.44 0.91 -73.5
Mean length of pathways 5.82 5.85 0.5
Transfer efficiency (%) 15.5 13.6 -12.3
Note : values of fisheries mean trophic level in the parentheses are the mean TL value included mangrove.
Values in the shaded cells are used for calculation of % change.

The mangrove ecosystem and its energetic characteristics show a mixture of

immature and mature properties. Between the attributes that reflect immaturity are: (a) the
relation between primary production and respiration, meaning an excess of production
flowing to respiration; (b) high P:B ratio for the system; and (c) the low ratio between
biomass and throughput. Moreover, high primary production and small size of the
individuals are often associated with immature systems. On the other side, detritus-based
food webs, high fish and flow diversities are typically related to maturity (Table 3). The
above properties suggest that communities associated to mangrove are at a transition
between immature and mature systems characterised by high productivity, biomass and
species diversity (Vega-Cendejas & Arreguın-Sanchez, 2001).

In both periods, the efficiency decreased gradually as one goes up the trophic level.
The slight decrease of total throughput in the 2000s is partly the result of a decrease of EE

80
for several groups during this period. The low transfer efficiencies value observed
particularly in the 1980s and 2000s comes from the low utilization of primary producers.
The values obtained for the 1980s (15.5%) is higher and 2000s (13.6%) those are similar to
the TE value of Laguna Alvarado but higher than value of Caeté mangrove estuary and
Celestun lagoon and lower than the values of Chiku lagoon (Table 6). The mean transfer
efficiency in the SAL was consistent with the average 10% suggested by Lindeman (1942)
and close to the 15% for the coastal ecosystem (Ryther, 1969).

Table 6. The comparison of key system indices among the several mangrove/lagoon trophic
systems.
Total Ascendancy Transfer NPP Mean TL
-2 -1
throughput (%) efficiency (t km y )
(t km-2y-1) (%)
SAL lagoon 8810.82 32.6 15.5 3738.37 2.56
(7960.27) (37.2) (13.6) (3618.89) (2.57)
Caeté mangrove estuary 10558.60 27.4 9.8 3134.00 2.10
(Wolff et al., 2000)
Laguna Alvarado 2683.00 28.7 13.8 305.50 2.30
(Cruz-Escalona et al., 2007)
Celestum lagoon 4581.00 24.7 9.6 15550.00 2.40
(Vega-Cendejas & Arreguın-Sanchez,
2001)
Chiku lagoon 157653.00 - 19.5 4775.00 3.40
(Lin et al., 1999)
Note : value in the parantheses are the value of model 2000s

The model estimate of total system throughput (T), i.e. the sum of all flows
(consumption, exports, respiratory flows and flows into detritus) of 8810.82 t km-2 yr-1 in
the 1980s and 7960.27 t km-2 yr-1 in 2000s (Table 6) appears high when compared to other
tropical coastal systems i.e. Laguna Alvarado and the Celestum lagoon but much lower
than Chiku lagoon and Caeté mangrove estuary. High biomass and production values for
benthic producers, including mangroves, which might be the reason for the high T-values
in both models. These throughput values are still low, however, when compared to
upwelling systems, for which T-values >20 000 t km-2 yr-1 have been reported (Jarre et al.,
1991; Wolff, 1994).

The ascendancy of the SAL ecosystem was higher than ascendancy in the other
systems such as Laguna Alvarado, Caeté mangrove estuary and Celestun lagoon (Vega-
Cendejas and Arreguın-Sanchez, 2001; Cruz-Escalona et al., 2007; Wolff, et al., 2000).
The overheads provide limits on how much the ascendency can increase and reflect the
system's ‘strength in reserve’ from which it can draw to meet unexpected perturbations
(Ulanowicz, 1986). Ascendancy and overhead have been shown to be related to stability

81
(Christensen, 1995), maturity (Christensen, 1995; Ulanowicz and Abarca-Arenas, 1997;
Nielsen and Ulanowicz, 2000; Perez-Espana and Arreguin- Sanchez, 2001), eutrophication
(Aoki, 1995), and human disturbance (Christensen & Pauly, 1992; Ulanowicz, 1997).
Overhead is a measure of the energy in an ecosystem that is available to resist
perturbations (Christensen, 1995; Angelini and Petrere, 2000). There is a decrease in
relative overhead (63.5% to 57.9%). Decrease in relative overhead (8.8%) in the 2000s
might be due to the impact of habitat change. Similarly, Heymans et al. (2004) suggested
that relative overhead changed 10% in a marine upwelling system before and after the
system was “severely stressed” by fishing. Therefore, SAL ecosystem was under pressured
by habitat changes and also stressed by fishing activities.

Acknowledgements

The authors want to thank the SPICE project (Grant No. 03F0391A), Center for Tropical
Marine Ecology (ZMT) Bremen, Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) and
Jenderal Soedirman University, Purwokerto, for their support during this study.

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Appendix 1. Descriptions of functional groups of the SAL ecosystem Cilacap, Indonesia
Compartment Description of compartment References for ecopath input data
1. Phytoplankton Phytoplankton, diatom (Microphytobenthos, Mainly diatoms) Biomass : field sampling, 2004-2005; Ecology Team, 1984
P/B : field sampling, 2004-2005; Ecology Team, 1984
2. Mangrove (Rizophora spp., Avicenia spp., Bruguiera spp., Ceriops tagal, Biomass : Sukardjo & Yamada, 1992
Achantus ilicifolius, Derris heterophylla) P/B : Pribadi, 2003; Sukardjo & Yamada, 1992
Harvest : Yulastoro, 2003; Sastranegara et al., 2007
3. Zooplankton (Crustacean larvae / microcrustaceans, protozoa, appendicularia, Biomass : field sampling, 2004-2005; Ecology Team, 1984
rotifera) P/B : Wolff et al., 2000
QB : Wolff et al., 2000, Pinnegar & Polunin, 2004
4. Polychaeta Capitellidae, Nereidae, Orbiniidae, Terrebelidae Biomass : Widianingsih et al., 2003b; Abdulah, 2003; Pramudito, 2003
P/B : Zetina-Rejon, 2003
QB : Zetina-Rejon, 2003
5. Benthic Thiara rudis, Thiara sp., Melanoides granifera, Sermyla riqueti, Biomass : Sugiarto, 2003; Pramudito, 2003
(gastropods+bivalvia) Geloina erosa, Anadara antiquate, A. granosa, Telescopium P/B : Zetina-Rejon, 2003
telescopium
QB : Zetina-Rejon, 2003
6. Sipunculida Biomass : field sampling, 2004-2005; Yuwono et al., 2007; Pramudito, 2003
P/B : by ecopath, Opitz, 1996
QB : by ecopath, Opitz, 1996
7. Benthic crustcaea Biomass : Widianingsih et al., 2003a; Gunawan, 2003; Pramudito, 2003
P/B : Wolff et al., 2000
QB : Wolff et al., 2000
8. Fish Larvae (Mugilidae, Ariidae, Scatophagidae, Leiognathidae, Sciaenidae, Biomass : field sampling, 2004-2005; Setijanto et al, 2003;
Anguillidae, Cynoglosidae) P/B : Lin et al., 1999
QB : Lin et al., 1999
9. Polymesoda erosa Biomass : Pramudito, 2003;
(totok) P/B : Zetina-Rejon, 2003
QB : Zetina-Rejon, 2003
Harvest : Dudley, 2000
10. Portunidae (Scylla serrata, S. olivacea, S. paramamosain, S. tranquebarica, Biomass : by ecopath
Portunus pelagicus) P/B : Rosado-Solorzano & Guzman del Proo, 1998
QB : Rosado-Solorzano & Guzman del Proo, 1998; Lin et al., 1999
Harvest : Amin & Hariati, 1991; Dudley, 2000; Nasution, 2001; Sastranegara et al.,
2003
11. Ucipodidae (Uca bellator, U. chlorophthalmus, U. coarctata, U. demani, U. Biomass : Hinrich, 2007; Sastranegara et al., 2003
dussumieri, U. rosea, U. triangularis, U. vocans) P/B : Wolff et al., 2000
QB : Wolff et al., 2000

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 Compartment Description of compartment References for ecopath input data
12. Grapsidae (Metaplax elegans, Perisesarma sp., Macropthalmus crinitus, Biomass : Hinrich, 2007; Sastranegara et al., 2003;
Metoprograpsus frontalis, Neosermatium sp.) P/B : by ecopath
QB : Salewski, 2007
13. Planktivorous (Leiognathus dussumieri) Biomass : Ecology Team, 1984; Dudley, 2000; Nasution, 2001
P/B : Lin et al., 1999
QB : Lin et al., 1999
Harvest : Amin & Hariati, 1991; Dudley, 2000; Nasution, 2001
14. Microcarnivorous Benthic feeders : Sillaginidae, Setipinna, Sciaenidae, Anguillidae, Biomass : Ecology Team, 1984; Dudley, 2000; Nasution, 2001
Scatophagus argus, Cynoglosus lingua, Alectis indicus P/B : Lin et al., 1999
QB : Zetina-Rejon, 2003
Harvest : Amin & Hariati, 1991; Dudley, 2000; Nasution, 2001
15. Mudskipper Periophthalmus sp. Biomass : Field sampling, 2004-2005; Ecology Team, 1984
P/B : Zetina-Rejon, 2003
QB : Zetina-Rejon, 2003
Harvest : field sampling, 2004-2005
16. Macrocarnivorous Arius maculates, Lutjanus sp., Trachiphalus Biomass : Ecology Team, 1984; Dudley, 2000; Nasution, 2001
P/B : Wolff et al., 2000
QB : Wolff et al., 2000
Harvest : Amin & Hariati, 1991; Dudley, 2000; Nasution, 2001
17. Detritivorous Mugil cephalus Biomass : Ecology Team, 1984; Dudley, 2000; Nasution, 2001
P/B : Lin et al., 1999
QB : Lin et al., 1999
Harvest : Amin & Hariati, 1991; Dudley, 2000; Nasution, 2001
18. Shrimp (Penaeus merguiensis, P. indicus, P. monodon, P. dobsonii, Biomass : Ecology Team, 1984; Dudley, 2000; Nasution, 2001
Metapenaeus elegans) P/B : Wolff et al., 2000
QB : Wolff et al., 2000
Harvest : Amin & Hariati, 1991; Dudley, 2000; Nasution, 2001
19. Bird Ardea purpurea, A. cinirea, Ibis cinereus, Ciconia episcopus, Biomass : own estimate, Tomascik et al., 1997; Ecology Team 1984
Egretta alba, Bubulcus ibis, Dendrocygna sp., Amauornmis sp., P/B : Pinnegar & Polunin, 2004
Anhinga sp.
QB : Pinnegar & Polunin, 2004
20. Mammals Maccaca sp. Utra sp. Sus vitatus, Presbytis sp. Biomass : own estimate, Tomascik et al., 1997
P/B : Wolff et al., 2000
QB : Wolff et al., 2000
20. Detritus

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4.6. Publication V

Edy Yuwono, T.C. Jennerjahn, I. Nordhaus, Erwin Riyanto Ardli, M. Husein

Sastranegara, Rudhi Pribadi (2007) Ecological status of Segara Anakan, Java,
Indonesia, a mangrove-fringed lagoon affected by human activities. Asian Journal of
Water, Environment and Pollution, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 61-70.

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 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The results of the assessment and evaluation of the coastal habitat and resource use
changes revealed dramatic changes in the SAL, as a result of an increased population, the
expansion of agriculture and aquaculture activities and the increasing sediment inputs
from the rivers, mainly the Citanduy, as a result of unsustainable land-use practices and
land use/cover changes in the hinterland. Mangrove forests have continuously been
destroyed and their cover decreased to only 9238 ha in the 2006 with major changes in the
western part of the SAL. Here, mangroves were transformed to large area of rice fields,
dry land agriculture, semi intensive aquaculture and rural settlement, also causing a
decrease in mud flats and lagoon area. In the eastern area, changes are less extensive, but
some of the trends verified in the western area can also be identified, here such as
decreases in mangrove area and increases in aquaculture, rural settlement and industrial
areas.

The current changes have produced an overall economic benefit to the greatly
increased human population, but the lagoon ecosystem, its aquatic resources and its
biodiversity have significantly been affected. Decreasing lagoon size and with it
decreasing fishing grounds, are considered the cause for the declining fish production in
the SAL as well as offshore Cilacap. In the 2000s, the contribution of the aquatic
resources to the overall resource value of the SAL region amounts to only 13% and still
about 70% of the overall resources unit values in Cilacap region include offshore area.
This high percentage is in part due to a strongly increased unit value of shrimps (207%).

Since the habitat and resource abundance of the SAL have changed, these changes in
the functional groups within an ecosystem were summarized and viewed as part of a
whole, by the use of a trophic modelling approach, and both direct and indirect effects of
species within the ecosystem were explored as well as the overall functioning of the
ecosystem. The models were structured by defining 21 functional trophically linked
groups of the including commercially important fish groups, shrimps and bivalves. The
mass-balanced models for the two periods show how the different groups of the system
were affected by the habitat transformations. Estimates of biomass per trophic level,
mixed trophic impact, ecotrophic efficiency, ascendancy and several other ecosystem
attributes derived from the trophic modeling analysis show that trophic functioning as well

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as average catches of the SAL ecosystem differed between the two periods Model
biomass and mean annual production of commercially important fish and shrimp groups
were smaller in the 2000s as were the total catches. Primary production required to sustain
catches in SAL ecosystem was 250.19 t km-2 y-1 in the 1980s and 391.74 t km-2 y-1 in the
2000s. The results of this study are expected to contribute to a more sustainable
management and conservation of the SAL ecosystem.

Based on the results of this thesis, the following recommendations are made:

- it is recommended that the programme of comparative and multidiciplinary studies

between different types of research should be continued to obtain the necessary
information in high temporal and spatial resolution,

- dynamic simulation by using trophic flow modelling analysis should be addressed

and developed in order to predict resilience time and maximum sustainable yield for
several fishing scenarios, to aid and assess fishery strategies in the SAL ecosystem,

- a new regulation of fisheries activities in the SAL ecosystem should be issued by

local fishery authorities related to the reduction in fishery production,

- Recommend public policy regarding the banning of unsustainable exploitation and

conversion of the mangrove and other coastal habitat resources in the SAL area.

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 7. Acknowledgements

First I would like to thank Allah swt, ‘Alhamdulillah’ for everything in my life.

I would also like to thank Prof. Dr. Matthias Wolff for academic advices, tireless support
and help anytime for this work and also during stay in Germany. From him, I have learned
much about the model.

I would like to thank Dr.habil. Thomas Brey for accepting to be my second referee and for
kind useful advices. Thank to Prof. Dr.Ulrich Saint-Paul and Dr. Inga Nordhaus for being
advisory committee for the defence of my thesis.

I would like to thank Dr. Tim Jennerjahn and Dr. Edy Yuwono for the support and
suggestion they gave me at anytime especially extensive fieldwork in Segara Anakan
Cilacap. Dr. Inga Nordhaus thank you very much for kinds help and especially for
‘Zusammenfassung’

Many thank to Marc Taylor, Simon Geist, Sebastian Ferse, Peter Holtermann, Asri
Yuniar, Ole Morisse, Dr. Husein Sastranegara, Dr. Rudhi Pribadi, Freydemann Keyl, Dr.
Isdy Sulistyo, Dr. Purnama Sukardi, pak Oedjiono, Arturo Dominici, Gonzalo Olivares
and Silvia Schwamborn for their feedback that gave me the chance to exchange many
ideas and information to conduct this work. Joko, Aris, Dian, Riswanto, Ika, Alo, Alam,
Awang, Catur makasih untuk kerjasamanya di Segara Anakan.
Vielen Dank Raumkollegen: Ingo, Luci, Gerti, Britta.
Dr. Mirta Teichberg, thank you very much for correcting my English.

Thanks to Regine Herrmann and Nur Fadli for being members of advisory committee of
my defence.

Prof. Dr. V. Ittekkot, Dr. Ursel Selent, Dr. Petra Ekau, Dr. Eberhard Krain, Matthias
Birkicht, Petra Käpnick, Silke Eilemann, Ulricht Pint, Gaby, PhDstudent group, thanks for
the support and kind help.

I would like to thank to Ibu Endah C Anggoro, Irmgard Kasperek, and scholarship holders
of DAAD marine science batch III (mas Agus, Luki, Dias, Ine, Wiwin, Taswin, Bambang)
for support anything before and during stay in Germany.

Keluarga besar pengajian Bremen (Familie : mas JJ, mas Narto, mas Gery, mas Puji, mas
Arif, mas Sekar, dan familie lainnya), PPI Bremen, juga rekan ‘geng foto’ Bremen, terima
kasih atas kebersamaannya. Herbert und Anita vielen Dank für die Mietwohnung. Mba
Rahma makasih banget coto-nya.

German Exchange Academic Service (DAAD), Center for Tropical Marine Ecology
(ZMT, Bremen), Bremen University, Rector of Jenderal Soedirman University (Unsoed),
German Federal Ministry for Education and Science (bmbf), Dean of Biology Faculty
Unsoed, POOM Unsoed, BPKSA Cilacap, BTIC Bogor, thank for any financial support
and data available.

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Biologi Aquatic Laboratory (Unsoed), Toxicology Laboratory (Unsoed), Environment
Laboratory (Lab. Umum, Unsoed), Animal Physiology Laboratory (Unsoed),
Microbiology Laboratory (Unsoed) thank for any equipment support and place.

Keluarga besar di Banjarnegara dan Karangrau, terima kasih untuk doa dan supportnya
selama ini.

Spesial teruntuk meine Heti Budiarti, Sallazaria Ardli und Orchidya Ardli makasih buat
doa dan supportnya.

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 Erklärung
gemäß § 6 Abs. 5 der Promotionsordnung der Universität Bremen für die mathematischen,
natur- und ingenieurwissenschaftlichen Fachbereiche
vom 14. März 2007

Hiermit versichere ich, die vorliegende Arbeit ohne unerlaubte fremde Hilfe selbst
verfasst, keine anderen als die angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel benutzt und sämtliche
den benutzten Werken wörtlich oder inhaltlich entnommenen Stellen als solche kenntlich
gemacht zu haben.

Bremen, 10. April 2008 ________________________________

Erwin Riyanto Ardli

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